Physics for CSEC®Section wt 12 13 1a 1s 1.6 17 1B 19 110 14 1412 443 114 1415 116 117 118 119 1.20 121 Introduction 1 1 Mechanics Base units, derived units and measuring density Z Making measurements 4 Variables and graph plotting 6 Graphical analysis, 8 Vectors and scalars 10 Forces 12 Moments 14 Stability 16 Investigating Hooke's law 18 Section 1 Practice exam questions 1 20 Moving objects and displacement-time graphs 2 Acceleration and velocity-time graphs 24 Newton's law of motion 26 Momentum and imoulse More about momentum Section 1 Practice exam questions 2 Energy and energy transformations Eneray sources for electricity Potential energy and kinetic energy Conservation of energy Power and efficiency Pressure Floating, sinking and density 46 Section 1 Practice exam questions 3.48 Section 2 Thermal physics and kinetic theory 24 22 23 24 25 2.6 27 28 29 2.10 211 2.12 Heat, energy and temperature 50 Thermometers and temperature scales 52 The states of matter 54 Gas laws 56 Heat capacity 58 Changes of state and evaporation 60 Heeling, cooling and latent heat 62 Specific latent heat 6 Thermal conduction 66 Convection currents 68 Infra-red radiation 70 Applying thermal energy transfer principies R Section 2 Practice exam questions 74 Section 3 Waves 34 32 33 3.4 35 3.6 37 2.8 3.9 3.10 3.11 3.12 3.13 Wave motion Describing waves Electromagnetic waves Light rays and shadows Reflection of light Refraction of light Refiactive index and total internal reflection Converging lenses Diverging lenses and the eye Magnification Diffraction, interference and theories about the nature of fight Sound waves Experimenting with sound waves Section 3 Practice exam questions Section 4 Electricity and magnetism an 4.2 a3 44 45 4.6 47 438 49 4.10 an 412 413 ana 415 416 417 418 419 4.20 421 4.22 423 424 Static electricity Electric fields and the Van de Graaff generator Uses and dangers of statie electricity Electric current Electrical energy transformations Simple circuits and components Series and parallel circuits Cells and batteries Resistance Investigating current and potential difference characteristics Gircuit analysis Section 4 Practice exam questions 1 Direct current and alternating current Mains electicity in the Caribbean Mains safety Conversion of ac. to dic Logic circuits 1 Logic circuits 2 Section 4 Practice exam questions 2 Permanent magnets Magnetic fields Electromagnetism Forces from magnetic fields Electromagnetic induction The d.c. motor and the ac. generator Transformers Section 4 Practice exam questions 3 76 78 80 a2 56 8 90 92 96 98 100 102 106 108 110 112 114 116 118 120 122 124 126 128 130 132 134 136 138 140 142 144 146 148 150 152 154 156 158Section 5 The physics of the atom 5.1 5.2 53 54 5.5 5.6 57 58 Models of the atom 160 Electrons, the nucleus ahd the periodic table 162 Radioactive emissions 164 Nuclear decays and reactions 166 Amodol of radioactive decay 168 Nuclear decay and half-life 170 Applications of radioisotopes 172 The release of nuclear energy 174 Section 5 Practice exam questions 176 Glossary 178 Index 182 Acknowledgements 187eee eenass At the end of this topic you should be able to: * state and use a range of SI Units and prefixes * derive units for quantities * measure the density of regularly and irregularly shaped objects. Table 1.1.1 | Quantity Base unit | symbol Kilogram | kg metre | m second _|s curren’ ampere [A temperature [kehin | K amountof [mole | mol |substance | luminous | candela intensity ‘Activity The Si base units have very precise definitions or derivations. Find out what these are. ) alieed Slunits wi in designing the Half3v hee Transport Centre n Kingston, Jamaica, ‘Figure 1.1.1 used in all . Base units, derived units and measuring density When we measure a quantity we need to include the units of the measurement. The length of a desk should be given as, for example, 1.2 metres or 1.2m, not just 1.2. Base units A set of seven units, based on the metre, kilogram and second, has been agreed internationally. They are known as the SI base units and are shown in Table 1.1.1 Derived units ‘There are many more units in addition to the seven base units ‘These units can all be derived directly from the seven, based on mathematical relationships and definitions, For example, the speed of an obje +t is defines from the equation: distance moved (m) speed = This means that the unit for speed is a distance divided by a time: metres per second (ms Every other derived quantity can be worked out this way. For convenience [and to honour important scientists) some of the derived units have been given special names. For example, the unit for a potential difference derived from the base units would be m?kgs~*A-" This unit is given the special name volt (V). Standard form 7p avoid using very lerge or very small numbers, scientists use standard form. in standard form the number is always written in the format A x 10% where A is a number between 0 and 10 and x is the number of places to move the decimal point. A positive value of x indicates movement to the right while a negative value indicates movement to the left + 4500 is written as 4.5 x 10° + 0.0006 is written as 6 x 10°¢ Prefixes Scientists often need to use very large or very small numbers and So use a set of prefixes which may be attached to any unit. These are shown in Table 1.1.2. This set of prefixes allows a quantity like 8.4 x 10° watts to be written as 8.4 megawatts or 8.4 MWUsing units: density The density of a materia is the mass per unit volume. In non- ‘cubic centimetre of the material. The equation defining density is density Table 1.1.2 Prefixes for Sh unis Find the derived SI unit of density. metres (m?). ‘The equation defining density shows that density is a mass divided by a volume and therefore the SI unit of density is kgm-> Prefix | symbol_| Represents scientific language this is hovr much mass there is in a cubic metre or [tera T 10" giga G 10° mass gy y 7 Teas M 108 volume v ilo k 10 centi © 10 mill mn 10 micro b 10-* Mass is measured in kilograms (kg). Volume is measured in cubic nano 0 10"? pico P 10° Measuring density To measure the density of a regularly shaped object you must measure the mass using a balance and then calculate the volume by taking appropriate measurements for the dimensions and using a formula ‘To measure the volume of an irregular object, place the object inside a measuring cylinder partly full of water. The level of the water will rise by the volume of the object. A rough stone has a mass of 30g. It is placed in a measuring cylinder containing 20cm of water and the leval of the water rises to the 24cm* mark (Figure 1.1.2). ‘The density of the stone is found using: mass (9) 309 density = ume (em) ~ @4-20)em* =75qcm? 1 Use the following equations to work out the appropriate derived units for velocity, acceleration and force. . distance soo ange in velocity time force = mass x acceleration acceleration 2 Write these quantities using the base unit and standard form: &3 milliamperes, 4.9 micromoles, 2400 picoseconds, 0.2 cigavolt. (egies Use the technique described on | these pages to find the density ofa renge of irregularly shaped |At the end of this topic you should be able to: + select an appropriate instrument to measure length in 2 range of experiments * identify systematic error and random error in measurements * use the appropriate number of significant figures in calculations and answers. This micrometers beng Used to measure the gauge ofawre Figure 1.2.1 a factor when using stopwatch jure 1.2.2 | Making measurements Common measurements Length Many lengths can be measured with a ruler or tape measure. These instruments typically have a resolution of 1mm. The resolution of an instrument is the smallest difference in a reading the instrument can measure If a smaller length needs to be measured, callipers or a micrometer can be used. Callipers have ¢ resolution of 0.1 mm and a high quality screw gauge micrometer will have a resolution of 0.01 mm, Time Time intervals are generally measured with a digital stopwatch. Many stopwatches have a resolution of 0,01 second but, as human + times are more than 0.1 second, it may be unnecessary to the full resolution. To measure times more precisely, we can use automatic stopwatches triggered by events such as the breaking of a light-bearn. These have much better respons Mass Mass is measured by a balance which compares an unknown mass to a known one or, more often, bya top-pan balance. A variety of top- pan balances is available, some with a re 019. Uncertainty and error When we make a measurement it may not be exactly the same as the ‘true value’. Readings from instruments introduce errar in measurements leading to some uncertainty in our calculations. systematic error A systematic error is usually the result of some flaw in the measuring device or the measurement technique. For example, a metre rule could have a damaged end so that it shows all lengths as 1 mm too short. Systematic errors will make the readings recorded shift away from the true measurement. Random error Random error is an unpredictable error introduced into a measurement when you take a reading. Sometimes this 's because © the technique you use such as poor positioning of your line of sight while measuring length (Figure 1.2.3obser, Line ot sight Corect reading of lefthane end of the b ed ofthe bar Use a range of instruments to take measurements of the properties of objects. Find out how to measure the thickness of a sheet of paper. ‘Aline of sight error Random errors will cause readings to be scattered around the true value. The effects of random error can be reduced by performing repeat readings and finding a mean value. Readings which were slightly too high will tend to cancel readings which were slightly too low. Accuracy and precision Ia measurement is close to the true value of a quantity it is said to be accurate. It is not possible to know if @ reading is accurate without repeating the measurement several times and caiculating a mean value. All possible systematic errors must be avoided. If all of the measurements taken are close to the mean then you can be confident that the results are accurate. A precise measurement is a measurement where all of the repeated readings show very litle difference. They are all very close to the mean value of the readings. [tis possible to obtain results which are precise but not accurate due to a systematic error (Figure 1.2.4a). Results can also be accurate but not precise (Figure 1.2.4b). The very best experiments produce results which are both accurate and precise. Quoting answers The number of significant figures you quote in ary answers is a reflection of how certain you are of the precision of your answer. You should never use more significant figures than are justified by the resolution of your instruments. In general, answers should be given to two or three significant figures unless more significant figures are given in questions or by measuring instruments. Tae count 1 How can you increase the accuracy of a measurement? 2 Table 1.2.1 shows three sets of results for the measurement of the diameter of a metal rod of trus diameter 50mm. Which sets ‘of results are accurate, which are precise and which are both? Table 1.24 setamm | 43 | 56] 55 | 42 | 49] 51 Setbjmm | 5.1 | 49] 50 | 49 | 49] 51 setdmm | 47 | 48 | 46] 48] 46 | 47 a b Student A student 8 Precise ‘Accurate tbutnat acawate) —_—_feutnatprecie) (GEGRETA Oemonstrating a prection The diameter of a small ball bearing is measured with callipers giving a value of 6.4mm. Using the formula for volume gives an answer of 137.258 mm?. Record the volume to a sensible number of significant figures. The volume is recorded as 1.4 x 102mm, TnBuna EXAM TIP Good experimental design allows us to investigate the relationship between one independent variable and one dependent variable while controlling all other Variables — WORKED EXAMPLE Find out if the colour of a container affects the rate of cooling. Your experimental dasign should ensure that these factors are kept constant * The temperature of the surroundings * The size of the containers * The volume of liquid in the containers * Air flow Scientific investigations are highly controlled in order to reveal connections between quantities and behaviour. In an ideal experiment a physicist would be able to alter one variable in an experiment and ses the effect of this change in isolation. Key variables The independent variable is the variable waich is manipulated by the experimenter to sce what effect changing it has on the experiment. The dependent variable is the variable which is expected to change in response to altering the independent variable. Scientists explore the connection between these two variables in an experiment by finding a relationship between them and then explaining the cause of that relationship, For example, if you were investigating the hypothesis ‘The colder a sample of water is the denser it will be" then the independent variable would be the temperature of the water as this is what you would be manipulating. The dependent variable would be the density of the water, as this is the quantity you expect to change in response to changing the temperature. Control variables There are usually a wide range of other factors that need to be taken into account during an experiment so that they do not have an effect on the results. These are known as control variables. Good experimental designs ensure that these factors do not alter during the experiment. Graphs One of the best ways to show the relationship between two variables is to plot a graph (Figure 1.3.1). If there is a clear pattern shown in the graph then a clear relationship has besn demonstrated Scientists would then try to explain how this relationship occurs. If an explanation can be given then the relationship is causal. Perfect graph plotting takes time and practice. Use these tips to help produce yours + Use a sharp pencil and ruler + When you draw the axes make sure you leave snough space to label them clearly + Plot the independent variable on the x-avis, + Plot the dependent variable on the y-axis. + Plot the graph so that the data points occupy as much of the graph paper as possible horizontally and vertically + Use increments of 2, 5 or 10 (or their multiples) for your scales if possibleA pendulum isa simple device that can be used to measure time ‘A mass on the end of a thread or wire is allowed to swing freely from side to side (Figure 1.3.2). One complete oscillation isa swing back and forth to the same position. ‘The folowing three factors may affect the period (time it takes for one complete oscillation). Investigate each of the three factors independently while controlling the other two. Collect data and plot separate graphs ‘comparing each of the independent variables to the period * Length of the thread * Mass of the pendulum bob + Initial angle of displacement ‘You will need to use the data to produce a graph in the next topic. | cx 1 Think about the following hypotheses and outline a basic ‘experiment to investigate them. For each one identify clearly the independent variable, dependent variable and any other. variables you will have to control |The greater the current in a light bulb the brighter it willbe. ‘b The further away froma sound you are the quieter it will seem. ¢ The larger the force you put onto a spring the more it will stretch. 2 Table 1.3.1 shows the data from an investigation into resistance. Prot a graph using this data. ble 1.3.1 Potential [0.0 [0.1 ]o2 Jo3 Jos Jos [oe Currenva__ | 0.00| 0.60 | 1.02 | 1.57] 2.07 |2.52 | 3.01 ————————SSS clan Thesd Pe ~— maimumangle of 2 suing about 10 Bob stop san latin =a +b +c ne compte o Tininga pendulum eaeniedGEIR ‘At the ond of this topic you should be able to: * plot a straight line of best fit through a set of points * determine the gradient of a straight line graph * analyse a graph to describe the relationship between the ‘two variables. a Use the data you collected when investigating the relationship between the period of a pendulum’s swing and the length of the pendulum or use the data provided in Table 1.4.1. Table 1.4.1 Lengthym | Period?/s* | F 0.05 020) aio [0.40 015 60 020 [080 0.25 1.01 0.30 121 0.35 1.41 0.40 1.61 + Plot a graph comparing the length of the pendulum with the square of the period (7*). * Describe the relationship ‘shown in the graph. A graph can be analysed to find the relationship between the two variables Graphs showing linear relationships Lines of hest fit are drawn onto graphs to identity the relationship between the independent and dependent variables. These lines follow simple shapes (straight lines or curves) that pass through or close to the points, Straight lines If the points on a graph appear to be ina straight line, you can use a ruler ‘to draw a line of best fit Figure 1.4.1). Draw the line so that it passes ‘through the points with an equal number above and below the line, Some data points may not fit the pattem of results. These may be due to Unexpectedly large random errors or uncertainties produced during the experiment. You may also have made mistakes in recording the data. Do not use these anomalous results when drawing the line of best fit & Ax=8.0- 30595 Times (GGA) Oresing a ne often fe