Hazara University Mansehra

Final term Assignment

Name Tayyaba shah

Roll no 402-2019

BS 1 MATHEMATICS

Assignment :- psychology

SUBMITTED to :- Mam Humera

Topic:- What is intelligence? What are different theories of intelligence?

What is intelligence?
“The ability to solve problems and to adapt to and learn from life’s everyday
experiences”

 The capacity to adapt and learn from experiences.

 Includes characteristics such as creativity and interpersonal skills.
 The mental abilities that enable one to adapt to, shape, or select one’s
environment.
 The ability to judge, comprehend, and reason.
 The ability to understand and deal with people, objects, and symbols.
 The ability to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively
with the environment.

Intelligence through adolescence:

There is a strong relationship between IQ scores obtained at ages 6, 8,
and 9 and IQ scores obtained at 10.
There is still a strong relationship between IQ scores obtained in
preadolescent years and those obtained at age [Link], individual
intelligence scores can fluctuate dramatically over childhood and
adolescence.

Intelligence in adulthood:

Intellectual Development (John Horn):Crystallized intelligence:

accumulated information and verbal skills, which increase with
age.
Fluid intelligence: the ability to reason abstractly, which steadily
declines from middle adulthood.

Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner)

Gardner thinks there are eight types of intelligence. He believes each

of us have all of the eight types of intelligence to varying degrees.

These multiple intelligences are related to how an individual prefers to

learn and process information.

Verbal skills: The ability to think in words and use language to

express meaning
o Sensitivity to the meanings and sounds of words, mastery of syntax,
appreciation of the ways
language can be used (authors, journalists, speakers, poets, teachers)
Mathematical skills: The ability to carry out mathematical
operations
o Understanding of objects and symbols and of actions that be
performed on them and of the
relations between these actions, ability for abstraction, ability to
identify problems and seek explanations (scientists, engineers,
accountants)

Spatial skills: The ability to think three-dimensionally

o Capacity to perceive the visual world accurately, to perform
transformations upon perceptions
and to re-create aspects of visual experience in the absence of physical
stimuli, sensitivity to tension, balance, and composition, ability to
detect similar patterns (architects, artists, sailors,
chess masters)

Bodily-kinaesthetic skills: The ability to manipulate objects

and be physically adept

o Use of one’s body in highly skilled ways for expressive or goal-

directed purposes, capacity to handle objects skilfully (surgeons,
craftspeople, dancers, athletes, actors)

Musical skills: A sensitivity to pitch, melody, rhythm, and tone

o Sensitivity to individual tones and phrases of music, an

understanding of ways to combine tones
and phrases into larger musical rhythms and structures, awareness of
emotional aspects of music (musicians, composers, sensitive listeners)

Interpersonal skills: The ability to understand and effectively

interact with others

o Ability to notice and make distinctions among the moods,

temperaments, motivations, and
 intentions of other people and potentially to act on this knowledge
(teachers, mental health
professionals, parents, religious and political leaders)

Intrapersonal skills: The ability to understand oneself

o Access to one’s own feelings, ability to draw on one’s emotions to

guide and understand one’s behaviour, recognition of personal
strengths and weaknesses (theologians, novelists, psychologists,
therapists)

Naturalistic skills: The ability to observe patterns in nature and

understand natural and human-made systems.

o Sensitivity and understanding of plants, animals, and other aspects of

nature (farmers, botanists, ecologists, landscapers, environmentalists).

Factor influencing intelligence

The Child’s Influence:

Genetics
Genotype–Environment Interaction
Gender
o Boys and girls tend to be equivalent in most aspects of intelligence
 The average IQ scores of boys and girls is virtually identical
 he extremes (both low and high ends) are over- represented by boys
 Girls as a group:
Tend to be stronger in verbal fluency, in writing, in perceptual speed
(starting as early as the toddler years)
o Boys as a group:
Tend to be stronger in visual-spatial processing, in science, and in
mathematical problem solving (starting as early as age 3)
The Immediate Environment’s Influence
Family Environment
School Environment
 o Attending school makes children smarter
Children from families of low SES and those from families of high SES
make comparable gains in school achievement during the school year

 During the academic year -- schools provide children of all backgrounds

with the same stimulating intellectual environment.
Over the summer, children from low-SES families are less likely to
have the kinds of experiences that would maintain their academic
achievement.
The Society’s Influence
Poverty
o The more years children spend in poverty, the lower their IQs tend to
be
 Children from lower- and working-class homes average 10-15 points
below their middle class age mates on IQ tests
o In many countries, children from wealthier homes score better on IQ
test than children from
poorer homes
 The greater the gap in wealth in a country the greater the difference in
IQ scores
o Chronic inadequate diet can disrupt brain development
 Chronic or short-term inadequate diet at any point in life can impair
immediate intellectual functioning
o Reduced access to health service, poor parenting, and insufficient
stimulation and emotional
support can impair intellectual growth

Theories of Intelligence:-

Sternberg’s Triarchic theory: Psychologist Robert Sternberg

(1985) has constructed a
three—pronged, or Triarchic theory of intelligence.
.
Analytical intelligence: The ability to acquire and store
information; to retain or retrieve
information; to transfer information; to plan, make decisions, and
solve problems; and to translate thoughts into performance
o How efficiently people process information
o How to solve problems, how to monitor solutions, and how to
evaluate the results
o The use of strategies, acquiring knowledge
o Students high in analytical intelligence do well in class with lecture
and objective tests.
They are considered smart, get good grades, do well on traditional
tests, and go to competitive colleges.

Creative intelligence: The ability to solve new problems quickly;

the ability to learn how to solve
familiar problems in an automatic way so the mind is free to handle
other problems that require insight and creativity
o How people approach familiar or novel tasks of putting facts
together.
o To think originally
o Students high in creative intelligence might not conform to
traditional schools. They tend
to give unique answers for which they might get reprimanded.

Practical intelligence: The ability to get out of trouble; The

ability to get along with other people
o How people deal with their environment
o How to size up a situation and decide what to do – to adapt to it, to
change it, or to get
out of it
o Students high in practical intelligence don’t relate well in traditional
schools. They do well outside the classroom walls with good social
skills and common sense.
Thorndike’s multifactor theory :

Thorndike believed that there was nothing like General

Ability. Each mental activity requires an aggregate of different set of

abilities. He distinguished the following four attributes of
intelligence :

(a) Level—refers to the level of difficulty of a task that can be solved.

(b) Range—refers to a number of tasks at any given degree of difficulty.

(c) Area—means the total number of situations at each level to which
the individual is able to respond.

(d) Speed—is the rapidity with which we can respond to the items

Thurston’s theory :

Primary mental
abilities/Group factor theory:

States that Intelligent Activities are not an expression of innumerable

highly specific factors, as Thorndike claimed. Nor is it the expression
primarily of a general factor that pervades all mental activities.
It is the essence of intelligence, as Spearman held

Thurston has given the following six primary

factors :
(i) The Number Factor (N)—Ability to do Numerical Calculations rapidly
and accurately.
(ii) The Verbal Factor (V)—Found in tests involving Verbal
Comprehension.

(iii) The Space Factor (S)—Involved in any task in which the subject
manipulates the imaginary object in space.
8(iv) Memory (M)—Involving ability to memorize quickly.

(v) he Word Fluency Factor (W)—Involved whenever the subject is

asked to think of isolated words at a rapid rate.

(vi) The Reasoning Factor (R)—Found in tasks that require a subject to

discover a rule or principle involved in a series or groups of letters.
VERNON’S HIERARCHICAL THEORY :

Vernon’ description of different levels of intelligence may fill the gaps

between two extreme theories,

the two-factor theory of Spearman,

which did not allow for the existence of group factors, and the
multiple-factor theory of Turnstone, which did not allow a ‘‘g’’ factor.
Intelligence can be described as comprising abilities at varying levels of
generality :

1. The highest level : ‘‘g’’ (general intelligence)factor with the largest

source of variance between individuals. (Spearman)

2. The next level : major group factors such as

verbal-numerical-educational ([Link]) and practical-mechanical-spatial-
physical (k.m.) ability.
3. The next level : minor group factors are divided from major group
factors.
4. The bottom level : ‘‘s’’(specific) factor.(Spearmen)

CATTELL’S FLUID AND CRYSTALLIZED

THEORY

The fluid aspect of this theory says that intelligence is a basic capacity
due to genetic

potentiality. While this is affected by the pasted new experiences, the

crystallized theory is a

capacity resultant of experiences, learning and environment.

 VERNON’S HIERARCHICAL THEORY :

Vernon’ description of different levels of

intelligence may fill the gaps between two
extreme theories, the two-factor theory of
Spearman,

which did not allow for the existence

of group factors, and the multiple-factor theory
of Turnstone, which did not allow a ‘‘g’’ factor.
Intelligence can be described as comprising
abilities at varying levels of generality :

1. The highest level : ‘‘g’’ (general intelligence)

factor with the largest source of variance
between individuals. (Spearman)

2. The next level : major group factors such as

verbal-numerical-educational ([Link]) and

Define personality? How can we measure

personality?

I. What is personality?
A. Personality: Individual differences in characteristic patterns of
thinking, feeling, and behaving.

1. “Thinking”
: Personality includes differences between people in how they typically think.

2. “Feeling”:
Personality includes differences between people in how they typically feel.
3. “Behaving”:
Personality includes differences between people in how they typically
behave.
B. Personality does not refer to physical characteristics, abilities, or
temporary states.
1. Personality refers to differences between people in their psychological
characteristics, not physical or biological differences (e.g., height or age).
Example: A person’s level of testosterone can influence his or
her typical pattern of behaviour. However, level of testosterone
itself isn’t considered a personality characteristic, though it may
be related to personality characteristics.

2. Personality doesn’t include many skills or abilities. Personality

is about what people are typically like, not what they are capable of at their
best.

Example: Just because someone can be an excellent negotiator or a skilled

chess player, that doesn’t mean it is part of his/
her personality.
3. Personality doesn’t include fleeting states like hunger, arousal, or mood.
Just because a person happens to be happy at

A given moment doesn’t mean it is part of his/her personality;

that is why the “characteristic patterns” part of the definition is
so important.
C. Personality includes prominent consideration of diversity because
the theories and the tests that arise out of diversity have been
primarily based on the observations of a specific group.

. Psychodynamic theories of personality

A. The psychodynamic approach to personality stems from Sigmund
Freud’s theories about how and why people become who they
are.
Psyche: According to Freud, an internal structure of the mind is made up of
three parts: the id, the ego, and the superego.
1. Id
is the irrational, emotional, impulsive part of the mind that pushes people to
act on their impulses and seeks immediate gratification.
2. Ego
is the rational part of the mind that considers all perspectives and weighs
the pros and cons of a course of action. The ego has a more long-term
perspective than the id.
3. Superego
is the moral part of the mind that seeks to follow rules, social norms, and
personal value. It pushes people to act in accordance with their values and
ideals.

V Personality origins
A. There has been a lot of debate about whether personality is innate
(nature) or learned from one’s experiences in childhood and
beyond (nurture). As with many debates, the answer is that both
sides are partly correct. Personality is influenced by genes and can
be observed even in young infants, but it is also shaped by
the experiences and changes over the course of a person’s life .

B. Genetic influences on personality

1. Before it was possible to map people’s genomes, researchers
came up with a clever way to test the influence of genes by
comparing identical (monozygotic) and same-sex fraternal
(dizygotic) twins.

a. The idea is that identical twins and same-sex fraternal

twins are equally similar to each other in terms of the environments they
grow up in—in both cases, they have the
same parents, live in the same neighbourhood, go to the
same school, etc.

b. However, identical twins share 100% of the genes that

vary in humans, whereas fraternal twins share only 50%
on average (same as non-twin siblings).

c. Therefore, if identical twins have personalities more

similar to each other’s than fraternal twins, this strongly
suggests that personality is partly influenced by genes.
However, identical twins are more often treated more alike
than fraternal twins.
d. Adoption studies can also be used to study the influence
of environment and genetics. Adopted children are compared through
correlation studies to their adopted parents
(nurture) and their biological parents (nature).

2. Heritability
refers to the extent to which a characteristic (e.g.,
extroversion, height) is influenced by genes.

3. Genes and traits

a. So far, research that examines specific genes (molecular
genetics) has had very little success identifying specific
genes that predict specific traits.

I. Measuring personality

A. Personality measures
1. Personality can be measured in many different ways. Many people have
seen personality tests in magazines or websites
that claim people can learn about their personality based on what colour,
animal, or food they like. Many of these tests are
not valid (e.g., they do not capture the psychological concept personality is
supposed to represent).

2. Self-report questionnaires
a. Self-report:
The assumption behind this questionnaire that asks respondents what they
are like is that people have a pretty good idea of how they typically think,
feel,
and behave. Therefore, if clear, direct questions are written about people’s
personality, and the people answer honestly, researchers can learn a lot.
Many people are
familiar with the Myers-Briggs self-report questionnaire, but it is not an
empirically valid personality questionnaire

b. Face validity: Self-report questionnaires ask face-valid

questions about personality. A face-valid question has no tricks or hidden
agendas. It measures what it looks like it is measuring.

Example: If a researcher wants to know if someone is extroverted, he or she

can ask them “Do you tend to talk a lot?” “Do you like being around people?”
etc.

c. Questionnaire design:
Most personality questionnaires use Likert-type statements. (Likert was a
U.S. psychologist (1903-1981) ).These are statements (e.g., “I am often
anxious.”) on which the respondent indicates how strongly he/she agrees or
disagrees with on a continuous scale
(e.g., from 1 to 5, in which 1 is “strongly disagree” and 5 is
“strongly agree”

Example: You’re only as funny, charming, and likeable

as other people think you are. For these traits, informant reports may better
than self-reports.
d. Weaknesses of informant report questionnaires
i. Informant reports are not always convenient; sometimes it’s hard to get
hold of informants.
ii. There are some things informants don’t see.
Example: Family members may not know what a high school student is like at
school, and the student’s friends or classmates may not know what he or she
is like at home.
iii. Some personality traits are defined not by how other people see you, but
how you see yourself.
Example: If you feel anxious a lot, you’re an anxious person—it doesn’t
matter if other people think you’re not anxious.
iv. Informants typically like the target they’re rating a lot,
so they may be biased and have a rosier perception of the target than is
warranted.

SOCIAL INFLUENCE

“social behaviour is the process by which individuals change

Their behaviour to meets the demands of a social environment”
OR
“social influence is the process by which an individual’s attitude beliefs or
Behaviour are modified by the presence or action of others”

SOURCES OF SOCIAL INFLUENCE

 . social institution (school, office)

 . Interaction with bother people

SOCIAL INFLUENCE And behaviour.

Social influence occurs when our thoughts, feelings and behaviour are
influenced
by others people.
EXAMPLE:-

 A small children learn from us when we are habitual of throwing out

the disposable on the road they do the same.
  Individuals are also influenced by the majority/group.

EXAMPLE:-

The group of friends in one friend is to do [Link] influenced by other

member of group. Other member of group to do also hard work.
Influence(teacher towards students)

 Group is also influenced by the individual

EXAMPLE:-
A high school girl decides to go out for the soccer team because she knowns
that all
friends Will be playing.

 Social influence both positive and negative aspects.

EXAMPLE:-
[Link] brings many benefit but it can also
Have bad influence on people.
[Link] your friends habits not good. If he smoke.
you could adapt his habits. It is bad influence on you.(Negative influence)

When someone behave like good to other. They influence on him.

He also show good behave.
When some one help other person. They influence on him.
He also doing help others.
  Action has more effective to influence than thinking.
PSYCHOLOGIST “Herbert kelman ”Identified by three board varieties of social
influence.

[Link]
Is when people appear to agree with but actually keep their dissenting
opinion private.
EXAMPLE.
If we suppose two person“A”and“B”.“A” comment on something.
“B”is not agree his comment his thought is different than “A”.
But “B”is not expressed his own thought.
Because“B”didn’t debate. B”comply it

[Link]
Is when people are influenced by someone.
Who is liked and respected.
People follow others habits
People follow others dressing.

[Link]
Is when people accept a belief or behaviour and agree
both publicity and privately.
EXAMPLE:-
when two person“A”and”B”expressed his thought on something.
The“B”has same thought as “A”.
The rational tendency is stronger in both .