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o Kinetics

c Linear Motion
When a body is moving in a straight line with constant speed it is not accelerating. We say, in
this case, that it is moving with constant velocity. If a body's velocity is not constant, it is
flu accelerating. A body accelerates if it is changing its speed and/or its direction.

When we discuss a body's straight-line motion, then we do not have any change in direction. In
I:
this special case, any acceleration is due to a change in speed.
LJ
The Equations of Motion

o In all of the following discussion, certain symbols will be used. These symbols are summarized
below:

Vav =average velocity

t = time
u = initial velocity
fl
l....J
v = final velocity
a = acceleration
* s = distance covered
o * Note that's' is the traditional notation for distance in almost all physics textbooks. This

o choice reduces confusion with the symbol d for derivative, a concept from calculus.

There is a formula dealing with the motion of a body that you have used for many years. In
school, you probably memorized the formula in these words:
o distance = rate (or speed) x time

Using our above symbols, we could write:

,- (1) s =Vavt
J I
Note that for the rate, we have used the average speed. We all know that even though

o sometimes speed changes, we can always talk about the average speed. Thus, if we travel at
an average speed of 50 MPH for 6 hours, we cover 300 miles.

rl Now we must extend our treatment of motion to include the concept of acceleration.
I i Acceleration (for straight-line motion) is the rate of change of speed in time. We define
l....J
acceleration (for straight-line motion) in the following manner:

o
r-
(2) a=--
v-u
t

U In using this formula, a may be either positive or negative. If v is less than u, then our value of a
turns out to be a negative number.

o Use and/or disclosure is

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n
(,. J

EXAMPLE: n
A truck is initially travelling at a speed of 50 [Link]. The driver applies his brakes for 15 sec. n
The final speed of the car is 20 [Link]. What is the acceleration? LJ

a
20 ft I sec- 50 ft I sec
= ----,------
15 sec n
- 30 ftl sec
a=----
15 sec

a=
-2 ft/sec
= -2 ftlsec/sec
n
sec n

a = -2 ftlsec 2
lJ
Notice that the unit of acceleration has the square of a time unit in its denominator. n
l ,

A little thought will convince you that an acceleration is positive if the body is increasing speed
and negative when the body is decreasing its speed. If we cross-multiply in formula (2) we n
l. J
obtain:
at = v - u
1
After transposing, we can write:
lJ
(3) v =u + at n .I

n
l

If an automobile is on an expressway and the driver is increasing speed smoothly and regularly,
we note that his average speed is the average of his initial and final speed. l
The equation can be written: n
L1
V
n
=u+v
2 n
I.

If this value of Vav is substituted into equation (1), we have: n

u+v
(4) s=-- t
2 n
In this equation, we can substitute for v (= u +at) using the value in equation (3). n
LJ
s= u+(u+at)t =
2
n
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After a bit of algebra, we obtain:

n
U (5) s = ut + 'h ae
r'
, I
!
U
I
Equation (4) can be written, after cross-multiplication:

o 2s = (U + V)t

We can now multiply this equation by equation (2). After cancelling time (t) on the right:

o or
2as = (v - u\ (v + u)
2as = v 2 _ u2

The final form of this formula is:

o (6)

These equations are very important. They enable us to deal with all kinds of motion problems
~l where the body is in straight line motion and is changing its speed. These formulas will be
U summarized below. They will be numbered with Roman numerals and can be referred to by
these numbers when used in the problem exercises.

o i. s=u+v t
2

o ii. v=u+at

o iii.

iv.
s = ut + 'h ae

v 2 = u 2 + 2as

o
o When a body in straight line motion is not changing speed, or in cases where we are interested
only in the average speed, the formula is more simple.

s =Vavt
o Formulas i through iv are used in many practical physics problems. Note that each one involves

o four quantities. When a problem is given to you to solve, be sure to determine which of these
three quantities are given to you, and which quantity is to be found. Choose the formula which
involves these four quantities. If the formula is not solved for the unknown quantity, solve for this

o
quantity algebraically. Finally substitute the known quantities and solve for the unknown
quantity. .

An example should clarify the above procedure.

Ii
u

n
u

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rl
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EXAMPLE: n
An automobile has an initial speed of 50 [Link]. and a final speed of 75 [Link]. While it is
undergoing this change of speed, it travels a distance of 125 ft. What is its acceleration? n
LJ
In attacking this problem it is wise to write down exactly what is known and what is unknown.
u = 50 [Link]. V = 75 ftIsec.
S = 125ft. a =?
n
Formula iv involves these four quantities. Note that i, ii, and ill do not involve these exact four
quantities. Formula iv is the one to use. First it should be solved for the unknown, a.
o

v2 _ u2
n
L.. ...J

a=---
2s n
l ,

(75 ft_
a = -'---_ I sec)2 - (50 ft I sec)2
--''---'--c,..,..--_ _-'---
2 (125ft) n
3125 ft2/sec 2
a=------
250 ft
= 12.5~.2.
2 sec ft
i1
a = 12.5 ftIsec 2 n
n
U
Accelerated Motion of a "Freely Falling" Body
Common experience indicates that falling bodies accelerate or increase in speed as they fall.
Close to the surface of the earth this "acceleration of a freely falling body" has been measured
to be about 32 [Link]. 2 in the English system and 9.8 m/sec. 2 in the metric system. The "about"
n
in the preceding sentence indicates that this quantity varies somewhat over the face of our
earth. The values given are average values.

When we use the words "freely falling", we mean that we are neglecting the effects of air
resistance (as if we were in a vacuum). Of course, there is always air resistance, so how can we
neglect it?
n
nJ !
When a body is falling with a great speed, air resistance can certainly not be neglected. To use
the acceleration formulas in these cases would give us results that are not valid. However, if a
body is falling close to the surface of the earth, the acceleration formulas do give us valid results
if the height from which it falls is not too great.
o
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Some numerical data should clarify the preceding statements. If a compact body, such as a
o stone, is dropped (not thrown) from a height of 324 ft. above the surface of the earth, it will take
about 4.5 sec. for the body to reach the ground. It will have obtained a speed of 144 ftIsec. (98

o MPH). At this speed, the effects of air resistance are still quite negligible. Above this speed (98
MPH), the effects of air resistance are not negligible.

f ~l Therefore, we can conclude that the fall of a body from a height of 324 ft. or less (or equivalently
I I
U during a time of 4.5 sec. or less) can be handled quite accurately with the ordinary acceleration
formulas. The value of the acceleration will be either 9.8 m/sec2 or 32 [Link] 2 if the body is rising

o and therefore decreasing its speed the values of the acceleration will be - 9.8 m/sec2 or - 32
ftIsec 2

o If a body falls from a height greater than about 324 ft. above the surface of the earth, the air re-
sistance becomes very important. As we have said, a height of 324 ft. corresponds to a fall of
4.5 sec. When the time of fall increases to about 8 seconds, the speed of fall has increased to

o about 115 MPH. When the time of fall is between 4.5 sec. and 8 sec. the speed increases in a
non-linear manner from 98 MPH to 115 MPH. As the time of fall increases beyond 8 seconds
the speed of fall remains constant at about 115 MPH. This speed of fall is called the "terminal
11 velocity".
U
All of the above data indicates that it is possible to use the acceleration formulas with accurate

c results for many applications dealing with falling bodies. We will limit our applications to cases
where the formulas are valid: heights less than 324 ft. and times of fall less than 4.5 seconds.

o EXAMPLE

A body started from rest and has been falling freely for 3 sec. At what speed is it falling?

o u = 0, t =3 sec, a =32 ftIsec2 , v =?

rl
u
We will use Formula ii.

v = u + at
rl
U
v=0+ (32~)(3SeC)
o sec

v = 96 ftIsec

o
o
o
o
11
LJ
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EXAMPLE n
A body started at rest and has been falling freely for 3 sec. How far has it fallen?

u = 0, t = 3 sec, a = 32 ft/sec 2 , s = ?
o
n
I I
We will use Formula iii. l J

s=ut+%ae
o
.."!.(32~J(3
s = (0)(3 sec) +
2 sec
sec)2
n
s=144ft
o
EXAMPLE:

A body is thrown upward with an initial speed of 120 [Link]. How high does it rise?
n
u = 120 ft/sec, v = 0, a = -32 ft/sec 2 , s = ?

We will use Formula iv.

o
n
0-(120 ft/sec)2
s = --'-----:--
2
2 (-32 ft/sec )
n
S = 225 _
2
ft _ sec
sec 2 ft
2
n
n
lJ
s = 225 ft.

n
, J

• -·'.le
n
n
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Problems
o 1. A car on the motorway is accelerating at 25ft1sec2 . If it started from rest and has been
accelerating for 5 sec., how far has it travelled during this time of acceleration?

2. A truck had an initial velocity of 40ftlsec. It accelerated at 10ftlsec2 and reached a final
rl velocity of 60ftlsec. How far did this truck travel while it was accelerating?
I '
L.J
3. A car slowed down from 80 ftlsec. to 40 ftlsec. while travelling a distance of 100 ft. What

o 4.
was its acceleration?

A car, originally travelling at 25 ftlsec, increases its speed at a rate of 5 ftlsec 2 for a

o 5.
period of 6 sec. What was its final speed?

A car has an initial velocity of 40 ftlsec. It slows down at a rate of 5 ftlsec 2 and covers a

o 6.
distance of 60 ft. while slowing down. What is its final velocity?

A stone is dropped from a high building and falls freely for 4 sec. How far (in meters) has

o 7.
it fallen during this time?

A stone is thrown upward with an initial velocity of 64 ftlsec. How high does it rise?

o 8. A ball is dropped from a bridge into the river below and 2.5 sec. after the ball is dropped
a splash is heard in the water below. How high is the bridge?

o 9. A car starts with an initial velocity of 30 ftlsec. and accelerates for 5 sec. at
4 ftlsec 2 . How far has it travelled during this time?

o 10. A Cessna Agcarryall has a take-off run of 900 feet, at the end of which its speed is 80
MPH. How much time does the run take?
rl
lJ (Hint: convert MPH to [Link]. first)

11. A Grumman Tomcat, powered by two Pratt & Whitney turbofan engines, has a maximum
0 11

acceleration during take-off of 20 ftlsec2 . What velocity can it achieve by the end of a
1000 foot take-off run?

o
O·
o Use and/or disclosure is
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11
Answers
I I
LJ
1. 312 ft.

2. 100 ft.

o 3.

4.
-24 ftlsec 2

55ft1sec.

5. 32 ftlsec.

6. 78m

7. 64 ft.
I 1
I .
J 8. 100 ft. or 30.6m

9. 200 ft.

10. 15 sec.
[l
u 11. 200 ftlsec

[1
~

c',
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I,-!

u
r'LJ

u
fl

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[I
, '
Rotational Motion

Introduction
Previously we discussed constant speed and accelerated motion in a straight line and derived
four important formulas which will be reviewed below. In this chapter we will consider motion

o which takes place on a circular path. Such motion is very common in our complex society and
we need to understand more about motion in curved paths.

Degrees and Radians

Before we begin our discussion, we need to define a new unit for measuring angles, the radian
(see figure 2.35).

A radian is defined as the central angle subtending a length of arc equal to the radius of the
circle.
(I
U A radian is approximately equal to 57.3°. The conversion factors for angle units are:

1 revolution = 360°
1 revolution = 2n radians
2n radians = 360°
=
1 radian 57.3°

r, Now let us consider a body (represented by a point)

moving in a circular path. An initial reference line is
U shown in figure 2.36. As the point moves about the
circle in a counter-clockwise sense, a line drawn
[l ./
between the point and the centre of the circle
continuously sweeps out an angle. This angle can be
r"',
measured in revolutions, radians or degrees. We call
this angle the angular displacement of the point and
lJ use the Greek letter theta (8) to represent this angular
displacement.
fl
I>--<\
Figure 2.35
If the point moves with constant speed it also has a constant angular velocity. That is, the line
lJ drawn from the point to the centre of the circle sweeps out a definite number of revolutions,
radians, or degrees each second or minute. The symbol used to represent angular velocity is
the Greek letter omega (00).
"r" I
l.J
Angular velocity can be expressed in different units, such as,

11
u radians rev. degrees
sec. sec. sec.

radians rev. degrees

min. min .. min.

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n
It is also possible that the point is not moving with constant angular velocity. It may be
increasing or decreasing its angular velocity. When a CD starts rotating in a CD drive the
n
angular velocity increases until it reaches a constant value. After the reject button is pushed the
angular velocity decreases until the CD comes to rest.

In both of the above cases we say that the point has an angular acceleration. The Greek letter
alpha (a) is used for angular acceleration. Note that a is positive if the angular velocity is
increasing and negative if the angular velocity is decreasing.
n
Angular acceleration can also be expressed in different units,

radians rev. degrees

2
sec. 2 sec. 2 sec.
,M
.
L.J
radians rev. degrees
min.2 min.2 min.2
n
Now as a body moves in a circular path four similar
equations hold as in the case of a body moving in a
straight-line path. Both sets of equations will be shown
e below. It is important to re-memorize the equations for
straight-line motion. In this way the other four equations will
also be known, since they are exactly analogous.
n-
,

Figure 2.36: A point moving in a circle

n
n
, <

v =U +at 00 2 = 00 , + at
s =ut + % at2 e = oo 1t + % at2 n
2 2 "L.i
V = U +2as ool =00/ +20.8
Study these equations carefully and note that the set to the right, the "rotational analogy" are
easily remembered if the left set is well known. We recall that the subscripts "u" and "v" indicate
"initial" and "final".

These four rotational equations help us to solve many practical problems dealing with rotating
bodies. n
U
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I :
! . EXAMPLE:
'-'
A rotating machine part increases in angular velocity from 3 [Link]. to 35 [Link]. In 3.5
minutes. What is its angular acceleration?

We use the following equation and solve it for a.

())2 = ()), + at
( ';
\

U
!
a
We now substitute our known values.

35 rev Imin -3 rev Imin

a= 9.14 rev/min2
3.5min

r' EXAMPLE:
I
~
!

A propeller starts from an angular velocity of 900 [Link]. and accelerates at 100
r-j [Link]. 2for 5 minutes. Through how many revolutions has it turned?
L
Ii
L e = (900 [Link].)(5 min) + % (100 rev.lmin2)(5 minl
Ii
I : e = 5,750 revolutions
U

EXAMPLE:

A propeller starts at 1,000 [Link]. and accelerates at 100 [Link].2 through 2,000
revolutions. What is its final angular velocity?

r-- --,
! ,
U ())l = (1,000 [Link] +2 (100 [Link].2)(2,000 rev.)
r-

U ())2 = 1,180 [Link].

U
rL

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We note that there is an acceleration of the body "in the

path", called the tangential acceleration. The body is
increasing or decreasing its speed, or traversing the circle.
We recall also that when a body moves in a circle there is
2
also a centripetal acceleration, V /R, that is always
directed toward the centre of the circular path.
n,
.

Thus when a body is increasing speed as it moves in a ,, ,I

•
circular path there are two acceleration vectors, one
tangential to the path, and the other directed to the centre
of the path (centripetal acceleration). In figure 2.37, the
body is increasing speed in the counter-clockwise sense.
n
The directions of the two acceleration vectors are shown.

Figure 2.37: Tangential

acceleration (at) and Centripetal
acceleration (a c)
Radian Measure
In figure 2.38, 's' is the length along the path. We would like to relate this distance to the size of ;t
the central angle (9) and the radius (R) of the circular path. In our preceding discussion, the
!
l.J
I
angle (9) was measured in any of three different units, degrees, revolutions, or radians.

~-_~s

n
I. J

n
Figure 2.38: s, Rand 9

The equation that relates s to 9 and R is a very simple one if we limit the angular unit to radians.
This equation is:
s= R9
n
We see that this equation is true if we look at figure 2.38. We note, by measuring, that the
n
equation is satisfied. We also see that it would not be true if the angle 9 was in revolutions or
degrees n
We now have a new problem to deal with in our treatment of rotational motion. There is a limit to
the units that may be used in this equation. We repeat that, for this equation, we must use
radian measure. Also, any equation that is derived from s = R9 will have this same restriction.
n
J
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Suppose that a body moves a small distance along the path and sweeps out a small central
II
i ! angle.
L

The usual mathematical notation for a very small quantity is the use of the Greek letter Delta
I" !

ij (~).

M=R~e
r
~
i
Let us divide both sides of this equation by the time, (~t) during which the motion occurred.

IuI We can write:

v =RID
If this velocity in the path is changing. there is also a change in the angular velocity. Assume
that this change occurs in the small time interval (~t).

We can write:
~v =R ~OJ
Next we divide left and right members by &

~v = R ~OJ
~t ~t

The tangential acceleration (a) in the left side is the rate at which a body moving in a circular
path is picking up speed in the path. It is equal to the radius times the angular acceleration (a).

We can write:
a=Ra

Let us summarize the three important equations we have derived:

\'
I--"
s Re=
=
v RID
a= Ra

All three of these equations require the use of radian measure. This means that:

e must be in radians
OJmust be in rad/min. or rad./sec.
a must be in rad./min2 or rad./sec2
\'1
Note that the radian is called a "dimensionless" unit. We put it in or take it out for clarity.

c
rl
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EXAMPLES:

A car is moving on a circular racetrack of radius 150 ft. It sweeps out an angle of 2000.
How far has it travelled?

We note that:
8 = 200 0 x 6.28 rads. = 3.49 rads.
360 0

s = R8 n
,...,
s = (150 ft.) (3.49 rad.) j 1
,)

s = 523 ft.
n
3.36 [Link]. (""l
.1 I
iJ
\1
. I
EXAMPLE: ~ J
A race car is travelling at a speed of 176 [Link]. (120 MPH) around a circular racetrack of
radius 500 ft. What is the angular velocity of this car in [Link].?

Use the equation:

v= RO)

or
v
0)--------
176 ft.l sec. n
:J
R 500 ft

0) =0.352 rad .Isec. l

Note that we knew that the unit of our answer is [Link]. and not [Link]. since the
equation we used always is in radian measure. The units in the right side of the second l
c )
equation above actually come out as "nothing"/sec. We put in the radian unit in the
numerator for clarity.

in order to find our answer in [Link]. we use the proper conversion factors.
n
0) = 0.352 rad./sec.x60 sec.
= .336 /.
rev. min. U
6.28 rad.

,. l
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I'~

I ! EXAMPLE:
I ,
~

'---I A race car is moving on a circular racetrack of radius 4,000 ft .. It is increasing its speed at
i!
L.;
a rate of 15 [Link]. 2 What is its angular acceleration [Link]. 2 ?

We use the equation:

a = Ra

a 15 ft/sec 2
a=-=-----
R 4,000 ft
I'
, I
U a =0.00375 [Link]. 2
We note that the unit is [Link]. 2 because the equation that we have used requires radian
measure.

To obtain a in [Link]. 2 , we must use the standard conversion factor.

\")
I
0.00375 rad I sec 2
I a = -'-'-'---------'----
LJ 6.28 rad.

[1w a =0.000597 [Link]. 2

T1
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r~'

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2-82 Module 2.2 Mechanics ,, ,I
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Problems
ri
i I

A propeller starts from rest and accelerates at 120 rev/sec2for 4 seconds. What is its
L.;
1.
final angular velocity in rev/sec? In rev/min?

2. A rotating turntable starts from rest and accelerates at 5 rev/min2for 3 min. Through how
many revolutions has it turned?

3. A helicopter main rotor starts from an initial angular velocity of 2 rev/min and accelerates
at 60 rev/min2while turning through 400 revolutions. What is its final angular velocity?

4. A plane is circling O'Hare in a circular pattern of radius 15,000 ft. It sweeps out an angle
of 340°? How far has it travelled?

5. A plane is circling an airport in a circle of radius 5,000 ft. How far has it travelled after 4
revolutions?

6. A race car is moving on a circular track of radius 600 ft. It is travelling at a speed of 100
ftls. What is its angular velocity in rev/min?
L 7. A race car is moving on a circular racetrack of radius 800 ft. It is accelerating at a rate of
10 ftlsec 2 What is its angular acceleration in rev/sec2?
C 8. A helicopter tail rotor starts with an initial angular velocity of 15 rev/sec and decelerates
at a rate of 2.00 rev/sec2 until it comes to rest. Through how many revolutions has the
rotor turned while it comes to rest?

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1. 480 rev/sec. 28,800 rev/min.

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3. 219 rev/min.
4. 89,000 ft.
U 5. 23.8 miles
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Periodic Motion

Simple Pendulum
A simple pendulum is one which can be considered to be a point mass
suspended from a string or rod of negligible mass. It is a resonant system with

o a single resonant frequency. For small amplitudes, the period of such a

pendulum can be approximated by:

T=2,. [
vii
Where: L =the length of the pendulum is m, or ft
L
=
g the magnitude of acceleration due to gravity =9.81
m/s2 or 32 ftls2

Note: The Natural Frequency of Oscillation is independent of the mass of the

f!w pendulum, and of the amount of initial displacement

Figure 2.39: A simple

pendulum

This expression for period is reasonably accurate for angles of a few degrees, but the treatment
of the large amplitude pendulum is much more complex

It is interesting to note that the pendulum will oscillate at only one frequency, regardless of how
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factor that changes, is the linear velocity of the mass. This fixed frequency is known as the
Natural Frequency of Oscillation.

If we consider only the horizontal motion of the mass and neglect its vertical motion as it swings
(an assumption which can be made if the string is long compared to the amplitude of swing),
then the periodic motion is said to be Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM).

Time period (T) and frequency (f) can also be related to each other by the formulae:

1 1
T= - or f= -
f T

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Mass and Spring
When a mass is acted upon by an elastic force which tends to bring it back to its equilibrium
position, and when that force is proportional to the distance from equilibrium (e.g., doubles
when the distance from equilibrium doubles - a Hooke's Law force), then the object will undergo
periodic motion when released.
A mass on a spring is the standard
example of such periodic motion. If
the displacement of the mass is
plotted as a function of time, it will
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trace out a pure sine wave.
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The motion of the medium in a

travelling wave is also simple
harmonic motion as the wave
passes a given point in the medium.
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Figure 2.40: Sinusoidal motion of a spring/mass system

It is interesting to note that the spring/mass system will oscillate at

only one frequency, regardless of how far the mass is initially displaced, or for how long the
system is left to oscillate. The only factor that changes, is the linear velocity of the mass. The
fixed frequency is known as the Natural Frequency of Oscillation, and can be calculated from
the formula:
1 {f~
fn=- -
21f m

Where: k = the stiffness of the spring in N/m, or Ib/in

m = the mass of the oscillating body

Note: The Natural Frequency of Oscillation is independent of the magnitude of gravity, and of
the amount of initial displacement

Simple Harmonic Motion (SHM) (~

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What is SHM
Motion which repeats itself precisely and can be described with the following terms: ~

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• Period: the time required to complete a full cycle, T in seconds.
•
•
Frequency: the number of cycles per second, f in Hertz (Hz)
Amplitude: the maximum displacement from equilibrium, A
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and if the periodic motion is in the form of a travelling wave, one needs also

• Velocity of propagation: v
• Wavelength: repeat distance of wave, A.

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Simple harmonic motion is the motion of a simple harmonic oscillator (such as a pendulum or
spring/mass system), a motion that is neither driven nor damped. The motion is periodic, as it
repeats itself at standard intervals in a specific manner - described as being sinusoidal, with
constant amplitude. It is characterized by its amplitude, its period which is the time for a single
oscillation, its frequency which is the number of cycles per second, and its phase, which
determines the starting point on the sine wave. The period, and its inverse the frequency, are
constants determined by the overall system, while the amplitude and phase are determined by
the initial conditions (position and velocity) of that system.

A single frequency travelling wave will take the form of a sine wave. A snapshot of the wave in
space at an instant of time can be used to show the relationship of the wave properties
r1 frequency, wavelength and propagation velocity.
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Figure 2.41: The sinusoidal waveform terminology

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The motion relationship "distance = velocity x time" is the key to the basic wave relationship.

With the wavelength as distance, this relationship becomes A=vT. Then using f=11T gives the
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V

This is a general wave relationship which applies to sound and light waves, other
electromagnetic waves, and waves in mechanical media.
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Properties of SHM
Considering the motion of a mass on the end of a spring, or the horizontal motion of a
pendulum, the following properties can be observed:

• The velocity of the body is always changing. It is maximum at the undisturbed position
(centre of its motion) and zero at the extremities of its motion (maximum displacement
position)
• The acceleration of the body is always changing. It is maximum at the extremities of its
motion (maximum displacement position) and zero at its undisturbed position (centre of
motion).

In other words, when its velocity is zero, its acceleration is a maximum, and when its
acceleration is zero, its velocity is a maximum.

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Vibration ~_J
Vibration refers to mechanical oscillations about an equilibrium point. The oscillations may be
periodic such as the motion of a pendulum or random such as the movement of a tire on a
gravel road.

Vibration is occasionally desirable. For example the motion of a tuning fork, the reed in a
woodwind instrument or harmonica, or the cone of a loudspeaker is desirable vibration,
necessary for the correct functioning of the various devices.

More often, vibration is undesirable, wasting energy and creating unwanted sound -- noise. For '\.. J

example, the vibrational motions of engines, electric motors, or any mechanical device in
operation are typically unwanted. Such vibrations can be caused by imbalances in the rotating :l
parts, uneven friction, the meshing of gear teeth, etc. Careful designs usually minimise •J
unwanted vibrations.

The study of sound and vibration are closely related. Sound, pressure waves, are generated by
vibrating structures (e.g. vocal cords) and pressure waves can generate vibration of structures
(e.g. ear drum). Hence, when trying to reduce noise it is often a problem in trying to reduce
vibration.

Types of vibration

Free vibration occurs when a mechanical system is set off with an initial input and then allowed
:-],
to vibrate freely. Examples of this type of vibration are pulling a child back on a swing and then
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letting go or hitting a tuning fork and letting it ring. The mechanical system will then vibrate at ;.

one or more of its natural frequencies and damp down to zero.

Forced vibration is when an alternating force or motion is applied to a mechanical system.

Examples of this type of vibration include a shaking washing machine due to an imbalance,
transportation vibration (caused by truck engine, springs, road, etc), or the vibration of a building
during an earthquake. In forced vibration the frequency of the vibration is the frequency of the
force or motion applied, but the magnitude of the vibration is strongly dependent on the
mechanical system itself.

Resonance
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What is Resonance?
Resonance is the phenomenon of producing large amplitude of vibrations by a small periodic ,I
driving force. It is the tendency of a system to oscillate at maximum amplitude at a certain l J
frequency. This frequency is known as the system's resonance frequency (or resonant
frequency). When damping is small, the resonance frequency is approximately equal to the
natural frequency of the system, which is the frequency of free vibrations. Under resonance
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condition the energy supplied by the driving force is sufficient enough to overcome friction.

Examples of Resonance
One familiar example is a playground swing, which is a crude pendulum. When pushing
someone in a swing, pushes that are timed with the correct interval between them (the resonant
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frequency), will make the swing go higher and higher (maximum amplitude), while attempting to
push the swing at a faster or slower rate will result in much smaller arcs.

Other examples:

• acoustic resonances of musical instruments

• the oscillations of the balance wheel in a mechanical watch
• electrical resonance of tuned circuits in radios that allow individual stations to be picked
up
• the shattering of crystal glasses when exposed to a strong enough sound that causes the
Ii
y glass to resonate.

A resonator, whether mechanical, acoustic, or electrical, will probably have more than one
resonance frequency (especially harmonics of the strongest resonance). It will be easy to
vibrate at those frequencies, and more difficult to vibrate at other frequencies. It will "pick out" its
resonance frequency from a complex excitation, such as an impulse or a wideband noise
excitation. In effect, it is filtering out all frequencies other than its resonance.

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What Causes Resonance?
Resonance is simple to understand if you view the spring and mass as energy storage elements
- the mass storing kinetic energy and the spring storing potential energy. When the mass and
r, spring have no force acting on them they transfer energy back forth at a rate equal to the
\ i

U natural frequency. In other words, if energy is to be effiCiently pumped into the mass and spring
the energy source needs to feed the energy in at a rate equal to the natural frequency. Applying
[i a force to the mass and spring is similar to pushing a child on swing - you need to push at the
, I correct moment if you want the swing to get higher and higher. As in the case of the swing, the
~

force applied does not necessarily have to be high to get large motions. The pushes just need
to keep adding energy into the system.

A damper, instead of storing energy dissipates energy. Since the damping force is proportional
to the velocity, the more the motion the more the damper dissipates the energy. Therefore a
point will come when the energy dissipated by the damper will equal the energy being fed in by
the force. At this point, the system has reached its maximum amplitude and will continue to
vibrate at this amplitude as long as the force applied stays the same. If no damping exists, there
is nothing to dissipate the energy and therefore theoretically the motion will continue to grow to
infinity.

Such catastrophic resonance can be witnessed frequently, in, for example, the failure of
complete aircraft wing structures during control surface "flutter", failure of helicopter structural
components, and even the collarse of road bridges in gale force winds, as experienced at
Tacoma Bridge on November yt ,1940.

Design Implications of Resonance

Designers of aircraft must be seriously concerned about the phenomenon of resonant frequency

o because if a certain component of an aeroplane or helicopter is caused to vibrate at its resonant

frequency the amplitude of the vibration can become very large and the component will destroy
itself by vibration.
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Let us examine the case of a helicopter which has a tail boom with a natural or resonant il,
frequency of 1 Hz. That is, if you were to strike the boom with your fist it would oscillate once c. ,
I
each second. The normal rotational speed of the rotor is 400 RPM and the helicopter has 3
blades on its main rotor. Each time a rotor blade moves over the tail boom the blade is going to
cause a downward pulse of air to strike the tail boom. The designer must determine the speed
at which the pulses will be equal to the resonant frequency of the boom. One cycle per second
is equivalent to 60 cycles/minute. Since each of the three blades causes a pulse each ~
,
revolution, there will be 3 x 60 or 180 pulses/minute. Therefore a rotor speed of 180 RPM would !
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be critical and the pilot would be wamed against operating at that speed. Since the boom also
has a secondary, or overtone, resonant frequency of twice the fundamental resonant frequency,
360 RPM would also have to be avoided but would not be as critical as 180 RPM. The third
frequency of concern would be 3 x 180 or 540, but that is above the rotor operating speed, so is
not a problem.

The natural frequency of vibration is also an extremely important consideration in designing the
wings, horizontal and vertical stabilizers of an aircraft. The designer must be certain that the
resonant frequency when the surface is bent is different from that resonant frequency when it is
twisted. If that is not the case, an aerodynamic interaction with the elasticity of the surface can ,....,
result in "flutter" which can cause the surface to fracture in a fraction of a second after it begins. i I
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Harmonics
The harmonic of an oscillation is a component frequency of the oscillation that is a multiple of its
natural frequency (known as the fundamental frequency). For example, if the fundamental
frequency is f, the harmonics have frequency 2f, 3f, 4f, etc. The harmonics have the property
D
that they are all periodic at the input frequency.

Thus, if an oscillating body (e.g. a spring/mass system) can be oscillated by an excitation input -,
of frequency equal to its natural frequency (the 'fundamental frequency'), it will also be ! I
oscillated at frequencies that are harmonics of that natural frequency. "1

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Problems

1. A pendulum has a length of O. 7m. What is its frequency of oscillation, and how long
will it take to oscillate 10 times?

2. A pendulum has a mass of 0.05 slugs. It takes 15 seconds to oscillate 10 times.

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What is its length?
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3. A mass of 0.4 kg oscillates freely on the end of a spring. The stiffness of the spring is
2 N/m. What is its natural frequency of oscillation and its time period?

4. A ball on the end of a spring bounces such that it nearly hits the floor 30 times in a
minute. The spring has a stiffness of 0.5 [Link]. What is the value of the mass of the
ball?

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Answers

1. 0.6 Hz, 16.8 seconds

2. [Link]

3. 0.36 Hz, 2.8 seconds

4. 0.05 slugs
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(i
, , Simple Machines and the Principle of Work
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The definition of work is as follows:

W= FD cos 8

The symbol for "distance" has been switched from S to D, to emphasize that we are dealing with
distances in our treatment of simple machines.
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The angle (8) in this definition is the angle between the direction of the force vector and the
direction of the displacement vector.

In this chapter, we will assume that in all the cases we will study the force and displacement
vectors act in the same direction. This implies that the angle (8) is a 0° angle and since the
cosine of a 00 angle equals one, the equation for work becomes the simple equation:

W=FD

In this chapter, we will study six simple machines:

o •
•
The
The
lever
pulley
• The wheel and axle
• The inclined plane
• The screw
• The hydraulic press

General Theory of All Machines

c In discussing machines, we will assume that there is an object on which work is to be done. We
will call this object the load. In most cases, it is required that the load be raised a certain
distance in a gravitational field. For example, we wish to put cement blocks originally on the
ground into the bed of a truck.

A machine is a device for doing this work. The input work is, by definition, the work done by the
,r' ' worker, that is, the force applied by the worker multiplied by the distance through which the
U worker's force acts. The output work is, by definition, the force that actually acts on the load
multiplied by the distance the load is raised.

c We note that one way to do work is to do it directly. For example, it is possible for the worker to
raise each cement block directly to the truck bed. This is possible but can be difficult if each
block weighs, say, 175 Ibs. In this case it would be better to use a machine since a machine
usually decreases the force supplied by the worker and increases the distance through which
his force acts.
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In the equations which follow, the subscript "0" will stand for output and the subscript "i" will
indicate input. We will use the following defining equations:

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Wi=FiDi

It is important to realize that there is no perfect machine. In our real world, on our earth, there is
always some friction. We always have, at least, air resistance. In addition, there is friction due to
the nooks and crannies that we would see if we inspected the surfaces of our machine parts 'I
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with a high-powered microscope. ,U

Because of the constant presence of friction the input work is always greater than the output '1!
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work. Some of the input work is not useful work but serves to produce sound energy (a squeak), ~ J
light energy (a spark), or heat energy.
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We will use the symbol "WI' to represent work lost because of friction. , J

Wi=Wo+Wf

We define two kinds of "mechanical advantage". The actual mechanical advantage (AMA) is
the ratio of the output force to the input force. This actual mechanical advantage tells us how
much easier it is for the worker. The ideal mechanical advantage (IMA) is the mechanical
advantage that would exist if there were no friction in the machine. It is the ratio of input
distance to the output distance.

AMA

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The ideal mechanical advantage of a machine can always be determined by measurements U
made on the machine itself. ,...,
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The efficiency (Eft) of a machine is the ratio of the output work to the input work. [, J

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The efficiency can be expressed as a decimal or as a percentage. For example, if the efficiency
is calculated as 0.78, we can expressed it as 78%.

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One final point should be made regarding efficiency. There is no machine that is 100% efficient.
We always have some friction. However, sometimes we assume that there is no friction and that
the machine is perfect or ideal! if a problem says that the efficiency is 100%, we are doing a
make-believe problem. This kind of a problem is not meaningless, however, because it tells us
the best that this machine can do. In this ideal case the AMA equals the IMA.

EXAMPLES:
11
u
A worker is able to raise a body weighing 300 Ibs. by applying a force of 75 Ibs. What is the
AMA of the machine that he is using?

AMA = ~ = 300 Ibs = 4

c Fi 75 Ibs

A worker applied his force through a distance of 15 ft. The load is raised a distance of 2.5 ft.
I!
1 ' What is the IMA of the machine that he used?
U

15ft=6
2.5 ft

rl, , The actual mechanical advantage of a machine is 8 and the efficiency of this machine is 78%.
L.> What is the ideal mechanical advantage?

o IMA = AMA = _8_ = 10.3

Eff 0.78

A worker uses a machine to raise a load of 500 Ibs. a distance of 2 ft. He does this by applying
a force of 100 Ibs. through a distance of 12 ft. What was the efficiency of the machine?

.- Method 1: AMA = 500 Ibs = 5

100 Ibs

IMA = 12 ft = 6
2 ft

Eff = AMA = ~ = 83%

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IMA 6

Wo = (500 Ibs)(2 ft) = 1,000 [Link].

Wi= (100 Ibs)(12 ft) = 1,200 [Link].

Eff = Wo = 1,000 [Link]. = 0.83 = 83%

Wi 1,200 [Link].
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We will next consider six simple machines. In each of these cases the IMA is expressed, not as t'l
the ratio 0;10 0 , but in some other manner. We will study the geometry of each of these simple ~ J
machines to determine how to express the IMA in some simple equation.

The Lever
Consider the diagram in figure 2.42. Note that the
lever always pivots about some point called the
fulcrum. The input force (F 1) is downward force and
in our diagram, is applied at the right end of the , LI
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lever. This input force gives rise to an upward force M
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at the left end in our diagram. This upward force '\ _J

causes the load to be raised and is called "Fo".

Fo '1
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Figure 2.42: Simple lever

system
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In figure 2.43. note that the input force acts through

a distance (Di) and the load is raised a distance
(Do).
Figure 2.43: Distances moved in a
simple lever system

The distance from the input end of the lever to the fulcrum is called the input lever arm (Li) and
the distance from the output end to the fulcrum is called the output lever arm (Lo). 1
, J

Recall that:

IMA= OJ
Do
However, figure 2.43 shows that the ratios of lever arms and distances are equal:

o
-,-
- -,
L i~
, I
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Do Lo

Since it is much easier to measure lever arms that the distances of rotation, we always use the
ratio on the right hand side of the above equation to express the IMA of a lever.

(Lever)

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There are three classes of levers:

• 1st Class: The fulcrum is between the load and the applied force. Examples are the
claw hammer, scissors, and crowbar.
• 2nd Class: The load is between the fulcrum and the applied force. Examples are the
nutcracker and wheelbarrow.

o • 3rd Class: The applied force is between the load and the fulcrum. An example is ice
tongs.

In a third class lever, the IMA is less than one. There is no force advantage. However, there is a
speed advantage. The work can be done in less time.

f~;
The Pulley
\ 1
w Some pulleys are firmly attached to an overhead support while other pulleys move up or down
with the load. We will refer to pulleys as "fixed" or "movable".

In figure 2.44 (A), we have shown a single fixed pulley. If a length of pulley cord (Di) is pulled
down by a worker, the load will be raised a distance (Do). We see from the diagram that these
( --',
\ : distances equal each other. Therefore we conclude that the IMA of this type of pulley is one. For
u example, it would take 100 Ibs. of force to raise a 100 Ibs. load. The advantage of using this
type of pulley is that the worker is able to pull down on the pulley cord and in this wayan
n
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upward force is applied to the load. We say that a single fixed pulley is a "direction changer".

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fi
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FI
FI
FI

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\-, (A) (B) (e)
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Figure 2.44: Simple pulley systems

c In figure 2.44 (8), there is a single movable pulley. A study of the diagram shows that Di is
always twice Do. For example, if the load is to be raised 2 ft. the worker must pull in 4 ft. of cord.

Note also that there are 2 strands supporting the load. The IMA of a single movable pulley is 2.

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In figure 2.44 (C), there is a single movable pulley and a single fixed pulley. The fixed pulley !/
again serves to change the direction of the input force. The IMA is still 2. Note also that there lj
are again 2 strands supporting the load.
r;
We conclude that the IMA of a pulley equals the number of strands supporting the load. i !
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(Pulley) IMA =the number of strands supporting the load

Several other examples of various types of pulley blocks are shown in figure 2.45.

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Figure 2.45: More complex pulley systems

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Note that one cord is wrapped around the axle of

,,r' . radius (r). The load is attached to this cord. Another
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cord is wrapped around the wheel of radius (A). The
FI worker applies his force to this second cord.

Both wheel and axle turn together. This means that if

the wheel rotates through one revolution the axle
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also tums through one revolution.
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Let us suppose that the worker pulls in a length of
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cord equal to one circumference of the wheel (01)
)
LJ The load will be raised a distance equal one
circumference of the axle, (Do).

f'
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W
axle
Cr
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(Wheel and Axle) IMA= -
C-'
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The Inclinked Plane

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U In the inclined plane shown in figure 2.47 we note
that the worker slides the load up the incline. The
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of the incline (L). The effect of this is that the load
is raised a distance (h). This means that the
output distance (Do) equals h also.

if IMA= ~ = L =_1_
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, Figure 2.47: Inclined plane Do h h IL

rl We note that the sine of the angle of inclination (9) is also h/L. Therefore, we can write the
U expression for the IMA as follows:

c (Inclined Plane) IMA=-

sine
1

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The Screw Jack II
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The pitch of the screw (p) is the distance between adjacent
R threads (see figure 2.48). As the handle is turned through n
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one revolution, a distance given by t.J
2 TC r ft., the load is raised a distance of one pitch.
p
Therefore, we have the relation:
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(Screw Jack) IMA =2 Tf r

p
Figure 2.48: The screw jack

A screw Jack has a great deal of friction. Therefore its efficiency is usually very low. However,
the distance through which the input force acts in comparison to the pitch is usually very large. n
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This gives a screw jack a large mechanical advantage. ,~

The Hydraulic Press

A cross section of an hydraulic press is shown in figure 2.49. The small rectangles are cross
sections of the circular input and output pistons. Usually, we talk about the areas of the input

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and output pistons (Ai and Ao). We note that the smaller of the two pistons is the input piston
(radius = r) and, of course, the larger piston is the output piston (radius = R).
,...,
An hydraulic press is filled with some fluid (gas or liquid). This fluid exerts a common fluid : I

pressure throughout the device. :J

r= r=

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-::-=\- -- - --.~ -
r ----------.
- - - -
---------
- - R-;-=':::
.. ---
- - - -:..;,,-=-==-=-=-=-=-=~-~-------------:----

~=::::::::::::::::::::::::: : : : :: : : : : : : : : : ::::::::::::::=:::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::::: : :
Figure 2.49: The hydraulic press 1
,
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As the smaller piston moves downward a distance (di) the larger piston moves upward a
distance (do). We recall that the volume of a cylindrical shape is equal to the area of the circular
base x the height. Also, a volume of fluid is transferred from the input (left) cylinder to the output D
(right) cylinder. The volume of fluid is constant since the pressure is constant. Therefore, we
can write the equation:
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We can cancel the common factor (it) and rearrange the equation. We obtain:

The left member of this equation is, by definition, the IMA. Therefore, the IMA is also equal to
the right member of this equation. Thus, we can finally say that:

ri (HydrauliC Press)
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We have obtained equations for the IMA of each of the six simple machines. We will do an
example of a typical problem dealing with machines. Note that anyone of the six could be
chosen as an example. In the problems that follow the example, be sure to use the correct
!, ' formula for the IMA.
u
EXAMPLE:

u The radius of the wheel in a windlass (wheel and axle) is 3.5 ft. and the radius of the axle is
0.27 ft. The efficiency of the machine is 60%. What load can be lifted by this machine by using
," , a force of 75 Ibs.?
I !
U IMA = 3.5ft = 13.0
0.27ft
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~, AMA = (Eff) (lMA)

o AMA =(0.60) (13.0) = 7.8

Fo = (AMA) (Fi)
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L.O Fo = (7.8) (75 Ibs.)

.--,
I . Fo = 585 Ibs.
L
Ii EXAMPLE:
U
An inclined plane has a 32° angle of incline. A force of 50 Ibs. Is required to slide a 90 Ibs.
load up the incline. What is the efficiency of this machine?
IMA = 1 = 1.89
n
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sin 32°
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AMA = 90 Ibs = 1.8
50 Ibs

Eff = AMA = ~ = 0.95 = 95%

IMA 1.89

Module 2.2 Mechanics 2-105

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Problems

1. It takes a force of 80 Ibs. to raise a body that weighs 240 Ibs. What is the actual
mechanical advantage of the machine that was used?
0 2. A load is raised a distance of 6 ft. by a force acting through a distance of 18 ft. What is
[, the ideal mechanical advantage of the machine that was used?
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3. What is the efficiency of a machine having an IMA of 7 and an AMA of 5?
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machine exerts a force of 50 Ibs. through a distance of 12 ft. What was the efficiency of
the machine?
C The radius of the wheel of a windlass is 4.0 ft. and the radius of the axle is 0.2 ft. The
machine is 75% efficient. What force must be exerted to raise a load of 500 Ibs. with this
[i machine?

The large piston of an hydraulic press has area 1.5 ft2. and the small piston has area
0.30 ft2. Assume that the machine is 100% efficient. What load can be raised by a force
of 75 Ibs.?
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\-J 7. A pulley system has four strands supporting the load. A force of 55 Ibs. is needed to raise
a load of 200 Ibs. What is the efficiency of this pulley system?

8. A light aircraft has a hydraulic braking system. Each rudder pedal is connected to a
master cylinder which provides braking for one of the main landing gear wheels. Each
master cylinder has a radius of 1/4-inch. The cylinder on the wheel has a radius of 1.0
inch. If the system is 95% efficient and the pilot exerts a force of 55 Ibs. on the pedal,
how much force is exerted on the brake disc by the wheel cylinder?
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1. 3
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3. 71%

4. 80%

5. 33.3Ibs.

6. 3751bs.

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7. 90.9%

U 8. 8361bs.
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2-110 Module 2.2 Mechanics
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