5
PRECIPITATION
Adopted from the article of the same title by Wilfredo P. David, PhD,
Professor 12, UPLB
Outline
A. Formation of precipitation
B. Types of precipitation
• Convective
• Frontal
• Orographic
• Cyclonic
continued…
Outline
C. Spatial Distribution of Rainfall
•Measurement
•Areal precipitation
•Gaging network in the Philippines
•Rainfall Adjustments
D. Temporal Distribution of
Rainfall
precipitation
that part of
atmospheric
moisture that
falls on the earth
surface.
A. Formation of precipitation
PROCESS: condensation or sublimation of
atmospheric moisture.
This transformation may be brought about by one
or more of the following causes:
(1) adiabatic cooling,
(2) mixing of air masses of varying temperature
(3) radiation cooling, and
(4) contact cooling.
A. Formation of precipitation
sublimation nuclei
1 micron
ocean salt coalescence or
products of combustion Ice crystal formation
and oxides of nitrogen
A. Formation of precipitation
COALESCENCE
fusion or coalescence of water droplets as a result of
their coming in contact through the action on them
of air movement and gravitational pull.
ICE CRYSTAL PROCESS
Ice crystals and water droplets are known to co-exist
in the atmosphere at sub-freezing temperatures.
This difference in pressure serves as the driving
force for condensation of moisture over the crystals.
B. Types of precipitation
[Link] precipitation.
B. Types of precipitation
[Link] precipitation
B. Types of precipitation
3. Orographic precipitation
Cordillera Mountain Ranges
1600
1500 Northeast
Tradewinds
1400
1300
1200
1100
1000
Banawe Pacific Ocean
Elevation, m
900
800
700
600
500 Sierra Madre
400
Mountain Ranges
300
Llagawe
200
100
Bagabag
Bayombong
Baligatan Dam
Tagudin
San Mateo
San Fernando, La Union
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 05 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 5 10 15 20
120°15’ E 121°0’ E 122°0’ E
Figure 1. Approximate elevations of selected raingaging stations from latitudes 16° 29’
and 16o 56’ north) in Northern Luzon.
B. Types of precipitation
4. Cyclonic precipitation
C. Spatial distribution of rainfall
1. Measurement of rainfall
C. Spatial distribution of rainfall
2. Estimation of Areal
precipitation
Arithmetic Average
Thiessen Method
Isohyetal Method
C. Spatial distribution of rainfall
Arithmetic average
R1 R2 R3
R
3
C. Spatial distribution of rainfall
Thiessen Method
n
a R i i
R i 1
n
a
i 1
i
C. Spatial distribution of rainfall
Isohyetal Method
a R i i
R i 1
n
a
i 1
i
C. Spatial distribution of rainfall
3. The gaging network in
thePhilippines
PAGASA, the National Irrigation Administration,
the Bureau of Forest Development and the
Bureau of Plant Industry
State colleges and Universities
Private entities
C. Spatial distribution of rainfall
3. PAGASA gaging network
in the Philippines (as of July 2014)
Synoptic stations – 57 units
AgroMet stations – 23 units
AREA =
30,000,000 ha
RATIO
1 rain gage :
100,000 ha
WMO Standards
Optimum Rain Gauge
See Raghunat for sample problem (page 31)
C. Spatial distribution of rainfall
4. Rainfall Adjustments
Estimation of Missing
Rainfall Data
Double Mass Analysis
Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data
1. arithmetic average method
Px = the missing precipitation at station X
P1, P2, …, Pm = rainfalls at the m surrounding gages
Assumption: The normal annual precipitations at adjacent
stations are within 10% of the normal rainfall in of the station
in question.
Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data
2. normal-ratio method
1 P1 P2 Pm
Px ( N x N x ... Nx )
m N1 N2 Nm
Px = the missing precipitation at station X
Nx = normal annual rainfall at station X
P1, P2, …, Pm = rainfalls at the m surrounding gages
N1, N2, …, Nm = normal annual rainfalls at the m surrounding
gages
Assumption: The normal annual precipitations at at the
surrounding gages differ from the normal rainfall in of the
station in question by more than 10%.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Rain-gauge station D was inoperative for
part of a month during which a storm
occurred. The storm rainfall recorded in
the three surrounding stations A, B and C
were 8.5, 6.7 and 9.0 cm, respectively. If
the a.a.r for the stations are 75, 84, 70 and
90 cm, respectively, estimate the storm
rainfall at station D.
ANS: 9.65 cm
Estimation of Missing Rainfall Data
quadrant method
Double Mass Analysis
compares the annual or seasonal rainfall totals
at the station in question with mean values
of a group of surrounding stations.
Double Mass curve for adjusting precipitation totals.
Accumulated annual precipitation in mm for station x
3200 slope = 1.44
1920
2800 1935
1925
2400
1930
1940
2000
1946
1970
station x was relocated in 1946
1600
1980
1200
1985
1995 slope = 1.05
800
1998
400
0 400 800 1200 1600 2000 2400 3200
Accumulated annual rainfall for 10 index stations, mm
To adjust the records prior to 1946 to
those corresponding to the new site,
the annual precipitation totals prior to 1946
should be multiplied by the ratio to the two
curves.
That is, all annual totals before 1946
must be multiplied by the ratio 1.05 /
1.44.
SAMPLE PROBLEM
Average Annual
Annual Rainfall
Year Rainfall of 5 index
(mm) from Station X
stations
2005 780 668
2006 762 570
2007 878 681
2008 754 601
2009 761 483
2010 1056 1186
2011 887 940
2012 656 616
2013 791 950
2014 840 773
Carry out the following task.
Identify the year of inflection.
It was found out that during the inflection year,
observational procedures were improved. What
range of years must be adjusted?
By linear regression, determine the slope (in 4
decimal places) of the line in the curve
for the data that need adjustment;
for the data values that are consistent; and
the associated adjustment factor.
List down the adjusted annual record/s with
its/their corresponding year/s. No need to plot the
new double mass curve.
Annual Rainfall from
Cumulative Rainfall Totals
Two Stations
D. Temporal distribution of rainfall
hyetograph
• graph showing the
depth or intensity
of rainfall with
respect to time
• useful in determining the
maximum intensities of
rainfall during a particular
storm as is required in land
drainage and design of
culverts.
characteristics of a rainstorm
intensity (mm/hr)
duration (min, hours, days)
areal extent (m2, ha)
area over which it is distributed
frequency
once in 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 50 or 100 years
basic terms in statistical hydrology
time period of interest (N)
probability of occurrence (P)
recurrence interval or return period (T)
the average number of years during which a
storm of given magnitude (maximum depth
or intensity) may be expected to occur once,
i.e., may be equalled or exceeded.
probability that a T-year storm
may occur in any series of N
years
probability that a T-year storm
may NOT occur in any series of
N years
correlation of rainfall records
intensity vs. intensity
vs.
duration duration vs.
frequency
intensity-duration curve
intensity-duration-frequency curve
