Flexible Learning A.Y.

2020-2021
DISTANCE EDUCATION COURSE GUIDE USING OBTL DESIGN v1

Energy is defined as the capacity to do work or transfer heat. For us to understand the
concept of energy better, we must first define work and heat. Work is the energy used
to cause an object to move against a force, and heat is the energy used to cause the
temperature of an object to increase. The main forms of energy are heat (energy in
transit because of a temperature difference), mechanical energy, chemical energy,
electromagnetic energy and nuclear energy.

Work

Work is a scalar quantity that is defined and measured by the product of the net
force exerted and the distance through which that force moves. To calculate for
work, the following formula is used:

W = F x d x cos q

Where W = work
F = force
d = displacement
q = angle between the force and the direction of motion

The common unit for work is joule (J). 1 joule (or 1 J) is equivalent to 1 N•m or
1 kg•m/m•s2. Work may also be expressed in calorie (1 cal = 4.186 J).

Work is positive if the the direction of F is in the same direction as the

displacement. Work is negative if the direction of F is in the opposite direction as
of the displacement, i.e. q = 180o. Work is zero if the direction of F is
perpendicular with respect to the direction of the displacement i.e. q = 90o.

Sample Problem:

1. A person pushes a box 15 m along the ground using a force of 100 N. How
much work has been done on the box?

Given: d = 15 m
F = 100 N
q = 0o

Required: W=?

Solution:

W = F x d x cosq
= (100 N)(15 m)(cos 0o)
W = 1,500 Nm or 1,500 J

2. Find the work done by a 45.0-N force in pulling the suitcase in the figure
at an angle 50o for a distance d = 75.0 m.

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Given: d = 75.0 m
F = 45.0 N
q = 50o

Required: W=?

Solution:

W = F x d x cosq
= (45.0 N)(75.0 m)(cos 50o)
W = 2169.41 Nm 0r 2169.41 J

Mechanical Energy

Mechanical Energy is the sum of an object’s kinetic and potential energy.

Kinetic energy is known as “energy of motion”. The kinetic energy of a body is

dependent on its mass and speed. To calculate for kinetic energy, the following
formula is used:

KE = ½ mv2

Where: KE = kinetic energy

m = mass
v = speed

The kinetic energy of a body increases as its speed increases. A ball rolling at
10 m/s has greater kinetic energy than it does at 5 m/s. For a given speed, the
kinetic energy increases with increasing mass. For example, a large truck
traveling at 50 km/h has greater kinetic energy than a small car traveling at the
same speed because the truck has the greater mass. Commonly, kinetic energy
is expressed in terms of joule (J).

Potential energy, on the other hand, is also known as “energy due to position” An
object has potential energy by virtue of its position relative to other objects.
Potential energy is, in essence, the “stored” energy that arises from the
attractions and repulsions an object experiences in relation to other objects.

To calculate for potential energy, the following formula is used:

PE = mgh

Where: PE = potential energy

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m = mass
g = gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2)
h = height

Commonly, potential energy is expressed in terms of joule (J).

Potential energy may be converted into kinetic energy and vice versa. For
example, think of a cyclist poised at the top of a hill. Because of the attractive force
of gravity, the potential energy of the cyclist and her bicycle is greater at the top of
the hill than at the bottom. As a result, the bicycle easily moves down the hill with
increasing speed. As it does so, potential energy is converted into kinetic energy.
The potential energy decreases as the bicycle rolls down the hill, but its kinetic
energy increases as the speed increases. This example illustrates that forms of
energy are interconvertible.

Potential energy and kinetic energy. The potential energy initially

stored in the motionless bicycle and rider at the top of the hill is
converted to kinetic energy as the bicycle moves down the hill and
loses potential energy. (Source: LeMay and Brown, 2014)

Sample Problems:

1. A roller coaster of mass 2000 kg is rolling down a track with an instantaneous

speed of 10 m/s. What is its kinetic energy?

Given: m = 2000 kg
V = 10 m/s

Required: KE = ?

Solution:

KE = ½ mv2
= ½ (2000 kg)(10 m/s)2
KE = 100,000 kg m2/s2 or 100,000 J
KE = 100 kJ

2. A 16 kg box on a 5.6 m ramp is pushed from point A to point B. What is the

total amount of potential energy gained by the box?

L
h
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Given: length of ramp, L = 5.6 m

a = 5.3 m
m = 16 kg

Required: PE = ?

Solution:

PE = mgh

Use Pythagorean Theorem to solve for h

L2 = h2 + a2
(5.6 m)2 = h2 + (5.3 m)2
h = 1.81 m

PE = (16 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(1.81 m)

PE = 283.81 kgm2/s2 or 283.81 J

3. A bowler lifts a 5.4 kg bowling ball from ground level to a height of 1.6 m and
then drops it. After the ball is dropped, it gains kinetic energy. If all the
potential energy has been converted to kinetic energy by the time the ball
strikes the ground, what is the ball’s speed just before it hits the ground?

Given: m = 5.4 kg
h = 1.6 m

Required: speed of the ball just before it hits the ground, v = ?

Solution:

When the ball is dropped, its potential energy is converted to

kinetic energy. We assume that the kinetic energy just
before the ball hits the ground is equal to the potential
energy

PE = KE

mgh = ½ mv2
(5.4 kg)(9.8 m/s2)(1.6 m) = ½ (5.4 kg)(v)2
v = 5.6 m/s

Chemical Energy

Chemical energy is energy that is released during a chemical reaction or change.

Energy is required to bond atoms together and energy is released when these
bonds are broken.

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Chemical energy can also be viewed as energy that is stored in some kind of
chemical substance. The energy is released when these substances mix
together to cause a chemical reaction.

During photosynthesis, plants convert light energy coming from the sun into
chemical energy.

Electromagnetic Energy

A form of energy that is reflected or emitted from objects in the form of electrical
and magnetic waves that can travel through space. They may be viewed as
moving electric charges

Examples of electromagnetic energy include:

• Power lines carry electricity
• Electric motors are driven by electromagnetic energy
• Light

Light is a form of electromagnetic energy. Each color of light (ROYGBIV)

represents a different amount of electromagnetic energy. Electromagnetic energy
is also carried by X-rays, radio waves, and laser light.

Nuclear Energy

Nuclear energy is the energy released during nuclear fission or fusion of nuclear
energy. Fission happens when the nucleus splits, and nuclear energy is
released in the form of light and energy. Nuclear energy is also released during
fusion, that is when nuclei collide at high speeds and join.

The sun’s energy is produced from a nuclear fusion reaction in which hydrogen
nuclei fuse to form helium nuclei.
Law of Conservation of Energy

Energy cannot be created nor destroyed, it is simply transformed from one form
into another.

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In 1905, Albert Einstein proposed that mass and energy can be converted into
each other. He showed that if matter is destroyed, energy is created and if
energy is destroyed, mass is created.

The Law of Conservation of Energy can be illustrated by this bouncing ball. As

the ball bounces up, it gains potential energy. At the highest point, the ball gains
the maximum potential energy until it starts to fall. As the ball falls from its
highest point, potential energy is converted to kinetic energy. As the ball falls,
potential energy decreases but the speed of the ball increases and thus, kinetic
energy increases. Just before the ball falls to the ground and stops, all of the
potential energy have been converted into kinetic energy, and the ball gains its
maximum velocity. If you may notice also, as the ball continues to bounce, the
height that it reaches diminishes. Such happens because as the ball falls to the
ground, sound is created. And so, some of the mechanical energy have been
converted into sound energy.

Other examples of energy conversion:

• The sun’s energy through solar cells can be converted directly into
electricity.
• Green plants convert the sun’s energy (electromagnetic) into starches and
sugars (chemical energy).
• In an automobile engine, fuel is burned to convert chemical energy into
heat energy. The heat energy is then changed into mechanical energy.

Heat

Heat is the transfer of thermal energy from one object to another because of a
temperature difference. Heat always flows spontaneously from hot objects to
cold objects. It must be noted that heat is not a form of matter.

Temperature and heat are not the same. Temperature is the average kinetic
energy of all the particles in a substance. Temperature tells us whether
something is hot or cold.

Heat may be expressed using the following units:

• Calorie (cal) – the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one
gram of water by one Celsius degree
• British Thermal Unit (BTU) – the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one pound of water by one Fahrenheit degree
• Joule (J) – shows the relationship between energy in the form of work and
energy in the form of heat known as the mechanical equivalent of heat

• Conversion Factors
• 1 kcal = 1000 cal
• 1 BTU = 252 cal
• 1 BTU = 778 ft – lbf
• 1 cal = 4.186 J

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Kinds of Heat

Heat may either be sensible heat or latent heat

Sensible heat is the amount of heat required to change temperature of the

substance without changing its phase. Take for example, heating water at 25oC
to 78oC at normal atmospheric conditions – only the temperature of the water
changed but it is still in the liquid phase.

Latent heat is the amount of heat required to change the phase of the substance
without changing its temperature. Under normal atmospheric conditions, water
freezes and ice melts at 0oC. Latent heat is involved when ice melts. During
melting, only the phase changes – from ice to liquid water, but the temperature
remains at 0oC.

Sensible Heat

Sensible heat may be calculated using the following formula:

Q = mCpDT

where: Q = sensible heat

m = mass
Cp = specific heat capacity (dependent on the material)
DT = change in temperature (DT = Tfinal – Tinitial)

*Specific heat is the ratio of the heat transferred to the corresponding rise in its
temperature. Different substances have different capacities for storing heat.
Likewise, different materials require different quantities of heat to raise the
temperature through a specified number of degrees. The value of the specific
heat varies for different materials as different materials absorb energy in different
ways.

Specific Heat Capacities of Different Substances

For water :
Cpice = 0.5 cal/g•C0 = 2.093 J/g•C0
Cpwater = 1.0 cal/g•C0 = 4.186 J/g•C0
Cpsteam = 0.498 cal/g•C0 = 2.085 J/g•C0

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Sample Problem

1. How much heat is absorbed by 15 grams of water if its temperature changes

from 15oC to 60.5oC?

Given: m = 15 g = 0.015 kg
Tinitial = 15oC = 288.15 K
Tfinal = 60.5oC = 333.65 K

Required: Q=?

Solution:

Q = mCpDT

From the table, for water, Cp = 4186 J/kg•K

DT = Tfinal – Tinitial
= 333.65 K – 288.15 K
DT = 45.5 K
(Note: DT in K = DT in Co)

Q = m mCpDT
= (0.015 kg)(4186 J/kg•K)(45.5 K)
Q = 2856.945 J

Latent Heat

Latent heat may be calculated using the following formula:

Q = mH

where: Q = heat
m = mass
H = latent heat (depending on the process)

Values of H for Water

Law of Heat Exchange (Calorimetry)

Heat lost by a substance + Heat gained by a substance = 0

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In symbols,

Qlost + Qgained = 0

When you mix two objects with different temperatures, heat flows from the
object of higher temperature to an object of lower temperature until they
reach equilibria, that is, when they are already at the same temperature.
During heat flow, heat is lost from the hotter object and is gained by the
colder object. Thus, the heat lost by the hotter object is also the heat
gained by the colder object. The heat lost and gained are equal in
magnitude but opposite in direction. As such, they result to 0 when
added.

A calorimeter is a device used when performing experiments on heat

exchange

Phase Diagram

A phase diagram or heat curve is graphical representation of the phase

transitions and temperature changes that a substance undergoes as heat is
added to it.

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The plateaus (red) on the curve mark the phase changes. The temperature
remains constant during these phase transitions. Sloping lines (green) indicate
temperature changes. The phase of the substance remains the same during
these temperature transitions.

Water has a high boiling point because of the strong hydrogen bonds between
the water molecules; it is both a strong hydrogen bond donor and acceptor.

The first change of phase is melting, during which the temperature stays the
same while water melts. The second change of phase is boiling, as the
temperature stays the same during the transition to gas.

Sample Problems

1. 175 grams of hot aluminum (1000C) is dropped into an insulated cup that
contains 40 mL of ice cold water (00C). If the specific heat capacity of
aluminum is 0.90 J/g-C0, what is the final temperature of the mixture?

Given:

Aluminum Water
m = 175 g V = 40 mL
Tinitial = 1000C Tinitial = 00C
Cp = 0.90 J/g•C0

Required: Tfinal = ?
Note: Tfinal, Aluminum = Tfinal, Water

Solution:

Qlost + Qgained = 0 or QAluminum = Qwater

mCpDT)Aluminum + mCpDT)Water = 0

From the table, Cp,water = 4.186 J/g•C0

Convert V of water to mass using density of water, r = 1g/mL

m of water = 40 mL(1g/mL) = 40 g

Qlost + Qgained = 0 or QAluminum = Qwater

mCpDT)Aluminum + mCpDT)Water = 0
(75g)( 0.90J/g•Co)(Tfinal – 100oC) + (40g)(4.186J/g•C0) (Tfinal – 0oC) = 0

Tfinal = 28.73oC

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2. What is the amount of heat required to convert 100 g ice at – 50C to steam at
1200C?

Given:
m = 100g

Required: Heat to convert ice at – 50C to steam at 1200C, QTotal = ?

Solution:

120o
C
100o
C

0oC

-5oC

QTotal = Q1 + Q2 + Q3 + Q4 + Q5

For Q1 (Sensible Heat)

Q1 = mCp,iceDT
= (100 g)(0.5 cal/g•C0)(0oC – -5oC)
Q1 = 250 cal

For Q2 (Latent Heat, melting or fusion)

Q2 = mHf
= (100 g)(80 cal/g)
Q2 = 8000 cal

For Q3 (Sensible Heat)

Q3 = mCp,waterDT
= (100 g)( 1.0 cal/g•Co)( 100oC – 0oC)
Q3 = 10,000 cal

For Q4 (Latent Heat, evaporation)

Q4 = mHe
= (100 g)(540 cal/g)
Q4 = 54,000 cal

For Q5 (Sensible Heat)

Q5 = mCp,steamDT
= (100 g)(0.498 cal/g•C0)(120oC – 100oC)
Q5 = 996 cal

QTotal = 250 cal + 8000 cal + 10,000 cal + 54,000 cal + 996 cal
QTotal = 73,246 cal

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