> CHAPTER CONTENTS FLECTRONIC THEORY OF VALENCE YoNIc BOND EXAMPLES OF IONIC COMPOUNDS: CHARACTERISTICS OF IONIC ‘COMPOUNDS COVALENT BOND CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION OF COVALENT BOND EXAMPLES OF COVALENT (COMPOUNDS CHARACTERISTICS OF COVALENT COMPOUNDS COORDINATE COVALENT SOND EXAMPLES OF COORDINATE COMPOUNDS OR IONS DIFFERENCES BETWEEN IONIC AND COVALENT BONDS POLAR COVALENT BONDS HYDROGEN BONDING (H-bonding) EXAMPLES OF HYDROGEN- BONDED COMPOUNDS. CHARACTERISTICS OF HYDROGEN-BOND COMPOUNDS EXCEPTIONS TO THE OCTET RULE VARIABLE VALENCE METALLIC BONDING GEOMETRIES OF MOLECULES VSEPR THEORY TERMS AND DEFINITIONS Chemical Bond Molecules of chemical substances are made of two or more atoms joined together by some force, acting between them. This force which results from the interaction between the various atoms that go to form a stable molecule, is referred to as a Chemical Bond. A chemical bondis defined as a force that acts between two or more atoms to hold them together asa stable molecule. ‘As we will study later, there are three different types of tonds recognised by chemists : (2) onic or Electrovalent bond (2) Covalent bond @)_ Coordinate covalent bond ly, the metallic bond There is a fourth type of bond, namel which we will consider later in this chapter. ‘ate the Definition of Valence Pe js often used to st ‘The term valence (ot valency) is of : potential or capacity of an elemento combine with otherelements 151 —————5 pHysicAt CHEMISTRY. fan element a8) the MMPEE OF ydraog, compounel on 152 av element could combine i'n binary Aone time, 18s useful 0 on thenumber afoxygen arom W jh w two different ele ts only ia Inn ey drogen ¢ Joridde (HCD, one ton ofc eee enesivan oxide (MgO), SiNce O ring is combined With one atoyn oy atom of magnenin te Some elements have lence ailencies. The concept of g lost all value. vajence of chlorine i 1. teu Saygen, the valence of ragnesti T'S TRyehe above definition, we would ssiBn valence of 210 sulphurin 1,8, but 4, a gat valence 36 certain compounds, while there arg Moti ag $a mere number could not explain qe tha 4 in thege a ha 2 katown 4o i variable v Concept in fact, was Very confusing ard b As alreaity stated, there are ter ¢ different type of bonds that ion of valence is possible, we can » We can say a that: Viteney bay molecules. Although no precise det number of bonds formed by an atom ina molecule. Valence Electrons ‘The electrons in the outer energy level of an atom are th w ones that can take bonding. These electrons are, therefore, referred to as the valence ee hay The electronic configuration of Na is 2, 8, { and that of Cis 2, 8, 7. Thus soa / Aditum has one vate group element of the periny tab sere soschlodne 7.Itisimportant to remember that for an A . KF, Aletc.) the group number is equal to the number of valence electron: S. ~ ‘aud Non-bonding Electrons valence electrons actually i aly iaraivedi Pegi bond formation are called bondi lable for bond formation are referred ending electrons ©. as non-bondine elocn Elect Thus [Bonding electrons Lewis Synebals of Elements AS slates the number of ene. Of a8 slement consi pac tbe of lene clone Teaais ofan element's symbol and ti an ‘he nucleus of sodium aoe levels (or shellsy eter et chan crea rOung dots ope Plus2, Selectrons in the inne ot es Inner twWo Je }» the symbol Na stands for vels, foe Na I eeorons arrangedChey EMICAL BOHDRY AS - Lewis op swis symbol for an ck Write down ent a LO’ X¢ Sy mb OL of the g © ba amber OF IOUS (OF Cros Hl a ee eo Oe ymmbol is not really’ of ar tal 6 the nu Pe cerst cxyaen an isi ber of valk . spyorne,oneen a0 Su ee enlficance. he ond Steno ind roa el Slohutarly eo) generally given nee ito ae He ritten wae? SSH in pairs. 7 ns a : " eee +0. oF formulae of compouril Ee co ron ot fora ate ae) jence electrons actu: eae Electron- ne Levees ally involve: Jot str distinction ives in buts foraaen srw proceed © discuss the coms ion n of valence mon types of chi .emical bond ls inthe lig wet agctsomie THEORY OF VALENCE os for the comp ae npement r Lewis structures, For be show Fe pane pur forward his model of the atc axtewisand. Kossel, working indepe: pm so electronic Meihes a ¢ independently. onfigur Faminalcesles ey visualised that noble g Beets kncistensoanplias as kr aaloiber elements ea ice secur cath ce Cae states that onpicnciasinie Pe ease Mia kegel ‘ning 03 ory of electrons +0 as to acquire ical bona formation, atoms LRA pepe cin Has & valence shell of a stable noble gas 8 interact by losing. a reclecmons (fable S:1):__ configuration. Each noble gas TR? ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION GF Nt Hobie gas KN z Ets fe a .etrons in principal shells Bs 10 T ae 18 Kr 36 Xe s 5 8 = Rn 86 Be WY: ie While atoms o! etic ei is gases possess ‘a stable outer shell of ight electrons of octet, S128 sf a lay pave Besrplets octets. They may Ware less a eg electrons oF 1" & : ea Ata ae shear or valence could well be shamed as the Octet theory ‘of Valence. 105 Outer shell of ‘ais Be ranater or ieconsoarae fo achieve thestable strons inthe outer shell alsoiknown asthe Octet Rule ah, for hyarogen. and ‘We will see the outer 5 evo which will aPPIY Fht in covalent The tendent vr the Rule of Ei for atoms to have eightelec taning one: ee Since helium has 0 electrons 1m (2, 1) electrons respectively: the Rule of b i xoeptions 1 the rule of ¢ ‘ater i in this: chapter that there are quite 2 few © pater of an clectO™ from one atom (0 ani Lass aaron jn the Valenes ret and anowtersore has wee jon short wan the stable o&'et spol cee? py elecurostatss ‘ rk on “ry in 1954 for his work on Prize in Chery or his campaign again 5 won the Nobel inuis Pauling won the Linus Pauling tne Nobel Poa 2 Prize in 1962 19, 1994) tinue Cart Pouting ebruary 28, 1007 AURIS TT and biochemist, Pauling is widely Lanes Beaary aia ios4wwat awards pioneered the application of quant ¢he nature of chemical bonds. He also made om Cymer Ge eons sinueture determination, and was one of the fou easy Me saane hear to'discovering the “double helix,” the ultrastructure of DN when Watson and Crick made the discovery in 1953. Y Pauling received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1962 for his campaign against above-groun; tesiiffg, and is the only person to win two unshared Nobel prizes. Later in life, he became a dvoeute for greatly inereased consumption of vitamin C and other nutrients. He generalize ideas to define orthomolecular medicine, which is still regarded as unorthodox by con medicine. He popularized his concepts, analyses, research and insights in several successi bg controversial books centered around vitamin C and orthomolecular medicine. ) was an American quant, pemist of the twenticth ceny, + —>+ A + *8: o K + B (yeence (7 Valence lecron) electrons) ee len wane ages Resta St Aes es ‘The electrostatic attraction bet Conetotes an Tonic or Electrovatent ais fecation (+) and anion (-) produced by electron-transtt ‘The compounds contain ning such a bond are refi CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION OF tone eee ‘oas Tonic or Electrovalent Compoun The conditions favourable for the iCHEM NCAL Bo) NOUS LEWIS THEORY 45% ingot Nery ner i fo eased asa result of the electron goa ult of the electro loweri oe I tt ons te ia 5 t Zemova of electron 0M stom A (4 — fe) ation enerey TED. [t should be tow ~> AY) requires in idition of an electron to B(B + @ input of energy, which is ip Ties). Teshould be high. > B>) releases energy, whic = Oe olctmostatic attraction between A and py which is the clestou afinity @ ne electrical energy. It should also be high, released in steps (b) and (c) . yeibe 5 (6) is greater than process see re and formation of ionic con ts eTEY Consumed in step (a) nisation of 4 oceur and the ionic bond will bet ssa ina net release of enc He ormed. For ex: ah ‘ample, in case of i pest odium chloride (NaC, we have transfer and formation of ease thes ods #€ Compound fy Y the in the sotia o ompound releas. leases energy, which maa = Nat ee | ae = 119 kcal y + Rem rer aee 85kcal + 187 kcal quenstencray released is 187+85—119= 153 kcal S e ites bord ee ce utes the overall process results ina lowering jp Mectronegativity difference of Aand B ‘om iheline of argument used in (2), we can say that atoms A and B vo i : i they bate et mativities, only then they will form an ionic bond. In fact, z ‘difference ort aes forthe formation of an ionic bond between atoms A and B, Thus Na has eleciuiesatey difference is (3.0—0.9)=2.1, Na and Cl will form an ionic bond. ° (i9,while Chas 3.0. Since the yaToRS GOVERNING THE FORMATION OF IONIC BOND ())Ionsation Energy The ionisation energy of the metal atom which looses electron(s) should be low so that the famation of +vely charged ion is easier. Lower the ionisation energy greater will be the tendency sft metal atom of change into cation and hence erect” will be the ease of formation of ionic ond, That is why alkali metals and alkaline earth metals form ionic bonds easily. Out of these vo, alkali metals form ionic bonds easily as compared to alkaline earth metals. Ina group the ionsation enerey decreases as we move down the group and therefore, the tendency to form inicbond increases in a group downward. Due to this reason Cs is the most electropositive atom ‘ong the alkali metals. 2) Mectron Affinity Tie atom which accepts the electron and SNE Se vill be the anion sormeds THE the electron affinity more is the energy release ani Le adhere igh tendency 10 Senna nandviAbve ogee My no ments of BTOUP onic bonds. Out of these two, the ele of. roe Nn movin JOT Timation of ionic bond than the elements of group NED: 9 decreases and, therefore, the tendency '° form bond also 4 ould bave high electron affinity.156 5 puysican HeMISTEY ¥ jee a} B + Lattice energy go “an Energy, It may be det} edl d from sed, [nis ealle roles proess, enerey i ae aE d when one mole of a7 1° energy released Greater the lnitice € upon the following «wo T° mpound is f greater the serene oF #0 ic bond, The tors between the cations and santo, n bet nN thei sportional to the square of th (a) Size of the In order t0 force of attra nave the greater have the a rs be sal asthe Force of siraction #1nY “a snarge on Tons sox greater wit be te Force of extraction BEENUSEN thoay yy Greater the charge 00 1005 & i mr gaiGraitbeie soe CERO saps an ThoN vty Se cary fr te formation oF a Janie Bond DEST hus Nahin elec Necessary for wfereace is @.0-0.9)=2.1, Naand Cl will formn an jon ead 0.9, while Cl has 3.0, Since the: SOME EXAMPLES OF IONIC comPOUNDS Here we will discuss the formation of Lewis formula or Electron dot formmulis of sony ® compounds, far illustration. Sodium Chloride, NaCl {A simple sodiom chloride molecule is formed from an atom of sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl), Na (2, & 1) has one valence electron, while Cl (2, 8, 7) has seven. Na transf “ona ‘lectron to Cl. and both achieve stable electron octet. Thus Na gives Na” and C1 gi cL tae two are joined by an ionic bond. ; Yom lg Nat*ci Sodium chloride her with electrostit many (+) and) j the crystal f ‘(Jions are arran, , single ion number of Nate et COIS lattice eA systematically inant ne a* and Ct-ions are ane oC8 Shown in F temnating cation-anion pater Jon is surrounded arran, i by6 cri ged in an ord Fig. 5.2. 11 will be noticed that het Of Na and rion co a ach Ci derly noticed thal Ughtly held together b y el staii Cctrostatic forces between thetCHEMICAL nowy sjemolecules Na'Ch de GL ee ecct fori of nach Conn se sorts exist #0 ae - of ami Soman independ migure 5.2 onic crystal Migesium Chioride, Mg?*cls (MgCl, jum (Mg) has two valence electrons, while chi ‘io transfers its (WO electrons, one to each chlorine atom, sible octet. In this way Mg atom gives ‘Mg?* ion and the two Cl atoms s ce) of Sodium Chloride. Jorine (Ci) has seven. The magnesium and thus all the three atoms achieve the jve2C1'-, forming Mg?” Cly ch + ef 2,88 288 eit Beenie zor Me or Mg + 2Cl ium Oxide, Ca2*02- (CaO) : st i fers its two lence i has six. Calcium atom trans! enna ois gum oxide, a Or ‘¢lectrons to the same ox rygen ator. (Gente tone Ths ip obtained the moterule 127HeMisTEY sICALC! 35a Spo ca" ee ee Caton ae gas ee ‘ide wg east aa @oane inthe valence shell 2.8,3), whitey, ae the gi 2 (Alj03) ‘Aluminium Oxide, An's al,! a . Here the al an ire 2,6) Toate of ae Means, sei the wee O a Oe ror” oF ALOs omic CHARACTENSTICS OF HOM and posite ions in jonie co ‘The ionic omPONT the OPPO Bach ion is Surrol ‘This explains the common propert! A a ‘+ A or 2Al+ 30 —* 2Al”+ 30° or 2AR°OF Aluminium oxide (1) Solids at Room Temperature the opposite ions, these ions are locked in On account of strong electrostatic forces between ryslal lattice. Since they lack the freedom of movement Characteristica! ids at room temperature. thcirallotted positions in the o ‘HE liquid state, they are sol (2) High Melting Points onic compounds have high melting poi 5 . phy held in their position Cee (or boiling points). Since the (+) and (-) ion = Kinetic energy to overcome they i. pial at high temperature do the ions acquire sufiea iraative foress and attain the freedom of movement sina lig Thus ionic compounds need heating to hi GB) Hard and brittle The crystals of ionj ; fonic substance: ar, hard fe and brittle. Their hardness is due to the stot et © wos having gained POUNDS - (~) ions he : ; y Gltemate positions im a definite order in a qu Sti ies of ionic comp + O o cé'g ng to three oxygen alos. "Thys a, lect, The two Al atoms deprived of ting > Ce jo-clectrons each give 3; cyt om. sy Jd by electrostatic forces ina crys, : tig igh temperatures before melting. electrostatic . c rag Meh tld each ion tata Position, These c; Eee TYStals are made fos in thon Fe of layers : Yaris parallel layers le ove ¢) es > ions in altemate positions so thatthe ff" When extemal force is applied to alayet Bi wdc Withespectic heen agar er Slight shift brings ike i the like ions in front of each other T( 4nd (~) ions j, (iota the vo tyes ag each other and fall Apart. The crystal cleaves here: onout MICAL BONDING - Le vs ¥ () (e) price 3 oe @ jayers of (+) and (-) lon: Kfaips over tne ot er (2) ons In a crystal (b) When italifgions betwoen them cause ee ee on force ls appied to one aye © crystal. other and electric: y. ical ter al of an ionic substance is placed in water, the polar wate r yermalecules detach the (+) the erystal lattice by y their electrostatic pull. These ions th ¢ ions then get :{ surrounded by on jitte in acryst from wules and can le when ions sad at Qe stence and are thus dissolved in water. By the in independent existence and are thus di s dissolved in water. By the: ger molenpolar solvents Tiki not vents Ii oie eee po e benzene (C,H,) and hexane (CH) will not disso ei or H fo, een Sc een 70 iN of : ~ wv 4 — 8 4 ee 2, at olvation Heol PRS Nacl crystal mrigure 54 Solvation of NaCl in water «of electricity because the OM are fixed rigidly it ns, ions are rendered free to Move about. Thus jecrrolytic Mjuct acurrent when Ph aced in-an cl (9) Conductors of electricity hoe ionic compounds are rs positions. In the molt seein compounds or their 84! (6) Donot exhibit i The ionic bond involving electrostatic lines of force be! irectional. The ionic compounds. therefore, are incapable of “ es . compounds give reactions berwere jons and these qween opposite jons, iS: non-rigid and none exhibiting stereoisomers are very fast. _emisTRY 5 pnysican cH 160 anding in molecules suet in the bo ne covacent 80ND oor couldnot exPHI® Cy Lewis who suggested that Ho, The eleotron cca at had no ions: io a hharing electrons between them a rolecules: that Bet ter shel Oy eon she tn, and in oe a electro inthe 2a ence electron aa another om B has sever sic cae ae eee contributes one electror vas toa case where a MOT ch other: each mot A ear cate 2 ad he Glectron pair fills the OPT j 1. Glectrons ia the outer Ae a jectron Pal ae Covalent bond A Paes whe — a dash (-) between the two bonded atoms. A shar air i d “he shared pair is indicates ae mn-pair bond. sites a Covalent oe eae clei of atoms and Base pulled towards cach other by the attraction op, shared elecron pait. At the same time, the tuclel oftwo atoms also repel each other as do the electrons. It'is the net attractive force between the shared’electrons and the nuclei that hog, mi sree together Thos an altemative definition of a covalent bond would be S te ‘The attractive force between atoms created by sharing ofan electron-pair. bond are called covalent compounds. ‘The compounds containing a covalent CONDITIONS FOR FORMATION OF COVALENT BOND “The conditions favourable for the formation of covalent bonds are : (1) Number of valence electrons Each of the atoms A and B should have 5, 6 or 7 valence electrons so that both achieve the stable octet by sharing 3, 2or 1 electron-pair. H has one electron in the “ : valence shell and 0 non-metals of groups VA, VIA and VILA respectively satisfy this condition. ee Te (2) Equal electronegativity j The atom A will not transfe i lection shang iil not tansfx electrons to B if both have equal electronegat : : h vity, and he ee, may Place. This can be strictly possible only if both the cae ae (3) Equal sharing of electrons ‘The atoms'A and B shouk : id have: electron pai equal (or nearly air equally. Thus equal ‘aharing of equal) electron affinity so that they attract he lectrons will form a nonpolar covalent bond. Of ‘ators of the same fons will not i clement, for no two eh ie only Occur exeept when atoms A and B ae a exactly the sarhe electron affinity, Aelium configuration. Thus stable #s an electron to the qh if mad Of two ; molecule no shared pair and ho, tom ¢8Ch havi ee a both stoms scquire a One Valence electron, Each contribu rr beip 7"1 ators (2, 6) bas six valence eit tron: tons and can m qne with each H atom. Thus Lewis structure of eee Oe Stable octes by shan Sharing electrons HB ——- HiGtH o wot iy sonia, RH, Ninogen atom (2, 5) bas five valence fects, one each with three H atoms. This leetrons and can achieve the 0% ives the following Lewis struca Sharing electrons ns fo : YN. cH ——> HENTH oor HH N—H oH i | H Ammonia ethane, CH, Carbon atom (2, 4) has four electrons in the valence shell. Jt can achieve the stable octet PY Sking these electrons with four H atoms, one with each H atom, Thus the Lewis strpcture of methane ‘anbe written as : Sharing 4 8 ‘electrons. H { H- =: Bee MeSH ae . 4 H H Methane+BY 1 cHemis? = 5 PHYSIC ompaund = ut Ee OG cee, covatel 10 sa two atoms. The shang, chee pairs of electrons q ay! tyes, sharing We multiple covalent bonds ina bong hie %y js written by sharing of eyo ure of onyecn 18 0, g serucrare of ONY atoms achieve the octet of Double bang ane 2,8,8 2,88 236... estat athe clecuonsin OX)B6D, Oy are pare yy rmeabove sour of REED im pennentshows that, is paramagnetic wig 9 molecule should be diamagnetic. sane, This could be explained by the StUcture 3 rk yery well in explaining the bonding j ‘Although writing Lewis structures work V F in mos ‘molecules, it should be kept in mind that it is simply the representation of a theory. Jp jj. cae theory just doesn't work. Nitrogen, Ni, ‘The two atoms of nitrogen (2, 5), each having five electrons in the walence shell, achie by sharing three electron pairs between them. e theo tNin # in: (0 Electrons shared by each N atom) a Carbon (2,4) has { valence el , four valence electrons, It shares Teeth sith c | Carbon dioxide sas Shared electron pair, the indivi ts forces. Thus the molecules ca '€ the intermolecular attractions. TCHEMICAL BONDING in the satid crystal Janice by go stttfeg ont and these then acquire Teak Fores: Cn oarreigund malecules are e35ly brainer eT ont liquids. : r@ nor brittle “neler jethe ionie COMpOLACS ae Hare ane rie le, covafont compounds wail ‘weak forces bolding the molecutes in tf in the solid crys ee to olber adjacey fier jpe relative to ober adjacent layers and there are Application of ye ") the mokecus in atiquid f MAE Baweouss foera which exp) ais how boitin alana ats a hes bar or ee asi areibale a iy ds: THUS the CTYSEALE ae eUSEY Moker and there i, 9 ee Oe rad Chere: a is no sh or pio of external force. is soluble i organic sotvents (0 general, covalent COMPOUNDS dissolve read unetic energy of the solvent motecutes easity ee ‘Organic solvents (benzene, ct Set compouri are Insoluble in water Me aes intermolecular forces, 1 taleohols, atninies diss arp cleavas between the gue 0 byarogea-bonding. gp Non-conductors of electricity since there are no (+) of ©) ions in covalen: maotecuse: saison fort are incapable of conducting Tesi atlecules, the covalent compounds in the malten cx 16) Exhibit Isomerism {opether by shared electron pair Covalent bonds are rigid and directional, the atoms being and an by electeical lines of force. This affords opporunity compounds exhibit stereoisomerism. Ir Various spatial arrange pralent 9) Molecular reactions ‘re covalent compounds give reactions where the molecule as a whole under re are no-stong electrical Forces to speed up the reaction between motecules, these reatio Since the axslow. COORDINATE COVALENT BOND tra-normal covalent bond, each of the two bonded atoms contributes one electton te shared paie tn some cases, a covalent bond is formed when both ths electrons ave suphies tneatom, Sucha bond is called co-ordinate covatentor dative bond. Iymey be defined asa covalent fond in which both elzetrons of the shared pair come from one of the two atoms (or ions}. The compounds conteiaing a coordinate bond are called coordinate compounds. fan ciom A has an unshared pair of electrons (lone pair) and another atom B is short of (wo electrons than the stable number, coordinate bond is formed. A donates the lone pair 10 B whch accepts it, Thus both A and B achieve the stable 2 or 8 electrons, the tone pair being held in common, coordinate covalent bond i+ * eA ie. or AB as i. ao Coordinale: somone Patecron soca: ren iba ; shich accepts it he aece pear atta A which ed the donor, while B which a i i et pointing from AwB. Although the arrow head ‘The bond thus established is indicated by 4ve tne coordinate bondiis formed ir 10 vay onor ator is called the ligand pe pouUNDS OF IONS . ‘ ions containing a cording, ins the a TE COM on molecules OF soe EXAMPLES o ures 0 Lewis siruct listed below: Ammonium ion, NH tn ammonia molect Hn so the central N’ator is linked 09 hres ti atoine a: Seer nosis 5 ark Pe hecton te continu. jon furnished by an 20 NH, donate: pairof electrons. el ecronstoaned by N atom T+ ion i H Hh i oa wo —> | + i | * H—N—H or |H— Hydrogen N—y ‘Ammonia “i H | molecule H (Nias a ione pair) Ammonium jon All the N-H bonds in i i I! bonds in NH} are identical, once the coordinate bond N- His 5 CStablishe ished, Hydronium jon, H,0° The oxygenatom in wat ter mol 5 sul wo antares of Ker olete attached to two H atoms b Hin sot batt ‘the O atom. The O ator y EO Covalent bond, nis thus formed. m donates bonds, Th 3 . OME OF the H— 6:4 A yt these pai =P H- + eller Had H h varoborat fe ion, BE fe Hydronium ion son formed when a boron: ton (FY). oa : : 'tifluonide molecule (BF,) shares : 3 : 8 pair of electrons suppliedby i ed by fluoride E =. Bs Fl or BF; F Fluorob, on vias lone pai Addition 0 Sulphate jon ws e9o f0ct08 soi cm i emprates octet by two covalent bong, toms joined by ac ron, 0, of YOR YRCD MIF these is donated to a th, > xyygenmolecuteis made Fe, When one puir of these i RIES On ee O lon, unshared pairs of LESTE roemed. Thus the Lewis structure of ozone 4,4. i as 40 sha PE bond is formed "repe only sixlectrons #0 ne ws: i a reat 74 *6: —* O—0—s0 \ . Ozone oxygen (2Atoms of 0} Carbon Manaxide, CO ‘Carbon stom has four valence electrons while oxygen atom has six, B. bonds between them, O atom achieves octet but C atom has only six e! an unshared pair of eleetron to C, and a coordinate covalent bond is e: toms. Lewis structure of CO may’ be written as : Y forming iyo rons. Therefore pote me 0, ablished betwor, | HCHiOF — 4» ge COMPARISON OF JONIC AND COVALENT BONDS Tonic Bond 1. Formed by taasiee of, foster ao, OM ame 2 Consists of i ating Ete been yy 3 Non tgid and nonce. isometin, "tion enn cause er + yor __, of 1 Solids tiny nt 2 High meting Pere, Com 7 PO i edsndtina Polling pons, is C2865, liquids or so solids Soltein wate by Low melting and Bailie nos, SOlvents, : Ut insoluble 5 3. Sofi, ing points, 5. Cong Mh organic ch readily b UCIOTS OF place pit. Insoluble j, ge tker § Undera ong y Solveni, “7 ter but soluble in orga Which SN mt, |g mi tet of cleciciy | x ~~ SetBO Molec a,a... | one EMICAL BONDING. LEWIS THEORY 167 ne wo electrons trons constitutin; ath ett o8 Ca M pet Cis Toto ea disteb ; ae istribution of (+) and ig the covalent bond are equally sh: Cy charge se Be, the two bonded atoms remain wo ral, Sucha bond is ~allod nonpolar ave polar covalent hi = covalent bond as in HCI, the elec bond. However, wher Bo by aC the clectron pair is not ea 2 ee Nonpolar cavalent ‘ ue bond Polar covaient et oS H z wendng pa) eh, i ireaaty aoe traction of one nucleus poe to 2 groater 3 nucleus (Cl) for the electrons, the ety Bre ace the toad partll : ns, the shared pair is displaced cova makes e a ally positive (6.) and the other partially negative (6.) H -Ch or gy which electr covalent bond in electrons are shared tmequally and the bonded atoms acquires pass! red negative charge, is called a polar covalent bond. aah | A ‘having partial positive and negative charge separated by roles a Dipole (two potes). The dipole of a bond is indicated by an arrow from positive to tend with a crossed tail as shown above in HCI molecule two atoms of different elements do not have exactly the same attraction for electrons in @ int, The amount of polarity of a bond is yy a distance is commonly agave sand, all bonds between unlike atoms are polar to some exter {termined by the difference of clectronegativity (or tendency to attract electrons) of the two bonded aioms, The greater the difference ‘of electronegativity between two atoms, greater the polarity. showing the % age ionic character and difference in electronegativity between the two atoms s sownin Fig. 5.5. Nonpotar covatent bonding Polar covalent bonding yonic bonding Electrons are shared Electrons are shared Electrons are: ‘equally unequally transferred w oD Nate cr} ao FP cP ag : Difference in electronegativity a « around 1.9 and 2.9. the pond is genezally ionic, measing 1 of the electron pair in the bond. alculated by using the ‘As a matter of fact, if this differenc® i control that one atom has gained complete The percentage ionic character of a bond can be Goage ionic character = 16{X,-%5) This equation was given bY Hannay and ‘Smith. equationY 5 ee 40096 LOE een Gparecler 168 520 25 30 35 40 7 pifference in electronegativity Figure 5.5 Graph between % ionie character and difference in electronegativity. SOLVED PROBLEM. Calculate the percentage ionic chara 0 4 ~ cetrnegnivities of and Clare 3.5 and 3,0 respectively. ter Of C-Cl bond in Cy, SOLUTION : Sage ionic character = 16[X, ~X]+3.5 ‘i 51X,—X_P contest a) eae a ionic character = 16(3.5-3.0)+3.5 (3.5—3.0)? =8.0+0.875 = 8875% Mampi Poa Crake molecul that of His 2 ty eo) conta |. Thus both the is WO O-H ¢ Net ovalent bot ‘We polar and water a ae electronegativity of 0 is35# lar molecule, . cm & H Jot Polar covalent z oe ——> | H NG NeCHEMICAL BoNONG qoNDING (H-Bondina) DNG-LEWS THEORY 169 on arogen HD I COVA penta alently bondedto nen bY pulled so close eny onteatlo miahly eles Scene ive aton io pak <(O,N,F),thesharea yo * - ——=="" os . he shared pair is remove D) ea moved farthest f inate my agorn athe positve ead shes rom Fass is a jae eeu wcleus (the proton) et 9° rong electro ve ee 0 ly steipyed of eek reece vom waka attraction 3 ey rs" Hydrogen ye qheclectrostatic att Sagres < attraction between ete nents Ee ae an Hatom covalently ponded to highly clectronesative 5 seve ot X in another motecule, 1s called Hydrogen Bonding ‘ond is represented DY & gashed or dotted line - es 4 ) Only O,Nand F which have very bi ‘eapable of forminghyaroess ponds. @) Hydrogen bonds Jonger-and mach weak han anormal covalent bond. sc energy is less than 10 Se altnle, waite a fos eT bond is about 120 Keak ts in lo chains or clusters of & HatBE number of “associate @) Hydrogen bonding = Feces ike many tin} ABMS® pondhasa preferred ‘ponding direction. T * orbitals which contain the curs through the atoms X-¥"-K will De a straightline Jone (©) Likea covalent bond hydroge®| to the fact that hydeen ponding 0° gh clectroneeatY 7,0 and SH of electrons on X at0™ "This implies ee Senne CONDITIONS FOR HyoROGEN BONDING ‘The necessary conditions for the formation of hydrogen Donsine are High electroneeat# ‘of atom bonded tobydroge" : atom of Hi ity such as F (0 or N bonded '9 4 contain al The molecule mus hydrogen atom by 4 C°¥’ {2) Small atze of Flectroned st” atom aS ee atom BY & covalent pond should ponded election Pah in “The electronegative om attacl the size of the atom. & IL be the for the Pim should be Neh This © hydrogen of swonge ce ineomparison(° than Cl atom. be quite smal! smaller commer words the esults in the matics size off