This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been

fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TMAG.2016.2529498, IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics
1

Characterization of Electromagnetic Rotor Material Properties and

Their Impact on an Ultra-High Speed Spinning Ball Motor
Marcel Schuck1 , Student Member, IEEE, Thomas Nussbaumer2 , Member, IEEE, and Johann W. Kolar1 , Fellow, IEEE
1 Power Electronic Systems Laboratory, Swiss Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, Switzerland
2 Levitronix GmbH, Zurich, Switzerland

The ongoing miniaturization trend of electric machines increases the demand for higher rotational speeds to provide a required
power level at decreased size. In this project, new concepts for bearingless machines with ultra-high rotational speeds exceeding 25
million rotations per minute (Mrpm) are researched. While the mechanical properties of the employed sub-millimeter size spherical
steel rotors are documented, insufficient information is available on the electromagnetic characteristics which are crucial for magnetic
levitation and acceleration. This study outlines the relations between the relative permeability and conductivity of the rotor material
and the achievable active magnetic bearing force and angular acceleration. Measured results for complete hysteresis curves of different
rotor steels are presented.
Index Terms—ultra-high speed, magnetic bearing, asynchronous machine, spinning ball, material characterization.

I. I NTRODUCTION
Connection to
Vacuum System

I NCREASING the rotational speed of an electric machine

allows the achievement of a required power level at de-
creased size, which has led to an ongoing miniaturization Glass Tube
Axial Bearing Coil

Centering Core
trend of machines with rising rotational speeds. The latter
can be achieved by reducing bearing friction, which can be PSD Sensor
effectively facilitated by using magnetic bearings. Bearingless
drive systems with rotational speeds of up to 1 Mrpm have Ȧ IR Light
Source
been developed in the past [1]. By eliminating other losses
z
that become significant at high rotational speeds, such as air
friction, much higher rotational speeds that exceed 20 Mrpm Magnetically Drive Coil y
Levitated Rotor x
can be achieved. The highest reported rotational speed of
23.16 Mrpm was achieved with a steel sphere of 0.8 mm in Fig. 1: Setup of the ultra-high speed motor.
diameter, which was magnetically levitated inside a vacuum permeability and conductivity of the rotor material, are de-
tube and eventually destroyed due to the centrifugal load [2]. rived. The aforementioned material properties were obtained
Since then, such high rotational speeds have not been achieved experimentally through measuring complete hysteresis curves
in other, more recently reported attempts [3]. of different materials by directly using the spherical rotors
In this project, new concepts for drives with ultra-high as specimen in a vibrating sample magnetometer (VSM). The
rotational speeds beyond 25 Mrpm are researched in order to obtained results are presented in Section IV.
extend the limits of conventional machines and overcome the
challenges in regard to power density, mechanical stress and II. M OTOR S ETUP
controllability of highly dynamic systems. The ultimate limit The developed ultra-high speed motor setup is shown in
of the rotational speed is determined by the centrifugal load Fig. 1. The rotor is placed inside an evacuated glass tube
of the rotor. Therefore, small spherical rotors with diameters to minimize air friction. Bearing friction is eliminated by
of less than 1 mm made from ferromagnetic and conductive using an axial magnetic bearing, which is constructed from a
materials with high tensile strengths are used. copper coil wound around a hollow ferromagnetic core to allow
Small spheres made from various martensitic chrome steels sufficient space for inserting the vacuum tube through the core.
and tungsten-carbide cobalt are used in ball bearings and A second, solid ferromagnetic cylinder is placed directly inside
are therefore readily available. The available characteristic the vacuum tube to act as a centering core which concentrates
data for these spheres is mostly limited to their mechanical the magnetic flux and is the center of attraction for the levitated
properties in the aforementioned application, while insufficient rotor.
information is available on the electromagnetic characteristics In addition to the axial bearing, four air coils are placed
of the different materials. Yet, the latter are critical for assessing radially around the rotor to produce the fast rotational magnetic
the achievable performance of the magnetic bearing and drive fields required for torque generation. Acceleration is achieved
in the ultra-high speed motor application at hand. In this study, by the principle of a solid rotor induction machine, where
analytic models of the motor drive and magnetic bearing are eddy currents are induced inside the rotor, which are subject
provided and characteristic magnetic properties for different to tangential Lorentz forces.
materials are obtained through measurements. As there is almost no air friction that acts upon the rotor,
Section II briefly describes the motor setup. In Section III, radial oscillations due to disturbances are weakly damped,
analytic models for the achievable active magnetic bearing causing the magnetic suspension to become unstable. There-
(AMB) force and motor torque, dependent on the relative fore, the radially-placed coils are also used as actuators for a
radial AMB, which increases the radial damping of the system.
Corresponding author: M. Schuck (email: schuck@[Link]). For the magnetic suspension to operate properly, the axial
0018-9464 (c) 2015 IEEE. Personal use is permitted, but republication/redistribution requires IEEE permission. See [Link] for more information.
This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TMAG.2016.2529498, IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics
2

and radial rotor position has to be measured and controlled

100
continuously. In the developed setup, the rotor is illuminated
by two orthogonally-placed infrared light sources resulting
80
in a rotor shadow being drawn onto two two-dimensional
position sensitive device (PSD) sensors, which are placed on
60
the opposite side of the vacuum glass tube. The resulting
position signals are fed into digital PID controllers, which
40
regulate the rotor position by adjusting the currents in the axial
and radial bearing coils.
20
With the developed setup, spherical rotors with diameters
of 3 mm down to sub-millimeter sizes can be levitated and
0
accelerated. 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5 5

III. I NFLUENCE OF M ATERIAL P ROPERTIES ON B EARING

Fig. 2: Magnitude of the magnetic induction inside and outside
AND D RIVE P ERFORMANCE
of the sphere for varying distance from the AMB coil.
To assess the influence of the characteristic rotor material
parameters on the achievable magnetic bearing and drive per- From this, a general expression for the magnetic induction
formance of the ultra-high speed motor, analytic models for the inside the sphere dependent on the external magnetic induction
can be found by eliminating M  as
achievable AMB force and motor torque are derived below.
 in + 2μ0 H
B  in = 3B
 ext , (4)
A. Magnetic Bearing
where the B-H curve of the rotor material relates B  in and H
 in
Introducing a body made from magnetizable material, which
  
as Bin = μ(|Hin |)Hin for isotropic materials. The resulting
is not a permanent magnet, into the external magnetic field
H ext with magnetic induction B  ext = μ0 H  ext as generated magnetic induction inside and outside the rotor are displayed
by the bearing coil results in a magnetization M  of this in Fig. 2 for a sphere that has been introduced into the field of a
body. The latter is dependent on the value of H  ext and the cylindrical bearing coil, where z denotes the distance from the
magnetic properties of the rotor material as characterized by coil. The scaling of the field inside the rotor is clearly visible
its B-H curve and results in a force that originates from the and the relevant variables for the subsequent force calculation
interaction with the external induction B  ext . The influence of are marked. In the absence of macroscopic conduction currents,
the magnetic properties of the rotor material on the achievable the total magnetic force acting on a body with magnetization
M and volume V which is bounded by a surface S can be
AMB force is studied by applying magnetostatic principles. For
providing analytic expressions, two simplifying assumptions obtained from the elementary force law as
 
are introduced, which have been verified by 2D and 3D finite- F = ρM B ext dV + σM B ext dS, (5)
element-method (FEM) magnetic simulations to not have a V S
negative effect on the accuracy of the developed force model: where B ext denotes the applied magnetic induction, not includ-
1) The magnetization M  of the sphere is uniform and ing that of the body for which the force is being calculated.
is caused by the magnitude of the external magnetic The concept has been employed that a magnetization M  is
induction |B ext | at its center (z = z0 ).  
equivalent to a volume current density JM = (∇ × M ) and a
2) The magnitude of the external magnetic induction varies surface current density K M = (M  × n). The magnetic volume
linearly over the diameter of the sphere, with its gradient charge density and magnetic surface charge density, which

being determined by ∂|Bext ∂z
(z0 )|
. are used as mathematical equivalents to electric charges, are
denoted by ρM = −∇  ·M  and σM = M  · n, respectively.
In order to determine the bearing force, the magnetization and
magnetic induction inside the sphere as caused by the external Assuming a uniform magnetization inside the sphere yields
magnetic induction must be determined first. For a sphere with ρM = 0, and the first term in (5) becomes zero. Based on
uniform magnetization of magnitude M0 as shown in Fig. 2 the uniform magnetization, the magnetic surface charge is
without an external magnetic field, the magnetic scalar potential obtained as σM = Mz cos(θ). Including the assumptions stated
in spherical coordinates can be obtained as (cf. [4]) above, the external magnetic induction can be parametrized in
1 1 1 spherical coordinates as
ΦM,in = M0 r cos(θ) ΦM,out = M0 a3 2 cos(θ), (1) ⎛ ⎞
3 3 r Br r sin(θ)
where a denotes the radius of the sphere. Consequently, the B ext = ⎝ 0 ⎠, (6)
∂Bz (z0 )
magnetic field and magnetic induction inside the sphere are Bz (z0 ) + ∂z r cos(θ)
H in = − 1 M  in = μ0 (H
B  in + M  ) = 2μ0 M  . (2) where Br and Bz (z0 ) denote the radial component and the
3 3 axial component at the center position of the sphere of the
To obtain the field inside a magnetized sphere placed in magnetic induction, respectively. By inserting (6) into (5), the
an external magnetic induction B  ext = μ0 H  ext , the field resulting force is obtained as
components of (2) are superimposed with the external field, 4 ∂Bz (z0 )
yielding F = πa3 Mz ez . (7)
3 ∂z
H in = 1 B  ext − 1 M  B  in = B  ext + 2μ0 M . (3) As the magnetization of the sphere is directed into the same
μ0 3 3 direction as the external magnetic induction, the resulting force
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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TMAG.2016.2529498, IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics
3

1
0.8



0.6 1
 
 

0.4
0.9
0.2
0 0.8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20



Fig. 3: Normalized magnetization of the sphere for different 0.7
values of μr .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

is always directed towards the bearing coil, and its magnitude Fig. 4: Value of the breakdown torque scaling factor of (9)
is dependent on the gradient of the external magnetic induction dependent on σ, μr , ω and a.
in z direction. It is independent of the radial component Br , TABLE I: Electromagnetic properties of different rotor mate-
which can therefore be chosen arbitrarily in the parametrization rials
of the field. The absolute value of the external field only affects Material Number ρ / kg/dm3 σ / MS/m μr (measured)
the magnetization Mz of the sphere. If the relative magnetic 100Cr6 ∼ 7.9 ∼ 4.6 4.13
permeability μr is assumed to be constant and hysteresis effects X65Cr13 ∼ 7.7 ∼ 1.8 4.14
are neglected, (3) can be used to obtain an analytic expression X47Cr14 ∼ 7.7 ∼ 1.8 4.12
for the magnetization as X46Cr13 ∼ 7.7 ∼ 1.8 4.17
  X105CrMo17 ∼ 7.7 ∼ 1.3 4.09
3 μr − 1 TC3 ∼ 14.2 - 3.46
Mz = Bz (z0 ). (8)
μ0 μr + 2 TC2 ∼ 14.9 - 4.47
It is shown in Section IV that the aforementioned assumptions
are well justified for suitable rotor materials. The presence of where σ, ω denote the electrical conductivity and the slip
hysteresis is undesired in the considered AMB, as the resulting frequency, respectively. The latter is the difference between the
remanent magnetization in the absence of an external magnetic frequency of the rotating magnetic field and the rotor spinning
induction can cause undesired residual forces acting between frequency. Tbd is obtained for q = 1 (ξ = 1) and the achievable
the rotor and ferromagnetic parts of the AMB system. By torque is dependent on the combination of μr , σ, and ω, rather
inserting (8) into (7) it is apparent that, for given values of than on a single material property alone. It can be seen that
Bz (z0 ) and the gradient of the induction, the force increases the peak value of the scaling factor ξ is shifted based on the
rapidly for small increasing values of μr , while it levels off at dependencies as illustrated in Fig. 4.
high μr values. This behavior is illustrated in Fig. 3, where the IV. ROTOR M ATERIAL C HARACTERIZATION
normalized magnetization is plotted for different values of μr .
Moreover, from the analytic expressions, it can be observed To assess the suitability of different rotor materials for
that the conductivity of the rotor material has no effect on the magnetic levitation and acceleration in the ultra-high speed
achievable magnetic force. motor based on the analytic relations provided in Section III,
the relevant material properties were obtained through mea-
B. Torque Generation surements. Spheres of small diameters are readily available,
as they are commonly used in ball bearings. Table I lists
A high torque is desirable to achieve fast acceleration of the common conductive materials with ferromagnetic behavior and
rotor. The motor torque is generated by the interaction of the their properties as relevant for this study, where ρ denotes
fast rotating magnetic field as generated by the drive coils and the density of the material. The detailed compositions of the
the induced eddy currents inside the rotor. A detailed analysis materials are standardized and can be found in the respective
has been presented in [5], from which the influence of the rotor material datasheets as well as in [6] and are not reproduced
material properties on the drive performance can be studied. here. While the conductivity of the material is usually given,
The general expression for the torque is derived as insufficient information is available on its relative magnetic
√
3πa3 Brot
2
2+ 2 permeability. Therefore, the complete magnetization curves
T = √ √ ez , (9) have been obtained through measurements, which were carried
1 + 2 μ0 2 + q + 1q

 
  out using a VSM, cf. [7], [8], [9]. The advantage of this
Tbd
ξ method is that the rotors can directly be used as specimen in
where Brot denotes the magnitude of the magnetic flux density an open circuit measurement, which allows material changes
used for torque generation, which is oriented in radial direction, due to machining and thermal treatment [10] to be taken into
and the sphere rotates around the z axis. The breakdown torque consideration. Like the material composition, the machining
denoted by Tbd is the maximum achievable torque for a given process and thermal treatment of the different ball materials,
rotor radius and magnetic flux density. The factor q in (9) which induce compressive residual stresses in the rotors, follow
contains the variables corresponding to the properties of the standardized procedures [6]. Therefore, the results as obtained
rotor material and is given as from the measured samples are valid across sizes, batches

1 μr and manufacturers and are widely applicable to steel spheres
q= , (10) made from the considered material. The measurements were
a μ0 σω
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This article has been accepted for publication in a future issue of this journal, but has not been fully edited. Content may change prior to final publication. Citation information: DOI 10.1109/TMAG.2016.2529498, IEEE
Transactions on Magnetics
4

106
105
1.5 2


1.5
1 
  
  1
0.5

 
  0.5





0 0

-0.5
-0.5
-1
-1
-1.5

-1.5 -2
-8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8
5



10


105
Fig. 5: Measured magnetization curves of materials in group 1. Fig. 6: Measured magnetization curves of materials in group 2.
carried out with spheres of 0.5 to 1.4 mm in diameter, yielding
sample weights in the range of several milligrams. Accurate and the drive of an ultra-high speed motor have been provided.
results can be obtained, as the instrument is calibrated with a Together with the magnetization curves of various available
spherical reference sample (e.g. chemically pure Ni d = 1 mm, materials, which have been obtained through measurements
cf. [11]), which omits the necessity of compensating for the and were previously unavailable in the literature, suitable rotor
actual sample geometry affecting the measurement results [12], materials were identified for usage in an ultra-high speed motor.
[13]. The presented findings are universally applicable and exceed
The rotor materials exhibit an isotropic behavior regarding the previously available knowledge. They particularly allow the
their magnetic properties, which was verified by repeated assessment of different steels in magnetic bearing applications.
measurements after rotating the sample by 90◦ . Due to the
operating principle of the VSM, the magnetic moment m  of ACKNOWLEDGMENT
the sample as a function of the applied magnetic field H  is
The authors would like to thank the Else & Friedrich Hugel
measured. If the specimen consists of an isotropic material, Fund for Mechatronics for supporting this work.
the magnetization M is obtained by dividing m by the volume
of the sample. As the local μr of a material corresponds to the R EFERENCES
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