fated Ligel Mey atemee lel) tile ene a eee ea!WILEY INTERNATIONAL EDITION Not For Sale In North AmericaTT Ua ea aie eae will you face in the real world? The same ones you'll foce in Nise's Fourth Editian of CONTROL SYSTEMS ENGINEERING Emphasizing the proctical appliconon of contra! systems engineering, this Fourth Ed Aeon i) See an Re eet eae eee eet t0) " een ene ei rn ow eC Ones design of system configurotions and parameters, vsing both qualitative ond quantitahva STOTT i Mee Rumer Thue ME Cua R11 aay Ue) eur i} computer sofiware—to the analysis and design of coniral systems De cee Scene eeu tty Series Sa Cre Orns een ae stam tT eee cuca tn Sere en eae ag ecient) ete a teed the analysis and design discussed. In addition, the text provides numersais in-chaptt oa ee te © Tutorials in the appendices introduce you to the latest versions of MATLAB, the Csntrol Sue eee omc en ren eae RUC C Ere ty interface (GUI) fools (the LT! Viewer, the Simulink IT! Viswer, and the SISO Design Tool). * Experiments using MATLAB, Simulink, and the SISO Design Tool ot the end of most chapters give you the opportunity to expand your knowledge by perform ie ReeeeTe Ses ia Re ee ett ORE Rete cet ‘computer applications, electronic files of the text's computer program 1AB, odditional appendices, and complete solutions to skill assessmn * Control Solutions powered by JustAskl®, an online problem solving tool, walks you step-by-step through over 150 endgkchapter problems and skill-assessmen! axercise Pete tuk) NA 1 2g AAO Ute axon e tSEXECUTIVE EDITOR Bill Zobrist ASSISTANT EDITOR Catherine Mergen SENIOR MARKETING MANAGER Katherine Hepbum BENIOR PRODUCTION EDITOR Patricia McFadden DESIGN DIRECTOR Harry Nolan PRODUCTION MANAGEMENT SERVICES Publiction Services Cover Photo. siU.S. Department of Energy/Science Phote Library/Photo Researchers ‘Manny, « robot mannequin, was built at ihe Deparment of Energy's Pacific Northwest Laboratory. ‘The robot was designed to sirmulate human movements, sweating, and breathing in order to test protective clothing worn by firefighters and hanallers of hazardous material. Protective clodung 1s stressed by Manny's 40) yours, which move wath the help of hydraulic actuators. Water ws conducted ‘through tubes to simulate perspitation, while breathang ks imitated by introducing moist atr through the nose and mouth to produce human-like chest motson. ‘This book was set in Times Roman by Publication Services. Inc. and printed and bound by Donnelley/Crawfardsville, The cover was prawed by Lehigh Press, Inc. ‘This book is printed on acid-free paper. ‘The software progrants available with this book have been included for their instructional value ‘They have been tested wah care but are not guaranteed for any particular purpose. The publisher and autor do not offer any warranties or restrictions, nor da they accept any liabilities wath cespet to the programs. ‘Copyright © 2004 John Wiley & Sons, Inc All rights reserved. No part of tus publication may he reproduced, stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopy ng, reconhng, scanning or otherwise, except as permntied under Sections: 107 or 108 of the 1976 United States Copyright Aci, without either the prior written permssion of the Publisher, or authorization through payment of the appropriate per-copy fee tothe (Copyriglx Clearance Center, Inc. 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, MA 01923, (50875 $8400, fax (508)750-4470. Requests to the Publisher for permission sheatld be addressed to the Permissions Departmen, fohn Wiley & Sons, Inc., 111 River Street, Hoboken, 'NJ.07030, 201)748-601 1, fax (201)748-6008, E-Mail, [email protected] To ‘order hooks or for custorner service please call |-800-CALL WILEY (225-5945). Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data: Nise, Norman S (Control Systems Engineering/Norman S, Nise—4° ed. Inctudes bibliographies! references 1, Automane control. 2, Systems engineering 1. Title. ‘TI213 .N497 2004 6298-21 ISBN 0-471-44577-0 ‘WIE ISBN 0-$71-45243-2 Printed in the Unived States af America W9RTES 432To my wife, Ellen; sons, Benjamin and Alan; daughter, Sharon; and to the memory of my mother-in-love, Bobby Manashil, whase love of reading hus been an inspiration.Key Features Preface This book introduces students to the theory and practice of control systems engineering. The text emphasizes the practical application of the subject to the analysis and design of feedback systems. The study of control systems engineering is essential for students pursuing Gegrees in electrical. mechanical, aerospace. or chemical engineering. Control systems are found in a broad range of applications within these disciplines, from, aircraft and spacecraft to robots and process control systems. Control Systems Engineering is. suitable for upper-division college and uni- versity engineering students and for those who wish to master the subject matter through self-study. The student using this text should have completed typical lower- division courses in physics and mathematics through differential equations. Other required background material. including Laplace transforms and linear algebra, is incorporated in the text, either within chapter discussions or separately in the ap Pendixes or on an accompanying CD-ROM. This review material can be omitted ‘without loss of continuity if the student does not require it. The key features of this fourth edition are Standardized chapter organization Qualitative and quantitative explanations Examples, Skill-Assessment Exercises, and Case Studies throughout the text Control Solutions Powered by JustAsk!@ Cyber Exploration Laboratory experiments Abundant illustrations Nurverous end-of-chapter problems Emphasis on design Flexible coveragePreface v a Emphasis on computer-aided analysis and design m= Icons identifying major topics = CD-ROM containing additional matenal Let us look at each feature in more detail. Standardized Chapter Organization Each chapter begins with a list of chapter objectives, followed by a list of case study objectives that relate the chapter objectives to specific student performance in solving a practical case study problem, such as an antenna azimuth position control system. Topics are then divided into clearly numbered and labeled sections containing explanations, examples, and, where appropriate. skill-assessment exercises with answers. These numbered sections are followed by one or more case studies, as will be outlined in a few paragraphs. Each chapter ends with a brief summary, several Teview questions requiring short answers, and a set of homework problems, Qualitative and Quantitative Explanations Explanations are clear and complete and, where appropriate, include a brief review of required background material. Topics build upon and support one another in a logical fashion. Groundwork for new concepts and terminology is carefully laid to avoid overwhelming the student and to facilitate self-study. Although quantitative solutions are obviously important, a qualitative or inte itive understanding of problems and methods of solution is vital to producing the insight required to develop sound designs. Therefore, whenever possible, new con cepts are discussed from a qualitative perspective before quantitative analysis and design are addressed. For example, in Chapter 8 the student can simply look at the root locus and describe qualitatively the changes in transient response that will occur as a system parameter, such as gain, is varied. This ability is developed with the help of a few simple equations from Chapter 4. Examples, Skill-Assessment Exercises, and Case Studies Explanations are clearly illustrated by means of numerous numbered and tnbeled Examples throughout the text. Where appropriate, a section concludes with Skill- Assessment Exercises. These are computation drills, most with answers, that test comprehension and provide immediate feedback. Complete solutions canbe found on the accompanying CD-ROM. Broader examples in the form of Case Studies can be found after the last num bered section of every chapter. with the exception of Chapter 1. These case studies are practical application problems that demonstrate the concepts introduced in the chapter. Each case study concludes with a “Challenge” problem that students may work in order to test their understanding of the material. One of the case studies. concerning an antenna azimuth position control system, is carried throughout the book. The purpose is to illustrate the application of new material in each chapterte the same physical system, thus highlighting the continuity of the design process. Another, more challenging case study, involving an Unmanned Free-Swimming Submersible Vehicle, is developedover the course of five chapters.vi Preface Control Solutions Powered by JustAsk! Control Solutions is a Web site that is essentially « tutor serving the needs of both the student and the professor. A total of over 150 end-of-chapter problems and Skill-Assessment Exercises from the book will have step-by-step solutions. These problems are worked in detail and explanations of every facet of tbe solutions are provided. As such. this Web site is a valuable tool in the use of this book. ‘This site is password protected and can be accessed by purchasing The Control Solutions Companion. ISBN 0471483885. This companion supplies you with an access code to the Control Solutions Web site as well as instructions on how to use the Web site. The Control Solutions Companion can be purchased on the book companion Web site, www.wiley.com/college/nise. ‘Cyber Exploration Laboratory Experiments Computer experiments using MATLAB. Simulink, and the Control System Tool- box are found at the end of the Problems section of Chapters 4 through 13 under the subheading Cyber Exploration Laboratory. The experiments allow the reader to verify the concepts covered in the chapter via simulation. The reader also can change parameters and perform “what if” exploration to pain insight into the effect of parameter and configuration changes. The experiments are written with stated Objectives, Minimum required software packages, as well as Prelab, Lab, and Post- Tab tasks and questions. Thus. the experiments may be used for a laboratory course that accompanies the class. Abondant Illustrations The ability to visualize concepts and processes is critical to the student's under- standing. For this reason approximately 750 photos. diagrams, graphs, and tables appear throughout the book to illustrate the topics under discussion. Numerous End-of-Chapter Problems Each chapter ends with a variety of homework problems that allow students to test their understanding of the material preserued in the chapter, Problems vary in degree of difficulty and complexity, and most chapters include several practical, real-life problems to help maintain students” motivation. Also. the homework prob- Jems contain a progressive analysis and design problem that uses the sume practical system to demonstrate the concepts of each chapter. Emphasis on Design This textbook places a heavy emphasis on design. Chapters 8, 9, 11, 12, and 13 focus primarily on design. But even in chapters that cmphasize analysis, simple design cxamples are included wherever possible. ‘Throughout the book, design examples involving phystcal systems are identi- fied bya Beste icon. End-of chapter problems that involve the design of physical systems are included under the separate heading Design Problems and also, in chapters covering design, under the heading Progressive Analysis andPreface vil Design Problem. In these examples and problems, a desired response is specifica, and the student must evaluate certain system parameters, such as gain, or specify a system configuration along with parameter values. In addition, the text includes numerous design examples and problems (not identified by an icon) that involve purcly mathematical systems. Because visualization is so vital to understanding design, this text carefully relates indirect design specifications to more familiar ones. For example, the less familiar and indirect phase margin is carefully related to the more direct and famil- iar percent overshoot before being used as 4 design specification. For each general type of design problem introduced in the text, a methodology for solving the problem is presented—in many cases in the form of a step-by-step procedure. beginning with a statement of design objectives. Example problems serve to demonstrate the methodology by following the procedure, making simpli- fying assumptions, and presenting the fesults of the design in tables or plots that compare the performance of the original system to that of the improved system. ‘This comparison also serves as a check on the simplifying assumptions. ‘Transient response design topics are covered comprehensively in the text. They include Design via gain adjustment using the root locus ‘Design of compensanon and controllers via the root locus Design via gain adjustment using sinusoidal frequency response methods Design of compensation via sinusoidal frequency response methods Design of observers in state space using pole-placement techniques Design of digital control systems via gain adjustment on the root locus ‘Design of digital control system compensation via s-plane design and the Tustin uansformation . 2 . . m@ Design of controllers in state space using pule-placement techniques . . 2 Steady-state error design is covered comprehensively in this textbook and includes Gain adjustment Design of compensation via the root Hocus Design of compensation via sinusoidal frequency response methods Design of integral control in state space Finally, the design of gam to yield stability is covered from the following perspectives: @ Routh-Hurwitz criterion @ Root focus = Nyquist criterion w Bode plotsvill Preface Flexible Coverage ‘The material in this book can be adapted for w one-quarter or a one-semester course. The organization is flexible, allowing the instructor to select the material that best suits the requirements and time constraints of the class. ‘Throughout the book state-space methods are presented along with the classi- cal approach. Chapters and sections (as well as examples, exercises. review ques- tions. and problems) that cover state space are marked by a tate pede) icon and can be omitted without any loss of continuity. Those wishing to add 2 basic introduction to state-space modeling can include Chapter 3 in the syllabus. Ina one-semester course, the discussions of state-space analysis in Chapters 4, 5, 6, and 7, as well as state-space design in Chapter 12, can be covered along with the classical approach. Another option is to teach state space separately by gather- ing the appropriate chapters and sections marked with the tate’®paee. icon into a single unit that follows the classical approach. In a one-quarter course, Chap- ter 13, “Digital Control Systems,” could be eliminated. Emphasis on Computer-Aided Analysis und Design Control systems problems, particularly analysis and design problerns using the root Joous, can be tedious, since their solution involves trial und error. ‘To solve these problems, students should be given access to compulers or programmable calcu- istors configured with appropriate software. In this fourth edition, MATLAB! continues to be integrated into the text as un optional feature. Many problems in this text can be solved with either a computer or a hand held, programmable calculator. For example, students can use the programmable calculator to (1) determine whether # point on the s-plane is also on the root lo- us, (2) find magnitude and phase frequency response data for Nyquist and Bode diagrams, and (3) convert between the following representations of a second-order system: Pole location in polar coordinates Pole location in Cartesian coordinates ‘Characteristic polynomtal Natural frequency and damping ratio Settling time and percent overshoot Peak time and percent overshoot Sctiling time and peak time Handheld calculators have the advantage of easy accessibility for homework and exams. Please consult Appendix G, located on the enclosed CD-ROM, for a dis- cussion of computational aids that can be adapted to handheld calculators, Personal computers are better suited for more computation-intensive applica- tions, such as plotting time responses, root loci, and frequency response curves, as well as finding state-transition matrices. These computers also give the student 'MATLAB js a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.Symbolic Math | Proface ix a real-world environment in which to analyze and design control systems. Those not using MATLAB can write their own programs or use other programs, such as Program CC. Please consult Appendix G, on the accompanying CD-ROM, for a discussion of computational aids that can be adapted for use on computers that do not have MATLAB installed. Without access to computers or programmable calculators, students cannot obtain meaningful analysis and design results and the learning experience will be limited. Icons Identifying Major Topics Several icons identify coverage and optional material, The icons are summarized as follows: ‘The Control Solutions icon identifies problems inchided on the Control So- lutions Web site powered by JustAsk! These problems are worked in detail and explanations of every facet of the sotution are provided. ‘The MATLAB icon identifies MATLAB discussions, examples, exercises, and problems. MATLAB coverage is provided as an enhancement and is not required ‘to use the text. ‘The Simulink icon identifies Simulink discussions, examples, exercises, and problems. Simplink coverage is provided as an enkancement and is not required to use the text. ‘The GUI Toot icon identifies MATLAB GUI Toots discussions, examples, ex- excises, and problems. The discussion of the tools, which includes the LTI Viewer, the Simulink LTI Viewer, and the SISO Design Tool. is provided as an enhance- ment and is not required to use the text. ‘The Symbolic Math icon identifies Symbolic Math ‘Toolbox discussions, examples, exercises, and problems. Symbolic Math Toolbox coverage is provided as an enthancement and is not required to use the text. The State Space icon highlights state-space discussions, examples, exercises, and problems. State-space materia! is optional and can be omitted without loss of continuity.x Preface Desiga The Design icon clearly identifies design problems involving physical systems, Control Solutions | Control Solutions powered by JustAsk! is a Web site that con- tains step-by-step solutions to over 150 end-of-chapter problems. Details are de- scribed under Key Features earlier in this Preface, ‘CD-ROM Containing Additional Material ACD-ROM disk accompanies the textbook. The disk contains the following: m PowerPoint®! and Acrobat@? files containing most figures from the textbook. The files may be used as a convenient method to project graphics on a screen to enhance lectures. m Solutions to skill-assessment exercises = All M-files used in the MATLAB, Simulink, GUI Tools, and Symbolic Math Toolbox tutorials = Additional computer programs that can be used by readers without access to MATLAB ws Copies of Cyber Exploration Laboratory experiments for convenience in print ing, for the purpose of including the experiment questions and tasks as a cover sheet for the lab reports = Additional appendixes; topics in Table of Contents @ A link tothe JustAsk! Website New to this Edition The following list describes the key changes in this fourth edition. End-of-chapter problems There is at least a 10% change in the problems at the end of the chapters. Control Solutions Control Solutions powered by JustAsk! is a Web site that con- tains step-by-step solutions to over 1$0 end-of-chapter problems. Details arg de- scribed under Key Features earlier in this Preface. MATLAB The use of MATLAB for computer-aided analysis and design con- tinues to be integrated into discussions and problems as an optional feature in the fourth edition. The MATLAB tutorial has been updated to MATLAB Version 6.5 the Control System Toolbox Version 5,2, and the Symbolic Math Toolbox Version 3.0. MATLAB?s Simulink?’ The use of Sinwlink to show the effects of nonlineari ties upon the time response of open-loop and closed-loop systems appears again in "PowerPoint is a registered trademark of Microsoft Corporation. 2Aerobatis a registered trademark of Adobe Systems Incorporated. >Samulink is a registered trademark of The MathWorks. IncPreface xi this fourth edition. We also continue to use Simulink to demonstrate how to sim- ulate digital systems. In addition, Simulink has been added to the new subsection described below—the Cyber Exploration Laboratory. Finally, the Simulink tutorial has heen updated to Simulink 5, MATLAB's GUI Tools| The MATLAB’s GUI Tools tutorial has been updated to include new and revised versions of the ETI Viewer, the Simulink LT Viewer, and the SISO Design Tool, which replaces the Root Locus Design GUL Cyber Exploration Laboratory New to this edition are computer experiments using MATLAB. Simulink, and the Control System Toolbox. These experiments are found at the end of the Problems section of Chapters 4 through 13 under the subheading, “Cyber Exploration Laboratory.” The experiments may be used for a laboratory course that accompanies the ckiss. Copies of these experiments can be found on the accompanying CD-ROM and can be printed for convenience. Topics moved to CD-ROM _ Derivations in Chapters 4 and 5 were moved to the accompanying CD-ROM. tn particular, the derivation of the time domain solution, of state equations, in Section 4.11, in the third edition, now occupies Appendix I on the accompanying CD-ROM. Also, the derivation of similarity transformations. previously in Section 5.8, is now in Appendix K on the accompanying CD-ROM. Sections 4.11 and 5.8 still contain the results of the derivations as well as examples. Finally, the derivation of a schematic for a de motor, previously in Appendix F in the third edition, has been moved to Appendix H on the accompanying CD-ROM. Book Organization by Chapter Many times it is helpful to understand an author's reasoning behind the organiza- tion of the course material. The following paragraphs hopefully shed light on this topic. The primary gnal of Chapter | is to motivate students. In this chapter students learn about the many applications of control systems in cveryday life and about the advantages of study and a career in this field. Control systems engineering design objectives, such as transient response, steady-state error, and stability, are intcoduced, as is the path to obtaining these objectives. New and unfamiliar terms also are included in the Glossary. Many students have trouble with an early step in the analysis and design sequence: wansforming a physical system into a schematic. This step requires many simplifying assumptions based on experience the typical college student does not yet possess, Identifying some of these assumptions in Chapter | helps to fill the experience gap. ‘Chapters 2, 3, and 5 address the representation of physical systems. Chapters 2 and 3 cover modeling of open-loop systems, using frequency response techniques and state-space techniques, respectively. Chapter 5 discusses the representation and reduction of systems formed of interconnected open-logp subsystems, Only a rep- resentative sample of physical systems can be covered in a textbook of this length. Electrical, mechanical (both translational and rotational), and clectromechanical systems are used as examples of physical systems that are modeled, analyzed, and designed, Linearization of a nonlinear system—one technique used by the engineer to simplify a system in order to represent it mathematically—is also introduced.xii Preface Chapter 4 provides an introduction to system analysis, that is, finding and describing the output response of a system. It may seem more logical to reverse the order of Chapters 4 and 5, to present the material in Chapter 4 along with other chapters covering analysis. However, many years of teaching control systems have taught me that the sooner students see an upplication of the study of system representation, the higher their motivation levels remain, Chapters 6, 7, 8, and 9 return to control systems analysis and design with the stucly of stability (Chapter 6), steady-state errors (Chapter7), and transient response of higher-order systems using root locus techniques (Chapter 8). Chapter 9 covers design of compensators und controllers using the root locus. Chapters 10 and 11 focus on sinusoidal frequency analysis and design. Chap- ter 10, like Chapter 8, covers basic concepts for stability, transient response, and steady-state error analysis. However, Nyquist and Bode methods are used in place of root locus. Chapter 11, like Chapter 9, covers the design of compensators, but from the point of view of sinusoida) frequency techniques rather than root locus. An introduction to state-space design and digitai control systems analysis and design completes the textin Chapters 12 and 13, respectively. Although these chap- ters can be used as an introduction for students who will be continuing their study cof control systems engineering, they are useful by themselves and asa supplement to the discussion of analysis and design in the previous chapters. The subject mat- ter cannot be given a comprehensive treatment in two chapters, but the emphasis is clearly outhined and logically linked to the rest of the book. The Teaching Package The following materials comprise the teaching package for Control Systems Engi- neering, fourth edition. Be sure to periodically check www-wiley.com/college/nise for up-to-date information on this publication. Control Solutions powered by JUSTASK! is a website that is essentially a tutor serving the needs of both the student and the professor. A totai of over 150 end-of-chapter problems and Skill Assessment Exercises covering numerous top- ics within the chapter will have step-by-step solutions. These problems are worked in detail, and explanations of every facet of the solution are provided. As such, this website is a valuable tool in the use of this book. This site is password-protected site but can be accessed by purchasing the Te Control Solutions Companion, ISBN 0471483885. This companion supplies you with access code to the Contral Solutions website as well as instructions on how to use the website, The Con trol Solutions Companion can be purchased on the book's companion website, www.wiley.com/college/nise. PowerPoint Lecture Graphics Key figures from the text are available as full- color electronic graphics in Microsoft's PowerPoint, These files can be found on the accompanying CD-ROM and at www.wiley.com/college/nise. Control Systems Engineering Toolbox All MATLAB M-files and Simulink files used in the appendixes of this textbook can be found on the accompanying CD- ROM and at www.wiley.com/college/nise, Solutions Manual for Control Systems Engineering, fourth edition by Norman S. Nise, this manual contains detailed solutions to most of the problems in the text. The Solutions Manual is available online only to qualifying faculty.Preface xiii Acknowledgments ‘The author would like to acknowledge the contributions of faculty and students, both at California State Polytechnic University, Pomona and across the country, whose suggestions through all editions have made a positive impact on the new edition. 1 particularly want to thank the Electrical and Computer Engineering De- partment and Kathleen Hayden, Chair, as well as the College of Engineering and Edward Hohmann, Dean. Their support and encouragement was vitai to the com pletion of this volume. 1 would like to express my appreciation to reviewers who offered valuable sug- gestions for this 4" edition. The reviewers include John Golzy, Devry Univer: Columbus Ohio, Frank Owen, Cal Pcly University, San Luis Obispo; and Elias Strangas, Michigan State University. The author would like to thank John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and its staff for once again providing professional support for this project through all phases of its de- velopment. Specifically, the following are due recognition for their contributions: Bruce Spatz, Publisher, who gave full exccutive support and encouragement to the whole project; Bill Zobrist, Executive Editor, who provided a high level of pro- fessional guidance, as well as good humor, throughout the 3 and 4" editions; Heather Olszyk, Assistant Editor, Jovan Yglecias, Program Assistant, and Jen. nifer Welter, Associate Editor, who provided excellent editorial support early in the project; Catherine Mergen, Assistant Editor, who continued with the excellent Ievel of support and provided answers to my numerous questions; Ailsa Manny, Editorial Assistant, who did an excellent job securing permissions assistance; and Katherine Hepburn, Senior Marketing Manager, for letting you know of this book's existence. I would also like to thank Patricia McFadden, Senior Production Editor, who saw the book through all phascs of production; Harry Nolan, Design Direc tor, Karin Kincheloe, Senior Designer, and Lisa Gee, Photo Editor who guided the appearance of the final product. My sincere appreciation is also expressed to Tom Kulesa, New Media Editor, for his hard work and expertise in producing the CD- ROM that accompanies this book. Finally, kudos go out to Publication Services and its staff for producing the fi- nal version of the book in a timely fashion. Specifically, I want to thank Fan Fisher, Project Manager, for providing answers to my questions and solutions ta my con. cems and Branden M. Warga, Production Conrdinator, for putting the pieces of this puzzle together. Finally, I want to express my appreciation to Peter Nelson and Alysia Cootey, Copyeditors, whose keen eyes and altention to details continually amazed me, Norman S. Nise1. Introduction Contents L1 Introduction, 2 1.2 A History of Control Systems, 4 1.3 The Control Systems Engineer, 9 1.4 Response Characteristics and System Configurations, 10 15 Analysis and Design Objectives, 14 Introduction to a Case Study, 17 16 The Design Process, 21 1.7 Computer-Aided Design, 26 Summary, 28 Review Questions, 29 Problems, 29 Bibliography, 35 2. Modeling in the Frequency Domain 37 2.1 Introduction, 38 2.2 Laplace Transform Review, 39 2.3 ‘The Transfer Function, 49Contents xv 2.4 Electric Network Transfer Functions, 52 2.5 Translational Mechanical System Transfer Functions, 68 2.6 Rotational Mechanical System Transfer Functions, 76 2.7 Transfer Functions for Systems with Gears, 82 2.8 Electromechanical System Transfer Functions, 87 29 Electric Circuit Analogs, 94 2.10 Nonlinearities, 97 2.41 Linearization, 99 3. Modeling in the 4, Time Response Case Studies, 105 Summary, 109 Review Questions, 109 Problems, 110 Bibliography, 125 Time Domain 127 3.1 Introduction, 128 3.2 Some Observations, 129 3.3 The General State-Space Representation, 133 3.4 Applying the State-Space Representation, 136 3.5 Converting a Transfer Function to State Space, 144 3.6 Converting from State Space to a Transfer Function, 151 3.7 Linearization, 154 ‘Case Studies, 157 Summary. 162 Review Questions, 163 Problems, 163 Bibliography, 172 174 44 Introduction, 175 4.2 Poles, Zeros, and System Response, 175xvi Contents. 4.3 First-Order Systems, 179 4.4 Second-Order Systems: Introduction, 182 45 The General Second-Order System, 188 4.6 Underdamped Second-Order Systems, 191 4.7 System Response with Additional Poles, 202 4.8 System Response with Zeros, 206 4.9 Effects of Noulinearities upon Time Response, 212 4.10 Laplace Transform Solution of State Equations, 216 4.11 Time Domain Solution of State Equations. 219 Case Studies, 227 Summary, 230 Review Questions, 232 Problems, 233 Design Problems, 244 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 248 Bibliography, 251 5. Reduction of Multiple Subsystems 252 5.1 Introduction, 253 5.2 Block Diagrams, 253 5.3 Analysis and Design of Feedback Systems, 263 5.4 Signal-Flow Graphs. 266 5.5 Mason’s Rule, 269 5.6 Signal-Flow Graphs of State Equations, 272 5.7 Alternative Representations in State Space, 275 5.8 Similarity Transformations, 286 Case Studies, 293 Summary, 299 Review Questions, 300 Problems, 301 Design Problems, 318Contents xvii Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 321 Bibliography, 322 6. Stability 324 6.41 Introduction, 325 62 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion, 329 63 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion: Special Cases, 332 6.4 Routh-Hurwitz Criterion: Additional Examples, 340 6.5 Stability in State Space, 348 ‘Case Studies, 351 Summary, 353 Review Questions, 354 Problems, 354 Design Problems, 362 ‘Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 365 Bibliography, 366 7. Steady-State Errors 368 7.1 Introduction, 369 7.2 Steady-State Error for Unity Feedback Systems, 373 73 Static Exror Constants and System Type, 379 7.4 Steadly-State Exror Specifications, 384 7.5 Steady-State Error for Disturbances, 386 7.6 Steady-State Error for Nonunity Feedback Systems, 389 7.7 Sensitivity, 393 78 Steady-State Error for Systems in State Space, 396 Case Studies, 400 Summary, 403 Review Questions, 404 Problems, 405 Design Problems, 419 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 422 Bibliography, 423xviii Contents 8. Root Locus Techniques 424 8.1 Introduction, 425 8.2 Defining the Root Lacus, 429 8.3 Properties of the Reot Locus, 432 8.4 Sketching the Root Locus, 435 8&5 Refining the Sketch, 440 8.6 An Example, 451 8.7 Transient Response Design via Gain Adjustment, 454 8.8 Generalized Root Locus, 460 89 Root Locus for Positive-Feedback Systems, 461 8.10 Pole Sensitivity, 465 Case Studies, 467 Summary, 472 Review Questions, 473 Problems, 474 Design Problems, 489 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 496 Bibliography, 497 9. Design via Root Locus 499 9.1 Introduction, 500 9.2 Improving Steady-State Error via Cascade Compensation, 503 93 Improving Transient Response via Cascade Compensation, 514 9.4 Improving Steady-State Error and Transient Response, 531 9.5 Feedback Compensation, 547 9.6 Physical Realization of Compensation, 558 Case Studies, 564 Summary, 570 Review Questions, 571 Problems, 572 Design Problems, 582 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, $88 Bibliography, 589Contents xix 10, Frequency Response Techniques 590 10.1 Introduction, 591 10.2, Asymptotic Approximations: Bode Plots, 598 10.3 Introduction to the Nyquist Criterion, 619 10.4 Sketching the Nyquist Diagram, 624 10.5 Stability via the Nyquist Diagram, 631 10.6 Gain Margin and Phase Margin via the Nyquist Diagram, 635 10.7 Stability, Gain Margin, and Phase Margin via Bode Plots, 638 108 Relation between Closed-Loop Transient and Closed-Loop Frequency Responses, 641 109 Relation between Closed- and Open-Loop Frequency Responses, 645 10.10 Relation between Closed-Loop Transient and Open-Loop Frequency Responses, 651 10.11 Steady-State Error Characteristics from Frequency Response, 655 10.12 Systems with Time Delay, 660 10.13 Obtaining Transfer Functions Experimentally, 665 Case Study, 670 Summary, 672 Review Questions. 673 Problems, 674 Cyber Exploration Laboratory, 687 Bibliography, 688 11. Design via Frequency Response 690 1L1 Introduction, 691 11.2 Transient Response via Gain Adjusunent, 692 11.3 Lag Compensation, 696 114 Lead Compensation, 700 1L5 Lag-Lead Compensation, 707 Case Studies, 713 Summary, 715