MANUFACTURING PROCESS-II

THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

INTRODUCTION
In an industry, metal components are made into different shapes and dimensions by using
various metal working processes.

Metal working processes are classified into two major groups. They are:
Non-cutting shaping or chips less or metal forming process - forging, rolling, pressing,
etc. Cutting shaping or metal cutting or chip forming process - turning, drilling, milling,
etc.

MATERIAL REMOVAL PROCESSES

Definition of machining
Machining is an essential process of finishing by which work pieces are produced to the
desired dimensions and surface finish by gradually removing the excess material from
the preformed blank in the form of chips with the help of cutting tool(s) moved past the
work surface(s).

Principle of machining
Fig. 1.1 typically illustrates the basic principle of machining. A metal rod of irregular
shape, size and surface is converted into a finished product of desired dimension and
surface finish by machining by proper relative motions of the tool-work pair.
proper relative motions of the tool-work pair.

Fig. 1.1 Principle of machining (Turning) Fig. 1.2 Requirements for

machining

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Purpose of machining
Most of the engineering components such as gears, bearings, clutches, tools, screws and
nuts etc. need dimensional and form accuracy and good surface finish for serving their
purposes. Preforming like casting, forging etc. generally cannot provide the desired
accuracy and finish. For that such preformed parts, called blanks, need semi-finishing and
finishing and it is done by machining and grinding. Grinding is also basically a
machining process.

Machining to high accuracy and finish essentially enables a product:

o Fulfill its functional requirements.

o Improve its performance.
o Prolong its service.

Requirements of machining
The essential basic requirements for machining a work are schematically
illustrated in Fig. 1.2. The blank and the cutting tool are properly mounted (in fixtures)
and moved in a powerful device called machine tool enabling gradual removal of layer of
material from the work surface resulting in its desired dimensions and surface finish.
Additionally some environment called cutting fluid is generally used to ease machining
by cooling and lubrication.

TYPES OF MACHINE TOOLS

Definition of machine tool
A machine tool is a non-portable power operated and reasonably valued device or system
of devices in which energy is expended to produce jobs of desired size, shape and
surface finish by removing excess material from the preformed blanks in the form of
chips with the help of cutting tools moved past the work surface(s).

Basic functions of machine tools

Machine tools basically produce geometrical surfaces like flat, cylindrical or any contour
on the preformed blanks by machining work with the help of cutting tools.
The physical functions of a machine tool in machining are:
 Firmly holding the blank and the tool.
 Transmit motions to the tool and the blank.
 Provide power to the tool-work pair for the machining action.
 Control of the machining parameters, i.e., speed, feed and depth of cut.

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Specification of machine tools

A machine tool may have a large number of various features and characteristics.But only
some specific salient features are used for specifying a machine tool. All the
manufacturers, traders and users must know how machine tools are specified.
The methods of specification of some basic machine tools are as follows:

Centre lathe:
Maximum diameter and length of the jobs that can be accommodated.
Power of the main drive (motor).
Range of spindle speeds and range of feeds.
Space occupied by the machine.

Shaper:
Length, breadth and depth of the bed.
Maximum axial travel of the bed and vertical travel of the bed / tool. Maximum
length of the stroke (of the ram / tool).
Range of number of strokes per minute.
Range of table feed.
Power of the main drive.
Space occupied by the machine.

Drilling machine (column type):

Maximum drill size (diameter) that can be used.
Size and taper of the hole in the spindle.
Range of spindle speeds. Range of feeds.
Power of the main drive.
Range of the axial travel of the spindle / bed.
Floor space occupied by the machine.

Milling machine (knee type and with arbor):

Type; ordinary or swiveling bed type. Size of the work table.
Range of travels of the table in X - Y - Z directions.
Arbor size (diameter).
Power of the main drive. Range of spindle speed.
Range of table feeds in X - Y - Z directions.
Floor space occupied.

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THEORY OF METAL CUTTING

Types of cutting tools
Cutting tools may be classified according to the number of major cutting edges (points)
involved as follows:
Single point:
e.g., turning tools, shaping, planning and slotting tools and boring tools.
Double (two) point:
e.g., drills.
Multipoint (more than two):
e.g., milling cutters, broaching tools, hobs, gear shaping cutters etc.

Geometry of single point cutting (turning) tools

Both material and geometry of the cutting tools play very important roles on their
performances in achieving effectiveness, efficiency and overall economy of machining.

Concept of rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

The word tool geometry is basically referred to some specific angles or slope of the
salient faces and edges of the tools at their cutting point. Rake angle and clearance angle
are the most significant for all the cutting tools. The concept of rake angle and clearance
angle will be clear from some simple operations shown in Fig. 1.3.

Fig. 1.3 Rake and clearance angles of cutting tools

Definition
Rake angle (γ): Angle of inclination of rake surface from reference plane.
Clearance angle (α): Angle of inclination of clearance or flank surface from the finished
surface. Rake angle is provided for ease of chip flow and overall machining. Rake angle
may be positive, or negative or even zero as shown in Fig. 1.4 (a, b and c).

Fig. 1.4 Three possible types of rake angles (a) Positive rake (b) Zero rake (c) Negative rake

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Relative advantages of such rake angles are:

Positive rake - helps reduce cutting force and thus cutting power requirement.
Zero rake - to simplify design and manufacture of the form tools.
Negative rake - to increase edge-strength and life of the tool.

Clearance angle is essentially provided to avoid rubbing of the tool (flank) with the
machined surface which causes loss of energy and damages of both the tool and the job
surface. Hence, clearance angle is a must and must be positive (30 ~ 150) depending upon
tool-work materials and type of the machining operations like turning, drilling, boring
etc.

Description of tool geometry in Machine Reference System

This system is also called as ASA system; ASA stands for American Standards
Association.
Geometry of a cutting tool refers mainly to its several angles or slopes of its salient
working surfaces and cutting edges. Those angles are expressed with respect to some
planes of reference.
In Machine Reference System (ASA), the three planes of reference and the coordinates
are chosen based on the configuration and axes of the machine tool concerned. The
planes and axes used for expressing tool geometry in ASA system for turning operation
are shown in Fig. 1.5 (b).

Fig 1.5 (a) Basic features of single point Fig. 1.5 (b) Planes and axes of
reference cutting (turning) tool in ASA system
The planes of reference and the coordinates used in ASA system for tool geometry are:
ΠR - ΠX - ΠY and Xm - Ym - Zm; where,
ΠR = Reference plane; plane perpendicular to the velocity vector. Shown in Fig. 1.5 (b).
ΠX = Machine longitudinal plane; plane perpendicular to ΠR and taken in the direction of
assumed longitudinal feed.
ΠY = Machine transverse plane; plane perpendicular to both ΠR and ΠX. [This plane is
taken in the direction of assumed cross feed]

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The axes Xm, Ym and Zm are in the direction of longitudinal feed, cross feed and cutting
velocity (vector) respectively. The main geometrical features and angles of single point
tools in ASA systems and their definitions will be clear from Fig. 1.6.

Fig. 1.6 Tool angles in ASA system

Definition of:
Shank: The portion of the tool bit which is not ground to form cutting edges and is
rectangular in cross section. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Face: The surface against which the chip slides upward. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Flank: The surface which face the work piece. There are two flank surfaces in a single
point cutting tool. One is principal flank and the other is auxiliary flank. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Heel: The lowest portion of the side cutting edges. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Nose radius: The conjunction of the side cutting edge and end cutting edge. It provides
strengthening of the tool nose and better surface finish. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]
Base: The underside of the shank. [Fig. 1.5 (a)]

Rake angles: [Fig. 1.6]

γx = Side rake angle (axial rake): angle of inclination of the rake surface from the
reference plane (ΠR) and measured on machine reference plane, ΠX.
γy = Back rake angle: angle of inclination of the rake surface from the reference
plane and measured on machine transverse plane, ΠY.

Clearance angles: [Fig. 1.6]

αx = Side clearance angle (Side relief angle): angle of inclination of the principal
flank from the machined surface (or CV) and measured on ΠX plane.
αy = Back clearance angle (End relief angle): same as αx but measured on ΠY
plane.

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Cutting angles: [Fig. 1.6]

φs = Side cutting edge angle (Approach angle): angle between the principal
cutting edge (its projection on ΠR) and ΠY and measured on ΠR.
φe = End cutting edge angle: angle between the end cutting edge (its projection on
ΠR) from ΠX and measured on ΠR.

Designation of tool geometry

The geometry of a single point tool is designated or specified by a series of values of the
salient angles and nose radius arranged in a definite sequence as follows:
Designation (Signature) of tool geometry in ASA System - γy, γx, αy, αx, φe, φs, r (in
inch) Example: A tool having 7, 8, 6, 7, 5, 6, 0.1 as designation (Signature) in ASA
system will have
the following angles and nose radius.
Back rack angle = 70
Side rake angle = 80
Back clearance angle = 60
Side clearance angle = 70
End cutting edge angle = 50
Side cutting edge angle = 60
Nose radius = 0.1 inch

TYPES OF METAL CUTTING PROCESSES

The metal cutting process is mainly classified into two types. They are:
Orthogonal cutting process (Two - dimensional cutting) - The cutting edge or face of the
tool is 900 to the line of action or path of the tool or to the cutting velocity vector. This
cutting involves only two forces and this makes the analysis simpler.

Oblique cutting process (Three - dimensional cutting) - The cutting edge or face of the
tool is inclined at an angle less than 900 to the line of action or path of the tool or to the
cutting velocity vector. Its analysis is more difficult of its three dimensions.

Orthogonal and oblique cutting

It is appears from the diagram shown in Fig. 1.7 (a and b) that while turning ductile
material by a sharp tool, the continuous chip would flow over the tool’s rake surface and
in the direction apparently perpendicular to the principal cutting edge, i.e., along
orthogonal plane which is normal to the cutting plane containing the principal cutting
edge. But practically, the chip may not flow along the orthogonal plane for several factors
like presence of inclination angle, λ, etc.

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The role of inclination angle, λ on the direction of chip flow is schematically

shown in Fig. 1.8 which visualizes that:
When λ = 00, the chip flows along orthogonal plane, i.e, ρc = 00.
When λ ≠ 00, the chip flow is deviated from πo and ρc = λ where ρc is chip flow
deviation (from πo) angle.

Fig. 1.7 (a) Setup of orthogonal and oblique cutting Fig. 1.7 (b) Ideal direction of chip
flow in turning

Fig. 1.8 Role of inclination angle, λ on chip flow direction

Orthogonal cutting: When chip flows along orthogonal plane, πo, i.e., ρc = 00.
Oblique cutting: When chip flow deviates from orthogonal plane, i.e. ρc ≠ 00.

But practically ρc may be zero even if λ = 00 and ρc may not be exactly equal to λ even if
λ ≠ 00. Because there is some other (than λ) factors also may cause chip flow deviation.

CHIP FORMATION
Mechanism of chip formation
Machining is a semi-finishing or finishing process essentially done to impart
required or stipulated dimensional and form accuracy and surface finish to enable the
product to:
Fulfill its basic functional requirements.
Provide better or improved performance.
Render long service life.

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Machining is a process of gradual removal of excess material from the preformed blanks
in the form of chips. The form of the chips is an important index of machining because it
directly or indirectly indicates:
Nature and behavior of the work material under machining condition.
Specific energy requirement (amount of energy required to remove unit volume of
work material) in machining work.
Nature and degree of interaction at the chip-tool interfaces.

The form of machined chips depends mainly upon:

Work material.
Material and geometry of the cutting tool.
Levels of cutting velocity and feed and also to some extent on depth of cut.
Machining environment or cutting fluid that affects temperature and friction at the
chip-tool and work-tool interfaces.
Knowledge of basic mechanism(s) of chip formation helps to understand the
characteristics of chips and to attain favorable chip forms.

Mechanism of chip formation in machining ductile materials

During continuous machining the uncut layer of the work material just ahead of the
cutting tool (edge) is subjected to almost all sided compression as indicated in Fig. 1.10.

Fig. 1.10 Compression of work material (layer) ahead of the tool tip

The force exerted by the tool on the chip arises out of the normal force, N and
frictional force, F as indicated in Fig. 1.10. Due to such compression, shear stress
develops, within that compressed region, in different magnitude, in different directions
and rapidly increases in magnitude. Whenever and wherever the value of the shear stress
reaches or exceeds the shear strength of that work material in the deformation region,
yielding or slip takes place resulting shear deformation in that region and the plane of
maximum shear stress. But the forces causing the shear stresses in the region of the chip
quickly diminishes and finally disappears while that region moves along the tool rake
surface towards and then goes beyond the point of chip-tool engagement.

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As a result the slip or shear stops propagating long before total separation takes place. In the
mean time the succeeding portion of the chip starts undergoing compression followed by yielding
and shear. This phenomenon repeats rapidly resulting in formation and removal of chips in thin
layer by layer. This phenomenon has been explained in a simple way by Piispannen*1 using a
card analogy as shown in Fig. 1.11 (a).

(a) Shifting of the postcards by partial sliding against each other (b) Chip formation by
shear in lamella Fig. 1.11 Piispannen model of card analogy to explain chip formation
in machining ductile materials

In actual machining chips also, such serrations are visible at their upper surface as
indicated in Fig. 1.11 (b). The lower surface becomes smooth due to further plastic
deformation due to intensive rubbing with the tool at high pressure and temperature. The
pattern of shear deformation by lamellar sliding, indicated in the model, can also be seen
in actual chips by proper mounting, etching and polishing the side surface of the
machining chip and observing under microscope.

The pattern and extent of total deformation of the chips due to the primary and the
secondary shear deformations of the chips ahead and along the tool face, as indicated in
Fig. 1.12, depend upon:
- Work material.
- Tool; material and geometry.
- The machining speed (VC) and feed (so).
- Cutting fluid application.

Fig. 1.12 Primary and secondary deformation zones in the chip

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The overall deformation process causing chip formation is quite complex and hence
needs thorough experimental studies for clear understanding the phenomena and its
dependence on the affecting parameters. The feasible and popular experimental methods
for this purpose are:
Study of deformation of rectangular or circular grids marked on side surface as
shown in Fig. 1.13 (a and b).
Microscopic study of chips frozen by drop tool or quick stop apparatus.
Study of running chips by high speed camera fitted with low magnification microscope.
It has been established by several analytical and experimental methods including circular
grid deformation that though the chips are initially compressed ahead of the tool tip, the
final deformation is accomplished mostly by shear in machining ductile materials.
However, machining of ductile materials generally produces flat, curved or coiled
continuous chips.

(a) Rectangular grids (b) Circular grids

Fig. 1.13 Pattern of grid deformation during chip formation

Mechanism of chip formation in machining brittle materials

The basic two mechanisms involved in chip formation are:

Yielding - generally for ductile materials.
Brittle fracture - generally for brittle materials.

During machining, first a small crack develops at the tool tip as shown in Fig. 1.14 due to
wedging action of the cutting edge. At the sharp crack-tip stress concentration takes
place. In case of ductile materials immediately yielding takes place at the crack-tip and
reduces the effect of stress concentration and prevents its propagation as crack. But in
case of brittle materials the initiated crack quickly propagates, under stressing action, and
total separation takes place from the parent work piece through the minimum resistance
path as indicated in Fig. 1.14.

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Fig. 1.14 Development and propagation of crack causing chip separation.

Machining of brittle material produces discontinuous chips and mostly of
irregular size and shape. The process of forming such chips is schematically shown in
Fig. 1.15 (a, b, c, d and e).

(a) Separation (b) Swelling (c) Further swelling (d) Separation (e)
Swelling again Fig. 1.15 Schematic view of chip formation
in machining brittle materials

Built-up-Edge (BUE) formation

Causes of formation

In machining ductile metals like steels with long chip-tool contact length, lot of
stress and temperature develops in the secondary deformation zone at the chip-tool
interface. Under such high stress and temperature in between two clean surfaces of
metals, strong bonding may locally take place due to adhesion similar to welding. Such
bonding will be encouraged and accelerated if the chip tool materials have mutual
affinity or solubility.

The weldment starts forming as an embryo at the most favorable location and
thus gradually grows as schematically shown in Fig. 1.20.

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Fig. 1.20 Scheme of built-up-edge formation

With the growth of the BUE, the force, F (shown in Fig. 1.20) also gradually
increases due to wedging action of the tool tip along with the BUE formed on it.
Whenever the force, F exceeds the bonding force of the BUE, the BUE is broken or
sheared off and taken away by the flowing chip. Then again BUE starts forming and
growing. This goes on repeatedly.

Characteristics of BUE
Built-up-edges are characterized by its shape, size and bond strength, which depend
upon:
Work tool materials.
Stress and temperature, i.e., cutting velocity and feed.
Cutting fluid application governing cooling and lubrication.
BUE may develop basically in three different shapes as schematically shown in Fig. 1.21
(a, b and c).

(a) Positive wedge (b) Negative wedge (c) Flat type Fig. 1.22 Overgrowing and
Fig. 1.21 Different forms of built-up-edge. overflowing of BUE
causing surface roughness

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In machining too soft and ductile metals by tools like high speed steel or uncoated
carbide the BUE may grow larger and overflow towards the finished surface through the
flank as shown in Fig. 1.22. While the major part of the detached BUE goes away along
the flowing chip, a small part of the BUE may remain stuck on the machined surface and
spoils the surface finish. BUE formation needs certain level of temperature at the
interface depending upon the mutual affinity of the work-tool materials. With the
increase in VC and so the cutting temperature rises and favors BUE formation.

But if VC is raised too high beyond certain limit, BUE will be squashed out by the
flowing chip before the BUE grows. Fig. 1.23 shows schematically the role of increasing
VC and so on BUE formation (size). But sometime the BUE may adhere so strongly that
it remains strongly bonded at the tool tip and does not break or shear off even after
reasonably long time of machining. Such harmful situation occurs in case of certain tool-
work materials and at speed-feed conditions which strongly favor adhesion and welding.

Fig. 1.23 Role of cutting velocity and feed on BUE formation

Effects of BUE formation

 Formation of BUE causes several harmful effects, such as:
 It unfavorably changes the rake angle at the tool tip causing increase in cutting
forces and power consumption.
 Repeated formation and dislodgement of the BUE causes fluctuation in cutting
forces and thus induces vibration which is harmful for the tool, job and the
machine tool.
 Surface finish gets deteriorated.
 May reduce tool life by accelerating tool-wear at its rake surface by adhesion and
flaking occasionally, formation of thin flat type stable BUE may reduce tool wear
at the rake face.

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TYPES OF CHIPS

Different types of chips of various shape, size, colour etc. are produced by machining
depending upon:
Type of cut, i.e., continuous (turning, boring etc.) or intermittent cut (milling). Work
material (brittle or ductile etc.).
Cutting tool geometry (rake, cutting angles etc.).
Levels of the cutting velocity and feed (low, medium or high). Cutting fluid (type of fluid
and method of application).

The basic major types of chips and the conditions generally under which such types of
chips form are given below:

Continuous chips without BUE

When the cutting tool moves towards the work piece, there occurs a plastic
deformation of the work piece and the metal is separated without any discontinuity and it
moves like a ribbon. The chip moves along the face of the tool. This mostly occurs while
cutting a ductile material. It is desirable to have smaller chip thickness and higher cutting
speed in order to get continuous chips. Lesser power is consumed while continuous chips
are produced. Total life is also mortised in this process. The formation of continuous
chips is schematically shown in Fig. 1.24.

Fig. 1.24 Formation of continuous chips Fig. 1.25 Formation of

discontinuous chips

The following condition favors the formation of continuous chips without BUE chips:
Work material - ductile.
Cutting velocity - high. Feed - low.
Rake angle - positive and large.
Cutting fluid - both cooling and lubricating.

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Discontinuous chips
This is also called as segmental chips. This mostly occurs while cutting brittle material
such as cast iron or low ductile materials. Instead of shearing the metal as it happens in
the previous process, the metal is being fractured like segments of fragments and they
pass over the tool faces. Tool life can also be more in this process. Power consumption as
in the previous case is also low. The formation of continuous chips is schematically
shown in Fig. 1.25.

The following condition favors the formation of discontinuous chips:

 Of irregular size and shape: - work material - brittle like grey cast iron.
 Of regular size and shape: - work material ductile but hard and work hardenable.
 Feed rate - large.
 Tool rake - negative.
 Cutting fluid - absent or inadequate.

Continuous chips with BUE

When cutting a ductile metal, the compression of the metal is followed by the high heat at
tool face. This in turns enables part of the removed metal to be welded into the tool. This
is known as built up edge, a very hardened layer of work material attached to the tool
face, which tends to act as a cutting edge itself replacing the real cutting tool edge.

The built-up edge tends to grow until it reaches a critical size (~0.3 mm) and then passes
off with the chip, leaving small fragments on the machining surface. Chip will break free
and cutting forces are smaller, but the effect is a rough machined surface. The built-up
edge disappears at high cutting speeds.

The weld metal is work hardened or strain hardened. While the cutting process is
continued, some of built up edge may be combined with the chip and pass along the tool
face. Some of the built up edge may be permanently fixed on the tool face. This produces
a rough surface finish and the tool life may be reduced. The formation of continuous
chips with BUE is schematically shown in Fig. 1.26.

Fig. 1.26 Formation of continuous chips with BUE

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The following condition favors the formation of continuous chips with BUE chips:
a) Work material - ductile.
b) Cutting velocity - low (~0.5 m/s,). Small or negative rake angles.
c) Feed - medium or large.
d) Cutting fluid - inadequate or absent.

Often in machining ductile metals at high speed, the chips are deliberately broken into
small segments of regular size and shape by using chip breakers mainly for convenience
and reduction of chip-tool contact length.

Chip breakers
Need and purpose of chip-breaking
Continuous machining like turning of ductile metals, unlike brittle metals like grey cast
iron, produce continuous chips, which leads to their handling and disposal problems. The
problems become acute when ductile but strong metals like steels are machined at high
cutting velocity for high MRR by flat rake face type carbide or ceramic inserts. The sharp
edged hot continuous chip that comes out at very high speed:
Becomes dangerous to the operator and the other people
working in the vicinity. May impair the finished surface by
entangling with the rotating job.
Creates difficulties in chip disposal.

Therefore it is essentially needed to break such continuous chips into small regular
pieces for:
a. Safety of the working people.
b. Prevention of damage of the product.
c. Easy collection and disposal of chips.

Chip breaking is done in proper way also for the additional purpose of improving
machinability by reducing the chip-tool contact area, cutting forces and crater wear of
the cutting tool.

Principles of chip-breaking
In respect of convenience and safety, closed coil type chips of short length and ‘coma’
shaped broken-to-half turn chips are ideal in machining of ductile metals and alloys at
high speed.
The principles and methods of chip breaking are generally classified as follows:
Self chip breaking - This is accomplished without using a separate chip-breaker either as
an attachment or an additional geometrical modification of the tool.
Forced chip breaking - This is accomplished by additional tool geometrical features or
devices.

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a) Self breaking of chips

Ductile chips usually become curled or tend to curl (like clock spring) even in machining
by tools with flat rake surface due to unequal speed of flow of the chip at its free and
generated (rubbed) surfaces and unequal temperature and cooling rate at those two
surfaces. With the increase in cutting velocity and rake angle (positive) the radius of
curvature increases, which is more dangerous.
In case of oblique cutting due to presence of inclination angle, restricted cutting effect
etc. the curled chips deviate laterally resulting helical coiling of the chips. The curled
chips may self break:
By natural fracturing of the strain hardened outgoing chip after sufficient cooling and
spring back as indicated in Fig. 1.27 (a). This kind of chip breaking is generally observed
under the condition close to that which favors formation of jointed or segmented chips.
By striking against the cutting surface of the job, as shown in Fig. 1.27 (b), mostly under
pure orthogonal cutting.
By striking against the tool flank after each half to full turn as indicated in Fig. 1.27 (c).

(a) Natural (b) Striking on job (c) Striking at tool flank Fig. 1.27 Principles of self
breaking of chips

The possibility and pattern of self chip-breaking depend upon the work material, tool
material and tool geometry (γ, λ, φ and r), levels of the process parameters (VC and fo)
and the machining environment (cutting fluid application) which are generally selected
keeping in view the overall machinability.

b) Forced chip-breaking
The hot continuous chip becomes hard and brittle at a distance from its origin due to
work hardening and cooling. If the running chip does not become enough curled and
work hardened, it may not break. In that case the running chip is forced to bend or closely
curl so that it breaks into pieces at regular intervals. Such broken chips are of regular size
and shape depending upon the configuration of the chip breaker. Chip breakers are
basically of two types:
In-built type.
Clamped or attachment type.
In-built breakers are in the form of step or groove at the rake surface near the cutting
edges of the tools.
Such chip breakers are provided either:

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After their manufacture - in case of HSS tools like drills, milling cutters, broaches etc and
brazed type carbide inserts.
During their manufacture by powder metallurgical process - e.g., throw away type inserts
of carbides, ceramics and cermets.
The basic principle of forced chip breaking is schematically shown in Fig. 1.28.
When the strain hardened and brittle running chip strikes the heel, the cantilever chip gets
forcibly bent and then breaks.

W = width, H = height, β = shear angle Fig. 1.28 Principle of forced chip breaking
Fig. 1.29 (a, b, c and d) schematically shows some commonly used step type chip
breakers:

Parallel step.
Angular step; positive and negative type.
Parallel step with nose radius - for heavy cuts.

(a) (b)

(c) (d)

Fig. 1.29 Step type in-built chip breaker (a) Parallel step
(b) Parallel and radiused (c) Positive angular (d) Negative angular
Fig. 1.30 (a and b) schematically shows some commonly used groove type in-built chip
breakers:

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(a) Circular groove (b) Tilted Vee groove

Fig. 1.30 Groove type in-built chip breaker

The unique characteristics of in-built chip breakers are:

The outer end of the step or groove acts as the heel that forcibly bends and fractures the
running chip.
Simple in configuration, easy manufacture and inexpensive.
The geometry of the chip-breaking features is fixed once made. (i.e., cannot be
controlled) Effective only for fixed range of speed and feed for any given tool-
work combination.

MERCHANT’S CIRCLE DIAGRAM and its use

In orthogonal cutting when the chip flows along the orthogonal plane, π0, the cutting
force (resultant) and its components PZ and PXY remain in the orthogonal plane. Fig. 1.39
is schematically showing the forces acting on a piece of continuous chip coming out from
the shear zone at a constant speed. That chip is apparently in a state of equilibrium.

Fig 1.39 Development of Merchant’s circle diagram Fig. 1.40 Merchant’s Circle Diagram
with cutting forces

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The forces in the chip segment are:

From job-side:

Ps - Shear force.

Pn - force normal to the shear force.

From the tool side:
R1 = R (in state of equilibrium)

where, R1 = F + N
N - Force normal to rake
face.
F - Friction force at chip tool
interface.

The resulting cutting force R or R1 can be resolved further as,

R1 = PZ + PXY

where,
PZ - Force along th velocity vector.
PXY - force along orthogonal plane.
The circle(s) drawn taking R or R1 as diameter is called Merchant’s circle which contains
all the force components concerned as intercepts. The two circles with their forces are
combined into one circle having all the forces contained in that as shown by the diagram
called Merchant’s Circle Diagram
(MCD) in Fig. 1.40.

The significance of the forces displayed in the Merchant’s Circle Diagram is:
Ps - The shear force essentially required to produce or separate the chip from the
parent body by shear. Pn - Inherently exists along with Ps.
F - Friction force at the chip tool interface.
N - Force acting normal to the rake surface.
PZ = PXY – P X + PY = main force or power component acting in the direction of cutting
velocity.
The magnitude of PS provides the yield shear strength of the work material under the
cutting action. The values of F and the ratio of F and N indicate the nature and degree of
interaction like friction at the chip tool interface. The force components PX, PY, PZ are
generally obtained by direct measurement. Again PZ helps in determining cutting power
and specific energy requirement. The force components are also required to design the
cutting tool and the machine tool.

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Advantageous use of Merchant’s circle diagram

Proper use of MCD enables the followings:
 Easy, quick and reasonably accurate determination of several other forces from a
few known forces involved in machining.
 Friction at chip tool interface and dynamic yield shear strength can be
easily determined. Equations relating the different forces are easily
developed.
Some limitations of use of MCD:
 Merchant’s circle diagram (MCD) is only valid for orthogonal cutting.
 By the ratio, F/N, the MCD gives apparent (not actual)
coefficient of friction. It is based on single shear plane
theory.

TOOL WEAR
Failure of cutting tools
Smooth, safe and economic machining necessitates:
Prevention of premature and terrible failure of the cutting tools. Reduction of rate of wear
of tool to prolong its life.
To accomplish the aforesaid objectives one should first know why and how the cutting
tools fail. Cutting tools generally fail by:
 Mechanical breakage due to excessive forces and shocks. Such kind of tool
failure is random and catastrophic in nature and hence is extremely detrimental.
 Quick dulling by plastic deformation due to intensive stresses and temperature.
This type of failure also occurs rapidly and is quite detrimental and unwanted.
 Gradual wear of the cutting tool at its flanks and rake surface.

The first two modes of tool failure are very harmful not only for the tool but also for the
job and the machine tool. Hence these kinds of tool failure need to be prevented by using
suitable tool materials and geometry depending upon the work material and cutting
condition.

But failure by gradual wear, which is inevitable, cannot be prevented but can be slowed
down only to enhance the service life of the tool. The cutting tool is withdrawn
immediately after it fails or, if possible, just before it totally fails. For that one must
understand that the tool has failed or is going to fail shortly.

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It is understood or considered that the tool has failed or about to fail by one or
more of the following conditions:

(a) In R&D laboratories

 Total breakage of the tool or tool tip(s).
 Massive fracture at the cutting edge(s).
 Excessive increase in cutting forces and/or vibration.
 Average wear (flank or crater) reaches its specified limit(s).

(b) In machining industries

 Excessive (beyond limit) current or power consumption. Excessive vibration
and/or abnormal sound (chatter).
 Total breakage of the tool.
 Dimensional deviation beyond tolerance.
 Rapid worsening of surface finish.
 Adverse chip formation.

Mechanisms and pattern (geometry) of cutting tool wear

For the purpose of controlling tool wear one must understand the various mechanisms of
wear that the cutting tool undergoes under different conditions.

The common mechanisms of cutting tool wear are:

(a) Mechanical wear
Thermally insensitive type; like abrasion, chipping and de-lamination. Thermally
sensitive type; like adhesion, fracturing, flaking etc.
Flank wear is a flat portion worn behind the cutting edge which eliminates some
clearance or relief. It takes place when machining brittle materials. Wear at the tool-chip
interface occurs in the form of a depression or crater. It is caused by the pressure of the
chip as it slides up the face of the cutting tool. Both flank and crater wear take place
when feed is greater than 0.15 mm/rev at low or moderate speeds.

(b) Thermo chemical wear

Macro-diffusion by mass dissolution. Micro-diffusion by atomic migration.
In diffusion wear the material from the tool at its rubbing surfaces, particularly at the rake
surface gradually diffuses into the flowing chips either in bulk or atom by atom when the
tool material has chemical affinity or solid solubility towards the work material. The rate
of such tool wears increases with the increase in temperature at the cutting zone. This
wear becomes predominant when the cutting temperature becomes very high due to high
cutting velocity and high strength of the work material.

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(c) Chemical wear

Chemical wear, leading to damages like grooving wear may occur if the tool material is
not enough chemically stable against the work material and/or the atmospheric gases.

(d) Galvanic wear

Galvanic wear, based on electrochemical dissolution, seldom occurs when the work and
tool materials are electrically conductive, cutting zone temperature is high and the cutting
fluid acts as an electrolyte.

Measurement of tool wear

The various methods are:
(a) By loss of tool material in volume or weight, in one life time - this method is
crude and is generally applicable for critical tools like grinding wheels.
(b) By grooving and indentation method - in this approximate method wear depth is
measured indirectly by the difference in length of the groove or the indentation
outside and inside the worn area.
(c) Using optical microscope fitted with micrometer - very common and effective
method.
(d) Using scanning electron microscope (SEM) - used generally, for detailed study;
both qualitative and quantitative.
(e) Talysurf, especially for shallow crater wear.

TOOL LIFE

Definition:
Tool life generally indicates the amount of satisfactory performance or service rendered
by a fresh tool or a cutting point till it is declared failed. Tool life is defined in two ways:

(a) In R & D: Actual machining time (period) by which a fresh cutting tool (or
point) satisfactorily works after which it needs replacement or reconditioning. The
modern tools hardly fail prematurely or abruptly by mechanical breakage or rapid plastic
deformation. Those fail mostly by wearing process which systematically grows slowly
with machining time. In that case, tool life means the span of actual machining time by
which a fresh tool can work before attaining the specified limit of tool wear. Mostly tool
life is decided by the machining time till flank wear, VB reaches 0.3 mm or crater wear,
KT reaches 0.15 mm.

(b) In industries or shop floor: The length of time of satisfactory service or

amount of acceptable output provided by a fresh tool prior to it is required to replace or
recondition.
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Assessment of tool life

For R & D purposes, tool life is always assessed or expressed by span of machining time
in minutes, whereas, in industries besides machining time in minutes some other means
are also used to assess tool life, depending upon the situation, such as:
 Number of pieces of work machined.
 Total volume of material removed.
 Total length of cut.

TAYLOR’S TOOL LIFE EQUATION

Wear and hence tool life of any tool for any work material is governed mainly by the
level of the machining parameters i.e., cutting velocity (VC), feed (f) and depth of cut (t).
Cutting velocity affects maximum and depth of cut minimum.
The usual pattern of growth of cutting tool wear (mainly VB), principle of
assessing tool life and its dependence on cutting velocity are schematically shown in Fig.
1.50.

Fig. 1.50 Growth of flank wear and assessment of tool life

The tool life obviously decreases with the increase in cutting velocity keeping other
conditions unaltered as indicated in Fig. 1.51. If the tool lives, T1, T2, T3, T4 etc are
plotted against the corresponding cutting velocities, V1, V2, V3, V4 etc as shown in Fig.
1.51, a smooth curve like a rectangular hyperbola is found to appear. When F. W. Taylor
plotted the same figure taking both V and T in log-scale, a more distinct linear
relationship appeared as schematically shown in Fig. 1.52.

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Fig. 1.51 Cutting velocity - tool life relationship Fig. 1.52 Cutting velocity - tool life on
a log-log scale
With the slope, n and intercept, c, Taylor derived the simple equation as,

where, n is called, Taylor’s tool life exponent. The values of both ‘n’ and ‘c’ depend
mainly upon the tool-work materials and the cutting environment (cutting fluid
application). The value of C depends also on the limiting value of VB undertaken (i.e.,
0.3 mm, 0.4 mm, 0.6 mm etc.).

Modified Taylor’s tool life equation

In Taylor’s tool life equation, only the effect of variation of cutting velocity, VC on tool
life has been considered. But practically, the variation in feed (f) and depth of cut (t) also
play role on tool life to some extent. Taking into account the effects of all those
parameters, the Taylor’s tool life equation has been modified as,

where, T = tool life in minutes, CT a constant depending mainly upon the tool -
work materials and the limiting value of VB undertaken. x, y and z exponents so called
tool life exponents depending upon the tool - work materials and the machining
environment. Generally, x > y > z as VC affects tool life maximum and t minimum. The
values of the constants, CT, x, y and z are available in Machining Data Handbooks or can
be evaluated by machining tests.

Tool life in terms of metal removal

The volume of metal removal from the work piece between tool sharpening for definite depth
of cut, feed and cutting speed can be determined as follows. For example in case of turning:
Cutting speed VC = πDN / 1000 m/min 1.57

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where D - Diameter of work piece (mm).

N - Rotation speed of work piece (rpm).
Let t - Depth of cut (mm).
f - Feed rate (mm/min).
ttf - Time of tool failure (min).
T - Tool life in 1 mm3 of metal removal.

Volume of metal removed per revolution = π.D.t.f mm3

Volume of metal removed per minute = π.D.t.f.N mm3
Volume of metal removed in ‘t tf’ minute = π.D.t.f.N.ttf mm3
Therefore, Volume of metal removed between tool grinds = π.D.t.f.N.ttf mm3
T = π.D.t.f.N.ttf mm3 = 1000.VC.t.f.ttf mm3

Factors affecting tool life

The life of the cutting tool is affected by the following factors:
Cutting speed.
Feed and depth of cut.
Tool geometry.
Tool material.
Cutting fluid.
Work piece material.
Rigidity of work, tool and machine.

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CUTTING TOOL MATERIALS

Essential properties of cutting tool materials

The cutting tools need to be capable to meet the growing demands for higher productivity
and economy as well as to machine the exotic materials which are coming up with the
rapid progress in science and technology.

The cutting tool material of the day and future essentially require the following
properties to resist or retard the phenomena leading to random or early tool failure:
 High mechanical strength; compressive, tensile, and TRA. Fracture toughness -
high or at least adequate.
 High hardness for abrasion resistance.
 High hot hardness to resist plastic deformation and reduce wear rate at elevated
temperature. Chemical stability or inertness against work material, atmospheric
gases and cutting fluids. Resistance to adhesion and diffusion.
 Thermal conductivity - low at the surface to resist incoming of heat and high at
the core to quickly dissipate the heat entered.
 High heat resistance and stiffness.
 Manufacturability, availability and low cost.

Needs and chronological development of cutting tool materials

o With the progress of the industrial world it has been needed to continuously
develop and improve the cutting tool materials and geometry:
o To meet the growing demands for high productivity, quality and economy of
machining.
o To enable effective and efficient machining of the exotic materials those are
coming up with the rapid and vast progress of science and technology.
o For precision and ultra-precision machining.
o For micro and even nano machining demanded by the day and future.

It is already stated that the capability and overall performance of the cutting tools
depend upon:
1. The cutting tool materials.
2. The cutting tool geometry.
3. Proper selection and use of those tools.
4. The machining conditions and the environments.

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Out of which the tool material plays the most vital role. The relative contribution of the
cutting tool materials on productivity, for instance, can be roughly assessed from Fig.
1.41.

Fig. 1.41 Productivity raised by cutting tool materials

Fig 1.42 Chronological development of cutting tool materials

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Characteristics and applications of cutting tool materials

a) High Speed Steel (HSS)

Advent of HSS in around 1905 made a break through at that time in the history of cutting
tool materials though got later superseded by many other novel tool materials like
cemented carbides and ceramics which could machine much faster than the HSS tools.
The basic composition of HSS is 18% W, 4% Cr, 1% V, 0.7% C and rest Fe. Such HSS
tool could machine (turn) mild steel jobs at speed only up to 20 ~ 30 m/min (which was
quite substantial those days)

However, HSS is still used as cutting tool material where:

The tool geometry and mechanics of chip formation are complex, such as helical twist
drills, reamers, gear shaping cutters, hobs, form tools, broaches etc.
Brittle tools like carbides, ceramics etc. are not suitable under shock loading. The small
scale industries cannot afford costlier tools.
The old or low powered small machine tools cannot accept high speed and feed. The tool
is to be used number of times by resharpening.

With time the effectiveness and efficiency of HSS (tools) and their application range were
gradually enhanced by improving its properties and surface condition through:
a) Refinement of microstructure.
b) Addition of large amount of cobalt and Vanadium to increase hot hardness and
wear resistance respectively.
c) Manufacture by powder metallurgical process.
d) Surface coating with heat and wear resistive materials like TiC, TiN, etc. by
Chemical Vapour Deposition (CVD) or Physical Vapour Deposition (PVD).

The commonly used grades of HSS are given in Table 1.1.

Table 1.1 Compositions and types of popular high speed steels
Type C W Mo Cr V Co RC
T-1 0.70 18 4 1
T-4 0.75 18 4 1 5
T-6 0.80 20 4 2 12
M-2 0.80 6 5 4 2 64.7
M-4 1.30 6 5 4 4
M - 15 1.55 6 3 5 5 5
M - 42 1.08 1.5 9.5 4 1.1 8 62.4

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b) Stellite
This is a cast alloy of Co (40 to 50%), Cr (27 to 32%), W (14 to 19%) and C (2%).
Stellite is quite tough and more heat and wear resistive than the basic HSS (18 - 4 - 1)
But such stellite as cutting tool material became obsolete for its poor grindability and
especially after the arrival of cemented carbides.

c) Sintered Tungsten carbides

The advent of sintered carbides made another breakthrough in the history of cutting tool
materials.
i) Straight or single carbide
First the straight or single carbide tools or inserts were powder metallurgically
produced by mixing, compacting and sintering 90 to 95% WC powder with cobalt. The
hot, hard and wear resistant WC grains are held by the binder Co which provides the
necessary strength and toughness. Such tools are suitable for machining grey cast iron,
brass, bronze etc. which produce short discontinuous chips and at cutting velocities two
to three times of that possible for HSS tools.

ii) Composite carbides

The single carbide is not suitable for machining steels because of rapid growth
of wear, particularly crater wear, by diffusion of Co and carbon from the tool to the chip
under the high stress and temperature bulk (plastic) contact between the continuous chip
and the tool surfaces.
For machining steels successfully, another type called composite carbide have
been developed by adding (8 to 20%) a gamma phase to WC and Co mix. The gamma
phase is a mix of TiC, TiN, TaC, NiC etc. which are more diffusion resistant than WC
due to their more stability and less wettability by steel.

iii) Mixed carbides

Titanium carbide (TiC) is not only more stable but also much harder than WC.
So for machining ferritic steels causing intensive diffusion and adhesion wear a large
quantity (5 to 25%) of TiC is added with WC and Co to produce another grade called
mixed carbide. But increase in TiC content reduces the toughness of the tools.
Therefore, for finishing with light cut but high speed, the harder grades containing up to
25% TiC are used and for heavy roughing work at lower speeds lesser amount (5 to
10%) of TiC is suitable.

d) Plain ceramics
Inherently high compressive strength, chemical stability and hot hardness of the
ceramics led to powder metallurgical production of indexable ceramic tool inserts since
1950. Table 1.4 shows the advantages and limitations of alumina ceramics in contrast to
sintered carbide. Alumina (Al2O3) is preferred to silicon nitride (Si3N4) for higher

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hardness and chemical stability. Si3N4 is tougher but again more difficult to process. The
plain ceramic tools are brittle in nature and hence had limited applications.

Table 1 .4 Cutting tool properties of alumina ceramics

Advantages Shortcoming
Very high hardness Poor toughness
Very high hot hardnes s Poor tensile strength
Chemical stability Poor TRS
Antiwelding Low thermal conductivity
Less diffusivity Less density
High abrasion resistan ce
High melting point
Very low thermal conductivity*
Very low thermal expansion coefficient

Basically three types of ceramic t ool bits are available in the market:
o Plain alumina with traces of additives - these white or pink sintered i nserts are
cold pressed and are used mainly for machining cast iron and similar materials at
speeds 200 to 250 m/min.
o Alumina; with or withou t additives - hot pressed, black colour, h ard and strong -
used for machining steels and cast iron at VC = 150 to 250 m/min.
o Carbide ceramic (Al2O3 + 30% TiC) cold or hot pressed, black colour, quite
strong and enough tough - used for machinin g hard cast irons and plain and alloy
steels at 150 to 200 m/min.

The plain ceramic outperformed the existing tool materials in some application areas
like high speed machining of softer steels mainly for higher hot hardness as indicated in
Fig. 1.43.

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However, the use of those brittle plain ceramic tools, until their streng th and
toughness could be substantially improved since 197 0, gradually decreased for being
restricted to:
Uninterrupted machining of soft cast irons and steels only
Relatively high cutting velocity but only in a narrow range (200 ~ 300 m/min)
Requiring very rigid mach ine tools

e) Cubic Boron Nitride

Next to diamond, cubic boron nitride is the hardest material presently available.
Only in 1970 and onward CBN in the form of compacts has been introduced as cutting
tools. It is made by bonding a 0.5 - 1 mm layer of polycrystalline cubic boron nitride to
cobalt based carbide substrate at very high temperature and pressure. It remains inert and
retains high hardness and fracture toughness at elevated machining speeds. It shows
excellent performance in grinding any material of high hardness and strength. The
extreme hardness, toughness, chemical and thermal stability and wear resistance led to
the development of CBN cutting tool inserts for high material removal rate (MRR) as
well as precision machining imparting excellent surface integrity of the products. Such
unique tools effectively and beneficially used in machining wide range of work materials
covering high carbon and alloy steels, non-ferrous metals and alloys, exotic metals like
Ni-hard, Inconel, Nimonic etc and many non-metallic materials which are as such
difficult to machine by conventional tools. It is firmly stable at temperatures up to 14000
C. The operative speed range for CBN when machining grey cast iron is 300 ~ 400
m/min.

Speed ranges for other materials are as follows:

Hard cast iron (> 400 BHN): 80 - 300 m/min. Superalloys (> 35 RC): 80 - 140 m/min.
Hardened steels (> 45 RC): 100 - 300 m/min.

In addition to speed, the most important factor that affects performance of CBN
inserts is the preparation of cutting edge. It is best to use CBN tools with a honed or
chamfered edge preparation, especially for interrupted cuts. Like ceramics, CBN tools are
also available only in the form of indexable inserts. The only limitation of it is its high
cost.

(f) Diamond Tools

Single stone, natural or synthetic, diamond crystals are used as tips/edge of
cutting tools. Owing to the extreme hardness and sharp edges, natural single crystal is
used for many applications, particularly where high accuracy and precision are required.
Their important uses are:
Single point cutting tool tips and small drills for high speed machining of non-ferrous
metals, ceramics, plastics, composites, etc. and effective machining of difficult-to-

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machine materials.
o Drill bits for mining, oil exploration, etc.
o Tool for cutting and drilling in glasses, stones, ceramics, FRPs etc. Wire drawing
and extrusion dies.
o Super abrasive wheels for critical grinding.
Limited supply, increasing demand, high cost and easy cleavage of natural diamond
demanded a more reliable source of diamond. It led to the invention and manufacture of
artificial diamond grits by ultra-high temperature and pressure synthesis process, which
enables large scale manufacture of diamond with some control over size, shape and
friability of the diamond grits as desired for various applications.

CUTTING FLUIDS
The basic purposes of cutting fluid application are:
o Cooling of the job and the tool to reduce the detrimental effects of cutting
temperature on the job and the tool.
o Lubrication at the chip - tool interface and the tool flanks to reduce cutting
forces and friction and thus the amount of heat generation.
o Cleaning the machining zone by washing away the chip - particles and
debris which, if present, spoils the finished surface and accelerates damage
of the cutting edges.
o Protection of the nascent finished surface - a thin layer of the cutting fluid
sticks to the machined surface and thus prevents its harmful contamination
by the gases like SO2, O2, H2S, and NXOY present in the atmosphere.

However, the main aim of application of cutting fluid is to improve machinability through
reduction of cutting forces and temperature, improvement by surface integrity and
enhancement of tool life.

Essential properties of cutting fluids

To enable the cutting fluid fulfill its functional requirements without harming the
Machine - Fixture - Tool - Work (M-F-T-W) system and the operators, the cutting fluid
should possess the following properties:

For cooling:
High specific heat, thermal conductivity and film coefficient
for heat transfer. Spreading and wetting ability.
For lubrication:
High lubricity without gumming and foaming. Wetting and spreading.
High film boiling point.
Friction reduction at extreme pressure (EP) and temperature.

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Chemical stability, non-corrosive to the materials of the M-F-T-W system. Less volatile
and high flash point.
High resistance to bacterial growth.
Odourless and also preferably colourless. Non toxic in both liquid and gaseous stage.
Easily available and low cost.

Principles of cutting fluid action

The chip-tool contact zone is usually comprised of two parts; plastic or bulk contact zone
and elastic contact zone as indicated in Fig. 1.55.

Fig. 1.55 Cutting fluid action in machining Fig. 1.56 Apportionment of plastic and elastic
contact zone with increase in cutting velocity

The cutting fluid cannot penetrate or reach the plastic contact zone but enters in
the elastic contact zone by capillary effect. With the increase in cutting velocity, the
fraction of plastic contact zone gradually increases and covers almost the entire chip-tool
contact zone as indicated in Fig. 1.56. Therefore, at high speed machining, the cutting
fluid becomes unable to lubricate and cools the tool and the job only by bulk external
cooling.
The chemicals like chloride, phosphate or sulphide present in the cutting fluid
chemically reacts with the work material at the chip under surface under high pressure
and temperature and forms a thin layer of the reaction product. The low shear strength of
that reaction layer helps in reducing friction.
To form such solid lubricating layer under high pressure and temperature some
extreme pressure additive (EPA) is deliberately added in reasonable amount in the
mineral oil or soluble oil.
For extreme pressure, chloride, phosphate or sulphide type EPA is used
depending upon the working temperature, i.e. moderate (2000 C ~ 3500 C), high (3500 C
~ 5000 C) and very high (5000 C ~ 8000 C) respectively.

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Types of cutting fluids and their application

Generally, cutting fluids are employed in liquid form but occasionally also employed in
gaseous form. Only for lubricating purpose, often solid lubricants are also employed in
machining and grinding.

The cutting fluids, which are commonly used, are:

Air blast or compressed air only
Machining of some materials like grey cast iron become inconvenient or difficult
if any cutting fluid is employed in liquid form. In such case only air blast is
recommended for cooling and cleaning.

Solid or semi-solid lubricant

Paste, waxes, soaps, graphite, Moly-disulphide (MoS2) may also often be used,
either applied directly to the workpiece or as an impregnant in the tool to reduce friction
and thus cutting forces, temperature and tool wear.

Water
For its good wetting and spreading properties and very high specific heat, water
is considered as the best coolant and hence employed where cooling is most urgent.

Soluble oil
Water acts as the best coolant but does not lubricate. Besides, use of only water
may impair the machine-fixture-tool-work system by rusting. So oil containing some
emulsifying agent and additive like EPA, together called cutting compound, is mixed
with water in a suitable ratio ( 1 ~ 2 in 20 ~ 50).
This milk like white emulsion, called soluble oil, is very common and widely
used in machining and grinding.

Cutting oils
Cutting oils are generally compounds of mineral oil to which are added desired
type and amount of vegetable, animal or marine oils for improving spreading, wetting
and lubricating properties. As and when required some EP additive is also mixed to
reduce friction, adhesion and BUE formation in heavy cuts.

Chemical fluids
These are occasionally used fluids which are water based where some organic
and or inorganic materials are dissolved in water to enable desired cutting fluid action.
There are two types of such cutting fluid:
Chemically inactive type - high cooling, anti-rusting and wetting but
less lubricating. Active (surface) type - moderate cooling and
lubricating.

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Cryogenic cutting fluid

Extremely cold (cryogenic) fluids (often in the form of gases) like liquid CO 2 or
N2 are used in some special cases for effective cooling without creating much
environmental pollution and health hazards.

Selection of cutting fluid

The benefits of application of cutting fluid largely depend upon proper selection of the
type of the cutting fluid depending upon the work material, tool material and the
machining condition. As for example, for high speed machining of not-difficult-to-
machine materials greater cooling type fluids are preferred and for low speed machining
of both conventional and difficult-to-machine materials greater lubricating type fluid is
preferred.

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LATHE

CENTRE LATHE
Lathe is the oldest machine tool invented, starting with the Egyptian tree lathes. It is the
father of all machine tools. Its main function is to remove material from a work piece to
produce the required shape and size. This is accomplished by holding the work piece
securely and rigidly on the machine and then turning it against the cutting tool which will
remove material from the work piece in the form of chips. It is used to machine
cylindrical parts. Generally single point cutting tool is used. In the year 1797 Henry
Maudslay, an Englishman, designed the first screw cutting lathe which is the forerunner
of the present day high speed, heavy duty production lathe.

CONSTRUCTIONAL FEATURES
Major parts of a centre lathe
Amongst the various types of lathes, centre lathes are the most versatile and commonly
used.
Fig. 2.1 shows the basic configuration of a center lathe. The major parts are:

Fig. 2.1 Schematic view of a center lathe

Headstock It holds the spindle and through that power and rotation are transmitted to the
job at different speeds. Various work holding attachments such as three jaw chucks,
collets, and centres can be held in the spindle. The spindle is driven by an electric motor

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through a system of belt drives and gear trains. Spindle rotational speed is controlled by
varying the geometry of the drive train.

Tailstock The tailstock can be used to support the end of the work piece with a center, to
support longer blanks or to hold tools for drilling, reaming, threading, or cutting tapers. It
can be adjusted in position along the ways to accommodate different length work pieces.
The tailstock barrel can be fed along the axis of rotation with the tailstock hand wheel.

Bed Headstock is fixed and tailstock is clamped on it. Tailstock has a provision to slide
and facilitate operations at different locations. The bed is fixed on columns and the
carriage travels on it.

Carriage It is supported on the lathe bed-ways and can move in a direction parallel to the
lathe axis. The carriage is used for giving various movements to the tool by hand and by
power. It carries saddle, cross-slide, compound rest, tool post and apron.

Saddle It carries the cross slide, compound rest and tool post. It is an H-shaped casting
fitted over the bed. It moves alone to guide ways.

Cross-slide It carries the compound rest and tool post. It is mounted on the top of the
saddle. It can be moved by hand or may be given power feed through apron mechanism.

Compound rest It is mounted on the cross slide. It carries a circular base called swivel
plate which is graduated in degrees. It is used during taper turning to set the tool for
angular cuts. The upper part known as compound slide can be moved by means of a hand
wheel.
Tool post It is fitted over the compound rest. The tool is clamped in it.
Apron Lower part of the carriage is termed as the apron. It is attached to
the saddle and hangs in front of the bed. It contains gears, clutches and levers for moving
the carriage by a hand wheel or power feed.

Feed mechanism The movement of the tool relative to the work piece is termed as
“feed”. The lathe tool can be given three types of feed, namely, longitudinal, cross and
angular.
When the tool moves parallel to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called
longitudinal feed. This is achieved by moving the carriage.
When the tool moves perpendicular to the axis of the lathe, the movement is
called cross feed. This is achieved by moving the cross slide.
When the tool moves at an angle to the axis of the lathe, the movement is called
angular feed. This is achieved by moving the compound slide, after swiveling it at an
angle to the lathe axis.
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Feed rod The feed rod is a long shaft, used to move the carriage or cross-slide for
turning, facing, boring and all other operations except thread cutting. Power is
transmitted from the lathe spindle to the apron gears through the feed rod via a large
number of gears.

Lead screw The lead screw is long threaded shaft used as a master screw and brought
into operation only when threads have to cut. In all other times the lead screw is
disengaged from the gear box and remains stationary. The rotation of the lead screw is
used to traverse the tool along the work to produce screw. The half nut makes the
carriage to engage or disengage the lead screw.

Kinematic system and working principle of a centre lathe

Fig. 2.2 schematically shows the kinematic system of a 12 speed centre lathe.

Fig. 2.2 Kinematic system of a 12 speed centre lathe

For machining in machine tools the job and the cutting tool need to be moved
relative to each other. The tool-work motions are:
Formative motions: - cutting motion, feed motion.
Auxiliary motions: - indexing motion, relieving motion.

In lathes: Cutting motion is attained by rotating the job and feed motion is attained by
linear travel of the tool either axially for longitudinal feed or radially for
cross feed.

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It is noted, in general, from Fig. 2.2. The job gets rotation (and power) from the motor
through the belt-pulley, clutch and then the speed gear box which splits the input speed
into a number (here 12) of speeds by operating the cluster gears.
The cutting tool derives its automatic feed motion(s) from the rotation of the
spindle via the gear quadrant, feed gear box and then the apron mechanism where the
rotation of the feed rod is transmitted:
Either to the pinion which being rolled along the rack provides the
longitudinal feed. Or to the screw of the cross slide for cross or transverse feed.
While cutting screw threads the half nuts are engaged with the rotating lead screw
to positively cause travel of the carriage and hence the tool parallel to the lathe bed i.e.,
job axis.
The feed-rate for both turning and threading is varied as needed by operating the
Norton gear and the Meander drive systems existing in the feed gear box (FGB). The
range of feeds can be augmented by changing the gear ratio in the gear quadrant
connecting the FGB with the spindle.
As and when required, the tailstock is shifted along the lathe bed by operating the
clamping bolt and the tailstock quill is moved forward or backward or is kept locked in
the desired location.
The versatility or working range of the centre lathes is augmented by using
several special attachments.

HEADSTOCK DRIVING MECHANISMS

There are two types of headstock driving mechanisms as follows:
1. Back geared headstock.
2. All geared headstock.

1. Back geared headstock

Back gear arrangement is used for reducing the spindle speed, which is necessary
for thread cutting and knurling. The back gear arrangement is shown in Fig.2.3.

Fig. 2.3 Back gear arrangement

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There is one stepped cone pulley in the lathe spindle. This pulley can freely rotate
on the spindle. A pinion gear P1 is connected to small end of the cone pulley. P1 will
rotate when cone pulley rotates. Bull gear G1 is keyed to lathe spindle such that the
spindle will rotate when Gear G1 rotates. Speed changes can be obtained by changing the
flat belt on the steps. A bull gear G1 may be locked or unlocked with this cone pulley by
a lock pin.
There are two back gears B1 and B2 on a back shaft. It is operated by means of
hand lever L; back gears B1 and B2 can be engaged or disengaged with G1 and P1. For
getting direct speed, back gear is not engaged. The step cone pulley is locked with the
main spindle by using the lock pin. The flat belt is changed for different steps. Thus three
or four ranges of speed can be obtained directly.

2. All geared headstock

All geared headstock is commonly used in modern lathes because of the following
advantages:
It gives wider range of spindle speeds.
It is more efficient and compact than cone pulley mechanism.
Power available at the tool is almost constant for all spindle speeds. Belt shifting is
eliminated.
The vibration of the spindle is reduced. More power can be transmitted.
The all geared headstock is shown in Fig 2.4.

Fig. 2.4 All geared headstock

The power from the constant speed motor is delivered to the spindle through a
belt drive. Speed changing is made by levers. The different spindle speeds are obtained
by shifting the levers into different positions to obtain different gear combinations. This
mechanism has a splined spindle, intermediate shaft and a splined shaft. The splined shaft
receives power from motor through a belt drive.

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This shaft has 3 gears namely G1, G2 and G3. These gears can be shifted with the
help of lever along the shaft. Gears G4, G5 and G6 are mounted on intermediate shaft and
cannot be moved axially. Gears G7, G8 and G9 are mounted on splined headstock spindle
and can be moved axially be levers. Gears G1, G2 and G3 can be meshed with the gears
G4, G5 and G6 individually. Similarly, gears G7, G8, G9 can be meshed with gear G4, G5
and G6 individually. Thus, it provides nine different speeds.

FEED MECHANISMS
The feed mechanism is used to transmit power from the spindle to the carriage.
Therefore, it converts rotary motion of the spindle into linear motion of the carriage. The
feed can be given either by hand or automatically. For automatic feeding, the following
feed mechanisms are used:
a. Tumbler gear reversing mechanism.
b. Quick-change gearbox.
c. Tumbler gear quick-change gearbox.
d. Apron mechanism.
e. Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism.

1. Tumbler gear reversing mechanism

Tumbler gear mechanism is used to change the direction of lead screw and feed
rod. By engaging tumbler gear, the carriage can be moved along the lathe axis in either
direction during thread cutting or automatic machining. Fig. 2.5 shows the schematic
arrangement of tumbler gear reversing mechanism.

Fig. 2.5 Tumbler gear reversing mechanism

The tumbler gear unit has two pinions (A and B) of same size and is mounted on a
bracket. The bracket is pivoted at a point and can be moved up and down by a lever L.
The bracket may be placed in three positions i.e., upward, downward and neutral. Gear
‘C’ is a spindle gear attached to the lathe spindle. Gear ‘D’ is the stud gear. The stud gear
i s connected to the lead screw gear through a set of intermediate gears.

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When the lever is shifted upward position, the gear ‘A’ is engaged with spindle
gear ‘C’ and the power is transmitted through C-A-D-E-F. During this position, lead
screw will rotate in the same direction as spindle rotates (i.e. both anticlockwise). Now,
the carriage moves towards the headstock. When the lever is shifted downward, the gear
‘B’ is engaged with spindle gear ‘C’ and the power is transmitted through C-B-A-D-E-F.
Hence, the lead screw will rotate in the opposite direction of the spindle. Now, the
carriage moves towards tailstock.
When the bracket is in neutral position, the engagement of tumbler gears is
disconnected with the spindle gear. Hence, there is no power transmission to lead screw.

2. Quick-change gear box

Quick-change gearbox is used to get various power feeds in the lathe. Fig. 2.6
shows the schematic arrangement of quick-change gear box.

Fig. 2.6 quick-change gear box

Power from the lathe spindle is transmitted to feed shaft through tumbler gear,
change gear train and quick-change gearbox. Shaft A (Cone gear shaft) contains 9
different sizes of gears keyed with it. Shaft B (Sliding gear shaft) has a gear and it
receives 9 different speeds from shaft A by the use of sliding gear. Shaft B is connected
to shaft C (Driven shaft) through 4 cone years. Therefore, Shaft C can get 9 X 4 = 36
different speeds. The shaft C is connected to lead screw by a clutch and feed rod by a
gear train. Lead screw is used for thread cutting and feed rod is used for automatic feeds.

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3. Tumbler gear quick-change gear box

The different speed of the driving shaft is obtained by a tumbler gear and cone gear
arrangement.
Fig. 2.7 shows the schematic arrangement of tumbler gear quick-change gear box.

Fig. 2.7 Tumbler gear quick-change gearbox

It is simpler than quick-change gearbox. A tumbler gear and a sliding gear are
attached to the bracket as shown in Fig. 2.7. Driving shaft has a cone gear made up of
different sizes of gears. The sliding gear is keyed to the driven shaft which is connected
by the lead screw or feed rod. The sliding gear can be made to slide and engaged at any
desired position. By sliding the sliding gear to various positions and engaging the tumbler
gear, various speeds can be obtained.

4. Apron mechanism
Fig. 2.8 shows the schematic arrangement of apron mechanism.

Fig. 2.8 Apron mechanism

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Lead screw and feed rod is getting power from spindle gear through tumbler
gears. Power is transmitted from feed rod to the worm wheel through gears A, B, C, D
and worm.
A splined shaft is attached with worm wheel. The splined shaft is always engaged
with the gears F and G which are keyed to the feed check shaft. A knob ‘E’ is fitted with
feed check shaft. Feed chec k knob ‘E’ can be placed in three positions such as n eutral,
push-in and pull-out.
When the feed check knob ‘E’ is in neutral positio n, power is not transmitted
either to cross feed screw or to the carriage since gears F and G have no connection with
H and K. Therefore, hand feed is given as follows. When the longitudinal feed hand
wheel rotates, pinion I will also be rotated through I and H. pinion I will move on rack for
taking longitudinal feed. For getting cross feed, cross slide screw will be rotated by using
cross slide hand wheel.
When the feed check knob ‘E’ is push-in, rotating gear G will be engaged to H.
then the power will be transmitted to pinion I. pinion I will rotate on rack. So, automatic
longitudinal feed takes place. When the feed check knob ‘E’ is pulled-out, the rot ating
gear F will be engaged to K. Hence, the power will be transmitted to cross feed screws
through L. This leads to automatic cross feed.
For thread cutting, half nut is engaged by half nut lever after putting knob ‘E’
neutral position. Half nut is firmly attached with the carriage. As the lead screw rotates,
the carriage will automatically move along the axis of the lathe. Both longitudinal and
cross feed can be reversed by operating the tumbler gear mechanism.

5.Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism

The tumbler gear mechanism being a non-rigid construction cannot be used in a modern
heavy duty lathe. The clutch operated bevel gear feed reversing mechanism incorporated
below the head stock or in apron provides sufficient rigidity in construction. Fig. 2.9
shows the schematic arrangement of bevel gear feed reversing mechanism.

Fig. 2.9 Bevel gear feed reversing mechanism

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The motion is communicated from the spindle gear 2 to the gear on the stud
shaft through the intermediate gear. The bevel gear 8 is attached to the gear on the stud
shaft and both of them can freely rotate on shaft 7. The bevel gear 8 meshes with bevel
gear 12 and 12 mesh with 10. 12, 10 and 8 are having equal number of teeth. The bevel
gear 10 can also rotate freely on shaft 7.
A clutch 11 is keyed to the shaft 7 by a feather key and may be shifted to left or
right, by the lever 9 to be engaged with the gear 8 or 10 or it remains in the neutral
position. When the clutch engages with bevel gear 8, gear 3 which is keyed to the shaft 7
and the lead screw, rotates in the same direction as the gear 2. The direction of rotation is
reversed when the clutch 11 engages with gear 10.

WORK HOLDING DEVICES

Chucks - 3 jaw self centering chuck or universal chuck and 4 jaw independent
chuck
Fig. 2.10 (a and b) visualizes 3-jaw and 4-jaw chucks which are mounted at the spindle
nose and firmly hold the job in centre lathes. Premachined round bars are quickly
and coaxially mounted by simultaneously moving the three jaws radially by rotating
the scroll (disc with radial threads) by a key as can be seen in the diagram 2.10 (a)

The four jaw chucks, available in varying sizes, are generally used for essentially
more strongly holding non-circular bars like square, rectangular, hexagonal and even
odder sectional jobs in addition to cylindrical bars, both with and without premachining
at the gripping portion. The jaws are moved radially independently by rotating the
corresponding screws which push the rack provided on the back side of each jaw as can
be seen in the diagram 2.10 (b).

Fig. 2.10 (a) 3-jaw self centering chuck or universal chuck

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Fig. 2.10 (b) 4-jaw independent chuck

Magnetic chuck
This is used for holding thin jobs. When the pressure of jaws is to be prevented,
this chuck is used. The chuck gets magnetic power from an electro-magnet. Only
magnetic materials can be held on this chuck. Fig. 2.11 shows the magnetic chuck.

Fig. 2.11 Magnetic chuck Fig. 2.12 Face plate

Face plate
A face plate as shown in Fig. 2.12 consists of a circular disc bored out and
threaded to fit the nose of lathe spindle. This has radial, plain and T slots for holding
work by bolts and clamps. Face plates are used for holding work pieces which cannot be
conveniently held between centres or by chucks.

Angle plate
Angle plate is a cast iron plate that has two faces at right angles to each other.
Holes and slots are provided on both faces as shown in Fig. 2.13 (a). An angle plate is
used along with the face plate when holding eccentric or unsymmetrical jobs that are
difficult to grip directly on the face plate as shown in Fig. 2.13 (b).

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Fig. 2.13 (a) Angle plate Fig. 2.13 (b) Angle plate used along
with face plate

Catch plate or driving plate

It is circular plate of steel or cast iron having a projected boss at its rear. The boss
has a threaded hole and it can be screwed to the nose of the headstock spindle. The
driving is fitted to the plate. It is used to drive the work piece through a carrier or dog
when the work piece is held between the centres.
Fig. 2.14 shows the catch plate.

Fig. 2.14 Catch plate Fig. 2.15 Types of carriers

Carriers or Dogs
It is used to transfer motion from the driving plate to the work piece held between
centres. The work piece is inserted into the hole of the dog and firmly secured in position
by means of set screw.
The different types of carriers are shown in Fig 2. 15.

Mandrels
A mandrel is a device used for holding and rotating a hollow work piece that has
been previously drilled or bored. The work revolves with the mandrel which is mounted
between two centres. The mandrel should be true with accurate centre holes for
machining outer surface of the work piece concentric with its bore. To avoid distortion
and wear it is made of high carbon steel.
The ends of a mandrel are slightly smaller in diameter and flattened to provide
effective gripping surface of the lathe dog set screw. The mandrel is rotated by the lathe
dog and the catch plate and it drives the work by friction. Different types of mandrels are

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employed according to specific requirements. Fig. 2.16 shows the different types of
mandrels in common use.

In-between centres (by catch plate and carriers)

Fig. 2.17 schematically shows how long slender rods are held in between the live
centre fitted into the headstock spindle and the dead centre fitted in the quill of the
tailstock. The torque and rotation are transmitted from the spindle to the job with the help
of a lathe dog or catcher which is again driven by a driving plate fitted at the spindle
nose.
Depending upon the situation or requirement, different types of centres are used at
the tailstock end as indicated in Fig. 2.18. A revolving centre is preferably used when
desired to avoid sliding friction between the job and the centre which also rotates along
with the job.

Fig. 2.16 Types of mandrels

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Fig. 2.17 Work held between centres

Fig. 2.18 Types of centres Ordinary centre: It is used for general works.

Insert type centre: In this the steel “insert” can be replaced instead of replacing the whole
centre. Half centre: It is similar to ordinary centre and used for facing bar ends without
removal of the centre. Pipe centre: It is used for supporting pipes and hollow end jobs.
Ball centre: It has ball shaped end to minimize the wear and strain. It is suitable for
taper turning. Tipped centre: Hard alloy tip is brazed into steel shank. The hard tip
has high wear resistant.
Revolving centre: The ball and roller bearings are fitted into the housing to reduce
friction and to take up end thrust. This is used in tail stock for supporting heavy work
revolving at a high speed.

In-between headstock and tailstock with additional support of rest

To prevent deflection of the long slender jobs like feed rod, lead screw etc. due to
sagging and cutting forces during machining, some additional supports are provided as
shown in Fig. 2.20. Such additional support may be a steady rest which remains fixed at a
suitable location or a follower rest which moves along with the cutting tool during long
straight turning without any steps in the job’s diameter. Fig. 2.21 (a and b) shows the

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steady rest and follower rest.

Fig. 2.20 Slender job held with extra support by steady rest

Fig. 2.21 (a) Steady rest and (b) Follower rest

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TOOL HOLDING DEVICES

Mounting of tools in centre lathe
Different types of tools, used in centre lathes, are usually mounted in the following ways:
HSS tools (shank type) in tool post.
HSS form tools and threading
tools in tool post. Carbide and
ceramic inserts in tool holders.
Drills and reamers, if
required, in tailstock.
Boring tools in tool post.
Fig. 2.22 (a and b) is typically showing mounting of shank type HSS single point tools in
rotatable (only one tool) and indexable (up to four tools) tool posts. Fig. 2.22 (c) typically
shows how a circular form or thread chasing HSS tool is fitted in the tool holder which is
mounted in the tool post.

Fig. 2.22 Mounting of (a and b) shank type tools in tool post and (c) form tool in tool post

VARIOUS OPERATIONS ON LATHE

The machining operations generally carried out in centre lathe are:
Rough and finish turning - The operation of producing cylindrical surface.
Facing - Machining the end of the work piece to produce flat surface.
Centering - The operation of producing conical holes on both ends of the work piece.
Chamfering - The operation of beveling or turning a slope at the end of the work piece.
Shouldering - The operation of turning the shoulders of the stepped diameter work piece.
Grooving - The operation of reducing the diameter of the work piece over a narrow
surface. It is also called as recessing, undercutting or necking.
Axial drilling and reaming by holding the cutting tool in the tailstock barrel.
Taper turning by - Offsetting the tailstock.
Swiveling the compound slide.
Using form tool with taper over short length.
Using taper turning attachment if available.
Combining longitudinal feed and cross feed, if feasible.

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Boring (internal turning); straight and taper – The operation of enlarging the diameter
of a hole.
Forming; external and internal.
Cutting helical threads; external and internal.
Parting off - The operation of cutting the work piece into two halves.
Knurling - The operation of producing a diamond shaped pattern or impression on the
surface.
In addition to the aforesaid regular machining operations, some more operations are also
occasionally done, if desired, in centre lathes by mounting suitable attachments available
in the market. Some of those common operations carried out in centre lathe are shown in
Fig. 2.30.

Fig. 2.30 Some common machining operations carried out in a centre lathe

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TAPER TURING METHODS

A taper may be defined as a uniform change in the diameter of a work piece measured
along its length. Taper may be expressed in two ways:
Ratio of difference in diameter to
the length. In degrees of half the
included angle.
Fig. 2.31 shows the details of a taper.

D - Large diameter of the taper.

d - Small diameter of the taper. l - Length of tapered part.
α - Half angle of taper. Fig. 2.31 Details of a taper Generally, taper is specified by
the term conicity. Conicity is defined as the ratio of the difference in

diameters of the taper to its length. Conicity, K =

Taper turning is the operation of producing conical surface on the cylindrical work piece
on lathe.

1. Taper turning by a form tool

Fig. 2.32 illustrates the method of turning taper by a form tool. A broad nose tool
having straight
cutting edge is set on to the work at half taper angle, and is fed straight into the work to
generate a tapered surface. In this method the tool angle should be properly checked
before use. This method is limited to turn short length of taper only. This is due to the
reason that the metal is removed by the entire cutting edge will require excessive cutting
pressure, which may distort the work due to vibration and spoil the work surface.

Fig. 2.32 Taper turning by a form tool Fig. 2.33 Taper turning by swiveling the
compound rest

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2. Taper turning by swiveling the compound rest

Fig. 2.33 illustrates the method of turning taper by swiveling the compound rest.
This method is used to produce short and steep taper. In this method, work is held in a
chuck and is rotated about the lathe axis. The compound rest is swiveled to the required
angle and clamped in position.

The angle is determined by using the formula, tanα =

Then the tool is fed by the compound rest hand wheel. This method is used for
producing both internal and external taper. This method is limited to turn a short taper
owing to the limited movement of the compound rest. The compound rest may be
swiveled at 450 on either side of the lathe axis enabling it to turn a steep taper. The
movement of the tool in this method being purely controlled by hand, this gives a low
production capacity and poorer surface finish.

3. Taper turning by offsetting the tailstock

Fig. 2.34 illustrates the method of turning taper by offsetting the tailstock. The principle
of turning taper by this method is to shift the axis of rotation of the work piece, at an
angle to the lathe axis, which is equal to half angle of the taper, and feeding the tool
parallel to the lathe axis.

This is done when the body of the tailstock is made to slide on its base towards or
away from the operator by a set over screw. The amount of set over being limited, this
method is suitable for turning small taper on long jobs. The main disadvantage of this
method is that live and dead centres are not equally stressed and the wear is not uniform.
Moreover, the lathe carrier being set at an angle, the angular velocity of the work is not
constant.

Fig. 2.34 Taper turning by offsetting the tailstock

The amount of set over required to machine a particular taper may be calculated as:

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From the right angle triangle ABC in Fig.2.34; BC =AB sinα, where BC = set over

Set over = L sinα

If the half angle of taper (α), is very small, for all practical purposes, sinα = tanα
Set over = L tanα = L x in mm.

If the taper is turned on the entire length of the work piece, then l= L, and the equation
(2.4) becomes:
Set over = L x

being termed as the conicity or amount of taper, the formula (2.4) may be written in the
following

Set over =

4. Taper turning by using taper turning attachment

Fig. 2.35 schematically shows a taper turning attachment. It consists of a bracket or
frame which is attached to the rear end of the lathe bed and supports a guide bar pivoted
at the centre. The guide bar having graduations in degrees may be swiveled on either side
of the zero graduation and is set at the desired angle with the lathe axis. When this
attachment is used the cross slide is delinked from the saddle by removing the binder
screw. The rear end of the cross slide is then tightened with the guide block by means of
a bolt. When the longitudinal feed is engaged, the tool mounted on the cross slide will
follow the angular path, as the guide block will slide on the guide bar set at an angle to
the lathe axis.
The required depth of cut is given by the compound slide which is placed at right
angles to the lathe axis. The guide bar must be set at half taper angle and the taper on the
work must be converted in degrees. The maximum angle through which the guide bar
may be swiveled is 100 to 120 on either side of the centre line. The angle of swiveling the
guide bar can be determined from the equation 2.2.

The advantages of using a taper turning attachment are:

The alignment of live and dead centres being not disturbed; both straight and taper
turning may be performed on a work piece in one setting without much loss of time.
Once the taper is set, any length of work piece may be turned taper within its limit.
Very steep taper on a long work piece may be turned, which cannot be done by any other
method.
Accurate taper on a large number of work pieces may be turned. Internal tapers can be
turned with ease.

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Fig. 2.35 Taper turning attachment Fig. 2.36 Taper turning by

combining feed

5. Taper turning by combining longitudinal feed and cross feed

Fig. 2.36 illustrates the method of turning taper by combining longitudinal feed and cross
feed.
This is a more specialized method of turning taper. In certain lathes both longitudinal and
cross feeds may be engaged simultaneously causing the tool to follow a diagonal path
which is the resultant of the magnitude of the two feeds. The direction of the resultant
may be changed by varying the rate of feeds by changing gears provided inside the apron.

THREAD CUTTING METHODS

Thread cutting is one of the most important operations performed in a centre lathe. It is
possible to cut both external and internal threads with the help of threading tools. There
are a large number of thread forms that can be machined in a centre lathe such as
Whitworth, ACME, ISO metric, etc. The principle of thread cutting is to produce a
helical groove on a cylindrical or conical surface by feeding the tool longitudinally when
the job is revolved between centres or by a chuck (for external threads) and by a chuck
(for internal threads). The longitudinal feed should be equal to the pitch of the thread to
be cut per revolution of the workpiece.
The lead screw of the lathe has a definite pitch. The saddle receives its traversing
motion through the lead screw. Therefore a definite ratio between the longitudinal feed
and rotation of the headstock spindle should be found out so that the relative speeds of
rotation of the work and the lead screw will result in the cutting of a thread of the desired
pitch. This is effect by change gears arranged between the spindle and the lead screw or
by the change gear mechanism or feed gear box used in a modern lathe. Thread cutting
on a centre lathe is a slow process, but it is the only process of producing square threads,
as other methods develop interference on the helix. Fig.2.37 illustrates the principle of
thread cutting.

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Fig. 2.37 Principles of thread cutting

Thread cutting procedure

1. The work piece should be rotated in anticlockwise direction when viewed from
the tail stock end.
2. The excess material is removed from the workpiece to make its diameter equal to
the major diameter of the screw thread to be generated.
3. Change gears of correct size are fitted to the end of the bed between the spindle
and the lead screw.
4. The thread cutting tool is selected such that the shape or form of the cutting edge
is of the same
form as the thread to be generated. In a metric thread, the included angle of the
cutting edge should be ground exactly 600.
5. A thread tool gauge or a centre gauge is used against the turned surface of the
workpiece to check the form of the cutting edge so that each face may be equally
inclined to the centre line of the workpiece. This is illustrated in Fig. 2.38.

Fig. 2.38 Checking of the cutting edge Fig. 2.39 Mounting of the
cutting tool

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6. Then the tool is mounted in the tool post such that the top of the tool nose is
horizontal and is in line with the axis of rotation of the workpiece. This is
illustrated in Fig. 2.39.
7. The speed of the spindle is reduced by ½ to ¼ of the speed required for turning
according to the type of material being machined.
8. The tool is fed inward until it first scratches the surface of the workpiece. The
graduated dial on the cross slide is noted or set to zero. Then the split nut or half
nut is engaged and the tool moves along helical path over the desired length.
9. At the end of tool travel, it is quickly withdrawn by means of cross slide. The
split nut is disengaged and the carriage is returned to the starting position, for the
next cut. These successive cuts are continued until the thread reaches its desired
depth (checked on the dial of cross slide).
10. For cutting left hand threads the carriage is moved from left to right (i.e. towards
tail stock) and for cutting right hand threads it is moved from right to left (i.e.
towards headstock).

CAPSTAN AND TURRET LATHES

Capstan and turret lathes are production lathes used to manufacture any number of
identical pieces in the minimum time. These lathes are development of centre lathes. The
capstan lathe was first developed in the year 1860 by Pratt and Whitney of USA.
In contrast to centre lathes, capstan and turret lathes:
 Are relatively costlier.
 Are requires less skilled operator.
 Possess an axially movable indexable turret (mostly hexagonal) in place of
tailstock.
 Holds large number of cutting tools; up to four in indexable tool post on the front
slide, one in the rear slide and up to six in the turret (if hexagonal) as indicated in
the schematic diagrams.
 Are more productive for quick engagement and overlapped functioning of the
tools in addition to faster mounting and feeding of the job and rapid speed change.
 Enable repetitive production of same job requiring less involvement, effort and
attention of the operator for pre-setting of work-speed and feed rate and length of
travel of the cutting tools.
 Are suitable and economically viable for batch production or small
lot production. Capable of taking multiple cuts and combined cuts
at the same time.

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Major parts of capstan and turret lathes

Capstan and turret lathes are very similar in construction, working, application and
specification.
Fig. 2.60 schematically shows the basic configuration of a capstan lathe and Fig. 2.61
shows that of a turret lathe. The major parts are:

Fig. 2.60 Basic configuration of a Capstan lathe

Fig. 2.61 Basic configuration of a Turret lathe

Bed The bed is a long box like casting provided with accurate guide ways upon
which the carriage and turret saddle are mounted. The bed is designed to ensure strength,
rigidity and permanency of alignment under heavy duty services.

Headstock The head stock is a large casting located at the left hand end of the bed.
The headstock of capstan and turret lathes may be of the following types:
 Step cone pulley driven headstock.
 Direct electric motor driven headstock. All geared headstock.
 Pre-optive or pre-selective headstock.

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Step cone pulley driven headstock: This is the simplest type of headstock and is fitted
with small capstan lathes where the lathe is engaged in machining small and almost
constant diameter of workpieces. Only three or four steps of pulley can cater to the needs
of the machine. The machine requires special countershaft unlike that of an engine lathe,
where starting, stopping and reversing of the machine spindle can be effected by simply
pressing a foot pedal.

Electric motor driven headstock: In this type of headstock the spindle of the machine
and the armature shaft of the motor are one and the same. Any speed variation or reversal
is effected by simply controlling the motor. Three of four speeds are available and the
machine is suitable for smaller diameter of workpieces rotated at high speeds.

All geared headstock: On the larger lathes, the headstocks are geared and different
mechanisms are employed for speed changing by actuating levers. The speed changing
may be performed without stopping the machine.

Pre-optive or pre-selective headstock: It is an all geared headstock with provisions for

rapid stopping, starting and speed changing for different operations by simply pushing a
button or pulling a lever. The required speed for next operation is selected beforehand
and the speed changing lever is placed at the selected position. After the first operation is
complete, a button or a lever is simply actuated and the spindle starts rotating at the
selected speed required for the second operation without stopping the machine. This
novel mechanism is effect by the friction clutches.

Cross slide and saddle In small capstan lathes, hand operated cross slide and saddle are
used. They are clamped on the lathe bed at the required position. The larger capstan
lathes and heavy duty turret lathes are equipped with usually two designs of carriage.
Conventional type carriage.
Side hung type carriage.

Conventional type carriage This type of carriage bridges the gap between the front and
rear bed ways and is equipped with four station type tool post at the front, and one rear
tool post at the back of the cross slide. This is simple in construction.

Side hung type carriage The side-hung type carriage is generally fitted with heavy duty
turret lathes where the saddle rides on the top and bottom guide ways on the front of the
lathe bed. The design facilitates swinging of larger diameter of workpieces without being
interfered by the cross-slide. The saddle and the cross-slide may be fed longitudinally or
crosswise by hand or power. The longitudinal movement of each tool may be regulated
by using stop bars or shafts set against the stop fitted on the bed and carriage. The tools

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are mounted on the tool post and correct heights are adjusted by using rocking or packing
pieces.

Ram saddle In a capstan lathe, the ram saddle bridges the gap between two bed ways,
and the top face is accurately machined to provide bearing surface for the ram or
auxiliary slide. The saddle may be adjusted on lathe bed ways and clamped at the desired
position. The hexagonal turret is mounted on the ram or auxiliary slide.

Turret saddle In a turret lathe, the hexagonal turret is directly mounted on the top of the
turret saddle and any movement of the turret is effected by the movement of the saddle.
The movement of the turret may be effected by hand or power.

Turret is a hexagonal-shaped tool holder intended for holding six or more tools. Each
face of the turret is accurately machined. Through the centre of each face accurately
bored holes are provided for accommodating shanks of different tool holders. The centre
line of each hole coincides with the axis of the lathe when aligned with the headstock
spindle. In addition to these holes, there are four tapped holes on each face of the turret
for securing different tool holding attachments. The photographic view of a hexagonal
turret is shown in Fig. 2.62.

Fig. 2.62 Photographic view of a hexagonal turret

Working principle of capstan and turret lathes

The work pieces are held in collets or chucks. In turret lathes, large work pieces are held
by means of jaw chucks. These chucks may be hydraulically or pneumatically operated.
In a capstan lathe, bar stock is held in collet chucks. A bar feeding mechanism is used for
automatic feeding of bar stock. At least eleven tools can be set at a time in turret and
capstan lathes. Six tools are held on the turret faces, four tools in front square tool post
and one parting off tool at the rear tool post. While machining, the turret head moves
forward towards the job. After each operation, the turret head goes back. The turret head
is indexed automatically and the next tool comes into machining position. The indexing is

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done by an indexing mechanism. The longitudinal movement of the turret corresponding

to each of the turret position can be controlled independently.
By holding different tools in the turret faces, the operations like drilling, boring,
reaming, counter boring, turning and threading can be done on the component. Four
tools held on the front tool post are used for different operations like necking,
chamfering, form turning and knurling. The parting off tool in the rear tool post is used
for cutting off the workpiece. The cross wise movements of the rear and front tool posts
are controlled by pre-stops.

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SHAPER
INTRODUCTION
The main function of the shaper is to produce flat surfaces in different planes. In general
the shaper can produce any surface composed of straight line elements. Modern shapers
can generate contoured surface. The shaper was first developed in the year 1836 by
James Nasmyth, an Englishman. Because of the poor productivity and process capability
the shapers are not widely used nowadays for production. The shaper is a low cost
machine tool and is used for initial rough machining of the blanks.

1. According to the type of mechanism used

Crank shaper
This is the most common type of shaper in which a single point cutting tool is
given a reciprocating motion equal to the length of the stroke desired while the work is
clamped in position on an adjustable table. In construction, the crank shaper employs a
crank mechanism to change circular motion of “bull gear” to reciprocating motion of th e
ram.

Geared type shaper

The reciprocating motion of the ram is some type of shaper is effect by means of a
rack and pinion. The rack teeth which are cut directly below the ram mesh with a spur
gear. The pinion meshing with the rack is driven by a gear train. The speed and the
direction in which the ram will traverse depend on the number of gears in the gear train.
This type of shaper is not very widely used.
Hydraulic shaper
In a hydraulic shaper, reciprocating movement of the ram is obtained by hydraulic
power. Oil under high pressure is pumped into the operating cylinder fitted with a piston.
The end of the piston rod is connected to the ram. The high pressure oil first acts on one
side of the piston and then on the other causing the piston to reciprocate and the motion is
transmitted to the ram. The speed of the ram is changed by varying the amount of liquid
delivered to the piston by the pump.

2. According to the position and travel of ram

Horizontal shaper
In a horizontal shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis.
Horizontal shapers are mainly used to produce flat surfaces.

Vertical shaper
In a vertical shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis. The
work table of a vertical shaper can be given cross, longitudinal, and rotary movement.

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Vertical shapers are very convenient for machining internal surfaces, keyways, slots or
grooves. Large internal and external gears may also be machined by indexing
arrangement of the rotary table. The vertical shaper which is specially designed for
machining internal keyway is called as Keyseater.

Travelling head shaper

The ram carrying the tool while it reciprocates moves crosswise to give the
required feed. Heavy jobs which are very difficult to hold on the table of a standard
shaper and fed past the tool are held static on the basement of the machine while the ram
reciprocates and supplies the feeding movements.

3. According to the type of design of the table

Standard or plain shaper
A shaper is termed as standard or plain when the table has only two movements,
vertical and horizontal, to give the feed. The table may or may not be supported at the
outer end.

Universal shaper
In this type, in addition to the two movements provided on the table of a standard
shaper, the table can be swiveled about an axis parallel to the ram ways, and the upper
portion of the table can be tilted about a second horizontal axis perpendicular to the first
axis. As the work mounted on the table can be adjusted in different planes, the machine is
most suitable for different types of work and is given the name “Universal”. A universal
shaper is mostly used in tool room work.

4. According to the type of cutting stroke

Push type shaper
This is the most general type of shaper used in common practice. The metal is
removed when the ram moves away from the column, i.e. pushes the work.

Draw type shaper

In this type, the metal is removed when the ram moves towards the column of the
machine, i.e. draws the work towards the machine. The tool is set in a reversed direction
to that of a standard shaper. In this shaper the cutting pressure acts towards the column
which relieves the cross rail and other bearings from excessive loading and allows to take
deep cuts. Vibration in these machines is practically eliminated. The ram is generally
supported by an overhead arm which ensures rigidity and eliminates deflection of the
tool.

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Major parts of a standard shaper

Fig. 3.1 shows the basic configuration of a standard shaper. The major parts a re:

Fig. 3.1 Schematic view of a standard shaper

Base It provides the necessary support to the machine tool. It is rigidly bolted to the shop
floor.
All parts are mounted on the base. It is made up of cast iron to resist vibration and take up
high compressive load. It takes the entire load of the machine and the forces set up by the
cutting tool during machining.

Column It is a box like ca sting mounted upon the base. It encloses the drive mechanisms
for the ram and the table. Two accurately machined guide ways are provided on the t op
of the column on which the ram reciprocates. The front vertical face of the column which
serves as the guide ways for the cross rail is also accurately machined.

Cross rail It is mounted on t he front vertical guide ways of the column. It has two
parallel guide ways on its top in the vertical plane that is perpendicular to the ram axis. T
he table may be raised or lowered to accommodate different sizes of jobs by rotating an
elevating screw which causes the cross rail to slide up and down on the vertical face of
the column. A horizontal cross feed screw which is fitted within the cross rail and parallel
to the top guide ways of the cross rail actuates the table to move in a crosswise direction.

Saddle It is mounted on the cross rail which holds the table firmly on its top. Crosswise
movement of the saddle by rotating the cross feed screw by hand or power causes the
table to move sideways.

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Table It is bolted to the saddle receives crosswise and vertical movements from the
saddle and cross rail. It is a box like casting having T-slots both on the top and sides for
clamping the work. In a universal shaper the table may b e swiveled on a horizontal axis
and the upper part of the table may be tilted up or down. In a heavier type shaper, the
front face of the table is clamped with a table support to make it more rigid.

Ram It holds and imparts cutting motion to the tool through reciprocation. It is connected
to the reciprocating mechanism contained within the column. It is semi cylindrical in
form and heavily ribbed inside to make it more rigid. It ho uses a screwed shaft for
altering the position of the ram with respect to the work and holds the tool head at the
extreme forward end.

Tool head It holds the tool rigidly, provides the feed movement of the tool and allows
the tool to have an automatic relief during its return stroke. The vertical slide of the to ol
head has a swivel base which is held on a circular seat on the ram. So the vertical slide may
be set at any desired angle. By rotating the down feed screw handle, the vertical slide
carrying the tool executes the feed or depth of cut. The amount of feed or depth of cut may
be adjusted by a micrometer dial o n the top of the down feed screw. Apron consisting of
clapper box, clapper block and tool post is clamped upon the vertical slide by a screw. By
releasing the clamping screw, the apron may be swiveled upon the apron swivel pin with
respect to the vertical slide. This arrangement is necessary to provide relief to the tool while
making vertical or angular cuts. The two vertical walls on the apron called clapper box
houses the clapper block which is connected to it by mean s of a hinge pin. The tool post is
mounted upon the clapper block. On the forward cutting stroke the clapper block fits
securely to the clapper box to make a rigid tool support. On the return stroke a slight
frictional drag of the tool on the work lifts the block out of the clapper box a sufficient
amount preventing the tool cutting edge from dragging and consequent wear. The work
surface is also prevented from an y damage due to dragging. Fig.3.2 illustrates the tool head
of a shaper.

Fig. 3.2 Tool head of a shaper

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Working principle of a standard shaper

Fig. 3.3 (a) Kinematic system of a shaper Fig. 3.3 (b) Principle of
producing flat surface

Fig. 3.3 (a) schematically shows the kinematic system of a standard shaper.
Fig. 3.3 (b) shows the basic principle of producing flat surface in a standard
shaper.
The bull gear receives its rotation from the motor through the pinion. The rotation
of the crank causes oscillation of the link and thereby reciprocation of the ram and hence
the tool in straight path. The cutting motion provided by the reciprocating tool and the
intermittent feed motion provided by the slow transverse motion of the work at different
rate by using the ratchet - pawl system along with the saddle result in producing a flat
surface by gradual removal of excess material layer by layer in the form of chips.

The vertical in feed is give n either by descending the tool holder or raising the
cross rail or both. Straight grooves of various curved sections are also made in shaper by
using specific form tools. The single point straight or form tool is clamped in the vertical
slide of the tool head, which is mounted at the front face of the reciprocating ra m. The
work piece is clamped directly on the table or clamped in a vice which is mounted on the
table. T he changes in length of stroke and position of the stroke required for different
machining are accompli shed respectively by:
Adjusting the crank length by rotating the bevel gear mounted coaxially with the
bull gear. Shifting the ram block nut by rotating the lead screw.

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Ram drive mechanism of a shaper

In a shaper, rotary movement of the drive is converted into reciprocating movement of
the ram by the mechanism contained within the column of the machine. In a standard
shaper metal is removed in the forward cutting stroke and during the return stroke no
metal is removed. To reduce the total machining time it is necessary to reduce the time
taken by the return stroke. Thus the shaper mechanism should be so designed that it ca n
allow the ram to move at a comparatively slower speed during the forward cutting stroke
and during the return stoke it can allow the ram to mo ve at a faster rate to reduce the idle
return time. This mechanism is known as quick return mechanism. The reciprocating
movement and the quick return of the ram are usually obtained by using any one of the
following mechanisms.

1. Crank and slotted link quick return mechanism

Fig. 3.4 Crank and slotted link quick return mechanism

The crank and slotted link quick return mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.4.
This mechanism has a bull gear mounted within the column. The motion or power
is transmitted to the bull gear through a pinion which receives its motion from an
individual motor. A radial slide is bolted to the centre of the bull gear. This radial slide
carries a bull gear sliding block into which the crank pin is fitted. Rotation of the bull
gear will cause the crank pin to revolve at a constant speed about the centre of the bull
gear. Rocker arm sliding block is mounted upon the crank pin and is free to rotate about
the pin. The rocker arm sliding block is fitted within the slotted link and can slide along
the slot in the slotted link (rocker arm). The bottom end of the rocker arm is pivoted to
the frame of the column. The upper end is forked and connected to the ram block b y a
pin which can slide in the forked end.

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As the bull gear rotates causing the crank pin to rotate, the rocker arm sliding
block fastened to the crank pin will rotate on the crank pin circle, and at the same time
will move up and down in the slot provided in the slotted link. This up and down
movement will give rocking motion (oscillatory motion) to the slotted link (rocker arm),
which communicated to the ram. Thus the rotary motion of the bull gear is converted into
reciprocating movement of the ram.

2. Whitworth quick return mechanism

Fig . 3.7 Whitworth quick return mechanism

The Whitworth quick return mechanism is shown in Fig. 3.7. The bull gear is
mounted on a large fixed pin A upon which it is free to rotate. The motion or power is
transmitted to the bull gear through a pinion which receives its motion from an individual
motor. The crank plate is pivoted eccentrically upon the fixed pin at 5. The crank pin is
fitted on the face of the bull gear. The crank plate sliding block is mounted upon the
crank pin and it fits into the slot provided on the crank plate. The crank plate sliding
block can slide inside the slot. At the other end of the crank plate, a connecting rod
connects the crank plate and the ram by two pin 9 and 7. When bull gear will rotate at a
constant speed the crank pin with the sliding block will rotate on a crank circle of radius
A2 and the sliding block will cause the crank plate to rotate about the point 5 with a
variable angular velocity. Pin 9 fitted o n the other end of the crank plate will rotate in a
circle and the rotary motion of the pin 9 will be converted into reciprocating movement
of the ram similar to the crank and connecting rod mechanism. The axis of reciprocating
of the ram passes through the pin 5 and is normal to the line A5.
When the crank pin 2 is at the point C the ram will be at the extreme backward
position of its stroke. When the crank pin 2 is at the point B the ram will be at the
extreme forward position of its stroke. Therefore the forward cutting stroke takes place
when the crank pin rotates through the angle CEB (α) and the return stroke takes place
when the crank pin rotates through the angle BDC (β). It is clear that the angle α made by
the forward or cutting stroke is greater than the angle β described by the return stroke.

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The angular velocity of the crank pin being constant, therefore the return stroke is
completed within a shorter time f or which it is known as quick return motion. The length
of stroke of the ram may be changed by shifting the position of pin 9 closer or away from
t he pivot 5. The position of stroke may be altered by shifting the position of pin 7 on the
ram.

3. Hydraulic drive quick re turn mechanism

A typical hydraulic drive for horizontal shaper is shown in Fig. 3.8 . A constant speed
motor drives a hydraulic pump which delivers oil at a constant pressure to the line. A
regulating valve admits oil under pressure to each end on the piston alternately, at the
same time allowing oil from the opposite end of the piston to return to the reservoir.

Fig. 3.8 Hydraulic drive for horizontal shaper

The piston is pushed by the oil and, being connected to the ram by the piston rod,
pushes the ram carrying the tool. The admission of oil to each end of the piston,
alternately, is accomplished with the help of trip dogs and pilot valve. As the ram moves
and completes its stroke (forward or return) a trip dog will trip the pilot valve which
operates the regulating valve. The regulating valve will admit the oil to the other side of
the piston and the motion of the ram will get reversed. It is clear that the length of the
ram stroke will depend upon the position of the trip dogs. The length of the ram stroke
can be changed by unclamping and moving the tri p dogs to the desired positions.
The above system is a constant pressure system. The velocity of the ram travel
will be directly proportional to the oil pressure and the piston area to which it is applied.
The return stroke is quicker, since the piston area on which the oil pressure acts is greater
as compared to the other end for which it gets reduced because of the piston rod. Another
oil line is connected to a smaller feed cylinder to change the hydraulic power to
mechanical power for feeding the work past the tool.

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Feed mechanism of a shaper

The mechanism used for providing feed is known as feed mechanism. In a shaper both down
feed and cross feed movements may be obtained. Unlike a lathe, these feed movements
are provided intermittently and during the end of return stroke only. Vertical or bevel
surfaces are produced by rotating the down feed screw of t he tool head by hand. This
movement of the tool is called down feed.
The horizontal movement of table is called cross feed. Cross feed movement is
used to machine a flat horizontal surface. The cross feed of the table is effect by rotating
the cross feed screw. This screw is engaged with a nut fitted in the table. Rotation of the
cross feed screw causes the table mounted upon the saddle to move sideway s on the
cross rail. Cross feed is given either by hand or power. If this screw is rotated manually
by handle, then it is called hand feed. If this screw is rotated by power, then it is called
automatic feed. The power is given through an automatic feed mechanism. The down
feed and cross feed mechanism of a shaper is schematically shown in Fig. 3.10.

Fig. 3.10 Down feed and cross fe ed mechanism Fig. 3.11 Automatic feed
mechanism

Automatic feed mechanism of a shaper

Fig. 3.11 illustrates the automatic feed mechanism of a shaper. In this mechanism, a
ratchet wheel is keyed to the end of the cross feed screw. A rocker arm is pivoted at the
centre of the ratchet wheel. The rocker arm houses a spring loaded pawl at its top. The
spring pushes against the pawl to keep it in contact with the ratchet wheel. The pawl is
straight on one side and bevel on the other side. So the pawl moves the ratchet wheel in
one direction only. The rocker arm is connected to the driving disc or feed disc by a
connecting rod. T he driving disc has a T-slot on its face along its diameter. The driving
pin or crank pin fits into this slot. One end of the connecting rod is attached to this crank
pin.

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We know that the table feed is intermittent and is accomplished on the return
stroke when the tool has cleared the work piece. The driving disc is driven from the bull
gear through a spur gear drive and rotates at the same speed as the bull gear. As the
driving disc rotates, the connecting rod oscillates the rocker arm about the cross feed
screw. During the forward stroke of the r am, the rocker arm moves in the clockwise
direction. As bevel side of the pawl fits on the right side, the pawl slips over the teeth of
the ratchet wheel. It gives no movement to the table. During the return stroke of the ram,
the rocker arm moves in the counter clockwise direction. The left side of the pawl being
straight; so that it moves the ratchet wheel by engaging with it and hence rotates the cross
feed screw which moves the table.
A knob at the top of the p awl enables the operator to rotate it 1800 to reverse the
direction of feed or 900 to stop it altogether. The rate of feed is controlled by adjusting
the eccentricity or offset of the crank pin in the driving disc.

SHAPER TOOLS
The cutting tool used in a shaper is a single point cutting tool having rake, clearance and
other tool angles similar to a lathe tool . It differs from a lathe tool in tool angles. Shaper
tools are much more rigid and heavier to withstand shock experienced by the cutting tool
at the commencement of each cutting stroke. In a shaper tool the amount of side
clearance angle is only 20 to 30 and the front clearance angle is 40 for cast iron and steel.
Small clearance angle adds strength to the cutting edge.

As the tool removes metal mostly from its side cutting edge, side rake of 10 0 is
usually provided with little or no rake. A shaper can also use a right hand or left hand
tool. High speed steel is the most common material for a shaper tool but shock resistant
cemented carbide tipped tool is also used where harder material is to be machined . As in
a lathe, tool holders are also used to hold the tool bits.

Classification of shaper t ools

Commonly used shaper tools are shown in Fig. 3.22

Round nose tool: This is use d for roughing operations. The tool has no top rake. It has
side rake angle, in between 10 to 200. Rou nd tool is of two types - plain and bent types .
The plain straight type is used for rough machining of ho rizontal surface. Round nose
tool can be le ft handed or right handed. Another type of round nose tool which is
cranked or bent is used for machi ning vertical surfaces. It is known as round nose cutting
down tool.

Square nose tool: This tool is used for finishing operations. The cutting edge may have
different widths. It is also used to machine the bottom surfaces of key ways and groove s.

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Fig. 3.22 Commonly used shaper tools

Side recessing tool: This is a sp ecial tool used for machining T-slots and nar row vertical
surfaces. This tool can be both left handed and right handed.

Parting off tool: This is use d for parting off operation. It is also used for cutting narrow
slots. It has no side rake angle. It has front an d side clearance angle of 30.

Goose necked tool: This is als o known as spring tool. The special shape o f tool reduces
chatter and prevents digging of tool into the work piece. This tool is generally used for
finishing cast iron.

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SHAPER OPERATIONS
A shaper is a versatile ma chine tool primarily designed to generate a flat surface by a
single point
cutting tool. But it may also be u sed to perform many other operations. The different
operations which a shaper can perform are as follows :

Machining flat surfaces in different planes

Fig. 3.23 shows how flat surfaces are produced in a shaper by singl e point cutting
tools in (a) Horizontal (b) Vertical and (c) In clined planes.

(a) Horizontal surface (b) Vertic al surface

(c) In clined surfaces (dovetail slides and guides)

Fig. 3.23 Machining of flat surfaces in a shaper

Making features like slots, steps etc. which are also bounded by flat surfaces
Fig. 3.24 visualizes the methods of machining (a) Slot (b) Pocket (c) T-slot and
(d) V-block in a shaper by single point cutting tools.

Fig. 3.24 Machinin g (a) Slot (b) Pocket (c) T-slot and (d) V-bloc k in a shaper

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Forming grooves bounded by sh ort width curved surfaces

Fig. 3.25 typically shows how oil groove and contour form are made in a shaper
by using single point form tools.

Fig. 3. 25 Making grooves in a shaper by form tools

Cutting external and internal ke yways

Fig. 3.26 visualizes the methods of machining (a) External keyway an d (b)
Internal keyway in a shaper by using single point tools.

Fig. 3.26 Machining of (a) External keyway and (b) Internal keyw ay in a
shaper

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PLANER
INTRODUCTION
Like shapers, planers are also basically used for producing flat surfaces. But planers are
very large and massive compared to the shapers. Planers are generally used for machining
large work pieces which cannot be held in a shaper. The planers are capable of taking
heavier cuts. The planer was first developed in the year 1817 by Richard Roberts, an
Englishman.

Types of planer
The different types of planer which are most commonly used are:
 Standard or double housing planer.
 Open side planer.
 Pit planer.
 Edge or plate planer.
 Divided or latching table planer.

1. Standard or double housing planer

It is most widely used in work shops. It has a long heavy base on which a table
reciprocates on accurate guide ways. It has one draw back. Because of the two housings,
one on each side of the bed, it limits the width of the work that can be machined. Fig.
3.30 shows a double housing planer.

2. Open side planer

It has a housing only on one side of the base and the cross rail is suspended from the
housing as a cantilever. This feature of the machine allows large and wide jobs to be
clamped on the table. As the single housing has to take up the entire load, it is made
extra-massive to resist the forces. Only three tool heads are mounted on this machine.
The constructional and driving features of the machine are same as that of a double
housing planer. Fig. 3.31 shows an open side planer.

3. Pit planer
It is massive in construction. It differs from an ordinary planer in that the table is
stationary and the column carrying the cross rail reciprocates on massive horizontal rails
mounted on both sides of the table. This type of planer is suitable for machining a very
large work which cannot be accommodated on a standard planer and the design saves
much of floor space. The length of the bed required in a pit type planer is little over the
length of the table. Fig. 3.32 shows a pit planer.

4. Edge or plate planer

The design of a plate or edge planer is totally unlike that of an ordinary planer. It is
specially intended for squaring and beveling the edges of steel plates used for different
pressure vessels and ship-building works. Fig. 3.33 shows an edge planer.

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5. Divided table planer

This type of planer has two tables on the bed which may be reciprocated
separately or together.
This type of design saves much of idle time while setting the work. To have a continuous
production one of the tables is used for setting up the work and the other is used for
machining. This planer is mainly used for machining identical work pieces. The two
sections of the table may be coupled together for machining long work. Fig. 3.34 shows a
divided table planer.

Fig. 3.30 Schematic view of a double housing planer Fig. 3.31 Schematic view of an
open side planer

Fig. 3. 34 Schematic view of a divided table planer

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Major parts of a double housing planer

Fig. 3.30 shows the basic configuration of a double housing planer. The major parts are:
Bed It is box like casting having cross ribs. It is a very large in size and heavy in weight
and it supports the column and all other moving parts of the machine. The bed is made
slightly longer than twice the length of the table so t hat the full length of the table may
be moved on it. It is provided with precision ways over the entire length on its top surface
and the table slides on it. The hollow space within the box like structure of the bed houses
the driving mechanism for the table.

Table It supports the work and reciprocates along the ways of the bed. The top face of the
planer table is accurately finished in order to locate the work correctly. T-slots are
provided on the entire length of the table so that the work and work holding devices may
be bolted upon it. Accurate holes are drilled on the top surface of the planer table at
regular intervals for supporting the poppet and stop pins. At each end of the table a
hollow space is left which acts as a trough for collecting chips. Long works can also rest
upon the troughs. A groove is cut on the side of the table for clamping planer reversing
dogs at different positions.

Housing It is also called columns or uprights are rigid box like vertical structures placed
on each side of the bed and are fastened t o the sides of the bed. They are heavily ribbed
to trace up severe forces due to cutting. The front face of each housing is accurately
machined to provide precision ways on which the cross rail may be mad e to slide up and
down for accommodating different heights of work. Two side-tool heads also slide up on
it. The housing encloses the cross rail elevating screw, vertical and cross feed screws for
tool heads , counterbalancing weight for the cross rail, etc. these screws may be operated
either by hand or power.

Cross rail It is a rigid box like casting connecting the two housings. This construction
ensures rigidity of the machine. The cross rail may be raised or lowered on the face of
the housing and can be clamped at any desired position by manual, hydraulic or
electrical clamping devices. The two elevating screws in two housing are rotated by an
equal amount to keep the cross rail horizontal in any position.
The front face of the cross rail is accurately machined to provide a guide surface
for the tool head saddle. Usually two tool heads are mounted upon the cross rail which
are call ed railheads. The cross rail has screws for vertical and cross feed of the tool
heads and a screw for elevating the rail. These screws may be rotated either by hand or
by power.

Tool head It is similar to that of a shaper both in construction and operation.

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Working principle of a double housing planer

Fig. 3.35 Principle of producing flat surface Fig. 3.36 Meshing of bull gear with
table rack
Fig. 3.35 shows the basic principle of producing flat surface in a planer. The
work piece is mounted on the reciprocating table and the tools are mounted on the tool
heads. The tool heads holding the cutting tools are moved horizontally along the cross
rail by screw-nut system and the cross rail is again moved up and down along the
vertical rails by another screw-nut pair. The simple kinematical system of the planer
enables transmission and transformation of rotation of the main motor into reciprocating
motion of the large work table and the slow transverse fee d motions (horizontal and
vertical) of the tool heads. The reciprocation of the table, which imparts cutting motion
to the work piece, is attained by rack and pinion (bull gear) mechanism. Fig. 3.36
illustrates meshing of the bull gear with the table rack. The rack is fitted with the table at
its bottom surface and the pinion is fitted on the output shaft of the speed gear box . The
feed to the tool is given at the end of the return stroke.

TABLE DRIVE MECHANISM OF A PLANER

Open and cross belt drive quick return mechanism

In this mechanism the movement of the table is effect by an open belt and a cross belt
drive. It is an old method of quick return drive used in planers of smaller size where the t
able width is less than 900 mm. Fig. 3.37 schematically show s the open and cross belt drive
quick return mechanism of a planer.

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Fig. 3.37 O pen and cross belt drive quick return mechanism
It has a counter shaft mounted upon the housings receives its motion from an
overhead line shaft. Two wide faced pulleys of different diameters are keyed to the
counter shaft. The main shaft is placed under the bed. One end of the shaft carries a set of
two larger diameter pulley s and two smaller diameter pulleys. The outer pulleys are rot
ate freely on the main shaft and they are called loose pulleys. The inner pulleys are keyed
tightly to the main shaft and they are called fast pulleys. The open belt connects the larger
diameter pulley on the countershaft with the smaller diameter pulley o n the main shaft.
The cross belt connects the smaller diameter pulley on the counter shaft with the larger
diameter pulley on the main shaft. The speed of the main shaft is reduced through a speed
reduction gear box. From this gear box, the motion is transmitted t o the bull gear shaft.
The bull gear meshes with a rack cut at the underside of the table and the table will
receive a linear movement.

Referring to the Fig. 3.37, the open belt connects the smaller loose pulley, so no
motion is transmitted by the open belt to t he main shaft. But the cross belt connects the
larger fast pulley, so the motion is transmitted by the cross belt to the main shaft. The
forward stroke of the table takes place. During the cutting stroke, greater power and less
speed is required. The cross belt giving a greater arc of contact on the pulleys is used to
drive the table during the cutting stroke. The greater arc of contact of the belt gives
greater power and the speed is reduced as the belt connects smaller diameter pulley on
the counter shaft and larger diameter pulley on the main shaft. At the end of the forward
stroke a trip dog pushes the belt shifter through a l ever arrangement. The belt shifter
shifts both the belts to the right side.

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The open belt is shifted t o the smaller fast pulley and the cross belt is shifted to
the larger loose pulley. Now the motion is transmitted to the main shaft through the op en
belt and no motion is transmitted to the main shaft by the cross belt. The direction of
rotation of the main shaft is reversed. The return stroke of the table takes place. The
speed during return stroke is increased as the open belt connects the larger diameter
pulley on the counter shaft with the smaller diameter pulley on the main shaft. Thus a
quick return motion is obtained by the mechanism. At the end of the return stroke, the
belts are shifted to the left side by another trip dog. So the cycle is repeated. The length
and position of the stroke may be adjusted by shifting the position of trip dogs.

Reversible motor drive quick return mechanism

All modern planers are e quipped with variable speed electric motor which drives the bull
gear through a gear train. The most efficient method of an electrical drive is based on
Ward Leonard system.
Fig. 3.38 schematically shows the reversible motor drive quick return mechan ism of a
planer.

Fig. 3.38 Reversible motor drive quick return mechanism

This system was introduced by Harry Ward Leonard in 1891. This system consists of
an AC motor which is coupled with a D C generator, a DC motor and a reversing sw itch.
When the AC motor runs, the DC motor will receive power from the DC generator. At that
time, t he table moves in forward direction. At the end of this stroke, a trip dog actuates an
electrical reversing s witch. Due to this action, it reverses the direction of current in DC
generator with increased current strength. Now, the motor rotates in reverse direction with
higher speed. So, the table moves in the reverse direction to take the return stroke with
comparatively high speed. Thus the quick return motion is obtained by the mechanism.

The distinct advantages of electrical drive over a belt drive are:

Cutting speed, stroke length and stroke position can be adjusted without stopping the
machine. Large number of cutting speeds and return speeds are available.
Quick and accurate control. Push button controls the start, stop and fin e movement of
the table. Return speed can be great ly increased reducing idle time.

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Hydraulic drive quick re turn mechanism

The hydraulic drive is quite similar to that used for a horizontal shaper. More than one
hydraulic cylinder may be used to give a wide range of speeds. The main drawback of the
hydraulic drive on long planers is irregular movement of the table due to the
compressibility of the hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic drive has been described in Article
3.2.4.3, Page 107 and illustrated in Fig. 3.8.

FEED MECHANISM OF A PLA NER

In a planer the feed is provided intermittently and at the end of the return stroke
similar to a shaper. The feed of a planer, both down feed and cross feed, is given by the
tool head. The down feed is applied while machining a vertical or angular surface by
rotating the down feed screw of the tool head.
The cross feed is given while machining horizontal surface by rotating the cross
feed screw passes through a nut in the tool head. Both the down feed and cross feed may
be provided either by hand or power by rotating two feed screws, contained within the
cross rail.
If the two feed screws are rotated manually by a handle, then it called hand feed.
If the two feed screws are rotated by power, then it is called automatic feed.

3.3.5.1 Automatic feed mechanism of a planer

Fig. 3.39 illustrates the front and top view of the automatic feed mechanism of a
planer. A trip dog is fitted to the planer table. At the end of the return stroke, the trip dog
strikes a lever. A pawl attached to this lever rotates a ratchet. So a splined shaft attached
to the ratchet rotates. A bevel gear cast integral with a spur gear is fitted freely on the
down feed screw. This bevel gear meshes with other bevel gear slides on the splined
shaft.

Fig. 3.39 Front an d top view of the automatic feed mechanism of a planer

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The spur gear meshes with another spur gear which is keyed to the cross feed
screw. So the power from the splined shaft is transmitted to the cross feed screw. Then
the rotation is transmitted to the tool head through a nut. The tool head moves
horizontally. It is known a cross feed. At the end of the forward stroke, another trip dog
strikes the lever. The lever comes to its original position. During this time, the pawl slips
over the ratchet. The ratchet wheel does not rotate.
For giving automatic down feed, the spur gear keyed to the cross feed screw is
disengaged. The bevel gear freely fitted to the down feed rod is keyed to the down feed
rod. At the end of return stroke, the power is transmitted to the down feed rod through the
lever, ratchet and bevel gears. Then the rotation is transmitted to the tool head though the
bevel gears. The tool moves downward.

Work holding devices used in a planer

A planer table is used to hold very large, heavy and intricate work pieces, and in many
cases, large number of identical work pieces together. Setting up of the work pieces on a
planer table requires sufficient amount of skill. The work piece may be held on a planer
table by the following methods:
By standard clamping.
By special fixtures.

Standard clamping devices

The standard clamping de vices are used for holding most of the work pieces on a
planer table.
The standard clamping devices are as follows:
Heavy duty vises.
T-bolts, step blocks and clamps.
Stop pins and toe dogs.
Angle plates.
Planer jacks.
Planer centres (similar to shaper centre).
V-blocks.

Most of them have been described in Article 3.2.6 and Page 110.
A planer vise is much m ore robust in construction than a shaper vise as it is used
for holding comparatively larger size of work. The vise may be plain or swiveled base
type.
Large work pieces are clamped directly on the table by T- bolts and clamps.
Different types of clamps are used for different types of work. Fig. 3.40 illustrates the
method of clamping a large work piece on a planer table. Step blocks are used to lend
support to the other end of the clamp.
Planer jacks are used for supporting the overhanging part of a work to prevent it
from bending.

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Fig. 3.40 Clamping a large work piece on a planer tab le

Fig. 3.41 Use of planer jack

Special fixtures
These are used for holding a large number of identical pieces of work on a planer
table. Fixtures are specially designed for holding a particular type of work. By using a
fixture the setting time may be reduced considerably compared to the individual setting
of work by conventional clamping devices.
Fig. 3.42 illustrates the use of a fi xture.

Fig. 3.42 Use of a fixture

PLANER TOOLS
The cutting tools used on planers are all single point cutting tools. They are in general
similar in shapes and tool angles to those used on a lathe and shaper. As a planer tool h as
to take up heavy cut and coarse feed during a long cutting stroke, the tools are made
heavier and larger in cross-section. Planer tools may be solid, forged type or bit type. Bits
are made of HSS, stellite or cemented carbide and they may be brazed, welded or

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clamped on a mild steel shank. Cemented carbide tipped tool is used for production work.
Fig. 3.43 shows the typical tools used in a planer.

Fig. 3.43 Typical tools used in a planer

PLANER OPERATIONS
All the operations done in a shaper can be done in a planer. But large size, stroke
length and higher rigidity enable the plane rs do more heavy duty work on large jobs and
their long surfaces. Simultaneous use of number of tools further enhances the production
capacity of planers. The common types of work machined in a plan er are: Beds and
tables of various machine tools, large structures, long parallel T-slots, V and inverted V
type guide ways, frames of different engines and identical pieces of work which may be
small in size but large in number.
Machining the major surf aces and guide ways of beds and tables of various
machines like lathes, drilling machines, milling machines, grinding machines, broaching
machine s and planers itself are the common applications of a planer as illustrated in Fig.
3.44. Where the several parallel surfaces of typical machine bed and guide way are
machined by a number of single point HSS or carbide tools.

Fig. 3.44 Machining of a machine bed in a planer

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Besides the general machining work, some other critical work like helical
grooving on large rods, long and wide 2-D curved surfaces, repetitive oil grooves etc. can
also be made, if needed, by using suitable special attachments.

Specifications of a planer
The planer is specified by the following parameters:
 Radial distance between the top of the table and the bottom most position of the
cross rail. Maximum length of the table and maximum stroke length of table.
 Power of the motor.
 Range of speeds and feeds available.
 Type of feed and type of drives required.
 Horizontal distance between two vertical housings. Net weight of machine and Floor
area required.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN SHAPER AND PLANER

Sl.
N
o. SHAPER PLANER
The tool reciprocates and the work is The work reciprocates and the tool is
1
stationary. stationary.
Feed is given to the work during the idle Feed is given to the tool during the idle
2
stroke of the ram. stroke of the work table.
It gives more accuracy as the tool is rigidly Less accuracy due to the over hanging of the
3
supported during cutting. ram.
4 Suitable for machining small work pieces. Suitable for machining large work pieces.
5 Only light cuts can be applied. Heavy cuts can be applied.
Only one tool can be used at a time. So Vertical and side tool heads can be used at a
6
machining takes longer time. time. So machining is quicker.
7 Setting the work piece is easy. Setting the work piece is difficult.
Only one work piece can be machined at a Several work pieces can be machined at a
8
time. time.
9 Tools are smaller in size. They are larger in size.
10 Shapers are lighter and smaller. Planers are heavier and larger.

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MILLING MACHINE
INTRODUCTION
This is a machine tool th at removes material as the work is fed aga inst a rotating
cutter. The cutter rotates at a high speed and because of the multiple cutting edges it rem
oves material at a very fast rate. The machine can also hold two or more number of
cutters at a time. That is why a milling machine finds wide application in machine shop.
The first milling machine came into existence in about 1770 and was of French origin.
The millin g cutter was developed by Jacques de Vauca nson in the year 1782. The first
successful plain milling machine was designed by Eli Whitney in the year 1818. The
universal milling machine was invented in the year 1861 by Joseph R Brown.

3.6 TYPES OF MILLING MACHINE

Milling machines are broadly classified as follows:
Column and knee type
Hand milling machine.
Plain or horizontal milling machine.
Universal milling machine.
Vertical milling machine.

Manufacturing or bed type

Simplex milling machine.
Duplex milling machine.
Triplex milling machine.

Planer type
Special type
Drum milling machine.
Rotary table milling machine.
Profile milling machine.
Pantograph milling machine.
Planetary milling machine.

Column and knee type milling machines

This is the most commonly used machine in view of its flexibility and easier setup. In
such small and medium duty machines the table with work travels above the saddle in
horizontal direction (X axis) (left and right). The saddle with table moves on the
slideways provided on the knee in transverse direction (Y axis) (front and back). The
knee with saddle and table moves on a dovetail guide ways provided on the column in
vertical direction (Z axis) (up and down).

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Hand milling machine

This is the simplest form of milling machine where even the table feed is also given
manually. The cutter is mounted on a horizontal arbor. This is suitable for light and
simple milling operations such as machining slots, grooves and keyways.
Fig. 3.52 (a) shows the photographic view of a horizontal hand milling machine and Fig.
3.52 (b) shows that of a vertical hand milling machine.

Fig. 3.52 (a) Horizontal hand milling machine Fig. 3.52 (b) Vertical hand
milling machine

Plain or horizontal milling machine

This non automatic general purpose milling machine of small to medium size possesses a
single horizontal axis milling arbor. The work table can be linearly fed along three axes
(X, Y, and Z) only. The table may be fed by hand or power. These machines are most
widely used for piece or batch production of jobs of relatively simple design and
geometry. Fig. 3.53 schematically shows the basic configuration of a horizontal milling
machine.

Fig . 3.53 Plain or horizontal milling machine

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Universal milling machine

It is so named because it may be adapted to a very wide range of milling operations. It
can be distinguished from a plain milling machine in that the table of a universal mill ing
machine is mounted on a circular swiveling base which has degree graduations, and the
table can be swiveled to any angle up to 450 on either side of the normal position.
Thus in a universal milling machine, in addition to the three movements as
incorporated in a plain milling machine, the table h ave a fourth movement when it is fed
at an angle to the milling cutter. This additional feature enables it to perform helical
milling operation which cannot be done on a plain milling machine unless a spiral milling
attachment is used. The capacity of a universal milling machine is considerably increased
by the u se of special attachments such as dividing head or index head, vertical milling
attachment, rotary attachment, slotting attachment, etc. The machine can produce spur,
spiral, bevel gears, twist drills, reamers, milling cutters, etc. besides doing all
conventional milling operations.
Fig. 3.54 schematically shows the basic configuration of a universal milling machine.

Fig. 3.54 Universal milling ma chine Fig. 3.55 Omniversal milling machine

Omniversal milling machine

Fig. 3.55 schematically s hows the basic configuration of an omniversal milling machine.
In this machine, the table besides having all the movements of a universal milling
machine can be tilted in a vertical plane by providing a swivel arrangement at the knee.
Also the entire knee assembly is mounted in such a way that it may be fed in a
longitudinal direction horizontally. The additional swiveling arrangement of the table
enables it to machine taper spiral grooves in ream ers, bevel gears, etc. It is essentially a
tool room and experimental shop machine.

Vertical milling machine

This machine is very similar to a horizontal milling machine. The only difference is the
spindle is vertical. The work table may or may not have swiveling features. The spindle
head may be swiveled at an angle, permitting the milling cutter to work on angular
surfaces. In some machines, the spindle can also be adjusted up or down relative to the
work piece. This machine works using end milling and face milling cutters. This machine

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is adapted for machining groove s, slots and flat surfaces.

Fig. 3.56 schematically shows the basic configuration of a vertical milling ma chine.

Fig. 3.56 Vertical milling machine

Manufacturing or bed type milling machines

The fixed bed type milling machines are comparatively large, heavy, and rigid
and differ radically from column and knee type milling machines by the construction of
its table mounting. The table is mounted directly on the guide ways of the fixed bed. The
table movement is restricted to reciprocation at right angles to the spindle axis with no
provision for cross o r vertical adjustment. The cutter mounted on the spindle head may
be moved vertically on the column, and the spindle may be adjusted horizontally to
provide cross adjustment. The name simplex, duple x and triplex indicates that the
machine is provided with single, double and triple spindle heads respectively. In a duplex
machine, the spindle heads are arranged on e on each side of the table. In triplex type the
third spindle (vertical) is mounted on a cross rail. The usual feature of these machines is
the automatic cycle of operation for feeding the table, which is repeated in a regular
sequence. The feed cycle of the table includes the following: Start, rapid approach, slow
feed for cutting, rapid traverse to the next work piece, quick return and stop. This
automatic control of the machine enables it to be used with advantage in repetitive types
of work.

Fig. 3.57 (a) and (b) shows the simplex milling machine and duplex milling machine.

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Fig. 3.57 (a) Simplex milling machine Fig. 3.57 (b) Duplex milling machine

MAJOR PARTS OF A COLUMN AND KNEE TYPE MILLING MACHINE

The general configuration of a column and knee type conventional milling
machine with horizontal arbor is shown in Fig. 3.53. The major parts are:

Base It is accurately machined on its top and bottom surface and serves as a foundation
member for all other parts. It carries the column at its one end. In some machines, the
base is hollow and serves as a reservoir for cutting fluid.

Column It is the main supporting frame mounted vertically on the base. The column is
box shaped, heavily ribbed inside and houses all the driving mechanisms for the spindle
and table feed. The front vertical face of the column is accurately machined and is
provided with dovetail guide ways for supporting the knee. The top of the column is
finished to hold an over arm that extends outward at the front of the machine.

Knee It slides up and down on the vertical guide ways of the column face. The
adjustment of height is effected by an elevating screw mounted on the base that also
supports the knee. The knee houses the feed mechanism of the table, and different
controls to operate it. The top face of the knee forms a slideway for the saddle to provide
cross travel of the table.

Table The table rests on ways on the saddle and travels longitudinally. The top of the
table is accurately finished and T-slots are provided for clamping the work and other
fixtures on it. A lead screw under the table engages a nut on the saddle to move the table
horizontally by hand or power. The longitudinal travel of the table may be limited by
fixing trip dogs on the side of the table. in universal machines, the table may also be
swiveled horizontally.

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Overhanging arm The overhanging arm that is mounted on the top of the column
extends beyond the column face and serves as a bearing support for the other end of the
arbor. The arm is adjustable so that the bearing support may be provided nearest to the
cutter.

Front brace The front brace is and extra support that is fitted between the knee and the
over arm to ensure further rigidity to the arbor and the knee. The front brace is slotted to
allow for the adjustment of the height of the knee relative to the over arm.

Spindle The spindle of the machine is located in the upper part of the column and
receives power from the motor through belts, gears, clutches and transmits it to the arbor.
The front end of the spindle just projects from the column face and is provided with a
tapered hole into which various cutting tools and arbors may be inserted. The accuracy in
metal machining by the cutter depends primarily on the accuracy, strength, and rigidity
of the spindle.

Arbor It may be considered as an extension of the machine spindle on which milling

cutters are securely mounted and rotated. The arbors are made with taper shanks for
proper alignment with the machine spindles having taper holes at their nose. The arbor
may be supported at the farthest end from the overhanging arm or may be of cantilever
type which is called stub arbor. The arbor shanks are properly gripped against the spindle
taper by a draw bolt which extends throughout the length of the hollow spindle. The
threaded end of the draw bolt is fastened to the tapped hole of the arbor shank and then
the lock nut is tightened against the spindle. The spindle has also two keys for imparting
positive drive to the arbor in addition to the friction developed in the taper surfaces. The
cutter is set at the required position on the arbor by spacing collars or spacers of various
lengths but of equal diameter. The entire assembly of the milling cutter and the spacers
are fastened to the arbor by a long key. The end spacer on the arbor is slightly larger in
diameter and acts as a bearing bush for bearing support which extends from the over arm.

Working principle of a column and knee type milling machine

Fig. 3.63 shows the basic principle of producing flat surface in a milling machine by a
plain milling cutter.
The kinematic system comprising of several mechanisms enables transmission of motion
and power from the motor to the cutting tool for its rotation at varying speeds and to the
work table for its slow feed motions along X, Y and Z directions. The milling cutter
mounted on the horizontal milling arbor, receives its rotary motion a t different speeds
from the main motor through the speed gear box. The feeds of the work piece can be
given by manually or automatically by rotating the respective wheels by hand or by
power. The work piece is clamped on the work table by a work holding device. Then the
work piece is fed against the rotating multipoint cutter to remove the excess material at a
very fast rate.

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Work holding devices used in a milling machine

It is necessary that the work piece should be properly and securely he ld on the milling
machine table for effective machining operations. The work piece may be supported on
the milling machine table by using any one of the following work holding devices
depending upon the geometry of the work piece and nature of the operation to be
performed.
T-bolts and clamps.
Angle plate.
V-blocks.
Vises.
Special fixtures.
Dividing heads.

T-bolts and clamps Bulky work pieces of irregular shapes are clamped directly on the
milling machine table by using T-bolts and clamps. Fig. 3.15 illustrates the use of T-bolts
and clamps. Different designs of clamps are used for different patterns of work. Fig. 3.65
shows the different types of clamps.

Fig. 3.65 Different types of clamps

Angle plate The angle plate has been described in Article 3.2.6.3, Page 112 and
illustrated in
Fig. 3.19. Sometimes a titling type angle plate in which one face can be adjusted relative
to another face for milling at a required angle is also used. Fig. 3.66 shows a tilting type
angle plate.

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Fig. 3.66 Tilting type angle plate

V-blocks The V-block has been described in Article 3.2.6.4, Page 112 and illustrated in
Fig. 3.20. This is used for holding shafts on the table in which keyways, slots and flats
are to be milled.
Vises The different types of vise has been described in Article 3.2.6.1, Page 110 and
illustrated in Fig. 3.12 (a), (b) and (c). Vises are the most common appliances for holding
work on milling machine table due to its quick loading and unloading arrangement.

Special fixtures The fixtures are special devices designed to hold work for specific
operations more efficiently than standard work holding devices. Fixtures are especially
useful when large numbers of identical parts are being produced. By using fixtures
loading, locating, clamping and unloading time is greatly minimized.

CUTTER HOLDING DEVICES USED IN A MILLING MACHINE

There are several methods of holding and rotating milling cutters by the machine
spindle depending on the different designs of the cutters. They are:

Arbors
The cutters have a bore at the centre are mounted and keyed on a short shaft called arbor.
The arbor has been described in Article 3.6.5, Page 133 and illustrated in Fig. 3.62.

Collets
A milling machine collet is a form of sleeve bushing for reducing the size of the taper
hole at the nose of the spindle so that an arbor or a milling cutter having a smaller shank
than the spindle taper can be fitted into it. Fig. 3.70 (a) illustrates a milling machine
collet.

Adapter
An adapter is a form of collet used on milling machine having standardized spindle end.
Cutters having straight shanks are usually mounted on adapters. An adapter can be
connected with the spindle by a draw bolt or it may be directly bolted to it. Fig. 3.70 (b)
illustrates a milling machine adapter.

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Spring collets
Straight shank cutters are usually held on a special adapter called “spring collet” or
“spring chuck”. The cutter shank is introduced in the cylindrical hole provided at the end
of the adapter and then the nut is lightened. This causes t he split jaws of the adapter to
spring inside, and grip the shank firmly.
Fig. 3.70 (c) illustrates a spring collet.

Bolted cutters
The face milling cutters of larger diameter having no shank are bolted directly on the
nose of the spindle. For this purpose four bolt holes are provided on the body of the spindle.
This arrangement of holding cutter ensures utmost rigidity. Fig. 3.70 (d) illustrates a face
milling c utter bolted on the spindle.

Screwed on cuttersl
The small cutters having threaded holes at the centre are screwed on the threaded nose of
an arbor which is mounted on the spindle in the usual manner. Fig. 3.70 (e) show s a
screwed on cutter.

Fig. 3.70 Different types of cutter holding devices used in milling

machines

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