Mining Surveying- Lecture Notes

Mining Surveying
Lecture Notes-II

Assoc.Prof.Dr. Nursu Tunalıoğlu

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 Mining Surveying- Lecture Notes

CONTENTS
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1.VERTICAL CONVERGENCE .............................................................................................. 3

1.2 Optical and Laser Plummet ..................................................................................... 4

1.3 Transfer of Vertical Control ..................................................................................... 5
2.VERTICAL CONTROL SURVEYS AND LEVELLING ..................................................... 7

2.1 Measuring Depth of Shafts ...................................................................................... 8

2.1.1 Measuring Inclined Depth of Shafts ........................................................................ 9
2.2 Measuring Vertical Depths .................................................................................... 10
2.2.1 Use of Steel Tape ................................................................................................... 10
2.2.2 Use of Shaft Tape .................................................................................................. 10
2.2.3 Use of Special Wire Tape ...................................................................................... 11
3.UNDERGROUND LEVELLING .................................................................................................. 12

3.1 Differential Levelling ............................................................................................. 12

3.2 Trigonometric Levelling........................................................................................ 14
3.2.1 The Use of Clinometer .......................................................................................... 15
3.2.2 The Use of Theodolite ........................................................................................... 15
4.CLASSIC METHODS FOR MEASURING CROSS SECTIONS ....................................... 17

5.LASER METHODS FOR MEASUREMENT OF CROSS SECTIONS OF MINE

CHAMBERS ......................................................................................................... 20

6.VOLUME DETERMINATION IN MINES ......................................................................... 24

References:

Aleksandar, G., Aleksandar, M., Rade, T., Saša, O. Measuring methods for cross sections of underground mine
chambers, Underground Mining Engineering 19 (2011) 101-108
Ganić Aleksandar, Milutinović Aleksandar, Tokalić Rade, Ognjanović Saša. (2011). Measuring Methods for
Cross Sections of Underground Mine Chambers, Underground Mining Engineering, 19 (2011) 101-108
Kavanagh, B.A., Slattery, D.K., Surveying with construction applications, Pearson, Eight Edition
Ogundare, J. O., Precision Surveying, The Principles and Geomatics Practice, Wiley (2015)
Shih, N-J and Wang, P-H (2004) Plumbing locator in an as-built building form. In: Khosrowshahi, F (Ed.), 20th
Annual ARCOM Conference, 1-3 September 2004, Heriot Watt University. Association of Researchers in
Construction Management, Vol. 1, 267-75.
Theresa Neuhierl, Klaus Schnädelbach ,Thomas A. Wunderlich, Hilmar Ingensand and Adrian Ryf (2006). How
to Transfer Geodetic Network Orientation through Deep Vertical Shafts – An Inertial Approach, Shaping
the Change XXIII FIG Congress Munich, Germany, October 8-13, 2006
Trumbull, L.W., A manual of Underground Surveying, McGraw-Hill Book Co., 1910 - Mine surveying - 251
pages

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1. VERTICAL CONVERGENCE

When two plumbs are being lowered, they do not descend in a parallel way, and if one can
prolong them until the centre of the earth they would converge. This effect is caused by the
influence of gravity. Therefore the distance between the plumbs to the surface is not the same
at a certain depth, as the next scheme shows:

The distance in a projected alignment to a certain deep can be deduced from the next formula
(7) (Martín F., 1983):
S  AB : horizontal distance for surface points
S ı  A ı B ı : horizontal distance for underground points
H= Average elevations for surface points
h= Shaft depth
R= Radius of Earth

Sı S

RH h RH
RH h
Sı  S *
RH
h
S ı  S * (1  )
RH

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Reduction Value:
S *h S *h
v  S  Sı  S  S  
RH R

Coordinates of A(YA , X A ) and B(YB , X B ) of surface points will be changed due to the

vertical convergence as; underground points Aı (YAı , X Aı ) and B ı (YBı , X Bı ) .

h h
YAı  YA * (1  ) YBı  YB * (1  )
RH RH
h h
X Aı  X A * (1  ) X Bı  X B * (1  )
RH RH

1.2 Optical and Laser Plummet

Several models of precision optical plummets (zenith and/or nadir) are available using tubular
spirit levels, self-compensating leveling systems, or a mercury surface as a reference for
setting the line of sight in the vertical direction.
The general model sets the line of sight in a vertical direction with an auto collimating
telescope by achieving coincidence of the cross hair with its image reflected from a surface of
mercury. The pool of mercury is removed from the field of view of the telescope after setting
the line of sight vertical. Use of optical plummets in shaft plumbing is limited to a short range
only (100 to 200 m) because of the poor visibility usually found in the shaft atmosphere.
Slightly longer ranges can be achieved by using a collimated laser beam as the plumb line.
Laser plummets may be very useful in controlling shaft-sinking procedures and in transferring
coordinates (shaft plumbing) when using the gyro or the two-shaft method of mine
orientation. Their accuracy is, however, not sufficient for shaft-plumbing orientation through
one vertical shaft.

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1.3 Transfer of Vertical Control

The vertical control transfer technique may be used for shafts of any depth. In this case the
method is an integral part of the horizontal transfer procedure (see figure below) and is
usually performed immediately after the completion of the horizontal plumbing operation
when the plummet is replaced by the instrument. The procedure has three distinct
components:
1. Transfer of control from surface benchmarks to the centers of the (bracket mounted)
Taylor Hobson Spheres. This is accomplished using a precise level with a parallel
plate micrometer, and requires a tripod with an elevating head to enable the level to be
raised or lowered so that the sphere center is within the range of the micrometer. (The
accuracy is estimated to be 𝜎1 = 0.3 𝑚𝑚)
2. The vertical distance between the bottom and top of the shaft is measured using the
coaxial electro-optical distance measuring instrument (EODMI) which is integrated
into the TC2002. A Taylor Hobson Sphere with a precise prism insert serves as the
retro-reflector. The accuracy here may be estimated using 𝜎𝑠 =

√(0.5𝑚𝑚)2 + (1𝑝𝑝𝑚)2 𝑆2

3. The final step involves the transfer from the trunnion axis of the total station to several
nearby benchmarks. This is performed in a fashion similar to that used in the first step
of the procedure. The accuracy here is estimated to be less than 𝜎2 = 0.4 𝑚𝑚.

The estimated accuracy for the deepest shaft is thus: 𝜎𝑣 = √𝜎21 + 𝜎2𝑠 + 𝜎22

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2. VERTICAL CONTROL SURVEYS AND LEVELLING

Special steel tapes of lengths up to 1000 m stored on large reels (see, figure below) are
available for the transfer of heights from the surface to the underground workings. The
principle of the height transfer is shown in figure. The tape is slowly lowered to the required
level and a weight is suspended at its end. The weight should preferably be equal to the
tension used during the standardization of the tape (usually 10 to 20 kg). A bench mark, tied
to the existing leveling network on the surface, is established near the collar of the shaft.
Underground bench marks of the same type as those on the surface are cemented in the walls
of the oriented levels near the shaft opening. Two survey crews with spirit levels take
simultaneous readings on the tape at the surface and at the level. Usually, a set of 10 readings
is taken changing the position of the tape (lowering or raising) by a few centimetres between
the readings. The tapes are usually marked every 10 cm. Therefore, additional short scales
with 1-mm divisions are clamped to the tape at the reading heights.

Shaft tape for height transfer

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Procedure for the height transfer with a special tape

2.1 Measuring Depth of Shafts

The hoisting rope is frequently measured to determine the depth of a shaft. On the same
principle, a weighted wire is lowered into the shaft and measured as it descends, also
measured again, for a check, as it is withdrawn. A tape is stretched parallel to the wire, or
rope, at the top, and its end-points marked on the wire. The wire is lowered the length of the
tape and again marked, and so on till the first mark reaches the lowest part of the shaft to be
measured. It is usually best to take the elevations off at the various levels by means of
instruments sighted at a mark on the wire as it is lowered. This method is good for shallow
shafts, and a connection driven between levels on two deep shafts may meet accurately where
the elevations have been determined by a measured wire in each case. It is, however, true that
a hoisting rope, or a wire, is very elastic and stretches to a measurable extent.
For shallow shafts, where the elasticity of the wire would give a negligible amount of stretch,
the method is quick and good.
By another method the· shaft itself is measured. This is done by laying off successive lengths
of the tape along the guide. One man must stand upon the cage, or bucket, and place a mark

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upon the guide opposite the zero end of the tape. A second man works from a seat clamped to
the hoisting rope at the length of the tape above the cage. He holds the upper end of the tape
opposite the mark made by the man at the lower end. He must do the signaling to the hoisting
engineer.
When measuring an inclined shaft, the measurements a.re usually made along the line of sight
of the transit from one station to the next. Where the shaft is driven upon a fixed angle, it is
quicker and easier to stretch the tape directly upon the skip rail.

2.1.1 Measuring Inclined Depth of Shafts

Due to the slope on shaft, the depth is calculated step by step measurements as illustrated in
the figure below. The sum of the depths obtained from each individual measurements
promises the total depth of the shaft.

h1
Sin1 
l1
h1  l1 * Sin1

Thus, the total depth of shaft; H  RA  Aıı B  B ıı C  ...  h

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2.2 Measuring Vertical Depths

2.2.1 Use of Steel Tape

For the shallow mines, the depth of shaft can be measured by steel tape directly. A platform
placed into the shaft as elevator can be used to measure the vertical distances. The total
depth is obtained by the sum of the piecewise measurements.

2.2.2 Use of Shaft Tape

A: Station on the top of the shaft

B: Station on the bottom of the shaft
a1: The first reading on the top
a2: The second reading on the bottom

hk  a1  a2
H B  H A  g A  (a1  a2 )  iB

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2.2.3 Use of Special Wire Tape

The procedure for measuring the shaft depth with special scaled wire is the same as
measuring with shaft tape. The only difference in this method is to use of scaled measuring
table placed on the top of the shaft near to the shaft tape.

H B  H A  g A  (a1  a2 )  iB

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3. UNDERGROUND LEVELLING

Transfer of the heights to the mine through a vertical shaft may also be made with electro-
optical distance measuring (EDM) instruments if the visibility conditions are favorable. In
this case the EDM instruments should be clamped in a vertical position above the shaft
opening. It requires some ingenuity on behalf of the surveyor and the cooperation of the
mining workshop to make the necessary adaptors and brackets to fasten the instrument in this
manner. The heights of the center of the instrument and of the reflector must be carefully
determined by means of spirit leveling from bench marks. Another possibility in the use of
EDM equipment is to use the instrument in its upright position near the shaft opening using a
good quality mirror (first surface coating) to direct the electromagnetic signal down the shaft.
Laser instruments with visible radiation should be used to facilitate the search for the reflector
at the bottom of the shaft and to find a reference light spot on the mirror so that it can be
referenced to the bench mark by spirit leveling.
The leveling network in the mine is divided into three orders of accuracy similar to the
horizontal network. Height measurement in the third-order network is carried by
trigonometric leveling simultaneously with the traverse measurements in the horizontal
control surveys. The roof markers serve as bench marks. Vertical angles are measured to a
mark made on a plumb-bob string which usually serves as the target and vertical distances are
measured with pocket tapes from the mark and from the horizontal axis of the theodolite to
the bottom of the roof mark. Trigonometric leveling is also frequently used in second- and
first-order networks when running the leveling traverses through raises and other inclined
openings. Because of the comparatively short distances and usually quite stable atmospheric
conditions, the accuracy of trigonometric leveling in the mine is competitive with spirit
leveling if proper precautions are made in the measurements of the height of the instruments
and the targets.
Spirit leveling is usually done between wall bench marks. When a connecting survey to a roof
station is required, special inverted leveling rods have to be used. Similar to the theodolites,
spirit levels sometimes have to be used on supporting arms fixed to the wall lining or
timbering.

3.1 Differential Levelling

Differential leveling is the process used to determine a difference in elevation between two
points. A Level is an instrument with a telescope that can be leveled with a spirit bubble. The

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optical line of sight forms a horizontal plane, which is at the same elevation as the telescope
crosshair. By reading a graduated rod held vertically on a point of known elevation (Bench
Mark) a difference in elevation can be measured and a height of instrument (H.I.) calculated
by adding the rod reading to the elevation of the bench mark. Once the height of instrument is
established, rod readings can be taken on subsequent points and their elevations calculated by
simply subtracting the readings from the height of instrument.

H1  H A  g A  i1
H 2  H1  g1  i2
H 3  H 2  g 2  o3
H B  H 2  g 2  iB

Example: The elevation of P1 is HP.1=-130.00 m and the required values are given below.
Then, compute the elevations of P2, A and P3.

g1= 1.10 m g2= 1.15 m g3=1.30 m

i1= 0.95 m i2=1.05 m i3= 1.55 m

H P.2  H 1  g1  i1
H P.2  130 .00  1.10  0.95
H P.2  130 .15 m
H A  H P.2  g 2  i2
H A  130 .15  1.15  1.05
H A  132 .35 m
H P.3  H A  g 3  i3
H P.3  132 .35  1.30  1.55
H P.3  129 .50 m

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3.2 Trigonometric Levelling

The difference in elevation between A and B in figure below can be determined if the vertical
angle (a) and the slope distance (S) are measured. These measurements can be taken with total
stations or with electronic distance measurement (EDM)/theodolite combinations.

The three reference directions of vertical angles: horizontal, zenith and nadir

“hi” here refers to the distance from point A up to the optical center of the theodolite or total
station, measured with a steel tape or rod. Modern practice involving the use of total stations
routinely gives the elevations of sighted points by processing the differences in elevation
between the total station point and the sighted points, along with the horizontal distances to
those points.
The closure error in trigonometric levelling can be expressed as following equations:

d (mm)  0.31* h 2  1.96 * S 2

or
d (mm)  0.31* S * cot2 Z  196
Here; S: Distance betweeen two stations in meter,
Z: Zenith angle,

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h : Height difference between two stations in meter.

3.2.1 The Use of Clinometer

For relatively short traverse legs, approximately 10 m, the clinometer is used to convert the
slant range into elevation difference between two traverse stations. First, the slope angle is
measured by clinometer and then the slant range between stations is measured with tape.
Then, the elevation difference between these two traverse stations can be calculated as;
 H ( P1P2)  l * sin 

3.2.2 The Use of Theodolite

According to the measured values as height of target, height of instrument, measured slope
distance, elevation of point, zenith angle, the height difference between two stations (if both
of them are on the roof) can be computed as follow;
h  t  H  a
H  l * cosZ
 h  t  l * cos Z  a

If A and B are on the roof:

HB  HA  a  H  t HB  HA  a  H  t

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If A and B are on the ground:

HB  HA  i  H t HB  HA  i  H  t

If A is on the ground and B is on the roof:

HB  HA  i  H  t HB  HA  i  H  t

If A is on the roof and B is on the ground:

HB  HA  a  H t HB  HA  a  H  t

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4. CLASSIC METHODS FOR MEASURING CROSS SECTIONS

Several methods are used in surveying and measuring practice to control cross sections of
mine chambers depending on their form and size:
 Method of direct measuring of mine chamber width and height,
 Measuring method by using two leveling staffs,
 Method of linear cut (arched section),
 Polar method, etc.
Method of direct measuring is one of the simplest and most commonly used ways to measure
mine chambers of regular trapezoid or rectangular profile. In this way, total surface of
chamber profile within rock massif can be determined without timberwork, as well as the
daylight surface of cross section. For this purpose, total height of the chamber between
roofing and flooring is to be measured, as well as the height between ridge board and upper
edge of the rails; total width A and daylight width a of the ridge board; total with C and
daylight width c at the altitude of tipping wagon; total width B and daylight b at flooring
(Figure 1). Also, the distance between timberwork and tipping wagon, between the height of
locomotive and contact wires is measured too, etc. The sizes measured are relatively oriented
as regards the direction of mining works. The results of measurements and layout are
recorded into the field book.

Figure 1. Method of direct measuring of cross sections

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Method of measurement of cross section by using two leveling staffs (Figure 2) is mainly used
in mine chambers with temporary railway transport.

Figure 2. Method of measurement by using two levelling staffs

Measuring points are placed in the chamber at the distance of 1-5m from each other and they
are marked along the axis of mine chamber within flooring. Distances, a and b, are measured
from the axis to leveling staffs that are placed vertically on rails. In intervals of 30 to 50 cm,
horizontal distances between staffs and the left, i.e. right flank of mine chamber l1 and l2 are
measured. The results of measurements are marked on layouts in the field book, and thereafter
those sections are drawn in corresponding scale.
Cross sections of mine chambers with curvilinear or irregular form are measured by using
patterns, by using method of arched section or by polar method.
Method of arched section is based on measurement of distances l1 and l2 from lateral
benchmarks R1 and R2 to typical points at the outline of mine chamber (Figure 3).

Figure 3 Method of arched section Figure 4 Polar method

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With polar method, measurements are made by using vertical protractor placed onto the
corresponding telescopic stand (Figure 4). The procedure of measurement comprises of
measurement of the distance l from the protractor’s center to typical points at the perimeter of
the mine chamber and elevation angles of the directions γ that can be read on the protractor.
Cross sections of mine chambers with height of 2-4 m can be measured by using Sopwith
staffs.
Measurement of cross section of the mine chamber by using telescopic (sliding) staffs is
shown in Figure 5. The plumb bob is to be placed along the direction marked by the person
performing the measurement on a level with the desired cross section. The ribbon is to be
rolled out and fixed in horizontal plane and it is used, among other, to determine the position
of the plumb bob. Sliding staff is placed at the corresponding distances in relation to the hand
ribbon and the heights of mine chamber are measured by using it. Before each measurement,
the perpendicularity of the staff is controlled by using the plumb bob attached to the staff
itself. The intervals, within which the measurements by using staff are performed, depend on
the complexity of the cross section of mine chamber. The results of measurement are marked
on layouts in the field book.

Figure 5 Measurement of cross sections of mine chambers with greater height

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5. LASER METHODS FOR MEASUREMENT OF CROSS SECTIONS OF MINE

CHAMBERS

Laser method for measurement of cross sections is based on the use of modern laser
instruments, above all of laser total station, which measure the angles and lengths reflectorless
and in the last years by using 3D laser scanners. When using total stations for measurement of
cross sections of mine chambers, the Leica system for measurements in tunnels and
underground facilities, so called Leica TMS need to be specially mentioned (Tunnel
Measurement System).
The Leica TMS consists of:
 A total station, class Leica TPS1100plus, which is, among others, characterized by:
o Automatic profile measurement and marking of typical points due to
reflectorless measurements,
o Markings, that only one person can perform by using the Power Search
command,
o Wireless remote control unit RCS1100, which enables remote control of total
station,
o Sighting under conditions of very poor illumination due to the ATR system of
automatic recognition of signal tags,
o Project and measurement data transfer through PCMCIA card,
o Possibility to be used, as motorized laser, for direction marking;

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Figure 6 - Measurement of cross sections by using total station

(http://www.leicageosystems.us)

In the last ten years, the use of 3D laser scanners is more and more present in surveying and
measuring practice. Those instruments enable very efficient gathering of information –
detailed digital recordings on the shape and view of objects from the real world. Data
gathered in this way are used for the development of 2D plans, cards, profiles or 3D models
of scanned objects.
Digital recordings of the object – scans, obtained by 3D laser scanning, consist of a large
number of points that have spatial X, Y and Z coordinates. Those points are called the point
cloud and, in one scan, there may be up to several million points. The field of sight of the
scanner depends on the model, and with certain models it is 360° in horizontal and 270° in
vertical plane.
From the scanner’s field of sight, objects or part of the object, that is to be scanned, is
software-defined and the scan resolution is also defined. Horizontal and vertical distances
between the adjacent points are defined by resolution, i.e. the density of point cloud is
determined. Contemporary scanners enable gathering of very dense point cloud with distance

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from each other less than 1mm. The speed of scanning depends on the scanner model and
amounts up to 500,000 points per second.

Figure 7- Point cloud of the scanned tunnel (http://www.gess.co.za)

Laser 3D scanning represents very fast and flexible surveying system suitable for (Saal,
2009):
 Complete data gathering on cross and longitudinal sections, excavated volumes,
 Data base on the geometry as basic documentation of carried out status and future
works,
 Control and analysis of single sections,
 Control of the status and measurements of deformations on the excavation front,
 Calculation of excavated masses,
 Comparison of two scanners for the purpose of spatial analysis,
 Control of cross sections after concrete works,
 Determination of the thickness of concrete layer of the support,
 Photo documentation of works, etc.

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Figure 8 - 3D model of the underground chamber

The advantages of this method are (Ackermann and Hunt, 2004):

 Minimum influence to working operations during measurement,
 In-situ results of the cross section control,
 Precise determination of excavated masses,
 Objective registration of the materials used,
 Possibility to scan with speed up to 130m per hour,
 Comprehensive data base for optimal continuation of works,
 Complete data on the condition of chambers,
 Flexible work without additional infrastructural requests (for example illumination,
power supply, additional control points, etc.)

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6. VOLUME DETERMINATION IN MINES

Apart from the mine surveying activities discussed in the earlier sections, another important
activity usually performed by the mine surveyor is volume determination. For example,
during a tunnel construction, as-built surveys are required to check tolerances of tunnel
structures. Surveys are also carried out in completed tunnels to check if sufficient clearances
are available for the installation of pipelines, lighting, ventilation, and so on. The surveys are
to provide a record of existing structures and the as-constructed condition of the tunnel. As-
built surveys of a tunnel should be implemented in two steps as follows:
1. Survey the finished tunnel before and after the breakthrough.
2. Check if the existing tunnels have been built to within allowable tolerances, and if the
design tolerances are exceeded, to see if it is possible to realign the tunnel without
remedial work to the existing structures. In this case, cross sections at regular intervals
along the whole length of the tunnel are surveyed.

Accurate and cost-effective surveying method applied by surveyors in checking profiles is

using reflectorless total stations by which coordinated points on the tunnel surface are
automatically recorded, processed, and analyzed on computers in the field. All of the field
data are stored electronically in the form of three-dimensional coordinates in the total stations,
and the accuracy between 5 and 10 mm is expected. Based on the cross-section database,
volume of excavation and materials are computed.
Whether underground or on the earth surface, mining involves moving volumes of material
from one place to another. Mapping the changes made by the mining activity and determining
the volumes moved is a daily job of mining surveyors. Nowadays, for underground and open
pit operations, laser scanning systems, reflectorless total station equipment, GPS surveys, and
terrestrial photogrammetry are used for daily mine volume determinations. One approach for
volume determination for underground operations can be described as follows:

1. Observe cross-section profiles at measured intervals (with distance between each cross
section being d12, d23, etc.).
2. Determine the cross-sectional areas using coordinate method based on local x–y coordinate
system established for each cross section. A typical cross section with the local x–y
coordinate system is shown in Figure below. The area (A) of this cross section can be given
using coordinate approach as

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1
𝐴= [(𝑥 𝑦 + 𝑥2 𝑦3 + ⋯ + 𝑥𝑛−1 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑥𝑛 𝑦1 ) − (𝑥1 𝑦𝑛 + 𝑥𝑛 𝑦𝑛−1 + ⋯ + 𝑥3 𝑦2 + 𝑥2 𝑦1 )]
2 1 2

Single cross-section profile of an underground excavation

3. Compute volumes between cross sections as shown in Figure below using average
end-area method:

The individual cross-section/end-area volumes are given as follows:

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𝐴1 + 𝐴2
𝑉12 = 𝑑12 ( )
2
𝐴2 + 𝐴3
𝑉23 = 𝑑23 ( )
2
𝐴3 + 𝐴4
𝑉34 = 𝑑34 ( )
2
where V12, V23, V34 are the individual cross-section/end-area volumes.
4. Compute the total volume (VT) by the sum of the cross-section/end-area volumes:
𝑉𝑇 = 𝑉12 + 𝑉23 + 𝑉34 + ⋯ + 𝑉𝑛−1,2
Volume determinations for open pit are now being done using terrestrial laser scanning
system. With this system, high-accuracy and detailed surveys can be performed quickly from
a safe distance from the mine and volumetric surveys are done immediately after blasting and
after every shift. Since this type of system is usually unmanned, the system can be used both
day and night, allowing continuous slope stability monitoring of the mining areas.

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