Introduction to Settlement e Astress increase caused by the construction of foundations or other loads compresses soil layer. e The compression is caused by e deformation of soil particles; ° relocation of soil particles; ° expulsion of water or air from the void spaces. « The term settlement indicates the sinking of a structure due to the compression of the underlying soil. 2132Types of Settlement e Foundation settlement can be divided into three basic types: a) Rigid body or uniform settlement; b) Tilt or tipping settlement; and c) Distortion or differential settlement. e Uniform settlement usually occurs under a structure supported by a very rigid raft foundation and equal settlement under different points of the structure does not cause much harm to the structural stability of a structure. Tilt occurs when an entire structure rotates due to non-uniform settlement. « Distortion is caused by differential settlement and may cause serious structural problems, especially in tall buildings. It induces bending in structural elements and is the cause of most cracking in structures. 3132Types of Settlement To oe : ps (a) Uniform Settlement (b) Tilt (c) Differential settlement Figure 20.1: Different types of settlement 4132Types of Settlement (a) Tilt ) Crack due to distortion Figure 20.2: Examples of settlement \) 5132Total Settlement e The total settlement of a foundation comprises three parts as follows: a) Immediate or Elastic Settlement (S,); b) Primary Consolidation Settlement (S,); and c) Secondary Consolidation Settlement (S,). « The total settlement (S;) of a foundation can then be given as: S,=S,+S,+S8, (1) 6/32Total Settlement a) Immediate or Elastic Settlement (S,) « Caused by the elastic deformation of dry soil and of moist and saturated soils without any change in the moisture content. e Immediate settlement calculations are generally based on equations derived from the theory of elasticity. b) Primary Consolidation Settlement (S,) It is the result of a volume change in saturated cohesive soils because of expulsion of the water that occupies the void spaces. c) Secondary Consolidation Settlement (S,) * Observed in saturated cohesive soils and is the result of the plastic adjustment of soil fabrics. e It is an additional form of compression that occurs at constant effective stress. 7132Total Settlement Table 20.1: Types of settlement in different soils Settlement type Soil type Immediate Consolidation Rock Yes No Gravel Yes No Sand Yes No Silt Yes Minor Clay Yes Yes Organic Yes Minor 8/32Immediate Settlement Contact Pressure & Settlement Profile « Contact pressure is the actual pressure transmitted from the foundation to the soil. « Alternatively, it is the pressure due to reaction exerted by the soil on the underside of the foundation. e Immediate or elastic settlement of foundation occurs directly after the application of a load, without any change in the moisture content of the soil as stated earlier. « The magnitude of the contact settlement depends on the flexibility of the foundation and the type of material on which it rests. 9/32Immediate Settlement Contact Pressure & Settlement Profile Contact pressure distribution 2) Flexible foundation Settlement profle Contact pressure distribution ) Rigid foundation ee ren Ene Figure 20.3: Contact pressure & settlement profile in clay 10/32Immediate Settlement Contact Pressure & Settlement Profile Contact pressure distribution 2) Flexible foundation Settlement profle Contact pressure distribution ) Rigid foundation ee ren Ene Figure 20.4: Contact pressure & settlement profile in sand 11132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Theory of Elasticity « Immediate settlement for foundations that rest on elastic material (of infinite thickness) can be calculated from the following equation derived by using the principles of the theory of elasticity as: 4-42 S,= avo ( oa (2) where, S, = immediate settlement Ao = net pressure applied B= width of foundation (diameter of circular foundation) = Poisson’s ratio of soil modulus of elasticity of soil non-dimensional influence factor 12132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Theory of Elasticity e Schleicher (1926) expressed the influence factor for the corner of a flexible rectangular footing as: 14+4/m?+1 1 1 2 b=7 m,n ar +in(m, + /mg+1) (3) where, m= length of foundation 1" "width of foundation 13132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Theory of Elasticity e The equation based on the theory of elasticity for calculating the immediate settlement is based on the assumption that the pressure Ac is applied at the ground surface. « In practice, foundations are placed at a certain depth below the ground surface. e Deeper foundation embedment tends to reduce the magnitude of the foundation settlement S,. e However, if Eq. (2) is used to calculate settlement, it estimates a conservative result 14132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Theory of Elasticity Table 20.2: Influence factors for foundations Ip Flexible Shape m, Center Comer Rigid Circle — 1.00 0.64 0.79 Rectangle 1 1.12 0.56 0.88 15 1.36 0.68 1.07 2 1.53 077 1.21 3 1.78 0.89 1.42 5 2.10 1.05 1.70 10 2.54 1.27 2.10 20 2.99 1.49 2.46 50 3.87 1.80 3.00 100 4.01 2.00 3.43 15132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Theory of Elasticity Table 20.3: Representative values of modulus of elasticity of soil E Soil type kNim? bit Soft clay 1,800 - 3,500 250 - 500 Hard clay 6,000 - 14,000 850 - 2,000 Loose sand 10,000- 28,000 1,500 - 4,000 Dense sand 35,000- 70,000 __ 5,000 - 10,000 Table 20.4: Representative values of Poisson’s ratio Soil type Us Loose sand 02-04 Medium sand 0.25-0.4 Dense sand 0.3-0.45 Silty clay 02-04 Soft clay 0.15 - 0.25 Medium clay 0.2-0.5 16/32Example 20.1 Determine the immediate settlement at the center of a column footing as shown in the following figure that is constructed on a saturated clay layer. Assume the footing to be flexible. 500 kN EGL Saturated clay "5 = 8000 kN/m? Hs = 0.45 Rigid layer 17132Example 20.1: Solution « Net pressure applied: Ao= 2 ° = BL _ 500 ~ 2x4 = 62.5 kN/m? e For m, = L/B = 4/2 = 2, Influence factor, Ip = 1.53 « Immediate settlement at center: 1-43 s.=a00( E, _ 0.452 = (62.5)(2) aaa 'p | (1.53) = 19.07 mm 18/32Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Improved Relationship By Mayne and Poulos (1999) e Mayne and Poulos (1999) presented an improved relationship for calculating the immediate settlement of foundations. e This relationship takes into account: e the rigidity of the foundation; e the depth of embedment of the foundation; e the increase in the modulus of elasticity of soil with depth; and the location of rigid layers at limited depth. 19132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Improved Relationship By Mayne and Poulos (1999) e In order to use this relationship, one needs to determine the equivalent diameter of a rectangular foundation, which is: 4BL Bo = (4) where, B =width of foundation L = length of foundation « For circular foundations: B, = D = diameter of foundation 20132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Improved Relationship By Mayne and Poulos (1999) 8 t E, = E+ kz Compressible soll layer Ms Es Rigid Layer Depth, z Figure 20.5: General parameters for calculating elastic settlement by Eq. (5) 21132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Improved Relationship By Mayne and Poulos (1999) e Figure 20.5 shows a foundation having an equivalent diameter of B, located at a depth D, below the ground surface. e In Fig. 20.5: t= thickness of foundation E; = modulus of elasticity of the foundation material Ao = load per unit area of foundation h = depth of rigid layer from the bottom of foundation E, = reference modulus of elasticity of the compressible soil layer k = modulus of sub-grade reaction of the compressible soil layer E, = modulus of elasticity of the compressible soil layer at any depth z 22132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Improved Relationship By Mayne and Poulos (1999) e With the parameters defined earlier, the immediate settlement can be given as: AoBglelel; S,= —E= (1-48) ) ‘0 where, Ig = influence factor for the variation of E, with depth = (Ep, k, Be, h) |, = foundation rigidity correction factor /_ = foundation embedment correction factor 23132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Improved Relationship By Mayne and Poulos (1999) 1 08+ 06+ Ig oa oar 718, =02 i 1 L 1 Bor oA 1 10 "100 Eo im Figure 20.6: Variation of /, with £ 24132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Improved Relationship By Mayne and Poulos (1999) « The foundation rigidity correction factor, /-, can be expressed as: p= t+ (6) « The embedment correction factor, /e, is: |p =1-—_—_____1_ (7) By 3.5 exp (1.22, — 0.4) ( + 18) a 25132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Improved Relationship By Mayne and Poulos (1999) 17 — T 7 T oss | Flexibility factor, Ke Be Eo + ek & 08st 08 o75|- 4 ozt L n L L W001 oot ot 1 10 100 Ke Figure 20.7: Variation of I; 26132Immediate Settlement on Clay & Sand Improved Relationship By Mayne and Poulos (1999) 1 7 7 7 0 5 10 15 20 Dy By Figure 20.8: Variation of /- 27132Example 20.2 For the shallow foundation shown in the following figure, determine the immediate settlement. Q=1110 KN 1.52 mx 3.05 m Hs = 0.3 Eq = 9660 kNim? k = 565.6 kNim?/m E; = 15.87 x 10° kN/m? “Rigid Layer 28132Example 20.2: Solution Ao = p= h Be 4BL _ /4(1.52)(3.05) Sees 05) _ 1110 2 = 1110 _ _ 939.43 kN ae (1.52)(3.05) m Ey 9660 =o _ __9660 ___ 702 KB, 665.6243) 3.66 = 34371! For p= 7.02, and # = 1.51; lg =0.7 e 29132Example 20.2: Solution =k IF at ; f 2t 46410 ~, (2) 4+ We on? =2y 1 4 3 15.87 x 10 (7S) 4.6410] —-="* —__jja-~™' 9660 + GESH2A) 2.43 = 0.789 30/32Example 20.2: Solution 1 [-=1-——___1 Be 3.5 exp (1.22u, - 0.4) (F +1 ) Gi 1 =1-—___ 3.5 exp (1.22 x 0.3 — 0.4) G3 + 18) 1.52 = 0.908 31/32Example 20.2: Solution AcBylelple = = (1-48) _ (239.43)(2.43)(0.7)(0.789)(0.908) 9660 (1 -0.34) = 0.0275 m = 27.5 mm 32132