Leadership 

is both a research area and a practical skill encompassing the ability of an individual
or organization to "lead" or guide other individuals, teams, or entire organizations. Leadership is a process
whereby an individual, or clique, is able to influence others to internalize a collective vision and mobilize
them toward attaining that vision. Effective leadership transforms people’s goals and ambitions, even their
identities, and replaces self-oriented behavior with group-oriented behavior. The exercise of power over
people to force them, through rewards and punishments, to comply with commands and bend to one’s will is
not leadership. Although leadership is a group process (leaders require followers), leadership research has a
long history of focusing on attributes of leaders alone that make them effective—great leaders. The 19th-
century belief that leaders are born rather than made is no longer in vogue—research has failed to find “great
leader” genes. However, the idea that some people have personalities, however acquired, that predispose
them to lead effectively in all situations, whereas others do not, has attracted enormous research attention. A
definitive review published in 2002 concluded that three of the Big Five personality dimensions are
associated with effective leadership: Extraversion, Openness to Experience, and Conscientiousness. Overall,
however, personality does not allow people to differentiate between effective and ineffective leaders very
reliably.

Maybe some leadership behaviors are more effective. One reliable distinction that has emerged is between a
leadership style that pays more attention to the group task and getting things done (task-oriented leadership)
and one that pays attention to relationships among group members (socioemotional leadership). Most groups
require both types of leadership and people who are capable of being both task-focused and socio-
emotionally focused tend to be the most effective.

According to the social identity theory of leadership, a key function of leadership is to forge, transform, and
consolidate one’s identity as a group member—one’s social identity. The implication of this is that if
membership in a group is important to a person, particularly to his or her sense of self, the person is more
likely to be influenced by a leader who matches his or her understanding of what the group stands for (a
leader who is prototypical of the group) than by one who does not.

Effective leadership in such groups rests significantly on being perceived by one’s followers as being
prototypical, even to the extent that general attributes of good leadership decline in importance. One reason
why leaders who are prototypical members of subjectively important groups can be effective is that
followers believe that because their identity and that of the group are closely matched, the leaders treat
members fairly and must be acting in the best interest of the group, so they are therefore trusted and allowed
to be innovative.

All the definitions have a couple of processes in common:

o A person influences others through social influence, not power, to get something accomplished
(bosses use power to get things done).
 o Leadership requires others, who are not necessarily direct-reports, to get something accomplished.
o There is a need to accomplish something.

Leaders carry out this process by applying their leadership knowledge  and skills .

To help you be, know, and do,  follow these eleven principles of leadership (U.S. Army, 1983).

1. Know yourself and seek self-improvement - In order to know yourself, you have to understand
your be, know, and do, attributes. Seeking self-improvement means continually strengthening your
attributes. This can be accomplished through self-study, formal classes, reflection, and interacting
with others.
2. Be technically proficient - As a leader, you must know your job and have a solid familiarity with
your employees' tasks.
3. Seek responsibility and take responsibility for your actions - Search for ways to guide your
organization to new heights. And when things go wrong, as they often tend to do sooner or later —
do not blame others. Analyze the situation, take corrective action, and move on to the next challenge.
4. Make sound and timely decisions - Use good problem solving, decision making, and planning
tools.
5. Set the example - Be a good role model for your employees. They must not only hear what they are
expected to do, but also see. “We must become the change we want to see.” - Mahatma Gandhi
6. Know your people and look out for their well-being - Know human nature and the importance of
sincerely caring for your workers.
7. Keep your workers informed - Know how to communicate with not only them, but also seniors and
other key people.
8. Develop a sense of responsibility in your workers - Help to develop good character traits that will
help them carry out their professional responsibilities.
9. Ensure that tasks are understood, supervised, and accomplished - Communication is the key to
this responsibility.
10. Train as a team - Although many so called leaders call their organization, department, section, etc. a
team; they are not really teams... they are just a group of people doing their jobs.
11. Use the full capabilities of your organization - By developing a team spirit, you will be able to
employ your organization, department, section, etc. to its fullest capabilities.

 COMPONENTS OF LEADERSHIP

1. Dynamic Communication -
Conversations take place at all levels of energy. Each paragraph, each sentence, and each word depending
upon how it is said, as well as everything that is not said out loud, will impact a leader’s ability to engage his
or her audience, shift their energy, and inspire the individuals to complete a task, mission, or journey.

2. Conflict/Challenge Resolution -

Life is cyclical. At times you are accomplishing something substantial, feeling confident, and on top of the
world. At other times your life can be filled with events, situations, and people, or a combination of all of
them that complicate matters. Just because life is filled with challenges, depending upon your frame of
reference, your response to this apparent chaos will be significant in how you lead.

3. Emotional Intelligence -

Emotional intelligence can be defined as our ability to distinguish, understand, and have a greater awareness
of how our inner game of thoughts and feelings connect with our outward display of behaviors and actions,
as well as the ability to manage these thoughts and feelings to effectively lead.

4. Productivity -

Getting things done, achieving results requires effective use of resources available to you. It also involves
the leadership and stewardship of resources such as people, capital, and time. Getting things done requires
an ability to organize yourself, to focus on your priorities, and to carry out your work and mission.

5. Influencing and Inspiring Others -

Successful leaders focus less (if at all) on what to say in order to get people to take action. Instead, effective
leaders focus on how they can “be” in order to embody a message that inspires others to accomplish a task,
create a powerful relationship, and join forces to complete a mission.

6. Developing/Maintaining Positive and Effective Relationships -

Our lives are a web of connecting relationships. Relationships bring us much joy, and sometimes a great
deal of pain and sorrow. The ability to build a supportive team or tribe as well as minimize and manage
draining relationships allows us to lead ourselves more effectively and then in turn others.

7. Time Management/Balance -

We are all created equal in that all of us have 24 hours in our days. Where we differ is how we view and use
that time. How we see time and how we invest our time directly impacts the success we’ll have in all aspects
of life.

8. Health/Wellness -
Our health obviously affects our physical energy in life. When our bodies are functioning optimally, we
have the physical energy to work, play, study, and think. In other words, we have the energy to do the things
that bring us success, in whatever way we measure it. When we take care of our health, we secure the last
link in the chain of success to lead most effectively.

9. Coaching, not directing-

A great leader is a teacher and a coach, not a dictator. They help their teams develop and grow, and support
them by providing training in various forms, including coaching and mentoring. They understand when they
need to nurture their teams, and when they need to push them. It’s about finding the balance between giving
up too much control and being too controlling. A great leader knows that there is no specific ratio to this,
and that it changes depending on the situation.

To be a great coach, you must understand that everyone has different needs and that there isn’t a one size fits
all solution. Learn how your team members work best, and tailor your coaching to match their work style.
When you’re responsible for very large teams, it’s much more difficult to know which style will work best,
so it’s best to experiment with a few styles until you find the one that gets the desired results. 

10. Respect-

Respect is a two way street, and it must be given to be had in return. Great leaders understand this, and show
their team respect through trust. No employee likes to be micromanaged, as it indicates to them that you
don't trust their abilities. In fact, it’s one of the quickest ways to lose respect. Leaders must allow their
employees to take risks and accept that they will fail sometimes. If you can't trust your employees, they
won't trust you. A sure sign of a respected and trusted leader is when employees are comfortable coming to
them with questions.

The best leaders have no problem working alongside their employees and aren’t afraid to roll up their
sleeves and jump in to help the team when necessary. Your own personal leadership style will dictate how
often you do this, as will the nature of your work. Some leaders need to constantly work with their teams,
whereas others are able to be more hands off. The key is to step in and put in that extra work when it’s
necessary, and not leave your team struggling.
  NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS OF LEADERSHIP
 Leadership derives from the power and is similar to, yet distinct from, management. In fact,
“leadership” and “management” are different.
There can be leaders of completely unorganized groups, but there can be managers only of organized
groups. Thus it can be said that a manager is necessarily a leader but a leader may not be a manager.
 Leadership is essential for managing. The ability to lead effectively is one of the keys to being an
effective manager because she/he has to combine resources and lead a group to achieve objectives.
 Leadership and motivation are closely interconnected. By understanding motivation, one can
appreciate better what people want and why they act as they do. A leader can encourage or dampen
workers’ motivation by creating a favorable or unfavorable working environment in the organization.
 The essence of leadership is followership. In other words, it is the willingness of people to follow a
person that makes that person a leader. Moreover, people tend to follow those whom they see as
providing a means of achieving their desires, needs and wants.
 Leadership involves an unequal distribution of power between leaders and group members. Group
members are not powerless; they can shape group activities in some ways. Still, the leader will
usually have more power than the group members.
 Leaders can influence the followers’ behavior in some ways. Leaders can influence workers either to
do ill or well for the company. The leader must be able to empower and motivate the followers to the
cause.
 The leader must co-exist with the subordinates or followers and must have a clear idea about their
demands and ambitions. This creates loyalty and trust in subordinates for their leader.
 Leadership is to be concerned about values. Followers learn ethics and values from their leaders.
Leaders are the real teachers of ethics, and they can reinforce ideas. Leaders need to make positive
statements of ethics if they are not hypocritical.
 Leading is a very demanding job both physically and psychologically. The leader must have the
strength, power, and ability to meet the bodily requirements; zeal, energy, and patience to meet the
mental requirements for leading.
 It involves readiness to accept complete responsibility in all situations.

 THEORIES OF LEADERSHIP

1. TRAIT THEORY:

The trait model of leadership is based on the characteristics of many leaders - both successful and
unsuccessful - and is used to predict leadership effectiveness. The resulting lists of traits are then compared
to those of potential leaders to assess their likelihood of success or failure.
Scholars taking the trait approach attempted to identify physiological (appearance, height, and weight),
demographic (age, education and socioeconomic background), personality, self-confidence, and
aggressiveness), intellective (intelligence, decisiveness, judgment, and knowledge), task-related
(achievement drive, initiative, and persistence), and social characteristics (sociability and cooperativeness)
with leader emergence and leader effectiveness.

Successful leaders definitely have interests, abilities, and personality traits that are different from those of
the less effective leaders. Through many researches conducted in the last three decades of the 20th century, a
set of core traits of successful leaders have been identified. These traits are not responsible solely to identify
whether a person will be a successful leader or not, but they are essentially seen as preconditions that endow
people with leadership potential.

Among the core traits identified are:

 Achievement drive: High level of effort, high levels of ambition, energy and initiative
 Leadership motivation: an intense desire to lead others to reach shared goals
 Honesty and integrity: trustworthy, reliable, and open
 Self-confidence: Belief in one’s self, ideas, and ability
 Cognitive ability: Capable of exercising good judgment, strong analytical abilities, and conceptually
skilled
 Knowledge of business: Knowledge of industry and other technical matters
 Emotional Maturity: well adjusted, does not suffer from severe psychological disorders.
 Others: charisma, creativity and flexibility

Strengths/Advantages of Trait Theory

 It is naturally pleasing theory.

 It is valid as lot of research has validated the foundation and basis of the theory.
 It serves as a yardstick against which the leadership traits of an individual can be assessed.
 It gives a detailed knowledge and understanding of the leader element in the leadership process.

Limitations of The Trait Theory

 There is bound to be some subjective judgment in determining who is regarded as a ‘good’ or

‘successful’ leader
 The list of possible traits tends to be very long. More than 100 different traits of successful leaders in
various leadership positions have been identified. These descriptions are simply generalities.
 There is also a disagreement over which traits are the most important for an effective leader
  The model attempts to relate physical traits such as, height and weight, to effective leadership. Most
of these factors relate to situational factors. For example, a minimum weight and height might be
necessary to perform the tasks efficiently in a military leadership position. In business organizations,
these are not the requirements to be an effective leader.
 The theory is very complex

Implications of Trait Theory

The trait theory gives constructive information about leadership. It can be applied by people at all levels in
all types of organizations. Managers can utilize the information from the theory to evaluate their position in
the organization and to assess how their position can be made stronger in the organization. They can get an
in-depth understanding of their identity and the way they will affect others in the organization. This theory
makes the manager aware of their strengths and weaknesses and thus they get an understanding of how they
can develop their leadership qualities.

2. BEHAVIORAL THEORY:

Behavioral Theory of leadership is a big leap from Trait Theory, in that it assumes that leadership capability
can be learned, rather than being inherent. This theory is based on the principle that behaviours can be
conditioned in a manner that one can have a specific response to specific stimuli. Rather than seeking inborn
traits this theory looks at what leaders actually do by studying their behaviors in response to different
situations, assessing leadership success by studying their actions and then correlating significant behaviors
with success. The practical application of the theory is that leader’s behavior affects their performance and
different leadership behaviors could be appropriate at different times. The best leaders are those have the
adaptability to flex their behavioral style, and choose the right style suitable for each situation.  

According to this theory, people can learn to become leaders through teaching and observation and certain
behavioral patterns may be identified as leadership styles.  

Behavioral theory promotes the value of leadership styles with an emphasis on concern for people
and collaboration. It promotes participative decision making and team development by supporting individual
needs and aligning individual and group objectives. It helps managers evaluate and understand how their
behavioral style as a manager affects their relationship with the team and promotes commitment and
contribution towards organizational goals. 
In this approach, the emphasis is on the actual behaviour and action of the leaders and not on their traits or
characteristics. In other words, this approach emphasises that strong leadership is the result of effective role
behaviour.

This approach states that the leader uses three skills to lead his followers. These skills are: technical (refers
to a person's knowledge of the process of technique), human (refers to ability to interact with people) and
conceptual (refers to manager's ideas which enable a manager to set up models and design plans).

This approach assumes that a particular behaviour of a manager will make him a good leader while its
opposite would discard him as a leader. Determining goals, motivating employees for achieving the goals,
effective communication ability to interact effectively, building team spirit, etc. are the functional behaviour
of a successful leader.

The three most best-known behavioural theories of leadership are the Ohio State University studies that
were conducted starting in the late 1940s, the University of Michigan studies conducted at about the same
time, and Blake and Mouton’s Leadership Grid, which reflects the behavioural definitions of both the Ohio
and Michigan studies. All three approaches consider two main dimensions by which managers can be
characterized: attention to production and attention to people.

The Ohio State Studies

In the Ohio State studies, these two dimensions are known as initiating structure and consideration. 11
Initiating structure refers to the extent to which a leader is likely to define and structure his or her role and
the roles of employees in order to attain goals; it includes behaviour that tries to organize work, work
relationships, and goals. For instance, leaders using this style may develop specific output goals or deadlines
for employees. Consideration is defined as the extent to which a leader is likely to have job relationships
characterized by mutual trust, respect for employees’ ideas, and regard for their feelings. A leader who is
high in consideration shows concern for followers’ comfort, well-being, status, and satisfaction. For
instance, leaders using this style may create more flexible hours, or flextime, to make it easier for employees
to manage family issues during work hours.

The Michigan Studies

Researchers at the University of Michigan , whose work is referred to as “the Michigan studies,” also
developed two dimensions of leadership behaviour that they labelled employee-oriented and production-
oriented. Employee-oriented leaders emphasize interpersonal relations. They take a personal interest in the
needs of their subordinates and accept individual differences among members. Production-oriented leaders,
in contrast, tend to emphasize the technical or task aspects of the job. They are mainly concerned with
making sure the group accomplishes its tasks, and the group members are simply a means to that end.

The Iowa Leadership Studies

The Iowa Studies of leadership were carried out in the 1939's by Lewin, Lippitt, and White, under the
direction of Lewin. This study was set out to identify different styles of leadership and this early study was
very influential and established three major leadership styles. This study was done on the task performance
of ten-year old boys in three groups. 

In the first part of the study adults were trained to act as authoritarian, democratic, or laissez-fair leaders.
Later on school children were assigned to one of three groups with an authoritarian, democratic or laissez-
fair leader. The children were then led in an arts and crafts project while researchers observed the behavior
of children in response to the different styles of leadership. Performance was measured on amount of and
quality of work accomplished. This research has also been used to understand the quality of group decision-
making. The researchers selected boys of the same intelligence level. Each group did the same task of
making paper masks or model air-planes or murals or soap carvings. The room used by the three groups
remained the same. The three group leaders assumed different styles as they shifted every six weeks from
group to group. The researchers under the direction of Lewin, who did several studies on groups, were trying
to see how different styles of leadership could change the satisfaction, frustration-aggression levels of the
individuals. 

Nineteen out of twenty boys like the democratic leadership style. That kind of a leader never tried to boss
over them, yet they had plenty, to do. The only boy who liked the authoritarian style of leadership happened
to be the son of an army officer. It was also observed that seven out of ten boys preferred the laissez-faire
leader to the autocratic one as they preferred confusion and disorder to strictness and rigidity present in the
autocratic style. Boys under the latter style exhibited more of aggressive, hostile and indifferent behavior as
compared to their counterparts under other styles of leadership. They either showed hostility or cracked
jokes about hostility towards others. Others belonging to the democratic style of leadership showed less
aggressive and more indifferent behavior when brought under the autocratic style of a leader. Even under the
laissez-faire style of the leader, boys committed more aggressive acts than the ones under the democratic
style. 

STRENGHTS

 It addresses key questions on an organization’s leadership model: A couple of points that can be
addressed by this study is if leaders expect you to cooperate among various departments on
different tasks or if teams are consistently involved in decision-making to foster support on related
projects. If there is a lag when it comes to the work being completed on a marketing project, the
behavioral theory of leadership can answer why there may be a lag and who is directly responsible
for it. If a marketing manager did not communicate expectations for the approval process on client
deliverables, then a change of direction is needed to get a project back on track to keep the clients
satisfied with your brand.
 It identifies the leadership style of your manager Behavioral theories of leadership only assess
behavior, not traits or capabilities. Trait theory goes in-depth on how managers and employees
have characteristics like being adaptable to changing circumstances and alertness in a social
environment that show if they’re qualified to be a leader. Executing a behavioral leadership theory
evaluation highlights the events a manager acts upon given the situation. 

LIMITATIONS:

1. Behavioral theories are a learned process and take time

Whether you’re a leader or an employee, determining certain behaviors that fit scenarios come
with trial and error. Leaders have to be willing to put themselves in an environment to be tested,
and they have to acknowledge that their behavior is worth monitoring. With the vast deadlines
pending and clients to attend to, a CEO or impactful leader may be a difficult test subject to
access. However, if they show a willingness to be vulnerable, they’ll know more about themselves
than they did going into the evaluation, and it can have a direct effect on how they interact with
you as time progresses.

2. Leaders have other considerations for how to manage employees

Leaders may consider power and influence approaches to getting work done and how to work with
you. This way, your role and the manner in which you operate within an organization factors into
what decision you make and when. 

 MANAGERIAL GRID THEORY :

The managerial grid model (1964) is a style leadership model developed by Robert R. Blake and Jane

Mouton.

This model originally identified five different leadership styles based on the concern for people and
the concern for production.

The optimal leadership style in this model is based on Theory Y.

The grid theory has continued to evolve and develop. The theory was updated with two additional leadership
styles and with a new element, resilience.

In 1999, the grid managerial seminar began using a new text, The Power to Change.

The model is represented as a grid with concern for production as the x-axis and concern for people as
the y-axis; each axis ranges from 1 (Low) to 9 (High). The resulting leadership styles are as follows:
The five resulting leadership styles are as follows:

1. Impoverished Management (1, 1): Managers with this approach are low on both the dimensions
and exercise minimum effort to get the work done from subordinates. The leader has low concern for
employee satisfaction and work deadlines and as a result disharmony and disorganization prevail
within the organization. The leaders are termed ineffective wherein their action is merely aimed at
preserving job and seniority.
2. Task management (9, 1): Also called dictatorial or perish style. Here leaders are more concerned
about production and have less concern for people. The style is based on theory X of McGregor. The
employees’ needs are not taken care of and they are simply a means to an end. The leader believes
that efficiency can result only through proper organization of work systems and through elimination
of people wherever possible. Such a style can definitely increase the output of organization in short
run but due to the strict policies and procedures, high labour turnover is inevitable.
3. Middle-of-the-Road (5, 5): This is basically a compromising style wherein the leader tries to
maintain a balance between goals of company and the needs of people.

The leader does not push the boundaries of achievement resulting in average performance for
organization. Here neither employee nor production needs are fully met.

4. Country Club (1, 9): This is a collegial style characterized by low task and high people orientation
where the leader gives thoughtful attention to the needs of people thus providing them with a friendly
and comfortable environment. The leader feels that such a treatment with employees will lead to self-
motivation and will find people working hard on their own. However, a low focus on tasks can
hamper production and lead to questionable results.
5. Team Management (9, 9): Characterized by high people and task focus, the style is based on the
theory Y of McGregor and has been termed as most effective style according to Blake and Mouton.
 The leader feels that empowerment, commitment, trust, and respect are the key elements in creating a
team atmosphere which will automatically result in high employee satisfaction and production.

Advantages- The Managerial or Leadership Grid is used to help managers analyze their own leadership
styles through a technique known as grid training. This is done by administering a questionnaire that helps
managers identify how they stand with respect to their concern for production and people. The training is
aimed at basically helping leaders reach to the ideal state of 9, 9.

Limitations- The model ignores the importance of internal and external limits, matter and scenario. Also,
there are some more aspects of leadership that can be covered but are not.

3. CONTINGENCY THEORY:

The Contingency Theory of Leadership states that a leader’s effectiveness is contingent upon with how his
or her leadership style matches to the situation (Leadership Theories, n.d). That is, the leader must find out
what kind of leadership style and situation he or she thrives in. The Contingency Theory is concerned with
the following:
 “There is no one best style of leadership” (Fiedler’s Contingency Model, n.d)
 A leader is effective when his or her style of leadership fits with the situation (Fiedler’s Contingency
Model, n.d)
The Contingency Theory of leadership was developed by Fred Fiedler in 1958 during his research of leader
effectiveness in group situations (Fiedler’s, n.d). Fiedler believed that one’s effectiveness to lead depended
on their control of the situation and the style of leadership (Fiedler’s, n.d). Unlike the Situational Theory of
leadership, leader effectiveness is contingent on the leader’s style matching the situation, not adapting to it
(Fiedler’s, n.d). This theory assumes that styles are fixed, and that they cannot be adapted or modified
(Gupta, 2009). A leader is most effective when his or her attributes and style of leadership is matched with
the situation and environment around them (Gupta, 2009).

 FIELDER CONTIGENCY MODEL:

The Fiedler Contingency Model was created in the mid-1960s by Fred Fiedler, a scientist who studied the
personality and characteristics of leaders.

The model states that there is no one best style of leadership. Instead, a leader's effectiveness is based on the
situation. This is the result of two factors – "leadership style" and "situational favorableness" (later called
"situational control").
The leadership style of the leader, thus, fixed and measured by what he calls the least preferred co-worker
(LPC) scale, an instrument for measuring an individual's leadership orientation. The LPC scale asks a leader
to think of all the people with whom they have ever worked and then describe the person with whom they
have worked least well, using a series of bipolar scales of 1 to 8, such as the following:

Unfriendly 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Friendly
Uncooperative 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Cooperative
Hostile 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Supportive
.... 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 ....
Guarded 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Open
A high LPC score suggests that the leader has a "human relations orientation", while a low LPC score
indicates a "task orientation". Fiedler assumes that everybody's least preferred coworker in fact is on average
about equally unpleasant. But people who are indeed relationship motivated, tend to describe their least
preferred coworkers in a more positive manner, e.g., more pleasant and more efficient. Therefore, they
receive higher LPC scores.

People who are task motivated, on the other hand, tend to rate their least preferred coworkers in a more
negative manner. Therefore, they receive lower LPC scores. So, the Least Preferred Coworker (LPC) scale
is actually not about the least preferred worker at all, instead, it is about the person who takes the test; it is
about that person's motivation type. This is so, because, individuals who rate their least preferred coworker
in relatively favorable light on these scales derive satisfaction out of interpersonal relationship, and those
who rate the coworker in a relatively unfavorable light get satisfaction out of successful task performance.
This method reveals an individual's emotional reaction to people they cannot work with. Critics point out
that this is not always an accurate measurement of leadership effectiveness. Fiedler expanded his studies
outside of the lab and showed the interrelations between adjustment, group performance and leadership style
in a volunteer medical team under different conditions of stress while working in isolated villages of Central
America. The task-oriented leader performed better in situations that were favorable and relatively
unfavorable while the relationship-oriented leader only fared better in situations of intermediate
favorableness. As the LPC is a personality measure, the score is believed to be quite stable over time and not
easily changed. Low LPCs tend to remain low and high LPCs tend remain high which shows that the test-
reliability of the LPC is strong.

Situational Factors: According to Fiedler, a leader’s behavior is dependent upon the favorability of the
leadership situation. Three factors work together to determine how favorable a situation is to a leader. These
are:

 Leader-member relations - The degree to which the leaders is trusted and liked by the group
members, and the willingness of the group members to follow the leader’s guidance
  Task structure - The degree to which the group’s task has been described as structured or
unstructured, has been clearly defined and the extent to which it can be carried out by detailed
instructions
 Position power - The power of the leader by virtue of the organizational position and the degree to
which the leader can exercise authority on group members in order to comply with and accept his
direction and leadership

ADVANTAGES: The theory is extremely well researched by Fiedler himself and many others that came
after him. It, therefore, works in many situations and can be accurately used to determine which
situations are best for a leader to lead in. As such it is a popular theory and is used a lot in the field of
management.

Rule of Thumb Relevance

Fiedler’s model is simple enough that it can be used as a kind of rule of thumb in situations
where academic rigor is unnecessary and may be unhelpful. All you need to do is remember two
rules: The leaders who have good interpersonal relations are matched to an environment with
poorly structures tasks. Leaders who are less personable are placed in environments with well-
structured tasks.

It Is a Flexible Theory

Since the theory is in a class of contingency theories, it is considered flexible, which is one of the
major advantages of the contingency approach. This means that you can use this theory in
different situations that fit with a company's demands. That makes it much better than a more-
rigid theory that tries to find one solution to fit with every problem.

You can use Fiedler’s contingency model in your organization to better match your managers to
different environments; then, sit back and watch them flourish.
LIMITATIONS:  Disadvantages of Fiedler’s Contingency Theory • Least preferred co-worker (LPC) scale is
subjective, and characteristics are relative in contexts. • Even according to Fiedler, the LPC score is valid only
for groups that are closely supervised and does not apply to "open ones" such as teams. • It is questionable
whether Fiedler's contingency theory is valid in all situations, such as when neither the task is well defined and
no choice of leaders is to be had, except ones with bad personalities.

 HERSEY AND BLANCHARD’S SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP THEORY:

The term 'situational' indicates that leaders should vary their approach based on the people they are leading,
and the circumstances that surround the task at hand. Indeed, the Hersey-Blanchard Situational Leadership
Theory is one that is based around variable leadership, depending on a variety of circumstances. When a
leader is able to adapt to the situation as quickly as possible, everyone will benefit in the end.

Specifically, this theory has to do with the maturity of those who are being led. To those who have worked
as leaders in the past, it is no surprise that maturity should be considered when working on finding the right
leadership style. For example, someone who is inexperienced in their field will likely lack the skills or
confidence to take on tasks that would be comfortable for a more experienced employee.

Only when a leader is able to mold their approach to the maturity and talent of those that make up the team
will the overall performance be up to par.
The Situational Leadership Theory offers up four potential leadership styles, and then four maturity levels
that define the members of a team. Let's quickly look at each of the four styles and levels that can then be
paired up for optimal performance.
The four leadership styles that are presented in this theory are Telling, Selling, Participating, and Delegating.
Starting with Telling, this is the most direct form of leadership. The leader of the group simply tells each
member what to do, and how they would like them to do it. This approach is less collaborative, and more
directive in nature. There is very little working together between the leader and the team members, instead
the leader simply provides specific instructions for the team members to follow through with.

The second leadership style, Selling, is one with a little more room for collaboration. While the team
members are still directed by the leader, the leader is more likely to engage with the team members along the
way. The 'Selling' title comes from the idea that the leader may need to convince some of the team members
to follow his or her lead and do things in a specific way.

Moving on to the third option, Participating is a process where the leader tries to build relationships with
those on the team - really becoming part of the team. This is quite a departure from the Telling style, as the
leader will blend in more fully with those who are working as part of the team. In fact, the leader might not
even make all of the decisions in this style, perhaps deferring at certain points to members of the team with
more experience or knowledge in a givenarea.

Finally, Delegating represents the leader passing on most of the responsibilities for a given project or task to
various members of the team. This style is something that leaders of experienced teams will often use, since
the employees that are being led may not need much in the way of direction at this point in their careers.

 PATH GOAL THEORY:

The path–goal theory, also known as the path–goal theory of leader effectiveness or the path–goal

model, is a leadership theory developed by Robert House, an Ohio State University graduate, in 1971 and
revised in 1996. The theory states that a leader's behavior is contingent to the satisfaction, motivation and
performance of his or her subordinates. The revised version also argues that the leader engages in behaviors
that complement subordinate's abilities and compensate for deficiencies.
According to Robert House and John Antonakis, the task-oriented elements of the path–goal model can be
classified as a form of instrumental leadership.

According to the first of all theory, the manager's job is viewed as guiding workers to choose the best paths
to reach their goals, as well as the organizational goals. The theory argues that leaders will have to engage in
different types of leadership behavior depending on the nature and the demands of a particular situation. It is
the leader's job to assist followers in attaining goals and to provide the direction and support needed to
ensure that their goals are compatible with the organization's goals.

A leader's behavior is acceptable to subordinates when viewed as a source of satisfaction, and motivational
when need satisfaction is contingent on performance, and the leader facilitates, coaches, and rewards
effective performance. The original path-goal theory identifies achievement-
oriented, directive, participative, and supportive leader behaviors:

 The directive path-goal clarifying leader behavior refers to situations where the leader lets followers
know what is expected of them and tells them how to perform their tasks. The theory argues that this
behavior has the most positive effect when the subordinates' role and task demands are ambiguous and
intrinsically satisfying.
 The achievement-oriented leader behavior refers to situations where the leader sets challenging goals
for followers, expects them to perform at their highest level, and shows confidence in their ability to
meet this expectation. Occupations in which the achievement motive were most predominant were
technical jobs, sales persons, scientists, engineers, and entrepreneurs.
 The participative leader behavior involves leaders consulting with followers and asking for their
suggestions before making a decision. This behavior is predominant when subordinates are highly
personally involved in their work.[
 The supportive leader behavior is directed towards the satisfaction of subordinates needs and
preferences. The leader shows concern for the followers' psychological well being. This behavior is
especially needed in situations in which tasks or relationships are psychologically or physically
distressing.

Path–goal theory assumes that leaders are flexible and that they can change their style, as situations require.
The theory proposes two contingency variables, such as environment and follower characteristics, that
moderate the leader behavior-outcome relationship. Environment is outside the control of the follower-task
structure, authority system, and work group. Environmental factors determine the type of leader behavior
required if the follower outcomes are to be maximized. Follower characteristics are the locus of control,
experience, and perceived ability. Personal characteristics of subordinates determine how the environment
and leader are interpreted. According to Northouse, the theory is useful because it reminds leaders that their
central purpose as a leader is to help subordinates define and reach their goals in an efficient manner
SITUATIONAL FACTORS LEADERSHIP STYLE GOAL ACHIEVEMENT
(determine) (affect) Performance
Subordinate (follower) Directive Satisfaction
Authoritarianism Supportive
Locus of control Participative
Ability Achievement Oriented
Environment
Task Structure
Formal authority
Work group

Advantages

1. This method is suitable for emergencies and situations where there is a time constraint.

2. It is flexible.

3. The revised theory can be used in groups who are knowledgeable.

4. The ideas are easy to understand.

Disadvantages

1. It is undemocratic in nature.

2. The method can fail if the leader has flaws.

3. The leaders may not be rational and act on the basis of delusion.

4. If there is too much dependence on the leader  the system may collapse if something happens to the
leader.

 NORMATIVE DECISION MAKING THEORY:

Victor Vroom, a professor at Yale University and a scholar on leadership and decision-making, developed

the normative model of decision-making. Drawing upon literature from the areas of leadership, group
decision-making, and procedural fairness, Vroom’s model predicts the effectiveness of decision-making
procedures. Specifically, Vroom’s model takes into account the situation and the importance of the decision
to determine which of Vroom’s five decision-making methods will be most effective.

Vroom identified five types of decision-making processes, each varying on degree of participation by the
leader.

1. Decide: The leader makes the decision or solves the problem alone and announces his/her decision to
the group. The leader may gather information from members of the group.
2. Consult (Individually): The leader approaches group members individually and presents them with
the problem. The leader records the group member’s suggestions and makes a decision, deciding
whether or not to use the information provided by group members.
3. Consult (Group): The leader holds a group meeting where he/she presents the problem to the group
as a whole. All members are asked to contribute and make suggestions during the meeting. The
leader makes his/her decision alone, choosing which information obtained from the group meeting
to use or discard.
4. Facilitate: The leader holds a group meeting where he/she presents the problem to the group as a
whole. This differs from consulting approach as the leader ensures that his/her opinions are not
given any more weight than those of the group. The decision is made by group consensus, and not
solely by the leader.
5. Delegate: The leader does not actively participate in the decision-making process. Instead, the leader
provides resources (e.g., information about the problem) and encouragement.

Vroom identified seven situational factors that leaders should consider when choosing a decision-making
process.

1. Decision significance: How will the decision affect the project’s success, or the organization as a
whole?
2. Importance of commitment: Is it important that team members are committed to the final decision?
3. Leader’s expertise: How knowledgeable is the leader in regards to the problem(s) at hand?
4. Likelihood of commitment: If the leader makes the decision by himself/herself, how committed
would the group members be to the decision?
5. Group support for objectives: To what degree do group members support the leader’s and
organization’s objectives?
6. Group expertise: How knowledgeable are the group members in regards to the problem(s) at hand?
7. Team competence: How well can group members work together to solve the problem?

Vroom created a number of matrices which allow leaders to take into consideration these seven situational
influences in order to choose the most effective decision-making process.
  LEADERSHIP MEMBER EXCHANGE THEORY:

Informal observation of leadership behavior suggests that leader’s action is not the same towards all
subordinates. The importance of potential differences in this respect is brought into sharp focus by Graen’s
leader-member exchange model, also known as the vertical dyad linkage theory. The theory views
leadership as consisting of a number of dyadic relationships linking the leader with a follower. The quality
of the relationship is reflected by the degree of mutual trust, loyalty, support, respect, and obligation.

According to the theory, leaders form different kinds of relationships with various groups of subordinates.
One group, referred to as the in-group, is favored by the leader. Members of in-group receive considerably
more attention from the leader and have more access to the organizational resources. By contrast, other
subordinates fall into the out-group. These individuals are disfavored by the leader. As such, they receive
fewer valued resources from their leaders.

Leaders distinguish between the in-group and out-group members on the basis of the perceived similarity
with respect to personal characteristics, such as age, gender, or personality.

A follower may also be granted an in-group status if the leader believes that person to be especially
competent at performing his or her job. The relationship between leaders and followers follows stages:

 Role taking: When a new member joins the organization, the leader assesses the talent and abilities
of the member and offers them opportunities to demonstrate their capabilities.
 Role making: An informal and unstructured negotiation on work-related factors takes place between
the leader and the member. A member who is similar to the leader is more likely to succeed. A
betrayal by the member at this stage may result in him being relegated to the out-group.

Strengths: LMX theory is an exceptional theory of leadership as unlike the other theories, it concentrates
and talks about specific relationships between the leader and each subordinate. It focuses our attention to the
significance of communication in leadership. Communication is a medium through which leaders and
subordinates develop, grow and maintain beneficial exchanges. When this communication is accompanied
by features such as mutual trust, respect and devotion, it leads to effective leadership and LMX Theory is
very much valid and practical in it’s approach.

Criticism: LMX Theory fails to explain the particulars of how high-quality exchanges are created and LMX
Theory is objected on grounds of fairness and justice as some followers receive special attention of leaders
at workplace and other followers do not.
  TRANSFORMATIONAL-TRANSACTIONAL THEORY:

The transactional leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward or punish for the
team’s performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the group and the group agrees to follow
his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to
evaluate, correct and train subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward
effectiveness when expected outcome is reached.

The transformational leader (Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be effective and efficient. Communication is
the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final desired outcome or goal attainment. This
leader is highly visible and uses chain of command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on
the big picture, needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always
looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the company’s vision.

 AUTHENTIC LEADERSHIP THEORY:

Authentic leadership is an approach to leadership that emphasizes building the leader's legitimacy through
honest relationships with followers which value their input and are built on an ethical foundation. Generally,
authentic leaders are positive people with truthful self-concepts who promote openness. By building trust
and generating enthusiastic support from their subordinates, authentic leaders are able to improve individual
and team performance. This approach has been fully embraced by many leaders and leadership coaches who
view authentic leadership as an alternative to leaders who emphasize profit and share price over people and
ethics. Authentic leadership is a growing area of study in academic research on leadership which has
recently grown from obscurity to the beginnings of a fully mature concept.

Authentic Leadership has a lot of characteristics, but it’s important to first consider the qualities that go with
this leadership style. First of all, an authentic leader is self-aware and sincere. He knows himself, knows
what he’s worth and knows his limitations. By showing his true nature, he is rewarded with respect from the
people around him. Secondly, an authentic leader is selfless. Achieving organisational goals is a shared
result, not something for him to boast about as an individual.

An authentic leader doesn’t go for power, money, and his ego. An authentic leader puts the interest of the
organisation first. He does, however, focus on the long term, helping to steer the organisation in the right
direction. Authentic leaders aren’t afraid to show their vulnerability and feelings. They’re able create a
connection with their employees. This definitely doesn’t mean they’re pushovers. It’s about empathy
without sacrificing rationality. Authentic leaders are reliable and trustworthy, and people respect them. They
take responsibility and expect others to do the same. They can listen to their own intuition and voice
opinions based on their personal observations.
  CHALLENGES TO LEADERSHIP

Challenges to leadership construct

The leadership construct has through the years been challenged with the need for rapid change and
transformation. In many cases, the changing work, or relational setting environments have been the
underlying factors for this rapid changes in the leadership construct.

LEADER SUBSTITUTE THEORY:

Substitutes for leadership theory is a leadership theory first developed by Steven Kerr and John M. Jermier
and published in Organizational Behavior and Human Performance in December 1978.

The theory states that different situational factors can enhance, neutralize, or substitute for leader behaviors
(Avolio, Walumbwa, & Weber, 2009; Den Hartog & Koopman, 2001). It has received criticism for
shortcomings due to perceived methodological issues (Dionne, Yammarino, Atwater, & James, 2002;
Podsakoff & Mackenzie, 1995). Empirical research has produced mixed results as to its ability to predict
subordinate outcomes.

Kerr and Jermier (1978) identified aspects of the situation that make task-oriented behavior (“instrumental
leadership”) or relations-oriented behavior (“supportive leadership”) by the designated leader redundant or
ineffective. The situational variables include characteristics of the subordinates, task, and the organization
that serve as substitutes by directly affecting the dependent variable and making the leader behavior
redundant. The substitutes for instrumental leadership include a highly structured and repetitive task,
extensive rules and standard procedures, and extensive prior training and experience for subordinates. The
substitutes for supportive leadership include a cohesive work group in which the members support each
other, and an intrinsically satisfying task that is not stressful. In a situation with many substitutes, the
potential impact of leader behavior on subordinate motivation and satisfaction may be greatly reduced. For
example, little direction is necessary when subordinates have extensive prior experience or training, and they
already possess the skills and knowledge to know what to do and how to do it. Likewise, professionals who
are internally motivated by their values, needs, and ethics do not need to be encouraged by the leader to do
high-quality work.

Some situational variables (called neutralizers ) prevent a leader from using forms of behavior that would
improve subordinate satisfaction or unit performance. For example, a leader with no authority to change
ineffective work procedures cannot make changes that would improve efficiency. Howell et al. (1990)
contend that some situations have so many neutralizers that it is difficult or impossible for a leader to
succeed. In this event, the remedy is to change the situation and make it more favorable for the leader by
removing neutralizers, and in some cases by increasing substitutes.
Challenges faced by leaders in contemporary context

Developing Managerial Skills: Leading and managing are different. Leaders are charged with being the
visionary but responsible for developing managerial skills. Vision provides a glimpse of the future. But to
get that destination, a bit of housekeeping is needed. And, that is what good leaders do, they run the day-to-
day activities that help the vision becoming reality.

Developing Employees: The growth of employees directly impacts the potential success of the organisation.
Leaders have obligation and duty to improve the skills and knowledge of every employee. Doing this brings
greater employee satisfaction, a greater potential for promotions and opportunity to help the Organization
grow. Leaders should recruit someone that can eventually take their place. Helping them grow greater
satisfaction with their career. It’s what great leaders do.

Managing Change: Life is about change. It’s over present and impacts how the organization functions.
Leaders must anticipate change. They must manage through change, they must guide the organization to
greater success or to better overcome adversity. The universe does not remain constant. It’s the same with
the organization: learn how to cope with change and use it to as advantage.

Being a source of Inspiration: To be a leader, one must have followers. Gaining ‘followership’ starts with
the ability to convince (inspire) someone to follow you. They must believe in your plans, sense the values
leader brings to the organization and willing to help make the plans as ‘reality’. Leaders need both to
keeping momentum going.

Globalization: The modern leader required to motivate the followers in such a way that they work in
enthusiastic manner to face the changing effects of globalization. The leadership style should also be flexible
to cope up the challenges in 21st century. The organization should recruit skilled employees and also training
should be provided to the working employees for facing the competitive challenges.

Technology: The challenge for leadership is to develop new technologies in ways that not only yield fresh
efficiencies, but also to amplify human creativity, ingenuity and judgement. Leadership with technology will
greatly increase leaders ability to meet that challenge and so achieve real future prosperity.

Developing Teams: When leaders train the employees on teamwork, they should look to their team to pull
the wagon of success forward. The energy of great teams makes a powerful contribution. When employees
work together, more can be accomplished. When the leader managed, trained and used quality teams their
contribution saved thousand and produced happier employees. It’s a move everyone come out a winner.

Lack of Communication: As new managers, people may find it difficult to openly communicate with their
team about expectations or to bring up issues they are encountering. However, it’s important to keep
communication frequently and open so that everyone is on the same page. Developing a culture of feedback
within a team is an essential way to ensure they can really progress together and individually.