RABBI THEOLOGICAL SEMINARY AND INTERNATIONAL MINISTRIES, INC.

EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION CERTIFICATE PROGRAM

MODULE 1:
BASIC CHILD PSYCHOLOGY
 HISTORY, TRENDS, & ISSUES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

Desired Outcomes:
At the end of the sessions, students must be able to:
1. Understand the trends and issues confronted by early childhood educators.
2. Adapt to different trends and resolve issues in early childhood education.
3. Know the role of history in early childhood education.
4. Appreciate the historians’ contributions in ECE.

Knowledge Points:
History in the hands of the historian becomes a form of literature. In the hands of the historian, the study and
recording of history is an attempt to give meaning to our past, present, and future. A good historian is one who
gets the facts right and gives us guiding principles and universal concepts from the facts. The historian, in the
details and through the universal concepts, gives us a sense of the people, places, and time. In this way, a good
historian draws us into a personal relationship with the past, allowing us to grow and learn from it.

A. TRENDS & ISSUES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

1. Current trends that will benefit the young children.
2. The child advocacy movement.
3. Increased need for services for young children.
4. Increased concern about low wages worldwide.
5. Increased flexibility and variety in child care alternatives.
6. Increased flexibility and changes in approaches to teachers training.
7. The development of additional pre-kindergarten programs for 4 years old.
8. Recognition of the need for better research.
9. Unsolved problems and new trends demand attention.

GUIDELINES:
1. Teachers should continue to remain open to new ideas & continuous growth.
2. When in doubt about the value of a decision, put the child’s welfare first.

The greater the uncertainty, the more people are influenced by the market trends; and the greater
the influence of trend following speculation, the more uncertain the situation becomes.
-George Saros
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION – is a preparation given to groups of children ages 0-7 intending
to give and effect on their developmental before entering first grade.

HISTORY (Foundations of CE by Robert Pazmiño)

A. FUNCTIONS:
HISTORY - is the science of persons over time.
- Focuses upon a concrete and living reality with a constantly changing & developing character.
- Provides an awareness of both the possibilities and complexities of education.
- Reveals that _____ through all persons who retain the image of God.

B. HISTORIANS ROLE:
1. “The historians concern is to deal with both the outside and inside of an event and to view past actions as a
unity of both dimensions. Their goal is to understand person’s consciousness, thoughts, values, benefits, and
intentions, and their expressions in time and space.” R.L. Collingwood.
2. Historians are interested in the unique, the individual, and the particular in the past.
3. Historical understanding is dependent upon specific situations or settings, particular age or culture, and the
varied intentions and interest of persons, groups, and institutions.
4. Every community has heritage which can serve to guide its life.

I. Reason why historical perspective of education is vital in helping educators assesses the heritage of
educational development:
1. A historical view helps the educator evaluate – in light of sound biblical and educational principles –
purpose, curriculum, and the methodology of the past.
2. History helps to understand contemporary education by assisting educators in understanding the origins and
reasons of the present educational philosophies, curricula, and methodology.
3. History provides insight into the future development of early childhood education.
*** The purpose of history is to ________, and as people get involved in the education of young children, they
are setting the _______ for the future of ECE. ***
Knowing the history gives us support on what we believe in.
Education is cumulative the past gives us educators’ better perspective.
Understanding the early childhood philosophy has deep roots that could serve as inspirations and give us
ideas in our professional expression.
Gives us a better understanding of children based on the _________, _________, and _________ pressures
of that time.
From the different studies in the past allow us to be more aware and be more understanding in the every
___________.

“History is Philosophy teaching by examples.”

- Thucydides
 SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
ANCIENT TIMES
- Children are neither respected nor nurtured
- Parents practice infanticide favoring to males and firstborn.
- Schools of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle only cater to male children from wealthy families.
- Education for children revolved in rituals where they learned their respective roles.
- View children as miniature adults.

MEDIEVAL TIMES (5th – 13th Centuries)

- Children start to work at the age of 7 in the farm, mines, and factories.

LATE REINASSANCE PERIOD (1300s – 1400s) REFORMATION (14TH – 16TH)

- Brought a new universal view of education.
- Reading, writing, and arithmetic instruction became the norm.

THOMAS AQUINAS (1225 - 1274)

- An Italian Philosopher, believed that thinking should agree with Christian tenets:
- God is pure reason; true knowledge is acquired by studying the world through the use of observation and
reason.
- The teacher is God’s agent to elevate the intellect.

JOHN AMOS COMENIUS (1592 - 1670)

- A Czech educator wrote the first picture books for children called OrbisPictus.
- Learning is based on nature or related to child’s life.
- Learning by doing.
- Teachers must observe and work in a natural way which leads to the present issue of school readiness.

JOHN LOCKE (1632 - 1704)

- English philosopher and physician; believes in tabula rasa; no innate ideas in children but they are derived
from experiences.
- Learning is through play and should not be presented as a task.
- The child’s readiness to read is based if he is already talking.

JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU (1712 - 1778)

- A native of Geneva who recognized the natural goodness of children.
- In his book Emile, he describe how a child can be raised in a natural island environment and child centered
education because of his belief in innate wisdom.
- Free play is encouraged and they have the freedom to choose what they need to learn.
- Concrete materials are more encouraged than abstract ones.

JOHANN HEINRICK PESTALOZZI (1746 - 1827)

- A Swiss educator who believed that learning comes from observation and objects, people and moral
situations.
- Learning is by actively using the senses.
- He also believed in the natural goodness of children; educational theories is based on “Anschauung,”
(German word) meaning “perception and observation.”
- He encouraged teaching children in groups in a home-like caring environment.
- Partnership with mothers is also encouraged.
FRIEDRICH WILHELM FROEBEL (1782 - 1852)
- A German educator and father of kindergarten who coined the term kindergarten as children’s garden.
- According to him, children should be nourished and cared for. Play is an integral component on his
kindergarten.
- He created the first educational toys or gifts and he also integrated the use of fingerplays.

RUDOL STEINER (1861 - 1925)

- Born in Austria and founded the Waldorfian approach to education.
- He theorized the 3 periods of life: (a) the will (0-7 years) (b) the heart or
feelings (7-14 years) (c) the head or fusion of the spirit (14 years onwards).
- He believed the environment should be planned well because childhood is the period of the will.
- The teacher is a mother figure and should allow the self-motivation to predominate (adjusting to the child’s
temperament).

MARIA MONTESSORI (1870 - 1952)

- 1st Italian woman trained as a doctor.
- Worked in the slums of Rome with poor and mentally retarded children;
- Opened Casa De Bambini and modified tactile manipulative materials that challenges the senses and the
mind.
- Believed in the sequential steps of learning and the children passes through sensitive periods.
- Believed that the environment should be prepared.

JEAN PIAGET (1896 - 1980)

- A Swiss Psychologist who formulated a theory of intellectual development based on the academic work and
parenting experiences with 3 children;
- Both nature and nurture affect how human develop.
- He is the proponent of constructivist view, i.e., children construct ideas through play experiences with
concrete objects.

COLONIAL TIMES
- Education served as a tool to read the Bible using the minister as teacher.
- Classrooms are installed in churches and children have to walk in long distances and discipline is harsh and
cruel.
- Education has segregation along gender, socio-economic status and racial lines.
- In 1779, Thomas Jefferson passed a bill making education for all races and gender.

HORACE MANN (1796 - 1859)

- The father of public education in the States.
- Believed that free education is the birthright of every American child.

MACMILLAN SISTERS: MARGARET AND RACHEL (1860 - 1931)

- American educators who believed in an open air nursery, minimizing health problems.
- They believed in the development of imagination and perceptual motor skills.
- Teachers should nurture child and develop informal teaching.

STANLEY HALL (1844 – 1924)

- Initiated the scientific study of developments of children.
- Pioneered the use of anecdotal records.
ARNOLD GESELL (1880 - 1961)
- Worked with Hall, began to systematically analyze the child development.
- He found that the child’s behavior is followed by developmental patterns.

JOHN DEWEY (1858 - 1952)

- His famous dictum is “Learning by doing” He influenced the Progressive Movement in the US.
- Education’s goal – to help children live cooperatively.
- Education should be integrated with life and should be child-centered.
- He believed in the innate goodness of child.

PATTY SMITH HILL (1868 - 1946)

- Wrote the “Happy Birthday Song”
- One of the most able leaders of Progressive Movement.
- Founded the National Association for Nursery Education known as National Association for the Education of
Young Children (NAEYC).
- Trained by Froebel, worked with Hall.
- Also, worked with Dewey who gave her a well-blended curriculum unifying first grade work to 5 year olds
enhancing creativity and independence before entering first grade.

LUCY SPRAGUE MITCHELL (1878 - 1967)

- Raised in an environment of educational and social reform.
- Believed that schools should serve as community centers allowing the children to think.
- Gathered professionals to promote and sponsor educational laboratories, teacher’s college, and workshop for
writers and bulletin to disseminate about progressive movement.

ABIGAIL ELLIOT (1892 - 1992)

- Integrated Froebel’s gifts or toys, Montessori’s materials, McMillan’s fresh air, and her own ideas.
- 20th CENTURY
- The need for pre-schools grew during WW II when nearly 1/3 of the women needed to join the workforce.
- After the war, women were forced to go back home and men were urged to work outside the home.

1957
- Montessori reappeared.
- Progressive education gained more recognition.
- Open classroom became more common.

1965 PROJECT HEADSTART

- Became a program to fight poverty among children targeting poor children ages 3 – 5.
- Project was successful giving higher literacy rates among children that helped them go through secondary
education and secure employment more likely than their counterparts.

2000
- 7 out of 10 preschool children have working mothers.
- Despite the need for preschools, teachers are paid low and given few benefits limiting the capability of
centers to give the needed education.
NAEYCA
- Developed a position statement on developmentally appropriate practice for children: toddlers (1 - 3 years
old); 4 – 5 years old; and primary grade children 5 – 8 years old urging educators to research and compile
references in child development theory and develop more ways to help children.

HOWARD GARDNER (1983)

- Proponent of Multiple Intelligences: Linguistic, Mathematico-logical, Musical, Spatial, Kinesthetic,
Interpersonal, and Naturalistic.
- Believes that teachers and parents should give importance to observation of young children to reveal their
intellectual potential and give the appropriate teaching styles to suit their respective learning styles.

SUMMARY STUDY OF THE CHILD (PAST, PRESENT, & FUTURE)

1. PLATO
- Believed that human beings were gentle by nature but in danger of becoming savage if not provided with
proper training.

2. ARISTOTLE
- Concluded that some individuals are blessed by nature; some may be unwilling or unable to respond to
teaching.

3. JOHN LOCKE
- The English Philosopher, contented that the newborn infant is like a blank state of paper and that ideas come
from observation & observation.

4. JONATHAN EDWARDS
- The American Theologian, rejected Locke’s view of the child as a empty and therefore innocent organism
and insisted that the Biblical emphasis on original sin must be acknowledge and that the child is born wicked
& depraved.

5. JEAN JACQUES ROUSSEAU

- European Romanticist, proclaimed a diametrically opposed view maintaining that everything is good, not
evil, as it comes from the hands of the Maker. He agreed with Plato that the basic goodness of human beings
might degenerate if the children is not provided with proper education.

6. JOHAN B. WATSON
- America’s first developmental psychologist, claimed that he could mold personality any way he chose.

7. FRANCIS ILG & LOUISE AMES

- Directors of the Gesell Institute of Child Development, were convinced that by the 1950’s most people had
rejected Watson’s contention that parents could shape the children’s personalities. They stressed inner
determination of behavior.

8. B.F. SKINNER
- Writing at the same time as Ilg and Ames contended that their view was pre-scientific and that the scientific
analysis of behavior led to the conclusion that the environment determines the individual.
9. ABRAHAM MASLOW
- Took issue with Skinner’s stress on environmental determinism and argued that each of us inherit an essential
inner nature and that we influence our own development.

10. JAMES McCONNELL

- Flatly rejects Maslow’s view. He asserts that the individual has no control over his own personality and
agrees with Skinner that the environment determines the behavior.

11. BRITISH & AMERICAN RELIGIOUS LEADERS of the 17th century proclaimed that the child is
born sinful.

We can learn from history how past generations thought and acted, how they responded to the demands of
their problems. We ca learn by analogy, not by example, for our circumstances will always be different
than theirs were. The main thing history can teach us is that human actions have consequences and that
certain choices, once made, and cannot be undone. They foreclose the possibility of making other choices
and thus they determine future events.

-GERDA LENER
 HISTORY OF EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION IN THE PHILIPPINES; PRIVATE &
PUBLIC SCHOOLS
The need for quality preschools in the Philippines has received its due attention since the Spanish to the
American era. From using “cartilla” and “caton” as means of learning the alphabet before they reach first grade
(Estolaz & Nuñez, 1994), three to six-year old children of the “illustrados” began using the American
educational system, patterning the nationwide establishment of a nationwide public library, yet, only the
privileged few benefited. Some examples of remarkable changes in the recognition of preschool education that
happened when the Americans came were (Santos, 1990):

THEORIES OF EARLY CHILDHOOD

Jean Piaget’s Four Stages of Cognitive Development

Piaget was born in Switzerland in the late 1800s and was a precocious student, publishing his first scientific
paper when he was just 11 years old. His early exposure to the intellectual development of children came when
he worked as an assistant to Albert Binet and Theodore Simon as they worked to standardize their famous IQ
test. Much of Piaget's interest in the cognitive development of children was inspired by his observations of his
own nephew and daughter. These observations reinforced his budding hypothesis that children's minds were
not merely smaller versions of adult minds.
Instead, he proposed, intelligence is something that grows and develops through a series of stages. Older
children do not just think more quickly than younger children, he suggested.
Instead, there are both qualitative and quantitative differences between the thinking of young children versus
older children.
Based on his observations, he concluded that children were not less intelligent than adults, they simply think
differently. Albert Einstein called Piaget's discovery "so simple only a genius could have thought of it."
Piaget's stage theory describes the cognitive development of children. Cognitive development involves
changes in cognitive process and abilities. In Piaget's view, early cognitive development involves processes
based upon actions and later progresses to changes in mental operations.
Look at Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development
Through his observations of his children, Piaget developed a stage theory of intellectual development that
included four distinct stages:

The Sensorimotor Stage

Ages: Birth to 2 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• The infant knows the world through their movements and sensations.
• Children learn about the world through basic actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and listening.
• Infants learn that things continue to exist even though they cannot be seen (object permanence).
• They are separate beings from the people and objects around them.
• They realize that their actions can cause things to happen in the world around them.
• During this earliest stage of cognitive development, infants and toddlers acquire knowledge through sensory
experiences and manipulating objects. Children go through a period of dramatic growth and learning. As kids
interact with their environment, they are continually making new discoveries about how the world works.
• The cognitive development that occurs during this period takes place over a relatively short period of time
and involves a great deal of growth. Children not only learn how to perform physical actions such as crawling
and walking, they also learn a great deal about language from the people with whom they interact. Piaget also
broke this stage down into a number of different sub stages. It is during the final part of the sensorimotor stage
that early representational thought emerges.
• Piaget believed that developing object permanence or object constancy, the understanding that objects
continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, was an important element at this point of development.
• By learning that objects are separate and distinct entities and that they have an existence of their own outside
of individual perception, children are then able to begin to attach names and words to objects.

The Preoperational Stage

Ages: 2 to 7 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to represent objects.
• Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the perspective of others.
• While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think about things in very concrete
terms.
• The foundations of language development may have been laid during the previous stage, but it is the
emergence of language that is one of the major hallmarks of the preoperational stage of development. Children
become much more skilled at pretend play during this stage of development, yet still think very concretely
about the world around them.
• At this stage, kids learn through pretend play but still struggle with logic and taking the point of view of other
people. They also often struggle with understanding the idea of constancy.
For example, a researcher might take a lump of clay, divide it into two equal pieces, and then give a child the
choice between two pieces of clay to play with. One piece of clay is rolled into a compact ball while the other
is smashed into a flat pancake shape. Since the flat shape looks larger, the preoperational child will likely
choose that piece even though the two pieces are exactly the same size.
The Concrete Operational Stage
Ages: 7 to 11 Years
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes
• During this stage, children begin to thinking logically about concrete events.
• They begin to understand the concept of conservation; that the amount of liquid in a short, wide cup is equal
to that in a tall, skinny glass, for example.
• Their thinking becomes more logical and organized, but still very concrete.
• Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a general principle.
• While children are still very concrete and literal in their thinking at this point in development, they become
much more adept and using logic. The egocentrism of the previous stage begins to disappear as kids become
better at thinking about how other people might view a situation.
• While thinking becomes much more logical during the concrete operational state, it can also be very rigid.
Kids at this point in development tend to struggle with abstract and hypothetical concepts.
• During this stage, children also become less egocentric and begin to think about how other people might
think and feel. Kids in the concrete operational stage also begin to understand that their thoughts are unique to
them and that not everyone else necessarily shares their thoughts, feelings, and opinions.

The Formal Operational Stage

Ages: 12 and Up
Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
• At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason about hypothetical
problems.
• Abstract thought emerges.
• Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political issues that require
theoretical and abstract reasoning.
• Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific information.
• The final stage of Piaget's theory involves an increase in logic, the ability to use deductive reasoning, and an
understanding of abstract ideas. At this point, people become capable of seeing multiple potential solutions to
problems and think more scientifically about the world around them.
• The ability to thinking about abstract ideas and situations is the key hallmark of the formal operational stage
of cognitive development. The ability to systematically plan for the future and reason about hypothetical
situations are also critical abilities that emerge during this stage.
• It is important to note that Piaget did not view children's intellectual development as a quantitative process;
that is, kids do not just add more information and knowledge to their existing knowledge as they get older.
Instead, Piaget suggested that there is a qualitative change in how children think as they gradually process
through these four stages. A child at age 7 doesn't just have more information thinks about the world than he
did at age 2; there is a fundamental change in how he thinks about the world.

Important Concepts in Cognitive Development

To better understand some of the things that happen during cognitive development, it is important first to
examine a few of the important ideas and concepts introduced by Piaget.
The following are some of the factors that influence how children learn and grow:
Schemas
A schema describes both the mental and physical actions involved in understanding and knowing. Schemas are
categories of knowledge that help us to interpret and understand the world.
In Piaget's view, a schema includes both a category of knowledge and the process of obtaining that knowledge.
As experiences happen, this new information is used to modify, add to, or change previously existing schemas.
For example, a child may have a schema about a type of animal, such as a dog. If the child's sole experience
has been with small dogs, a child might believe that all dogs are small, furry, and have four legs. Suppose then
that the child encounters an enormous dog. The child will take in this new information, modifying the
previously existing schema to include these new observations.

Assimilation
The process of taking in new information into our already existing schemas is known as assimilation. The
process is somewhat subjective because we tend to modify experiences and information slightly to fit in with
our pre-existing beliefs. In the example above, seeing a dog and labeling it "dog" is a case of assimilating the
animal into the child's dog schema.

Accommodation
Another part of adaptation involves changing or altering our existing schemas in light of new information, a
process known as accommodation. Accommodation involves modifying existing schemas, or ideas, as a result
of new information or new experiences. New schemas may also be developed during this process.

Equilibration
Piaget believed that all children try to strike a balance between assimilation and accommodation, which is
achieved through a mechanism Piaget called equilibration. As children progress through the stages of cognitive
development, it is important to maintain a balance between applying previous knowledge (assimilation) and
changing behavior to account for new knowledge (accommodation). Equilibration helps explain how children
can move from one stage of thought into the next.

Lev Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory

Vygotsky’s theory is one of the foundations of constructivism. It asserts three major themes regarding social
interaction, the more knowledgeable other, and the zone of proximal development.

Social Interaction
Social interaction plays a fundamental role in the process of cognitive development. In contrast to Jean
Piaget’s understanding of child development (in which development necessarily precedes learning), Vygotsky
felt social learning precedes development. He states: “Every function in the child’s cultural development
appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level; first, between people
(interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)”.
The More Knowledgeable Other (MKO)
The MKO refers to anyone who has a better understanding or a higher ability level than the learner, with
respect to a particular task, process, or concept. The MKO is normally thought of as being a teacher, coach, or
older adult, but the MKO could also be peers, a younger person, or even computers.

The Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

The ZPD is the distance between a student’s ability to perform a task under adult guidance and/or with peer
collaboration and the student’s ability solving the problem independently. According to Vygotsky, learning
occurred in this zone.
Vygotsky focused on the connections between people and the sociocultural context in which they act and
interact in shared experiences. According to Vygotsky, humans use tools that develop from a culture, such as
speech and writing, to mediate their social environments. Initially children develop these tools to serve solely
as social functions, ways to communicate needs. Vygotsky believed that the internalization of these tools led to
higher thinking skills.
Applications of the Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Many schools have traditionally held a transmissionist or instructionist model in which a teacher or lecturer
‘transmits’ information to students. In contrast, Vygotsky’s theory promotes learning contexts in which
students play an active role in learning. Roles of the teacher and student are therefore shifted, as a teacher
should collaborate with his or her students in order to help facilitate meaning construction in students.
Learning therefore becomes a reciprocal experience for the students and teacher.

John Dewey’s Progressive Theory

The movement had its roots in the thought of many people, but its major founders were Francis Parker and
John Dewey, both of whom refined their educational ideas here. Progressive philosophy was based on an
optimistic view of human nature. Progressive schools avoided the regimentation that characterized most
schools of the era. The children who attended progressive schools learned in informal settings.

Purpose of Schooling
Progressivists believe the purpose of schooling should be not about competition, but about being able to
cooperate. Being able to develop problem-solving and decision-making skills is a major part of progressivism
and what progressivists believe. Our textbook says, “Dewey envisioned such a democratic community to be
pluralistic in nature and include moral, economic, educational, and political goals.”

Nature of the Learner

While reading the material from the Foundations of American Education, I learned that progressivism is
known as “learning by doing.” Progressivism lets the students be involved and active in learning and working
to solve problems. This lets the learner be capable of establishing rules for the classroom and finding ideas on
how to develop problem-solving and decision-making skills.

Curriculum
In the reading of Foundations of American Education, I found that curriculum is a very important theory. The
curriculum of progressivism is known to integrate several subjects but not reflect universal truths, a particular
body of knowledge, or a set of prescribed core courses. Lerner described the curriculum as child entered, peer
centered, growth centered, growth centered, action centered, process and change centered, equality centered,
and also community centered. This would make the student learn in a different way and they would experience
science by exploring their immediate physical world. All students would learn in a "social" kind of way.
Also in reading from the text, The Foundations of America Education, I found that Progressivist Dewey
maintained that experience was the basics of education but also cautioned that not all experiences are equaled
followed by this quote:
"The belief that all genuine education comes about through experience does not mean that all experiences are
genuinely or equally educative. Experience and education cannot be directly equated to each other. For some
experiences are mis-educative. Any experience is mis-education that has the effect of arresting or distorting
the growth of further experience."
Instructional Methods
In reading from the Foundations of America Education I found that teachers who use the philology
progressivism should teach and plan lessons that deal with group activities. These activities that the teacher
plans should be able to help the student use their mind through problem solving, that they work together and
use each other’s minds. These projects should be centered on their own lives and what’s affecting them. The
progressivist curriculum is a very energetic. The book also states that “teaching is...exploratory rather than
explanatory”

Classroom Management
The Foundations of America Education says that progressivism view learning as education it focuses on the
physical, emotional, and social aspects of the individual. In a progressivist class the class room is a very active
classroom. The class is more self-directed, the teachers have to focus on the students as an individual, and that
makes it better to see the student develop. The classroom would also focus on a democracy environment and
show case citizenship. Alone with management in the classroom they would have to make sure they get the
parents active in the student education.

Assessment
The approach that Progressive has to evaluation differs from the traditional approaches because of all the
supporting group process, cooperative learning and democratic participation. According to the text,
Foundations of American Education, 6th edition, assessment deals with monitoring what the students are doing
and appraising what skills the students still need to learn. The assessment in my opinion keeps track of all
things in the classroom, like the book says it monitors
what the students are doing and what they still need to learn. All students should learn as much as they can to
be successful. If any problems occur in the education process then the progressiveness may use or deal with the
problems.

The Progressivist Teacher

This is the kind of teacher that serves more as a guide and they facilitate learning by assisting students to
sample direct experience. The progressivist teacher works beyond the individual in the classroom. This kind of
teacher would be good with making group decisions and keeping in their mind the consequences for the
students and how it may or may not benefit them. The teacher's role is to help his or her students acquire the
values of the democratic system. The book, Foundations of American Education thought me all about what it
takes to be a progressvist teacher.

Leading Educational Proponents

Dewey dealt with progressivism as he emphasized individual learning. Teacher-student interaction was very
important to Dewey, and in my opinion I believe the same. Even though after WWII, progressivism fell, it has
never left and is still in today's schools. The textbook also states, “Coalition schools promote:
· Personalized instruction to address individual needs and interests
· Small schools and classrooms where teachers and students know each other well and work in an atmosphere
of trust and high expectations
· Multiple assessments based on performance of authentic tasks
· Democratic and equitable school policies and practice
· Close partnerships with the school community”
 Abraham Maslow’s Self Actualization Theory

Over sixty years ago, Abraham Maslow (1908-1970) theorized that a specific series of needs must be met
before any child could learn. Current brain research confirms his theory. Below is a brief explanation of
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs:
• Physiological needs: nutrition, sleep, exercise, health;
• Safety needs: both physical and emotional;
• Love and belonging needs: affection shown to the child, trust of those around him, someone who listens,
daily order, a right to privacy, unconditional love;
• Self-esteem needs: someone affirms the child’s worth, child is given the opportunity to achieve, to make
choices, to be successful;
• Self-actualization needs: child is developing abilities and strengths, problem-solving skills strengthening.
A child who is hungry cannot learn. A child who is stressed cannot learn. A child who is in an environment
absent of unconditional love cannot learn.
In fact, the brain of a child who feels emotionally or physically threatened produces chemicals that actually
inhibit learning.
Threat or stress put the brain in survival mode at the expense of higher order thinking skills, and lasting threat
or stress reduces the brain’s capacity for understanding,
meaning, memory, and analytical thinking. Therefore, it is vital that we assist emergent readers by ensuring
that; first, the conditions necessary for learning are in place.
If, upon occasion, your child is not learning, perhaps he does not feel safe. Talk to him about your family’s
faith in God. Talk to him about how the adults in his midst care for him.
If your child is not fearful about issues of safety, but is still having a difficult time learning, look to his sleep
patterns, nutrition, relationships with peers, or other physical or emotional needs. Help him construct a firm
foundation for learning.

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs is a popular motivation theory that is widely referred to in educational circles. In
this theory, Abraham Maslow suggested that before individuals meet their full potential, they need to satisfy a
series of needs. It's important to note that Maslow based his theory more on philosophy than on scientific
evidence. However, Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs can provide teachers a reminder and framework that our
students are less likely to perform at their full potential if their basic needs are unmet.
 Applying Maslow’s Theory in Our Classrooms

This popular theory proposes that individuals’ basic needs must be satisfied before their higher needs become
motivating, In a classroom, this would suggest that before students can excel at their full potential, we must
ensure that their basic need are met.
While it’s important to note that this theory lacks scientific validation, Maslow’s Heirarchy of Needs can serve
as an important reminder to educators to support all of the needs of the students.

How to help:
Physiological Needs
• Do we allow students to have water bottles in the room? Research shows the many benefits of fed students.
• If students had not enough food, do we have sustaining nutritious snacks? Foods with complex carbs can help
learners maintain energy levels.
• If needed, do we allow a sleep-deprived student a short nap in another room? Research is clear on the
importance of sleep and learning.

Safety Needs
• Is the student coming from a safe stable home? If not, we need to be prepared for difficult transitions at the
beginning and end of the school day
• Does the student feel safe from bullying in our classroom? Of not, we need to be deliberate in creating a
classroom culture of trust and safety

Love & Belonging Needs

• Consider our classroom seating arrangement; do we deliberately sit students who lack friends with peers who
are friendly and accepting?
• Do we pick student groups randomly, or do we deliberately place students in groups that promote stronger
relationships and a sense of belonging?

Esteem Needs
• Do we consistently provide individual students with affirmative and specific compliments?
• Do we provide students the opportunity to affirm their peers with specific compliments?

Self-Actualization
• Are we providing means for our students tap into their potential leadership skills?
• Do we allow them to thinks on their own during activities and tasks in school?
 Erik Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Erikson believed that personality developed in a series of stages. Unlike Freud's theory of psychosexual stages,
Erikson's theory described the impact of social experience across the whole lifespan. Erikson was interested in
how social interaction and relationships played a role in the development and growth of human beings.
Each stage in Erikson's theory builds on the preceding stages and paves the way for following periods of
development. In each stage, Erikson believed people experience a conflict that serves as a turning point in
development. In Erikson's view, these conflicts are centered on either developing a psychological quality or
failing to develop that quality. During these times, the potential for personal growth is high but so is the
potential for failure.

If people successfully deal with the conflict, they emerge from the stage with psychological strengths that will
serve them well for the rest of their lives.
If they fail to deal effectively with these conflicts, they may not develop the essential skills needed for a strong
sense of self.
Erikson also believed that a sense of competence motivates behaviors and actions. Each stage in Erikson's
theory is concerned with becoming competent in an area of life.
If the stage is handled well, the person will feel a sense of mastery, which is sometimes referred to as ego
strength or ego quality. If the stage is managed poorly, the person will emerge with a sense of inadequacy in
that aspect of development.

Psychosocial Stage 1 - Trust vs. Mistrust

The first stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development occurs between birth and one year of age and
is the most fundamental stage in life.
Because an infant is utterly dependent, developing trust is based on the dependability and quality of the child's
caregivers. At this point in development, the child is utterly dependent upon adult caregivers for everything
that he or she needs to survive including food, love, warmth, safety, and nurturing. If a caregiver fails to
provide adequate care and love, the child will come to feel that he or she cannot trust or depend upon the adults
in his or her life.
If a child successfully develops trust, he or she will feel safe and secure in the world. Caregivers who are
inconsistent, emotionally unavailable, or rejecting contribute to feelings of mistrust in the children under their
care. Failure to develop trust will result in fear and a belief that the world is inconsistent and unpredictable.
Of course, no child is going to develop a sense of 100 percent trust or 100 percent doubt. Erikson believed that
successful development was all about striking a balance between the two opposing sides. When this happens,
children acquire hope, which Erikson described as openness to experience tempered by some wariness that
danger may be present.

Psychosocial Stage 2 - Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

The second stage of Erikson's theory of psychosocial development takes place during early childhood and is
focused on children developing a greater sense of personal control.
At this point in development, children are just starting to gain a little independence.
They are starting to perform basic actions on their own and making simple decisions about what they prefer.
By allowing kids to make choices and gain control, parents and caregivers can help children develop a sense of
autonomy.
Like Freud, Erikson believed that toilet training was a vital part of this process. However, Erikson's reasoning
was quite different than that of Freud's. Erikson believed that learning to control one's bodily functions leads to
a feeling of control and a sense of independence.
Other important events include gaining more control over food choices, toy preferences, and clothing selection.
Children who successfully complete this stage feel secure and confident, while those who do not are left with a
sense of inadequacy and self-doubt. Erikson believed that achieving a balance between autonomy and shame
and doubt would lead to will, which is the belief that children can act with intention, within reason and limits.

Psychosocial Stage 3 - Initiative vs. Guilt

The third stage of psychosocial development takes place during the preschool years.
At this point in psychosocial development, children begin to assert their power and control over the world
through directing play and other social interactions.
Children who are successful at this stage feel capable and able to lead others. Those who fail to acquire these
skills are left with a sense of guilt, self-doubt, and lack of initiative.
When an ideal balance of individual initiative and a willingness to work with others is achieved, the ego
quality known as purpose emerges.

Psychosocial Stage 4 - Industry vs. Inferiority

The fourth psychosocial stage takes place during the early school years from approximately age 5 to 11.
Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.
Children who are encouraged and commended by parents and teachers develop a feeling of competence and
belief in their skills. Those who receive little or no encouragement from parents, teachers, or peers will doubt
their abilities to be successful.
Successfully finding a balance at this stage of psychosocial development leads to the strength known as
competence, in which children develop a belief, their abilities to handle the tasks set before them.

Psychosocial Stage 5 - Identity vs. Confusion

The fifth psychosocial stage takes place during the often turbulent teenage years. This stage plays an essential
role in developing a sense of personal identity which will continue to influence behavior and development for
the rest of a person's life.
During adolescence, children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. Those who receive
proper encouragement and reinforcement through personal exploration will emerge from this stage with a
strong sense of self and feelings of
independence and control. Those who remain unsure of their beliefs and desires will feel insecure and
confused about themselves and the future.
When psychologists talk about identity, they are referring to all of the beliefs, ideals, and values that help
shape and guide a person's behavior. Completing this stage successfully leads to fidelity, which Erikson
described as an ability to live by society's standards and expectations.
While Erikson believed that each stage of psychosocial development was important, he placed a particular
emphasis on the development of ego identity. Ego identity is the conscious sense of self that we develop
through social interaction and becomes a central focus during the identity versus confusion stage of
psychosocial development.
According to Erikson, our ego identity constantly changes due to new experiences and information we acquire
in our daily interactions with others. As we have new experiences, we also take on challenges that can help or
hinder the development of identity.
Our personal identity gives each of us an integrated and cohesive sense of self that endures throughout lives.
Our sense of personal identity is shaped by our experiences and interactions with others, and it is this identity
that helps guide our actions, beliefs, and behaviors as we age.
Psychosocial Stage 6 - Intimacy vs. Isolation
This stage covers the period of early adulthood when people are exploring personal relationships.
Erikson believed it was vital that people develop close, committed relationships with other people. Those who
are successful at this step will form relationships that are enduring and secure.
Remember that each step builds on skills learned in previous steps. Erikson believed that a strong sense of
personal identity was important for developing intimate relationships. Studies have demonstrated that those
with a poor sense of self do tend to have less committed relationships and are more likely to suffer emotional
isolation, loneliness, and depression.
Successful resolution of this stage results in the virtue known as love. It is marked by the ability to form
lasting, meaningful relationships with other people.

Psychosocial Stage 7 - Generativity vs. Stagnation

During adulthood, we continue to build our lives, focusing on our career and family.
Those who are successful during this phase will feel that they are contributing to the world by being active in
their home and community. Those who fail to attain this skill will feel unproductive and uninvolved in the
world.
Care is the virtue achieved when this stage is handled successfully. Being proud of your accomplishments,
watching your children grow into adults, and developing a sense of unity with your life partner are important
accomplishments of this stage.

Psychosocial Stage 8 - Integrity vs. Despair

The final psychosocial stage occurs during old age and is focused on reflecting back on life.
At this point in development, people look back on the events of their lives and determine if they are happy
with the life that they lived or if they regret the things they did or didn't do.
Those who are unsuccessful during this stage will feel that their life has been wasted and will experience many
regrets. The individual will be left with feelings of bitterness and despair.
Those who feel proud of their accomplishments will feel a sense of integrity. Successfully completing this
phase means looking back with few regrets and a general feeling of satisfaction. These individuals will attain
wisdom, even when confronting death.
 Lawrence Kohlberg’s Levels and Stages of Moral Development
Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality
The first level of morality, pre-conventional morality, can be further divided into two stages: obedience and
punishment, and individualism and exchange.

Stage 1: Punishment - Obedience Orientation

Related to Skinner’s Operational Conditioning, this stage includes the use of punishment so that the person
refrains from doing the action and continues to obey the rules. For example, we follow the law because we do
not want to go to jail.

Stage 2: Instrumental Relativist Orientation

In this stage, the person is said to judge the morality of an action based on how it satisfies the individual needs
of the doer. For instance, a person steals money from another person because he needs that money to buy food
for his hungry children.
In Kohlberg’s theory, the children tend to say that this action is morally right because of the serious need of the
doer.

Level 2: Conventional Morality

The second level of morality involves the stages 3 and 4 of moral development. Conventional morality
includes the society and societal roles in judging the morality of an action.

Stage 3: Good Boy-Nice Girl Orientation

In this stage, a person judges an action based on the societal roles and social expectations before him. This is
also known as the “interpersonal relationships” phase. For example, a child gives away her lunch to a street
peasant because she thinks doing so means being nice.

Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation

This stage includes respecting the authorities and following the rules, as well as doing a person’s duty. The
society is the main consideration of a person at this stage. For instance, a policeman refuses the money offered
to him under the table and arrests the offender because he believes this is his duty as an officer of peace and
order.

Level 3: Post-conventional Morality

The post-conventional morality includes stage 5 and stage 6. This is mainly concerned with the universal
principles that relation to the action done.

Stage 5: Social Contract Orientation

In this stage, the person is look at various opinions and values of different people before coming up with the
decision on the morality of the action.

Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles Orientation

The final stage of moral reasoning, this orientation is when a person considers universally accepted ethical
principles. The judgment may become innate and may even violate the laws and rules as the person becomes
attached to his own principles of justice
How to Apply Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development in Early Childhood
Everybody hopes their children will grow up to be people with integrity and high moral standards. Hope alone
will not instill morality, however, so parents and people who work with young children can turn to the moral
development theories of scholars such as Lawrence Kohlberg -- who developed the six stages of moral
development -- and teachers who have devised ways to help children develop according to these stages.

Step 1
Understand Kohlberg's work. Kohlberg believed there were three levels and six stages of moral development.
The first, the Pre-conventional Level, is the level at which young children operate. Morality is seen as outside
the self, a set of rules imposed upon children by adults. Stage 1 is Obedience and Punishment Orientation. This
stage is extremely rule-oriented; anything that leads to punishment from the grownups is seen as inherently
bad, and anything the grownups reward is automatically good. Stage 2 is Individualism and Exchange. The
rules are no longer seen as a one-size-fits-all application, and children understand different people can have
different viewpoints of right and wrong. The standard is self-interest. What is best for the individual is what's
right. The child also begins to recognize the need for mutual benefit; they are beginning to see morality in
terms of treating others well so they will treat you well. According to "Early Childhood News," young
children are generally in the pre-conventional stage of morality. The goal, however, is to encourage children to
reach for the next level. Level 2, Conventional Morality, consists of Stage 3, Good Interpersonal Relationships,
and Stage 4, Maintaining the Social Order. In Stage 3, people value unselfishness and empathy; in Stage 4,
they are concerned with behaving in a way that helps society run smoothly.

Step 2
Teach morality through discussion and stories. "Early Childhood News" offered several ideas. It recommends
talking to children when a moral infraction has been committed, asking them to think of how it affected other
people and how to make amends. It also suggests allowing children to experience moral conflicts during free
play and giving them practice in working democratically to solve the conflicts. Another recommendation is to
let the children help make some rules, instructing them to think of what's best for the group. This lays the
groundwork for Stage 4 morality. Many stories open the door for discussion about morality, including "The
Little Red Hen," "The Cat in the Hat" and "The Little Engine That Could."

Step 3
Teach children morality using games and activities. Mauritis University offers ideas for games to promote
moral development. One requires a board with a red check mark at the top of one column and a green mark at
the top of another and a set of cards depicting good actions, such as placing garbage in a container, and bad
actions, like throwing it on the ground. Children take turns choosing a card and putting it in the correct
column, explaining the reasons for their choice. Parents help children stretch to
the next level by pointing out picking up garbage helps keep the community clean for everyone. Activities that
build empathy help children move into Stage 3 thinking. Caring for a plant or a pet, visiting elderly people in a
nursing home and making cards for sick friends or family members offer opportunities to teach children to
think of the needs of others.

Tips
• Praise moral behavior, such as being kind and putting the needs of others first.
• Encourage role-playing and games of pretend so children can learn to think from other people's point of view.
 Urie Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory
American psychologist, Urie Bronfenbrenner, formulated the Ecological Systems Theory to explain how
the inherent qualities of a child and his environment interact to influence how he will grow and develop.
Through the Bronfenbrenner Ecological Theory,
Bronfenbrenner stressed the importance of studying a child in the context of multiple environments, also
known as ecological systems in the attempt to understand his development.
A child typically finds himself simultaneously enmeshed in different ecosystems, from the most intimate
home ecological system moving outward to the larger school system and the most expansive system
which is society and culture. Each of these systems inevitably interacts with and influences each other in
every aspect of the child’s life.
The Urie Bronfenbrenner model organizes contexts of development into five levels of external influence.
The levels are categorized from the most intimate level to the broadest.

Microsystem
The microsystem is the smallest and most immediate environment in which the child lives. As such, the
microsystem comprises the daily home, school or daycare, peer group or community environment of the child.
Interactions within the microsystem typically involve personal relationships with family members, classmates,
teachers and caregivers, in which influences go back and forth. How these groups or individuals interact with
the child will affect how the child grows. Similarly, how the child reacts to people in his microsystem will also
influence how they treat the child in return. More nurturing and more supportive interactions and relationships
will understandably foster the child’s improved development.
Given two siblings experiencing the same microsystem, however, it is not impossible for the development of
the two siblings to progress in different manners. Each child’s particular personality traits, such as
temperament, which is influenced by unique genetic and biological factors, ultimately have a hand in how he is
treated by others.
One of the most significant findings that Urie Bronfenbrenner unearthed in his study of ecological systems is
that it is possible for siblings who find themselves within the same ecological system to still experience very
different environments.

Mesosystem
The mesosystem encompasses the interaction of the different microsystems which the developing child finds
himself in. It is, in essence, a system of microsystems and as such, involves linkages between home and
school, between peer group and family, or between family and church.
If a child’s parents are actively involved in the friendships of their child, invite friends over to their house and
spend time with them, then the child’s development is affected positively through harmony and like-
mindedness. However, if the child’s parents dislike their child’s peers and openly criticize them, then the child
experiences disequilibrium and conflicting emotions, probably affecting his development negatively.

Exosystem
The exosystem pertains to the linkages that may exist between two or more settings, one of which may not
contain the developing child but affects him indirectly nonetheless. Other people and places which the child
may not directly interact with but may still have an effect on the child, comprise the exosystem. Such places
and people may include the parents’ workplaces, the larger neighborhood, and extended family members.
For example, a father who is continually passed up for promotion by an indifferent boss at the workplace may
take it out on his children and mistreat them at home.

Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the largest and most distant collection of people and places to the child that still exercises
significant influence on the child. It is composed of the child’s cultural patterns and values, specifically the
child’s dominant beliefs and ideas, as well as political and economic systems. Children in war-torn areas, for
example, will
experience a different kind of development than children in communities where peace reigns.

Chronosystem
The chronosystem adds the useful dimension of time, which demonstrates the influence of both change and
constancy in the child’s environment. The chronosystem may thus include a change in family structure,
address, parent’s employment status, in addition to immense society changes such as economic cycles and
wars.
By studying the different systems that simultaneously influence a child, the Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Theory is able to demonstrate the diversity of interrelated influences on the child’s development. Awareness of
contexts can sensitize us to variations in the way a child may act in different settings.
For example, a child who frequently bullies smaller children at school may portray the role of a terrified victim
at home. Due to these variations, adults concerned with the care of a particular child should pay close attention
to behavior in different settings or contexts and to the quality and type of connections that exist between these
contexts.
 John Bowlby’s Evolutionary Theory of Attachment
Attachment is a deep and enduring emotional bond that connects one person to another across time and space.
Attachment does not have to be reciprocal. One person may have an attachment to an individual which is not
shared. Attachment is characterized by specific behaviors in children, such as seeking proximity with the
attachment figure when upset or threatened (Bowlby, 1969).
Attachment behavior in adults towards the child includes responding sensitively and appropriately to the
child’s needs. Such behavior appears universal across cultures. Attachment theory explains how the parent-
child relationship emerges and influences subsequent development.
Attachment theory in psychology originates with the seminal work of John Bowlby (1958). In the 1930’s John
Bowlby worked as a psychiatrist in a Child Guidance Clinic in London, where he treated many emotionally
disturbed children.
This experience led Bowlby to consider the importance of the child’s relationship with their mother in terms of
their social, emotional and cognitive development. Specifically, it shaped his belief about the link between
early infant separations with the mother and later maladjustment, and led Bowlby to formulate his attachment
theory.
John Bowlby, working alongside James Robertson (1952) observed that children experienced intense distress
when separated from their mothers. Even when such children were fed by other caregivers, this did not
diminish the child’s anxiety.
These findings contradicted the dominant behavioral theory of attachment (Dollard and Miller, 1950) which
was shown to underestimate the child’s bond with their mother. The behavioral theory of attachment stated that
the child becomes attached to the mother because she fed the infant.
Bowlby defined attachment as a 'lasting psychological connectedness between human beings.
Bowlby (1958) proposed that attachment can be understood within an evolutionary context in that the
caregiver provides safety and security for the infant. Attachment is adaptive as it enhances the infant’s chance
of survival. This is illustrated in the work of Lorenz (1935) and Harlow (1958). According to Bowlby infants
have a universal need to seek close proximity with their caregiver when under stress or threatened (Prior &
Glaser, 2006).

Stages of Attachment
 DEVELOPMENTAL MILESTONE CHART
(1-8 YEARS OLD)

0-12 Months Developmental Milestone

Babies develop at their own pace, so it’s impossible to tell exactly when your child will learn a given skill. The
developmental milestones listed below will give you a general idea of the changes you can expect, but don’t be
alarmed if your own baby’s development takes a slightly different course.

Cognitive Language Gross Motor Fine Motor Socio-Emotional Siginificant Delays

Explores Pays Reaches Uses pincer Shy or anxious Does not crawl
objects in increasing sitting grasp with strangers Drags one side
many attention to position Bangs two Cries when of body while
different ways speech without objects mother or crawling (for
(shaking, Responds to assistance together father leaves over one
banging, simple verbal Crawls Puts Enjoys month)
throwing, requests forward on objects imitating Cannot stand
dropping) Responds to belly into container people in his when supported
Finds hidden “no” Assumes Takes play Does not search
objects easily Uses simple hands-andknees objects Shows specific for objects that
Looks at gestures, such position out of preferences for are hidden
correct picture as shaking Creeps on container certain people while he or she
when the head for “no” hands and Lets and toys watches
image is named Babbles with knees Gets objects Tests parental Says no single
Imitates inflection from go voluntarily responses to his words ("mama"
gestures (changes in sitting to Pokes with actions during or "dada")
Begins to use tone) crawling or index finger feedings Does not learn
objects Says “dada” prone (lying Tries to Tests parental to use gestures,
correctly and “mama” on stomach) imitate responses to his such as waving
(drinking Uses position scribbling behavior or shaking head
from cup, exclamations, Pulls self up May be fearful Does not point
brushing hair, such as to stand in some to objects or
dialing phone, “Ohoh!” Walks situations pictures
listening to Tries to holding Prefers mother Experiences a
receiver) imitate words on to furniture and/or regular dramatic loss of
Stands caregiver over skills he or she
momentarily all others once had.
without Repeats sounds
support or gestures for
May walk attention
two Finger-feeds
or three steps himself
without Extends arm or
support leg to help
when being
dressed
 12-24 Months Developmental Milestone
(By the end of 2 years old)

Children develop at their own pace, so it's impossible to tell exactly when yours will learn a given skill. The
developmental milestones below will give you a general idea of the changes you can expect as your child gets
older, but don't be alarmed if your child takes a slightly different course.

Cognitive Language Gross Motor Fine Motor Socio-Emotional Siginificant Delays

Finds Points to Walks alone Scribbles Imitates Cannot walk by
objects even object or Pulls toys on behavior 18 months
when hidden picture when behind her his or her of others, Fails to develop a
under two or it's named for while own especially adults mature heel-toe
three covers him walking Turns over and older walking pattern after
Begins to Recognizes Carries large container to children several months of
sort by names of toy or pour out More aware of walking, or walks only
shapes and familiar several toys contents herself as on his toes
colors people, while Builds separate from Does not speak at
Begins objects, and walking tower others least 15 words
makebelieve body parts Begins to of four More excited Does not use
play Says several run blocks about company two-word sentences by
single words Stands on or more of other children age 2
(by 15 to 18 tiptoe Might use Demonstrates By 15 months, does
months) Kicks a ball one hand increasing not seem to know the
Uses simple Climbs onto more often independence function of common
phrases (by 18 and down than the Begins to household objects
to 24 months) from other show (brush, telephone, bell,
Uses 2- to 4- furniture defiant behavior fork, spoon)
word unassisted Separation Does not imitate
sentences Walks up anxiety increases actions or words by
Follows and down toward midyear the end of this
simple stairs then fades period
instructions holding on Does not follow
Repeats to support simple instructions by
words age 2
overheard in Cannot push a
conversation wheeled toy by age 2
Experiences a
dramatic loss of skills
he or she once had
 24-36 Months Developmental Milestone
(By the end of 3 years old)

Children develop at their own pace, so it's impossible to tell exactly when yours will learn a given skill. The
developmental milestones below will give you a general idea of the changes you can expect as your child gets
older, but don't be alarmed if your child takes a slightly different course.

Cognitive Language Gross Motor Fine Motor Socio-Emotional Siginificant Delays

Makes Follows a Climbs Makes up Imitates adults Frequen falling and

mechanical toys two or three- well and-down, and playmates difficulty with stairs
work part command Walks up side-toside, Spontaneously Persistent
Matches an Recognizes and down stairs, and circular shows affection drooling or very
object in her and identifies alternating feet lines with for familiar unclear speech
hand or room to almost all (one foot per pencil or playmates Cannot build a
a picture in a common stair step) crayon Can take turns tower of more than
book objects and Kicks ball Turns in games four blocks
Plays pictures Runs easily book pages Understands Difficulty
makebelieve Understands Pedals one at a time concept of manipulating small
With dolls, most sentences tricycle Builds a "mine" objects
animals, and Understands Bends over tower of and "his/hers" Cannot copy a
people placement in easily without more than Expresses circle by age 3
Sorts objects space ("on," falling six blocks affection openly Cannot
by "in," "under") Holds a Expresses a communicate in short
shape and color Uses 4- to 5- pencil in wide range of phrases
Completes word sentences writing emotions No
puzzles with Can say position By 3, separates involvement in
three or four name, Screws easily from "pretend" play
pieces age, and sex and parents Does not understand
Understands Uses pronouns unscrews Objects to simple instructions
concept of (I, you, me, we, jar lids, nuts, major changes in Little interest in
"two" they) and some and bolts routine other children
plurals (cars, Turns Extreme difficulty
dogs, cats) rotating separating from
Strangers can handles mother or primary
understand caregiver
most of her Poor eye contact
words Limited interest
in toys
Experiences a
dramatic loss of
skills he or she once
had
 36-48 Months Developmental Milestone
(By the end of 4 years old)

Children develop at their own pace, so it's impossible to tell exactly when yours will learn a given skill. The
developmental milestones below will give you a general idea of the changes you can expect as your child gets
older, but don't be alarmed if your child takes a slightly different course.

Cognitive Language Gross Motor Fine Motor Socio-Emotional Siginificant Delays

Cannot throw a
Correctly Has mastered Hops and Copies Interested in ball overhand
names some some basic stands on one square new experiences Cannot jump in
colors rules of foot up to five shapes Cooperates place
Understands grammar seconds Draws a with other Cannot ride a
the concept of Speaks in Goes upstairs person with children tricycle
counting and sentences of and downstairs two to four Plays "Mom" Cannot grasp a
may know a five to six without support body parts or "Dad" crayon between
few numbers words Kicks ball Uses Increasingly thumb and fingers
Tries to solve Speaks forward scissors inventive in Has difficulty
problems from clearly Throws ball Draws fantasy play scribbling
a single point of enough for overhand circles and Dresses and Cannot stack
view strangers to Catches squares undresses four blocks
Begins to understand bounced ball Begins to Negotiates Still clings or
have a clearer Tells stories most of the time copy some solutions to cries whenever parents
sense of time Moves capital letters conflicts leave
Follows forward and More Shows no interest in
threepart backward with independent Interactive games
commands agility Imagines that Ignores other
Recalls parts many unfamiliar children
of a story images may be Doesn't respond
Understands "monsters" to people outside the
the concepts of Views self as a family
"same" and whole person Doesn't engage in
"different" involving body, fantasy play
Engages in mind, and Resists dressing,
fantasy play feelings sleeping, using the
Often cannot toilet
tell the difference Lashes out without
between fantasy any self-control when
and reality angry or upset
Cannot copy a
circle
Doesn't use
sentences of more than
three words
Doesn't use "me"
and "you" correctly
Experiences a
dramatic loss of skills
he or she once had
 48-60 Months Developmental Milestone
(By the end of 5 years old)

Children develop at their own pace, so it's impossible to tell exactly when yours will learn a given skill. The
developmental milestones below will give you a general idea of the changes you can expect as your child gets
older, but don't be alarmed if your child takes a slightly different course.

Cognitive Language Gross Motor Fine Motor Socio-Emotional Siginificant Delays

Can count 10 Recalls part Stands on Copies Wants to Acts extremely
or more of a story one foot for 10 triangle and please friends fearful or timid
objects Speaks seconds or other shapes Wants to be Acts extremely
Correctly sentences of longer Draws like her friends aggressively
names at least more than Hops, person with More likely to Is unable to
four colors five words somersaults body agree to rules separate from parents
Better Uses future Swings, Prints Likes to sing, without major protest
understands tense climbs some letters dance, and act Is easily
the concept of Tells longer May be able Dresses Shows more distracted and
time stories to skip and independence unable to concentrate
Knows about Says name undresses and may even on any single
things used and address without help visit a nextdoor activity for more than
every day in Uses fork, neighbor by five minutes
the home spoon, and herself Shows little
(money, food, (sometimes) Aware of interest in playing
appliances) a table knife gender with other children
Usually Able to Refuses to respond
cares for Distinguish to people in general,
own toilet fantasy from or responds only
needs reality superficially
Sometimes Rarely uses fantasy
demanding, or imitation in play
sometimes Seems unhappy
eagerly or sad much of the
cooperative time
Doesn't engage
in a variety of
activities
Avoids or seems
aloof with other
children and adults
Doesn't express
a wide range of
emotions
Has trouble eating,
sleeping, or using the
toilet
Can't tell the
difference between
fantasy and reality
 Seems unusually
passive
Cannot understand
two-part commands
Using prepositions
("Put the doll on the
bed, and get the ball
under the couch.")
Can't correctly
give her first and last
name
Doesn't use plurals
or past tense
properly
when speaking
Doesn't talk about
her daily activities
and experiences
Cannot build a
tower of six to eight
blocks
Seems
uncomfortable
holding a crayon
Has trouble taking
off clothing
Cannot brush her
teeth efficiently
Cannot wash and
dry her hands
Experiences a
dramatic loss of
skills he or she once
had
 60-72 Months Developmental Milestone
(By the end of 6 years old)

Cognitive Language Gross Motor Fine Motor Socio-Emotional Siginificant

Delays
Understands Recognizes Gains greater Child will Child’s mood
time (today, some words control over large and show a swings are more
tomorrow, by fine motor skills; preference to stabilized as they
yesterday) and sight; movements are more their right or settle into child-
simple motion attempts precise and left hand. hood and become
(things go faster to sound out deliberate, though Child will comfortable with
than others). words in some clumsiness be able to who they are.
Span of some persists. Master Child shows
attention cases the functioning buttons. protective
increases; works child which facilitates Child will tendencies
at tasks for may be learning to ride a show an toward pets,
longer periods reading well. bicycle, swim, swing interest in younger siblings,
of time, though Learns 5 to a bat, or kick a ball. learning how and even parents.
can concentrate 10 words a Child will be to lace and Child has the
effort but not day;vocabular more in control of his tie his or her ability to
always y of10,000– or her body. own shoes. understand
consistently. 14,000. Child will have a Child will when he or she
Has fun with Uses marked increase in be able to has done
Problem solving appropriate stamina and write the something
and sorting verb tenses, coordination. alphabet, wrong and that
activities like word order, Child can throw though the they may need to
stacking, and sentence and catch a ball letters may be punished.
puzzles and structure. with practice. not be neat or Child has a firm
mazes Child will be able precise. set of family ties
to skip. Enjoys the andis loyal.
Child is usually challenge of Child may
worn out from a day puzzles, develop fears,
of play and learning counting and such as a fear of
and goes to bed sorting the dark,
easier. However, activities, monsters, or
many children in this paper and people who are
age group do not pencil mazes, different.
like being awakened and games Child wants to
in the morning and that involve do things for
may be fussy. matching himself or herself,
letters and such as bathing,
words with grooming and
pictures. brushing teeth.
Enthusiasticand
inquisitive about
Surroundings and
everyday events.