Welding

Handbook
Ninth Edition
Volume 2

WELDING PROCESSES, PART 1

Prepared under the direction of the

Welding Handbook Committee

Annette O’Brien
Editor

American Welding Society

550 N.W. LeJeune Road
Miami, FL 33126
 02004 by American Welding Society
All rights reserved

No portion of this book may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any
means, including mechanical, photocopying, recording, or otherwise, without the prior written permission of the
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telephone: (978) 750-8400; Internet: www.copyright.com.

Library of Congress Control Number: 2001089999

ISBN: 0-87171-729-8

The Welding Handbook is the result of the collective effort of many volunteer technical specialists who provide
information to assist with the design and application of welding and allied processes.

The information and data presented in the Welding Handbook are intended for informational purposes only. Rea-
sonable care is exercised in the compilation and publication of the Welding Handbook to ensure the authenticity of
the contents. However, no representation is made as to the accuracy, reliability, or completeness of this informa-
tion, and an independent substantiating investigation of the information should be undertaken by the user.

The information contained in the Welding Handbook shall not be construed as a grant of any right of manufac-
ture, sale, use, or reproduction in connection with any method, process, apparatus, product, composition, or sys-
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Printed in Canada
 PREFACE
Welding Processes, Part 2 is the second of the five volumes of the 9th edition of the Welding Handbook. The
fifteen chapters of this volume provide updated information on the arc welding and cutting processes, oxyfuel gas
welding and cutting, brazing, and soldering. Volume 3, Welding Processes, Part 2 will cover resistance, solid state,
and other welding and cutting processes. Volumes 4 and 5 of the Welding Handbook will address welding mate-
rials and applications. These volumes represent the practical application of the principles discussed in the chapters
of Volume 1, Welding Science and Technology, published in 2001.

This peer-reviewed volume of the Welding Handbook reflects a tremendous leap forward in welding technology.
While many basics of the welding processes have remained substantially the same, the precise control of welding
parameters, advanced techniques, complex applications and new materials discussed in this updated volume are
dramatically changed from those described in previous editions. In particular, advancements in digital or comput-
erized control of welding parameters have resulted in consistently high weld quality for manual and mechanized
welding and the repeatability necessary for successful automated operations.

Chapter 1 of Welding Processes, Part 2 is a compilation of information on arc welding power sources. Subsequent
chapters present specific information on shielded metal arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, gas metal arc weld-
ing, flux cored arc welding, submerged arc welding, plasma arc welding, electrogas welding, arc stud welding, elec-
troslag welding, oxyfuel gas welding, brazing, soldering, oxygen cutting, and arc cutting and gouging.

Appendix A and B address safety issues. Appendix A reproduces the American Welding Society Lens Shade Selec-
tor. Appendix B is a list of national and international safety standards applicable to welding, cutting, and allied
processes. Although each chapter in this volume has a section on safe practices as they pertain to the specific pro-
cess, readers should refer to Chapter 17, “Safe Practices,” of Volume 1 and to the appropriate standards listed in
Appendix B. Appendix C is a list of American Welding Society filler metal specifications and related documents.

An index of this volume and a major subject index of previous volumes are included.

This volume was compiled by the members the Welding Handbook Volume 2 Committee and the Chapter Com-
mittees, with oversight by the Welding Handbook Committee. Chapter committee chairs, chapter committee
members, and oversight persons are recognized on the title pages of the chapters. An important contribution to
this volume is the review of each chapter provided by members of the Technical Activities Committee and the
Safety and Health Committee of the American Welding Society.

The Welding Handbook Committee welcomes your comments and suggestions. Please address them to the Editor,
Welding Handbook, American Welding Society, 550 N.W. LeJeune Road, Miami, Florida 33126.
Harvey R. Castner, Chair Ian D. Harris, Chair
Welding Handbook Committee Volume 2 Committee

Annette O’Brien, Editor

Welding Handbook

xiii
ACKNOWLEGMENTS ......................................................................................................................................xii ...
PREFACE ...........................................................................................................................................................xlii
REVIEWERS ...................................................................................................................................................... xiv
CONTRIBUTORS ............................................................................................................................................. xv

CHAPTER 1 A R C POWER SOURCES..................................................................................................1

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................... 2
Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................................... 2
Principles of Operation ..........................................................................................................................................4
Volt-Ampere Characteristics ...............................................................................................................................12
Duty Cycle .......................................................................................................................................................16
Open-Circuit Voltage.........................................................................................................................................17
NEMA Power Source Requirements ....................................................................................................................19
Alternating-Current Power Sources .....................................................................................................................20
Direct-Current Power Sources ..........................................................................................................................30
Economics ......................................................................................................................................................42
Safe Practices .......................................................................................................................................................44
Conclusion .....................................................................................................................................................48
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................... 48

CHAPTER 2-SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING .................................................................................51

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................52
Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................................... 52
Equipment ...........................................................................................................................................................60
Materials ...........................................................................................................................................................68
Applications ......................................................................................................................................................80
Joint Design and Preparation ...........................................................................................................................82
Welding Variables ..............................................................................................................................................85
Weld Quality ......................................................................................................................................................96
Economics ........................................................................................................................................................ 98
Safe Practices ...................................................................................................................................................... 99
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................101
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................................101

CHAPTER 3 - G A S TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING ..................................................................................103

Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 104
Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................................104
Applications ......................................................................................................................................................107
Equipment .......................................................................................................................................................109
Techniques.......................................................................................................................................................128
Materials ...........................................................................................................................................................
135
Joint Design .......................................................................................................................................................139
Weld Quality .................................................................................................................................................140
Economics ......................................................................................................................................................... 142
Safe Practices .................................................................................................................................................... 142
Conclusion ...................................................................................................................................................... 144
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 144

CHAPTER &GAS METAL ARC WELDING .......................................................................................... 147

Introduction .................................................................................................................................................148

vii
Fundamentals .....................................................................................................................................................148
Principles of Operation ......................................................................................................................................................
150
Equipment ..........................................................................................................................................................160
Materials and Consumables ............................................................................................................................... 171
Process Variables ................................................................................................................................................178
Weld Joint Designs ............................................................................................................................................. 188
Inspection and Weld Quality .............................................................................................................................. 189
Troubleshooting ................................................................................................................................................. 195
Economics .......................................................................................................................................................... 199
Safe Practices...................................................................................................................................................... 201
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 203
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................204

CHAPTER !%-FLUX CORED ARC WELDING ......................................................................................... 209

Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................-210
Fundamentals ....................................................................................................................................................-210
Applications .......................................................................................................................................................
211
Equipment ..........................................................................................................................................................
215
Materials ...........................................................................................................................................................
-219
Process Control .................................................................................................................................................. 237
Joint Designs and Welding Procedures ............................................................................................................... 241
Weld Quality ......................................................................................................................................................247
Troubleshooting ................................................................................................................................................. 247
Economics.........................................................................................................................................................-247
Safe Practices......................................................................................................................................................
250
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................
-252
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................252

CHAPTER 6. SUBMERGED ARC WELDING ......................................................................................... 255

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 256
Fundamentals ..................................................................................................................................................... 256
Equipment ......................................................................................................................................................... -258
Materials ............................................................................................................................................................268
Process Variables ............................................................................................................................................... -278
Operating Procedures ......................................................................................................................................... 282
Process Variations and Techniques .....................................................................................................................287
Applications ....................................................................................................................................................... 294
Weld Quality ...................................................................................................................................................... 297
Economics......................................................................................................................................................... -299
Safe Practices...................................................................................................................................................... 299
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 300
Bibliography....................................................................................................................................................... 300

CHAPTER 7-PLASMA ARC WELDING .................................................................................................. 303

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 304
Fundamentals ..................................................................................................................................................... 305
Equipment .......................................................................................................................................................... 310
Materials ............................................................................................................................................................
319
Application Methods .......................................................................................................................................... 324
Process Variations .............................................................................................................................................. 326
Welding Procedures ............................................................................................................................................ 332
Weld Quality ...................................................................................................................................................... 332
Economics.......................................................................................................................................................... 332
Safe Practices .....................................................................................................................................................
334
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................335
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................................
33.5

CHAPTER 8-ELECTROGAS WELDING ................................................................................................ 337

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................338
Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................................... 338
Equipment ......................................................................................................................................................... 343
Materials ...........................................................................................................................................................348
Process Variables ............................................................................................................................................... 350
Applications ...................................................................................................................................................... 366
Joint Design ....................................................................................................................................................... 367
Inspection and Weld Quality .............................................................................................................................369
Economics ......................................................................................................................................................... 387
Safe Practices ..................................................................................................................................................... 387
Conclusion ..................................................................................................................................................390
Bibliography ...................................................................................................................................................... 390

CHAPTER 9A . RC STUD WELDING ....................................................................................................... 393

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................
394
Fundamentals .................................................................................................................................................... 394
Applications ......................................................................................................................................................
395
Equipment and Technology ............................................................................................................................... 398
Designing for Arc Stud Welding......................................................................................................................... 406
Special Process Techniques ............................................................................................................................... 416
Capacitor Discharge Stud Welding .................................................................................................................... 417
Stud Welding Process Selection.......................................................................................................................... 423
Weld Quality, Inspection, and Testing................................................................................................................ 427
Economics .........................................................................................................................................................
430
Safe Practices .....................................................................................................................................................
432
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................433
Bibliography ......................................................................................................................................................
433

CHAPTER 10-ELECTROSLAG WELDING............................................................................................ 435

Introduction .....................................................................................................................................................
436
Fundamentals ................................................................................................................................................... 4 3 6
Equipment ........................................................................................................................................................ 441
Materials ..........................................................................................................................................................
444
Welding Variables .............................................................................................................................................. 446
Welding Procedures ........................................................................................................................................... 448
Applications ......................................................................................................................................................455
Inspection and Quality Control .........................................................................................................................457
Weld Quality ..................................................................................................................................................... 459
Economics ......................................................................................................................................................... 460
Safe Practices .....................................................................................................................................................463
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 464
Bibliography ..................................................................................................................................................... 464

CHAPTER 11 4 X Y F U E L GAS WELDING ........................................................................................... 467

Introduction ......................................................................................................................................................468
Fundamentals of Oxyfuel Gas Welding........................................................................................................... 468
Materials ...........................................................................................................................................................
471
Oxyfuel Gas Welding Equipment ....................................................................................................................... 479
Process Variables and Operating Procedures ...................................................................................................... 489
Applications .......................................................................................................................................................491
Weld Quality ......................................................................................................................................................494
Welding with Other Fuel Gases ..........................................................................................................................495
Economics ......................................................................................................................................................... -495
Safe Practices......................................................................................................................................................495
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................498
Bibliography.......................................................................................................................................................498

CHAPTER 12-BRAZING ...........................................................................................................................501

Introduction .......................................................................................................................................................502
Fundamentals .....................................................................................................................................................502
Applications ....................................................................................................................................................... 503
Principles of Operation ...................................................................................................................................... 503
Processes, Equipment, and Techniques ............................................................................................................... 504
Automation ........................................................................................................................................................ 515
Materials ............................................................................................................................................................
517
Joint Design ....................................................................................................................................................... 532
Procedures.......................................................................................................................................................... 541
Inspection...........................................................................................................................................................544
Troubleshooting ................................................................................................................................................. 546
Braze Welding .................................................................................................................................................... 546
Economics .......................................................................................................................................................... 550
Safe Practices...................................................................................................................................................... 550
Conclusion .........................................................................................................................................................555
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................... 555

CHAPTER 13.4 OLDERING ...................................................................................................................... 559

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 560
Fundamentals ..................................................................................................................................................... 560
Applications .......................................................................................................................................................
561
Process Variations .............................................................................................................................................. 563
Equipment.......................................................................................................................................................... 570
Materials ............................................................................................................................................................
571
Procedures.......................................................................................................................................................... 584
Process Variables ............................................................................................................................................... -588
Inspection and Testing........................................................................................................................................ 590
Economics ..........................................................................................................................................................592
Safe Practices...................................................................................................................................................... 593
Conclusion ......................................................................................................................................................... 594
Bibliography ....................................................................................................................................................... 594

CHAPTER 1&OXYGEN CUTTING ......................................................................................................... 597

Introduction ....................................................................................................................................................... 598
Fundamentals of Oxygen Cutting ....................................................................................................................... 598
Oxyfuel Gas Cutting ......................................................................................................................................... -599
Equipment......................................................................................................................................................... -602
Gases.................................................................................................................................................................. 608
Operating Procedures......................................................................................................................................... 612
Process
. .Variations .............................................................................................................................................. 617
Appllcatlons ....................................................................................................................................................... 620
Quality ............................................................................................................................................................... 626
Oxygen Arc Cutting ..........................................................................................................................................630
Oxygen Lance Cutting....................................................................................................................................... 630
Metal Powder Cutting ....................................................................................................................................... 631
Flux Cutting ......................................................................................................................................................632
Economics .........................................................................................................................................................632
Safe Practices ....................................................................................................................................................633
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................635
Bibliography......................................................................................................................................................635

CHAPTER 15-ARC CUTTING AND GOUGING................................................................................... 637

Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 638
Plasma Arc Cutting ...........................................................................................................................................638
Plasma Arc Gouging ..........................................................................................................................................648
Air Carbon Arc Cutting..................................................................................................................................... 651
Other Arc Cutting Processes .............................................................................................................................. 659
Economics ........................................................................................................................................................ 662
Safe Practices ..................................................................................................................................................... 665
Conclusion ........................................................................................................................................................ 669
Bibliography .................................................................................................................................................. 670

APPENDIX A-LENS SHADE SELECTOR........................................................................................... 673

APPENDIX B-HEALTH AND SAFETY CODES AND OTHER STANDARDS.................................
675
APPENDIX C-FILLER METAL SPECIFICATIONS ..............................................................................
679
INDEX OF MAJOR SUBJECTS:
Eighth Edition and Ninth Edition. Volume 1 and Volume 2 ...........................................................
681
INDEX OF NINTH EDITION. Volume 2 ............................................................................................ 699
CHAPTER 1

Prepared by the
Welding Handbook
Chapter Committee
on Arc Welding Power
Sources:

ARC WELDING S. P. Moran, Chair

Miller Electric
Manufacturing Company
D. J. Erbe

POWER SOURCES Panasonic Factory

Automation
W, E. Herwig
Miller Electric
Manufacturing Company
W. E. Hoffman
ESA B Welding and Cutting
Products
C. Hsu
The Lincoln Electric
Company
J. 0.Reynolds
Miller Electric
Manufacturing Company

Welding Handbook
Committee Member:
C. E. Pepper
ENGlobal Engineering

Contents
Introduction
Fundamentals
Principles of Operation
Volt-Ampere
Characteristics
Duty Cycle
Open-Circuit Voltage
NEMA Power Source
Requirements
Alternating-Current
Power Sources
Direct-Current
Power Sources
Economics
Safe Practices
Conclusion
Bibliography
Supplementary
Reading List
2 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

CHAPTER 1

ARC WELD1NG
POWER SOURCES
INTRODUCTION
This chapter presents a general overview of the voltage (CV) and constant-current (CC) characteristics
electrical power sources used for arc welding. It required for welding processes.
explores the many types of welding power sources The voltage supplied by power companies for indus-
available to meet the electrical requirements of the trial purposes-120 volts (V), 230 V, 380 V, or 480 V-
various arc welding processes. is too high for use in arc welding. Therefore, the first
Welding has a long and rich history. Commercial arc function of an arc welding power source is to reduce the
welding is over a hundred years old, and scores of pro- high input or line voltage to a suitable output voltage
cesses and variations have been developed. Over the range, 20 V to 80 V. A transformer, a solid-state
years, power sources have been developed or modified inverter, or an electric motor-generator can be used to
by equipment manufacturers in response to the changes reduce the utility power to terminal or open-circuit
and improvements in these processes. As welding pro- voltage appropriate for arc welding.
cesses continue to evolve, power sources continue to Alternatively, a power source for arc welding may
provide the means of controlling the welding current, derive its power from a prime mover such as an internal
voltage, and power. This chapter provides updated combustion engine. The rotating power from an inter-
information on the basic electrical technologies, cir- nal combustion engine is used to rotate a generator or
cuits, and functions designed into frequently used an alternator for the source of electrical current.
welding power sources. Topics covered in this chapter Welding transformers, inverters, or generator/
include the following: alternators provide high-amperage welding current,
1. The volt-ampere (V-A) characteristics required generally ranging from 30 amperes (A) to 1500 A. The
for common welding processes, output of a power source may be alternating current
2. Basic electrical technologies and terminology (ac), direct current (dc) or both. It may be constant
used in power sources, current, constant voltage, or both. Welding power
3. Simplified explanations of commonly used sources may also provide pulsed output of voltage or
power source circuits, and current.
4. An introduction to useful national and inter- Some power source configurations deliver only cer-
national standards. tain types of current. For example, transformer power
sources deliver ac only. Transformer-rectifier power
A basic knowledge of electrical power sources will sources can deliver either alternating or direct current,
provide the background for a more complete under- as selected by the operator. Electric motor-generator
standing of the welding processes presented in the other power sources usually deliver dc output. A motor-
chapters of this book. alternator delivers ac, or when equipped with rectifiers,
dc.
Power sources can also be classified into subcate-
gories. For example, a gas tungsten arc welding power
FUNDAMENTALS source might be identified as transformer-rectifier,
constant-current, ac/dc. A complete description of any
This section introduces the fundamental functions of power source should include welding current rating,
welding power sources and the concepts of constant- duty cycle rating, service classification, and input power
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER 1 3

I FUSED DISCONNECT SWITCH (OPEN)

-ARC-
WELDING POWER SOURCE

CONTROLLING

CHARACTERISTIC

-
--
-
CHASSIS GROUND CONNECTION

ELECTRICAL CONNECTION

I
-- MECHANICAL STRUCTURE AND CHASSIS

Figure 1.1-Basic Elements of an Arc Welding Power Source

requirements. Special features can also be included such constant. Constant-current power sources are also known
as remote control, high-frequency stabilization, current- as variable-voltagepower sources, and constant-voltage
pulsing capability, starting and finishing current versus power sources are often referred to as constant-
time programming, wave balancing capabilities, and potential power sources. These fast-response, solid-
line-voltage compensation. Conventional magnetic con- state power sources can provide power in pulses over a
trols include movable shunts, saturable reactors, mag- broad range of frequencies.
netic amplifiers, series impedance, or tapped windings.
Solid-state electronic controls may be phase-controlled
silicon-controlled rectifiers (SCRs) or inverter-controlled
semiconductors. Electronic logic or microprocessor cir- CONSTANT-CURRENT ARC WELDING
cuits may control these elements. POWER SOURCES
Figure 1.1 shows the basic elements of a welding
power source with power supplied from utility lines. The National Electrical Manufacturers Association
The arc welding power source itself does not usually (NEMA) standard Electric Arc- Welding Power Sources,
include the fused disconnect switch; however, this is a EW-1: 1988 (R1999), defines a constant-current arc
necessary protective and safety element. power source as one “which has means for adjusting
An engine-driven power source would require ele- the load current and which has a static volt-ampere
ments different from those shown in Figure 1.1. It curve that tends to produce a relatively constant load
would require an internal combustion engine, an engine current. At a given load current, the load voltage is
speed regulator, and an alternator, with or without a responsive to the rate at which a consumable metal
rectifier, or a generator and an output control. electrode is fed into the arc. When a tungsten electrode
Before the advent of pulsed current welding pro- is used, the load voltage is responsive to the electrode-
cesses in the 1 9 7 0 ~welding
~ power sources were com- to-workpiece distance.”lg2 These characteristics are
monly classified as constant current or constant
voltage. These classifications are based on the static 1. National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), 1988
(R1999),Electric Arc-Welding Power Sources, EW-1: 1988, Washing-
volt-ampere characteristics of the power source, not the ton, D.C.:National Electrical Manufacturers Association, p. 2.
dynamic characteristic or arc characteristics. The term 2. At the time this chapter was prepared, the referenced codes and other
constant is true only in a general sense. A constant- standards were valid. If a code or other standard is cited without a date
voltage output actually reduces or droops slightly as the of publication, it is understood that the latest edition of the document
arc current increases, whereas a constant-current out- referred to applies. If a code or other standard is cited with the date of
publication, the citation refers to that edition only, and it is understood
put gradually increases as the arc length and arc voltage that any future revisions or amendments to the code or standard are not
decrease. In either case, specialized power sources are included; however, as codes and standards undergo frequent revision,
available that can hold output voltage or current truly the reader is advised to consult the most recent edition.
4 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

such that if the arc length varies because of external “A constant-currendconstant-voltage arc welding power
influences that result in slight changes in arc voltage, source is a power source which has the selectable
the welding current remains substantially constant. characteristics of a constant-current arc welding
Each current setting yields a separate volt-ampere curve power source and a constant-voltage arc welding power
when tested under steady conditions with a resistive source. ’’4
load. In the vicinity of the operating point, the percent- Additionally, some power sources feature an auto-
age of change in current is lower than the percentage of matic change from constant current to constant voltage
change in voltage. (arc force control for SMAW) or constant voltage to
The no-load, or open-circuit, voltage of constant- constant current (current limit control for constant-
current arc welding power sources is considerably voltage power sources).
higher than the arc voltage.
Constant-current power sources are generally used
for manual welding processes such as shielded metal arc
welding (SMAW), gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW),
plasma arc welding (PAW), or plasma arc cutting PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION
(PAC), where variations in arc length are unavoidable
because of the human element.
When used in a semiautomatic or automated applica- The basic components of welding power sources-
tion in which constant arc length is required, external transformers, series inductors, generators/alternators,
control devices are necessary. For example, an arc- diodes, silicon-controlled rectifiers, and transistors-are
voltage-sensing wire feeder can be used to maintain con- introduced in this section. Simple circuits of reactance-
stant arc length for gas metal arc welding (GMAW) or controlled, phase-controlled, and inverter power
flux cored arc welding (FCAW).In GTAW, the arc voltage sources are discussed as examples.
is monitored, and via a closed-loop feedback, the voltage Most arc welding involves low-voltage, high-current
is used to regulate a motorized slide that positions the arcs between an electrode and the workpiece. The
torch to maintain a constant arc length (voltage). means of reducing power-system voltage, as shown in
Figure 1.1, may be a transformer or an electric genera-
tor or alternator driven by an electric motor.
CO NSTANT-VOLTAGE ARC WELD ING Electric generators built for arc welding are usually
POWER SOURCES designed for direct-current welding only. In these
The NEMA EW-1 standard defines a constant- generators, the electromagnetic means of controlling
voltage power source as follows: “A constant-voltage the volt-ampere characteristic of the arc welding power
arc welding power source is a power source which has source is usually an integral part of the generator and
means for adjusting the load voltage and which has a not a separate element. Unlike generators, alternators
static volt-ampere curve that tends to produce a rela- provide ac output that must be rectified to provide a dc
tively constant load voltage. The load current, at a output. Various configurations are employed in the
given load voltage, is responsive to the rate at which a construction of direct-current generators. They may
consumable electrode is fed into the arc. 7’3 Constant- use a separate exciter and either differential or cumula-
voltage arc welding is generally used with welding tive compound winding for selecting and controlling
processes that include a continuously fed consumable volt-ampere output characteristics.
electrode, usually in the form of wire.
A welding arc powered by a constant-voltage source
using a consumable electrode and a constant-speed wire WELDING TRANSFORMER
feed is essentially a self-regulating system, It tends to
stabilize the arc length despite momentary changes in A transformer is a magnetic device that operates on
the torch position. The arc current is approximately alternating current. As shown in Figure 1.2, a simple
proportional to wire feed for all wire sizes. transformer is composed of three parts: a primary
winding, a magnetic core, and a secondary winding.
The primary winding, with N1 turns of wire (in
CONSTANT-CURRENT/CONSTANT-VOLTAGE Equation l.l),is energized by an alternating-current
POWER SOURCES input voltage, thereby magnetizing the core. The core
couples the alternating magnetic field into the second-
A power source that provides both constant current ary winding, with N2 turns of wire, producing an out-
and constant voltage is defined by NEMA as follows: put voltage.

3 . See Reference 1, p. 3 . 4. See Reference 1, p. 2.

ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 5

AC
OUTPUT
t
DC

I -

Figure 1.2-Principal Electrical Elements of a Transformer Power Source

Figure 1.2 also illustrates the principal elements of a

welding transformer, with associated components. For a TAPPED
transformer, the significant relationships between volt-
ages and currents and the turns in the primary and
secondary windings are as follows:

where
VOLTAGE
INPUT ! il1€-
N1 = Number of turns on the primary winding of
the transformer;
N2 = Number of turns on the secondary winding;
El = Input voltage, V; TRANGORMEF
E2 = Output voltage, V;
Il = Input current, A; and Figure 1.5-Welding mansformer
I2 = Output (load) current, A. with Tapped Secondary Winding
Taps in a transformer secondary winding may be
used to change the number of turns in the secondary
winding, as shown in Figure 1.3, to vary the open-
circuit (no-load) output voltage. In this case, the tapped in use. The tap selection, therefore, controls the ac
transformer permits the selection of the number of output voltage. As shown in Equation 1.1, the primary-
turns, N2, in the secondary winding of the transformer. secondary current ratio is inversely proportional to the
When the number of turns decreases on the secondary primary-secondary voltage ratio. Thus, large secondary
winding, output voltage is lowered because a smaller welding currents can be obtained from relatively low
proportion of the transformer secondary winding is line input currents.
6 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

SERIES REACTOR Eo essentially equals the no-load (open-circuit) voltage

of the power source.
A transformer may be designed so that the tap selec- As shown in Figure 1.5, the series impedance in
tion directly adjusts the output volt-ampere slope char- constant-voltage power sources is typically small, and
acteristics for a specific welding condition. More often, the transformer output voltage is very similar to that
however, an impedance source is inserted in series with required by the arc. The voltage drop, Ex, across the
the transformer secondary windings to provide this impedance (reactor) increases only slightly as the load
characteristic, as shown in Figure 1.4. The impedance is current increases. The reduction in load voltage is
usually a magnetic device called a reactor when used in small. Adjustment in the value of reactance gives slight
an ac welding circuit and an inductor when used in a dc control of the relation of load current to load voltage.
welding circuit. Reactors are constructed with an elec- This method of slope control, with simple reactors,
trical coil wound around a magnet core; inductors are also serves as a method to control voltage with satura-
constructed with an electrical coil wound around a ble reactors or magnetic amplifiers. Figure 1.5 shows an
magnet core with an air gap. ideal vector diagram of the relationship of the alternat-
Some types of power sources use a combination of ing voltages for the circuit of Figure 1.4, when a reactor
these arrangements, with the taps adjusting the open- is used as an impedance device. The no-load voltage
circuit (or no-load) voltage, Eo, of the welding power equals the voltage drop across the impedance plus the
source and the series impedance providing the desired load voltage when these are added vectorially. Vectorial
volt-ampere slope characteristics. addition is necessary because the alternating load and
In constant-current power sources, the voltage drop impedance voltages are not in time phase. In Figure 1.5,
across the impedance, E (shown in Figure 1.4) the open-circuit voltage of the transformer is 80 V, the
increases greatly as the loa2 current is increased. This voltage drop across the reactor is 69 V and the arc load
increase in voltage drop, Ex, causes a large reduction in voltage is 40 V.
the arc voltage, EA. Adjustment of the value of the series The voltage drop across the series impedance, Ex, in
impedance controls the Ex voltage drop and the an ac circuit is added vectorially to the load voltage, EA,
relation of load current to load voltage. This is called to equal the transformer secondary voltage, Eo. By vary-
current control, or in some cases, slope control. Voltage ing the voltage drop across the impedance, the load or

EX

I1
IMPEDANCE
L - - J
AC
INPUT
VO LTAGE
I TRANSFORMER
I OUTPUT
VOLTAGE
ARC
VOLTAGE
8
ARC
8
EO EA

I I

Key:
EA = Arc voltage
Eo = No-load voltage
Ex = Voltage drop across impedance

Figure 1.4-Typical Series Impedance Control of Output Current

ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 7

Another major advantage of inductive reactance is

that the phase shift produced in the alternating current
by the reactor improves ac arc stability for a given
open-circuit voltage. This is an advantage with the
GTAW and SMAW processes.
The inductive reactance of a reactor can be varied by
several means. One way is by changing taps on a coil or
by other electrical or mechanical schemes. Varying the
reactance alters the voltage drop across the reactor.
EX Thus, for any given value of inductive reactance, a
IOLTAGE specific volt-ampere curve can be plotted. This creates
DROP the required control feature of these power sources.
69 V
In addition to adjusting series reactance, the mutual
inductance between the primary and secondary coils of
a transformer can also be adjusted. This can be done by
moving the coils relative to one another or by using a
movable magnetic shunt that can be inserted or with-
drawn from between the primary and secondary wind-
ings. These methods change the magnetic coupling of
* the coils to produce adjustable mutual inductance,
EA ARC VOLTAGE which is similar to series inductance.
40 V In ac/dc welding power sources incorporating a recti-
fier, the rectifier is located between the magnetic control
Key:
E, = Arc voltage devices and the output terminal. In addition, transformer-
E, = No-load voltage rectifier arc welding power sources usually include a
Ex = Voltage drop across impedance stabilizing inductance, or choke, located in the dc weld-
ing circuit to improve arc stability.
Figure 1.ti-ldeal Vector Relationship
of the Alternating-Voltage Output
Using Reactor Control GENERATOR AND ALTERNATOR
Rotating machinery is also used as a source of power
for arc welding. These machines are divided into two
types-generators that produce direct current and alter-
nators that produce alternating current.
The no-load output voltage of a direct-current gener-
arc voltage may be changed. This distinctive character- ator can be controlled with a relatively small variable
istic of vectorial addition for impedance voltages in ac current in the winding of the main or shunt field. This
circuits is related directly to the fact that both reactance current controls the output of the direct-current gener-
and resistances may be used to produce a drooping ator winding that supplies the welding current. The
voltage characteristic. An advantage of a reactor is that output polarity can be reversed by changing the inter-
it consumes little or no power, even though a current connection between the exciter and the main field. An
flows through it and a voltage is developed across it. inductor or filter reactor is not usually needed to
When series resistors are used, power is lost and the improve arc stability with this type of welding equip-
temperature of the resistor rises. Theoretically, in a ment. Instead, the several turns of series winding on the
purely resistive circuit (no reactance), the voltage drop field poles of the rotating generator provide more than
across the resistor could be added arithmetically to the enough inductance to ensure satisfactory arc stability.
load voltage to equal the output voltage of the trans- These generators are described in greater detail in
former. For example, a power source with an approxi- following sections of this chapter.
mately constant-current characteristic, an 80-V open An alternator power source produces alternating
circuit, and powering a 25-V, 200-A arc would need to current that is either used in that form or rectified into
dissipate 55 V x 200 A, or 11,000 watts (W), in the direct current. It can use a combination of the means of
resistor to supply 5000 W to the arc. The reason is that adjustment previously mentioned. A tapped reactor can
the voltage and current are in phase in the resistive cir- be employed for gross adjustment of the welding out-
cuit. A resistance and reactance circuit phase shift put, and the field strength can be controlled for fine
accounts for the greatly reduced power loss. adjustment.
8 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

SOLID-STATE DIODES high reverse-voltage transient will damage it. Most

rectifier power sources have a resistor, capacitor, or
The term solid-stute is related to solid-state physics other electronic devices, commonly called snubber net-
and the study of crystalline solids. Methods have been works,to suppress voltage transients that could damage
developed for treating crystalline materials to modify the rectifiers.
their electrical properties. The most important of these
materials is silicon.
Transformer-rectifier and alternator-rectifier power
sources rely on rectifiers, or groups of diodes, to con- SILICON-CONTROLLED RECTIFIER
vert alternating current to direct current. In earlier (THYRISTOR)
times, welding circuits relied on vacuum tube and
selenium rectifiers, but most modern rectifiers are made Solid-state devices with special characteristics can
of silicon for reasons of economy, current-carrying also be used to control welding power directly by alter-
capacity, reliability, and efficiency. ing the welding current or voltage wave form. These
A single rectifying element is called a diode, which is solid-state devices have replaced saturable reactors,
a one-way electrical valve. When placed in an electrical moving shunts, moving coils, and other systems as con-
circuit, a diode allows current to flow in one direction trol elements in large industrial power sources. One of
only, when the anode of the diode is positive with the most important of these devices is the silicon-
respect to the cathode. Using a proper arrangement of controlled rectifier (SCR), sometimes called a thyristor.
diodes, it is possible to convert alternating current to The SCR is a diode variation with a trigger, called a
direct current. An example of a diode symbol and a gate, as shown in Figure 1.7. An SCR is non-conducting
stud diode is shown in Figure 1.6. until a positive electrical signal is applied to the gate.
As current flows through a diode, a voltage drop When this happens, the device becomes a diode and
across the component develops and heat is produced conducts current as long as the anode is positive with
within the diode. Unless this heat is dissipated, the respect to the cathode. However, once it conducts, the
diode temperature can increase enough to cause failure. current cannot be turned off by a signal to the gate.
Therefore, diodes are normally mounted on heat sinks Conduction ceases only if the voltage applied to the
(aluminum plates, many with fins) to remove the heat. anode becomes negative with respect to the cathode.
Diodes have limits as to the amount of voltage they Conduction will not take place again until a positive
can block in the reverse direction (anode negative and voltage is applied to the anode and another gate signal
cathode positive). This is expressed as the voltage rating is received.
of the device. Welding power-source diodes are usually Silicon-controlled rectifiers are used principally in
selected with a blocking rating at least twice the open- the phase-control mode with isolation transformers and
circuit voltage in order to provide a safe operating in some inverter configurations. The output of a weld-
margin. ing power source can be controlled by using the action
A diode can accommodate repetitive current peaks of a gate signal to selectively turn on the SCR. A typical
well beyond its normal steady-state rating, but a single single-phase SCR circuit is shown in Figure 1.8.

ANODE -- CATHODE

GATE\+

ANODE

Figure I.6-Stud Diode (A) Figure 1.7-Silicon-Controlled Rectifier (A)

and Diode Symbol (B) and Silicon-Controlled Rectifier Symbol ( 8 )
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 9

is achieved with constant current by using feedback and

an operator-selected current.
Figure 1.8 shows a large inductance, Z , in the load
circuit. For a single-phase circuit to operate over a sig-
nificant range of control, Z must be a large inductance
to smooth out the voltage and current pulses. However,
T
if SCRs were used in a three-phase circuit, the non-
conducting intervals would be reduced significantly.
Since three times as many output pulses are present in
any time period, the inductance would also be signifi-
cantly reduced.
When high power is required, conduction is started
T early in the half-cycle, as shown in Figure 1.9(A).If low
power is required, conduction is delayed until later in a
B half-cycle, as shown in Figure 1.9(B). This is known as
phase control. The resulting power is supplied in pulses
Key: to the load and is proportional to the shaded areas in
T = Isolation transformer
A = Top or start of the transformer secondary winding Figure 1.9 under the wave form envelopes. Figure 1.9
B = Bottom or end of the transformer secondary winding illustrates that significant intervals may exist when no
T = Isolation transformer power is supplied to the load. This can cause arc out-
Z = DC inductor, with reactance and resistance ages, especially at low power levels. Therefore, wave
filtering is required.
Figure 1.8-SinglemPhase DirecbCurrent
Most intermediate-sized or commercial SCR phase-
Power Source Using an SCR Bridge for Control
controlled welding power sources are single-phase.
Larger industrial SCR phase-controlled power sources
are three-phase. Single- and three-phase power sources
are the constant-current or constant-voltage type. Both
constant-current and constant-voltage types have dis-
tinct features because the output characteristics are
In Figure 1.8, during the time that Point A is positive controlled electronically. For example, automatic line-
with respective to Point By no current will flow until voltage compensation is very easily accomplished,
both SCR 1 and SCR 4 receive gate signals to turn on. allowing welding power to be held precisely as set, even
At that instant, current will flow through the load. At if the input line voltage varies. Volt-ampere curves
the end of that half-cycle, when the polarity of A and B can also be shaped and adapted for a particular
reverses, a negative voltage will be impressed across welding process or its application. These power sources
SCR 1 and SCR 4,and they will turn off. With Point B can adapt their static characteristic to any welding
positive relative to Point A, gate signals applied to SCR process, from one approaching a truly constant voltage
2 and SCR 3 by the control will cause these two to con- to one having a relatively constant current. They are
duct, again applying power to the load circuit. To also capable of producing a controlled pulsed arc
adjust power in the load, it is necessary to precisely time voltage and a high initial current or voltage pulse at the
when, in any given half-cycle, the gate triggers the SCR start of the weld.
into conduction. With a 60-hertz (Hz) line frequency, An SCR can also serve as a secondary contactor,
this arrangement produces direct current with a 120-Hz allowing welding current to flow only when the control
ripple frequency at the arc or load. allows the SCRs to conduct. This is a useful feature in
The timing of the gate signals must be precisely con- rapid cycling operations, such as spot welding and tack
trolled. This is a function of the control block shown in welding. However, an SCR contactor does not provide
Figure 1.8. To adapt the system satisfactorily for weld- the electrical isolation that a mechanical contactor or
ing service, another feature, feedback, is necessary. The switch provides. Therefore, a primary circuit breaker or
nature of the feedback depends on the welding parame- some other device is required to provide isolation for
ter to be controlled and the degree of control required. electrical safety.
To provide constant-voltage characteristics, the feed- Several SCR configurations can be used for arc
back (not shown) must consist of a signal that is pro- welding. Figure 1.10 depicts a three-phase bridge with
portional to arc voltage. This signal controls the precise six SCR devices. With a 60-HZ line frequency, this
arc voltage at any instant so that the control can prop- arrangement produces direct current, with a 360-Hz
erly time and sequence the initiation of the SCR to hold ripple frequency at the load. It also provides precise
a voltage pre-selected by the operator. The same effect control and quick response; in fact, each half-cycle of
10 CHAPTER 1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

(A) High-Power Conduction of SCR Early in Each Half-Cycle

I (8)Lower-Power Conduction of SCR Late in Each Half-Cycle

Figure 1.9-Phase Control Using an SCR Bridge

THREE-PHASE
AC FROM
TRANSFORMER
SECONDARY 0
T I I
I TO ARC

Figure 1.lo-Three=Phase Bridge Using Six SCRs (Full-Wave Control)

each of the three-phase output is controlled separately. TRANSISTORS

Dynamic response is enhanced because of the reduced
size of the inductor needed to smooth out the welding The transistor is another solid-state device used in
current. welding power sources. Transistors differ from SCRs in
Figure 1.11 is a diagram of a three-phase bridge rec- several ways. First, conduction through the device is
tifier with three diodes and three SCRs. Because of proportional to the control signal applied. With no sig-
greater current ripple, this configuration requires a nal, no conduction occurs. The application of a small
larger inductor than the six-SCR unit. For that reason it signal from base to emitter produces a correspondingly
has a slower dynamic response. A fourth diode, termed small conduction; likewise, a large signal results in a
a freewheeling diode, can be added to recirculate the correspondingly large conduction. Unlike the SCR, the
inductive currents from the inductor so that the SCRs control can turn the device off without waiting for
will turn off, or commutate. This offers some economic polarity reversal or an off time. Since transistors lack
advantage over the six-SCR unit because it uses fewer the current-carrying capacity of SCRs, several may be
SCRs and a lower-cost control unit. required to yield the output of one SCR.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 11

THREE-PHASE 41
AC FROM tl 21. FREEWHEELING
TRANSFORMER TO ARC
DIODE
SECONDARY 0 41

2iDlODE 2iDlODE 21 DIODE

Z -
-- - 0

Figure 1.l1-Three-Phase Hybrid Bridge Using Three SCRs and Four Diodes (Half=WaveControl)

Several methods can be used to take advantage Inverter circuits control the output power using the
of transistors in welding power sources. These include principle of time-ratio control (TRC) also referred to as
frequency modulation or pulse-width modulation. With pulse-width modulation (PWM). The solid-state devices
frequency modulation, the welding current is controlled (semiconductors)in an inverter act as switches; they are
by varying the frequency supplied to a high-frequency either switched on and conducting, or switched off and
transformer. Since the frequency is changing, the blocking. The function of switching on and off is some-
response time varies also. The size of the transformer times referred to as switch-mode operation. Time-ratio
and inductor must be optimized for the lowest operat- control is the regulation of the on and off times of the
ing frequency. With pulse-width modulation, varying switches to control the output. Figure 1.12 illustrates a
the conduction time of the switching device controls simplified TRC circuit that controls the output to a
welding current output. Since the frequency is constant, load such as a welding arc. It should be noted that con-
the response time is constant and the magnetic compo- ditioning circuits include components such as a trans-
nents can be optimized for one operating frequency. former, a rectifier, and an inductor, as represented
previously in Figure 1.8.

SOLID-STATE INVERTER
An inverter is a circuit that uses solid-state devices
called metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistors
(MOSFETs), or integrated gate bi-polar transistors
I TRC SWITCH CONDITIONING 7

(IGBTs), to convert direct current into high-frequency

ac, usually in the range of 20 kHz to 100 kHz. Conven-
tional welding power sources use transformers operat-
ing from a line frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz.
Since transformer size is inversely proportional to
line or applied frequency, reductions of up to 75% in
power source size and weight is possible using inverter
circuits. Inverter power sources are smaller and more
compact than conventional welding power sources.
They offer a faster response time and less electrical loss.
The primary contributors to weight or mass in any
power source are the magnetic components, consisting
U
of the main transformer and the filter inductor. Various
efforts have been made by manufacturers to reduce the Figure 1.l%Simplified Diagram of an Inverter
size and weight of power sources, for example, substi- Circuit Used to Demonstrate the Principle of
tuting aluminum windings for copper. Time.Ratio Control (Pulse Width Modulation)
12 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

When the TRC switch is on, the voltage out ( V O ~ ) semiconductors takes place between 1kHz and 50 kHz,
equals voltage in (VIN). When the switch is off, Vow depending on the component used and method of control.
equals zero. The average value of Vom is calculated as This high-frequency voltage allows the use of a
follows: smaller step-down transformer. After being trans-
formed, the alternating current is rectified to direct cur-
rent for welding. Solid-state controls enable the
VIN tON
vour = operator to select either constant-current or constant-
$ON + $OFF voltage output, and with appropriate options these
sources can also provide pulsed outputs.
where The capabilities of the semiconductors and the par-
ticular circuit switching determine the response time
Vow= Voltage out, V; and switching frequency, Faster output response times
t o N = On time (conducting), seconds (s); are generally associated with the higher switching and
VIN = Voltage in, V; control frequencies, resulting in more stable arcs and
toFF = Off time (blocking), s; superior arc performance. However, other variables,
such as the length of the weld cables, must be consid-
thus, ered because they may affect the performance of the
power source. Table 1.1 compares inverter switching
devices and the frequency applied to the transformer.
Inverter technology can be used to enhance the per-
formance in ac welding power sources and can also be
where applied to dc constant-current power sources used for
Tp = toN + toFF = Time period total, s. plasma arc cutting.
Variable VoUT is controlled by regulating the ratio of
on time to off time for each alternation tONITp. Since
the on/off cycle is repeated for every Tp interval, the VO LT-AMPERE
frequency (f) of the on/off cycles is defined as follows:
CHARACTERISTICS
f=-
1
(1.4)
TP The effectiveness of all welding power sources is
determined by two kinds of operating characteristics,
where static and dynumic. Each has a different effect on weld-
f = Frequency,Hz ing performance. Both affect arc stability, but they do
so in different ways depending on the welding process.
thus, the TRC formula can now be written as: Static output characteristics are readily measured
under steady-state conditions by conventional testing
VOUT=VINX~ONX~ (1.5) procedures using resistive loads. A set of output-voltage
curves versus output-current characteristic curves (volt-
The TRC formula written in this manner points to ampere curves) is normally used to describe the static
two methods of controlling an inverter welding power characteristics.
source. By varying t o N , the inverter uses pulse-width The dynamic characteristic of an arc welding power
modulated TRC. source is determined by measuring the transient varia-
Another method of inverter control, frequency- tions in output current and voltage that appear in the
modulation TRC, varies the frequency, f. Both fre- arc. Dynamic characteristics describe instantaneous
quency modulation and pulse-width modulation are variations, or those that occur during very short inter-
used in commercially available welding inverters. vals, such as 0.001 second.
Figure 1.13 presents a block diagram of an inverter Most welding arcs operate in continually changing
used for direct-current welding. A full-wave rectifier con- conditions. Transient variations occur at specific times,
verts incoming three-phase or single-phase 50-Hz or 60- such as the following:
Hz power to direct current. This direct current is applied
to the inverter, which inverts it into high-frequency 1. During the striking of the arc,
square-wave alternating current using semiconductor 2. During rapid changes in arc length,
switches. In another variation used for welding, the 3. During the transfer of metal across the arc, and
inverter produces sine waves in a resonant technology 4. In alternating current welding, during arc extinc-
with frequency-modulation control. The switching of the tion and reignition at each half-cycle.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 13

INPUT OUTPUT
BRIDGE BRIDGE

-
RECTIFIER INVERTER TRANSFORMER RECTIFIER INDUCTOR

1@OR 3 @- O+

PRIMARY- 77 I-
:
- I -
f
:
:

INVERTER
CONTROL
CIRCUIT

Figure I.I%Inverter Diagram Showing Power Source Sections

and Voltage Wave Forms with Pulse-WidthModulation Control

parallel capacitance circuits or direct-current series

Table 1.1
wpes of Inverter Switching Devices and inductance, feedback controls in automatically regu-
Frequency Ranges Applied to the Transformer lated systems, and modifications of wave form or
circuit-operating frequencies.
Switching Device Frequency Range Improving arc stability is typically the reason for
SCR devices 1 kHz to 10 kHz modifying or controlling these characteristics. Bene-
Transistor devices 10 kHz to 100 kHz ficial results include improvement in the uniformity of
metal transfer, reduction in metal spatter, and reduction
in weld-pool turbulence.
Static volt-ampere characteristics are generally pub-
lished by power source manufacturers. No universally
The short arc-transient time of 0.001 second is the recognized method exists by which dynamic character-
time interval during which a significant change in ion- istics are specified. The user should obtain assurance
ization of the arc column occurs. The power source from the manufacturer that both the static and dynamic
must respond rapidly to these demands, and for this characteristics of the power source are acceptable for
reason it is important to control the dynamic character- the intended application.
istics of an arc welding power source. The steady-state
or static volt-ampere characteristics have little signifi-
cance in determining the dynamic characteristics of an
CONSTANT-CURRENT
arc welding system. Volt-ampere curves show graphically how welding
Among the arc welding power source design features current changes when arc voltage changes and power
that do have an effect on dynamic characteristics are source settings remain unchanged, as illustrated in Fig-
those that provide local transient energy storage such as ure 1.14 for a drooper power source. Constant-current
14 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

CURRENT, A

Figure 1.14--‘Fypical Volt-Ampere Characteristics of a

“Drooper” Power Source with Adjustable Open=CircuitVoltage

welding power sources are sometimes called droopers has an 80-V open circuit, a steady increase in arc volt-
because of the substantial downward (negative) slope of age from 20 V to 25 V (25%) would result in a decrease
the volt-ampere curves they produce. A constant- in current from 123 A to 115 A (6.5%). The change in
current V-A characteristic is suitable for shielded metal current is relatively small. Therefore, with a consum-
arc welding, gas tungsten arc welding, and other pro- able electrode welding process, the electrode melting
cesses that use voltage-sensing wire feed systems. rate would remain relatively constant with a slight
The conventional constant-current output character- change in arc length.
istic describes a power source that will produce a rela- By setting the power source to Slope Curve B in
tively small change in output current when a relatively Figure 1.14 the open circuit voltage is reduced from
large change in arc voltage occurs. Arc voltage is 80 volts to 50 volts. Curve B shows a shallower or
affected by arc length and process parameters such as flatter slope intercepting the same 20-V, 123-A output.
electrode type, shielding gas, and arc current. Reducing In this case, the same increase in arc voltage from 20 V
the slope or the droop of a constant-current power to 25 V would decrease the current from 123 to 100 A
source gives the operator a degree of real-time control (19%), a significantly greater change. In manual weld-
over arc current or electrode melting rate. The power ing, the flatter V-A curve would give a skilled welder
source might have open-circuit voltage adjustment in the opportunity to substantially vary the output current
addition to output current control. A change in either by changing the arc length. This is useful for out-of-
control will change the slope of the volt-ampere curve. position welding because a welder can control the
The effect of the slope of the V-A curve on power electrode melting rate and weld pool size in real time by
output is shown in Figure 1.14. With Curve A, which simply changing the arc length. A flatter slope also
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 15

provides increased short-circuit current. This helps and FCAW. A slight change in arc length (voltage)
reduce the tendency of some electrodes to stick to the causes a relatively large change in welding current. This
workpiece during arc starts or times when the arc automatically increases or decreases the electrode melt-
length is reduced to control penetration. Generally, ing rate to regain the desired arc length (voltage). This
however, less skilled welders would prefer the current to effect is called self-regulation. Adjustments are some-
stay constant if the arc length should change. The times provided with constant-voltage power sources to
higher open-circuit voltage of constant-current or change or modify the slope or shape of the V-A curve.
drooping output curves also helps reduce arc outages Typical adjustments involve changing the power source
with certain types of fast-freezing electrodes at longer reactance, output inductance, or internal resistance. If
arc lengths or when weaving the arc across a root adjustments are made with inductive devices, the
opening. dynamic characteristics will also change.
Output current control is also used to provide lower
output current. This results in volt-ampere curves with The curve shown in Figure 1.16 can also be used to
greater slope, as illustrated by Curves C and D in Figure explain the difference between static and dynamic char-
1.14. They offer the advantage of more nearly constant acteristics of the power source. For example, during gas
current output, allowing greater changes in voltage metal arc welding short-circuiting transfer (GMAW-S),
with minor changes in current. the welding electrode tip touches the weld pool, causing
a short-circuit. At this point, the arc voltage approaches
zero, and only the circuit resistance and inductance lim-
CONSTANT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS its the rapid increase of current. If the power source
responded instantly, very high current would immedi-
The volt-ampere curve in Figure 1.15 shows graphi- ately flow through the welding circuit, quickly melting
cally how the output current is affected by changes in the short-circuited electrode and freeing it with an
the arc voltage (arc length). It illustrates that this power explosive force, expelling the weld metal as spatter.
source does not have true constant-voltage output. It Dynamic characteristics designed into this power source
has a slightly downward (negative) slope because inter- compensate for this action by limiting the rate of
nal electrical impedance in the welding circuit causes a current change, thereby decreasing the explosive force.
minor voltage droop in the output. Changing that
impedance will alter the slope of the volt-ampere curve.
Starting at Point B in Figure 1.15, the diagram shows
that an increase or decrease in voltage to Points A or C COMBINED CONSTANT-CURRENT AND
(5 V or 25%), produces a large change in amperage CONSTANT-VOLTAGE CHARACTERISTICS
(100 A or .SO%), respectively. This V-A characteristic is
suitable for maintaining a constant arc length in con- Electronic controls can be designed to provide either
stant-speed electrode processes, such as GMAW, SAW, constant-voltage or constant-current outputs from single

40 - A
LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
35 -
C

10 -
5 -
0
0
I
50 100
I
150 200
I
250
I
300
I
350
CURRENT, A

Figure 1.I5-Volt-Ampere Output Relationship for a Constant-VoltagePower Source

16 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

vals without exceeding a predetermined temperature

limit. In the United States, for example, the National
Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA) speci-
fies duty cycles based on a test interval of 10 minutes in
an ambient temperature of 40°C (104°F). Some agen-
cies and manufacturers in other countries use shorter
test intervals, such as 5 minutes. Thus, a 60% NEMA
duty cycle (a standard industrial rating) means that the
power source can deliver its rated output for 6 out of
every 10 minutes without ~verheating.~ A 100% duty-
cycle power source is designed to produce its rated
VOLTAGE
output continuously without exceeding the prescribed
temperature limits of its components.
CURRENT, A Duty cycle is a major factor in determining the type
of service for which a power source is designed. Indus-
trial units designed for manual welding are normally
Figure I.I64ombination Volt=AmpereCurve rated at a 60% duty cycle. For automatic and semi-
automatic processes, the rating is usually a 100% duty
cycle. Light-duty power sources usually have a 20%
duty cycle. Power sources with ratings at other duty
cycle values are available from the manufacturers.
power sources, making them useful for a variety of An important point is that the duty cycle of a power
welding processes. source is based on the output current and not on a
Electronically controlled outputs can also provide kilovolt-ampere load or kilowatt rating. Manufacturers
output curves that are a combination of constant- perform duty-cycle tests under what NEMA defines as
current and constant-voltage, as shown in Figure 1.16. usual service conditions. Caution should be observed in
The top part of the curve is essentially constant-current; basing operation on service conditions other than usual.
below a certain trigger voltage, however, the curve Unusual service conditions such as high ambient tem-
switches to constant voltage. This type of curve is bene- peratures, insufficient cooling air, and low line voltage
ficial for shielded metal arc welding to assist starting are among the factors that contribute to performance
and to avoid electrode stubbing (sticking in the weld that is lower than tested or calculated.
pool) if the welder uses an arc length that is too short. Equation 1.6 presents the formula for estimating the
duty cycle at other than rated outputs, as follows:

DUTY CYCLE
Internal components of a welding power source tend where
KJ
Ta= - XT (1.6)

to heat up as welding current flows through. The amount T, = Required duty cycle, %;
of heat tolerated is determined by the breakdown tem- I = Rated current at the rated duty cycle, A;
perature of the electrical components and the meda used
to insulate the transformer windings and other compo- la = Maximum current at the required duty cycle,
nents. These maximum temperatures are specified by A; and
component manufacturers and organizations involved T = Rated duty cycle, %.
with standards in the field of electrical insulation.
Fundamentally, the duty cycle is a ratio of the load- Equation 1.7 presents the expression for estimating
on time allowed in a specified test interval time. other than rated output current at a specified duty
Observing this ratio is important in preventing the cycle, as follows:
internal windings and components and their electrical
insulation system from heating above their rated tem-
perature. These maximum temperature criteria do not
change with the duty cycle or current rating of the
power source.
5. It should be noted that a power source specified for uninterrupted
Duty cycle is expressed as a percentage of the maxi- operation at a rated load for 36 minutes out of one hour would have
mum time that the power source can deliver its rated a 100% duty cycle, rather than a 60% duty cycle, because it could
output during each of a number of successive test inter- operate continuously for the test-interval of 10 minutes.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 17

where Table 1.2

I, = Maximum current at the required duty cycle, Maximum Open-Circuit Voltages for Various
A; Types of Arc Welding Power Sources
I = Rated current at the rated duty cycle, A;
T = Rated duty cycle, %; and Manual and Semiautomatic Applications
T, = Required duty cycle, YO. Alternating current 80 V root mean square
(rms)
The power source should never be operated above its Direct current-over 10% ripple voltage* 80 V rms
rated current or duty cycle unless approved by the man- Direct current-10% or less r i m l e voltaae 100 V averaae
ufacturer. For example, Equation 1.8 applies Equation
1.6 to determine the duty cycle of a 200-A power Automatic Applications
source rated at a 60% duty cycle if operated at 250 A Alternating current 100 V rms
output (provided 250 A is permitted by the manufac- Direct current-over 10% ripple voltage 100 V rms
turer), as follows: Direct current-10% or less ripple voltage 100 V average

(3
T, = - ~ 6 0 %
= (0.8)2~ 0 . =
6 38%
*Ripple voltage, % =
Ripple voltage, rrns
Average total voltage, V

Therefore, this unit must not be operated more than

3.8 minutes out of each 10-minute period at 250 A. If
used in this way, welding at 250 A will not exceed the
current rating of any power source component. NEMA EW-1,Electric Arc- Welding Power SourcesY6
The output current that must not be exceeded when contains specific requirements for maximum open-
operating this power source continuously (100% duty circuit voltage. When the rated line voltage is applied
cycle) can be determined by applying Equation 1.7, as to the primary winding of a transformer or when a
shown in Equation 1.9: generator arc welding power source is operating at
maximum-rated no-load speed, the open-circuit volt-

I, = 200 x(g) 112

= 200 x 0.775 = 155 A (1.9)
ages are limited to the levels shown in Table 1.2.
NEMA Class I and Class I1 power sources normally
have open-circuit voltages at or close to the maximum
specified. Class I11 power sources frequently provide
If operated continuously, the current should be limited two or more open-circuit voltages. One arrangement is
to an output of 155 A. to have a high and low range of amperage output from
the power source. The low range normally has approxi-
mately 80-V open circuit, with the high range some-
what lower. Another arrangement is the tapped
0 PEN-CIRCUIT VO LTAGE secondary coil method, described previously, in which
the open-circuit voltage changes approximately 2 V to
4 V at each current setting.
Open-circuit voltage is the voltage at the output ter- In the United States, 60-Hz power produces reversals
minals of a welding power source when it is energized in the direction of current flow each 1/120 second
but current is not being drawn. Open-circuit voltage is (60 Hz). Typical sine wave forms of a dual-range
one of the design factors influencing the performance of power source with open-circuit voltages of 80 V and
all welding power sources. In a transformer, open- 55 V root mean square (rms) are diagrammed in Figure
circuit voltage is a function of the primary input voltage 1.17. (The rms of alternating current or voltage is the
and the ratio of primary-to-secondary coils. Although a effective current or voltage applied that produces the
high open-circuit voltage may be desirable from the same heat as that produced by an equal value of direct
standpoint of arc initiation and stability, the electrical current or voltage).
hazard precludes the use of higher voltages. The current must change direction after each half-
The open-circuit voltage of generators or alternators cycle. In order for it to do so, the current flow in the arc
is related to design features such as the strength of the ceases for an instant at the point at which the current
magnetic field, the speed of rotation, the number of wave form crosses the zero line. An instant later, the
turns in the load coils, and so forth. These power current must reverse its direction of flow. However,
sources "eenerallv have controls with which the oDen-
circuit voltage can be varied. 6 . See Reference 1, p 91.
18 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

during the period in which current decreases and higher recovery voltage because it is near the peak of
reaches zero, the arc plasma cools, reducing ionization the open-circuit voltage wave form, which is the best
of the arc stream. condition for reignition. Adjustable resistance is not
Welding current cannot be reestablished in the oppo- used to regulate alternating welding current because the
site direction unless ionization within the arc length is power source voltage and current would be in phase.
either maintained or quickly reinitiated. With conven- Since the recovery voltage would be zero during current
tional power sources, ionization may not be sustained reversal, it would be difficult to maintain a stable arc.
depending on the welding process and electrode being For shielded metal arc welding with low-voltage,
used. Reinitiating is improved by providing an appro- open-circuit power sources, it is necessary to use elec-
priately high voltage across the arc, called a recovery trodes with ingredients incorporated in the electrode
voltage. The greater this recovery voltage, the shorter is coverings that help maintain ionization and provide
the period during which the arc is extinguished. If favorable metal-transfer characteristics to prevent sud-
recovery voltage is insufficient, the arc cannot be re- den, gross increases in the arc length.
established without shorting the electrode. In a direct-current system, once the arc is established,
Figure 1.17 shows the phase relations between open- the welding current does not pass through zero. Thus,
circuit voltage and equal currents and current for two rapid voltage increase is not critical; resistors are suit-
different open-circuit voltages, assuming the same arc able current controls for direct-current power sources.
voltage (not shown) in each case. As shown, the avail- However, with some processes, direct-current power
able peak voltage of 113 V is greater with 80 V (rms) sources must function in much the same way with
open-circuit voltage. The peak voltage of 78 V available respect to the need to provide open-circuit voltage when
with 55 V (rms) open circuit may not be sufficient to the arc length changes abruptly. Often reactance or
sustain a stable arc. The greater phase shift shown for inductance is built into these power sources to enhance
the low-range condition causes a current reversal at a this effect.

PEAK VOLTAGE
/-'W PEAK VOLTAGE

OPEN-CIRCUIT

NOTE: T I IS GREATER THAN T2

Key:
TI = Low-range phase shift, negative to positive
T2 = High-range phase shift, negative to positive
X = Low-range phase shift, positive to negative
Y = High-range phase shift, positive to negative

Figure 1.17-TypicaI Voltage and Current Waveforms

of a DuaLRange Alternating4urrent Power Source
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 19

1. A constant-current, a constant-voltage, or a
NEMA POWER SOURCE constant-currentkonstant-voltage power source;
REQUIREMENTS 2. A single-operator power source; or
3. One of the following:
a. Direct-current generator arc welding power
The National Electrical Manufacturers Association source,
(NEMA) power source requirements represent the tech-
b. Alternating-current generator arc welding
nical judgment of the organization’s Arc Welding Sec-
power source,
tion concerning the performance and construction of
electric arc welding power source^.^ These requirements c. Generator-rectifier arc welding power
are based on sound engineering principles, research, source,
records of tests, and field experience. The requirements d. Alternating-currenddirect-current generator-
cover both installation and manufacturing criteria rectifier arc welding power source,
obtained from manufacturers and users. e. Alternating-current transformer arc welding
The reader should consult Electric Arc- Welding power source,
Power Sources, NEMA EW-1, for the requirements for f. Direct-current transformer-rectifier arc weld-
electric arc welding apparatus, including power sources.* ing power source, or
g. Alternating-currentrect-current transformer-
rectifier arc welding power source.
NEMA CLASSIFICATIONS
NEMA categorizes arc welding power sources into
the following three classes, primarily on the basis of OUTPUT AND INPUT REQUIREMENTS
duty cycle:
In addition to duty cycle, the output ratings and
1. A NEMA Class I arc welding power source is performance capabilities of power sources of each class
characterized by its ability to deliver rated out- are specified by NEMA. Table 1.3 presents the output
put at duty cycles of 60%, 80%, or 100%. If a current ratings for NEMA Class I, Class 11, and Class I11
power source is manufactured in accordance arc welding power sources. The NEMA-rated load volt-
with the applicable standards for Class I power age for Class I and Class I1 power sources under SO0 A
sources, it shall be marked “NEMA Class I can be calculated using the following formula:
(60),” “NEMA Class I (80),” or “NEMA Class I
(100);” (1.10)
E = 20 + 0.04 x I
2. A NEMA Class I1 arc welding power source is
characterized by its ability to deliver rated out-
put at duty cycles of 30%, 40%, or 50%. If a where
power source is manufactured in accordance E = Rated load voltage, V; and
with the applicable standards for Class I1 power
I = Rated load current.
sources, it shall be marked “NEMA Class I1
(30),” “NEMA Class I1 (40),” or “NEMA Class
I1 (SO).” The NEMA-rated load voltage is 44 for output current
ratings of 600 A and higher. The output ratings in
3. A NEMA Class I11 arc welding power source is
amperes and load voltage and the minimum and maxi-
characterized by its ability to deliver rated out-
mum output currents and load voltage for power
put at a duty cycle of 20%. If a power source is
sources are given in NEMA publication EW-1.
manufactured in accordance with the applicable
standards for Class I11 power sources, it shall be The electrical input requirements of NEMA Class I,
marked “NEMA Class I11 (20).” Class 11, and Class I11 transformer arc welding power
sources are 220 V, 380 V, and 440 V for 50 Hz; for
NEMA Class I and Class I1 power sources are further 60 Hz they are 200 V, 230 V, 460 V, and 575 V.9
defined as completely assembled arc welding power The voltage and frequency standards for welding
sources in one of the following forms: generator drive motors are the same as for NEMA
Class I and I1 transformer primaries.
7. The term power source is synonymous with arc welding machine.
8. See Reference 1, p. 4. 9. See Reference 1, p. 10.
20 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

with respect to welding process. The power source may

Table 1.3
NEMA-RatedOutput Currents for
use one of two input voltages with the corresponding
Arc Welding Power Sources (Amperes) input current listed for each voltage when the power
source is producing its rated load. The kilovolt-ampere
Class I Class II Class 111 (kVA)and kilowatt (kW) input data are also listed. The
200 150 180-230 power factorll can be calculated as follows:
250 175 235-295
300 200 kW (1.11)
P f ==
400 225
500 250
600 300 where
800 350
pf = Power factor
kW = Kilowatts
1000 kVA = Kilovolt-amperes
1200
1500 The manufacturer also provides other useful data
Source: Adapted with permission from National Electrical Manufacturers Association concerning input requirements such as primary conduc-
(NEMA), Electric Arc-Welding Power Sources, EW-1:1988 (R1999), Washington, D.C.: tor size and recommended fuse size. Power sources can-
National Electrical Manufacturers Association, Tables 5.1, 5.2, 5.3.
not be protected with fuses of equal value to their
primary current demand. If this is done, nuisance blow-
ing of the fuses or tripping of circuit breakers will
result. Table 1.5 presents typical input wire and fuse
sizes for the 300-A power source specified in Table 1.4.
NAMEPLATE DATA All pertinent codes should be consulted in addition to
The minimum data on the nameplate of an arc weld- these recommendations.
ing power source specified in NEMA publication EW-1
are the following:1°

1. Manufacturer’s type designation or identifica- ALTERNATING-CURRENT

tion number, or both;
2. NEMA class designation;
POWER SOURCES
3. Maximum open-circuit voltage;
4. Rated load voltage (V); Except for the power produced by engine-driven dc
5. Rated load current (A); welding generators and batteries, all welding power
6 . Duty cycle at rated load; typically begins as alternating current. The two main
7. Maximum speed in revolutions per minute (rpm) reasons for this are that ac can be transformed to higher
at no-load (generator or alternator); or lower voltages, and it can be economically transmit-
8. Frequency of power source (Hz); ted over long distances. When ac is required for weld-
ing, the high-voltage power delivered by the utility
9. Number of phases of power source;
company is converted to the proper welding voltage by
10. Input voltage(s) of power source; transformers. Alternating current is not as simple to
11. Current (A) input at rated load output.; understand as dc because the voltage and current
12. No-load RPM; and reverse at regular intervals. This section discusses the
13. Power factor principles of how alternating current is used in a weld-
ing power source.
The instruction book or owner’s manual supplied
with each power source is the prime source of data con-
cerning electrical input requirements. General data is
also stated on the power source nameplate, usually in TRANSFORMERS
tabular form along with other pertinent data that might Alternating-current power sources can utilize single-
apply to the particular unit. Table 1.4 shows typical phase or three-phase transformers that connect to
information for a NEMA 300-A-rated constant-current alternating-current utility power lines. The ac power
power source. The welding current ranges are given
11. The power factor is the ratio of circuit power (watts) to circuit
10. See Reference 1, p. 24,25. volt-amperes.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 21
~ ~~ ~~

Table 1.4
Typical Nameplate Specifications for AC-DC Arc Welding Power Sources
Rated Output Current, A Input Current, A, at Rated 300 A Output
Alternating Current Direct Current Open-Circuit 60-Hz Single-Phase
Voltage,
GTAW SMAW GTAW SMAW AC and DC 230 V 460 V kVA kW
300 A 300 A 300 A 300 A 80 V 104 A 52 A 23.9 21.8
Source;Adapted with permission from National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), Necfric Arc- Welding Power Sources, EW-i:1988 (R1999), Washington, D.C.: National
Electrical Manufacturers Association, p. 20.

Table 1.5
Typical Primary Conductor and Fuse Size Recommendations
Input Wire Size, AWGa Fuse Size in Amperes
Model 200 v 230 V 460 V 575 v 200 v 230 V 460 V 575 v
300 A No. 2 No. 2 No. 8 No. 8
(No. 6)b (No. 6)b (No. 8)b (No. 8)b 200 75 90 70
a. American Wire Gauge.
b. Indicates ground conductor size.
Source:Adapted with permission from Electric Arc-Weiding Power Sources, EW-1:1988 (R1999), National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA), Washington, D.C.: National
Electrical Manufacturers Association, Table 4.2.

source transforms the input voltage and amperage to more vertical is the volt-ampere output curve and the
levels suitable for arc welding. The transformers also lower is the maximum short-circuit current value. Con-
serve to isolate the welding circuits from the utility versely, when the two coils are closer together, the
power lines. Because various welding applications have maximum short-circuit current is higher and the slope
different welding power requirements, the means for of the volt-ampere output curve is less steep.
the control of welding current or arc voltage, or both, Figure l.l8(A) shows one form of a movable-coil
must be incorporated within the welding transformer transformer with the coils far apart for minimum output
power source. The methods commonly used in trans- and a steep slope of the volt-ampere curve. Figure
formers to control the welding circuit output are 1.18(B) shows the coils as close together as possible.
described in the following sections. The volt-ampere curve is indicated at maximum output
with less slope than the curve of Figure l.l8(A).
Another form of movable coil employs a pivot
Mova b Ie-Co iI Cont ro I motion. When the two coils are at a right angle to one
another, output is at minimum. When the coils are
A movable-coil transformer consists of an elongated aligned with one coil nested inside the other, output is
core on which are located primary and secondary coils. at maximum.
Either the primary coil or the secondary coil may be
movable, while the other one is fixed in position. Most
alternating-current transformers of this design have a Mova b Ie-S hunt Cont ro I
fixed-position secondary coil. As shown in Figure 1.18,
the primary coil is normally attached to a lead screw, In the movable shunt design, the primary coils and
and as the screw is turned, the coil moves closer to the the secondary coils are fixed in position. Control is
secondary coil or farther from it. obtained with a laminated iron core shunt that is
The varying distance between the two coils regulates moved between the primary and secondary coils. The
the inductive coupling of the magnetic lines of force movable core is made of the same material as that used
between them. The farther apart the two coils are, the for the transformer core.
22 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

PRIMARY COIL LIVE GRAPH

Click here to view

80

\
MINIMUM
OUTPUT
v

(
L 50 100 150 200 250

U \SECONDARY COIL
(FIXED)

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

L
LEAD
SCREW

A 50 100 150 200 250

U \ SECONDARY COIL
(FIXED)

Figure 1.18--Movable.Coil Alternating-Current Power Source

As the shunt is moved into position between the Tapped Secondary Coil Control
primary and secondary coils, as shown in Figure 1.19(A),
some magnetic lines of force are diverted through the A tapped secondary coil (refer to Figure 1.3) may be
iron shunt rather than to the secondary coils. With the used for control of the volt-ampere output of a trans-
iron shunt between the primary and secondary coils, the former. This method of adjustment is often used with
slope of the volt-ampere curve increases and the available NEMA Class I11 power sources. Basic construction is
welding current is decreased. Minimum current output is somewhat similar to the movable-shunt type, except
obtained when the shunt is fully in place. that the shunt is permanently located inside the main
As illustrated in Figure 1.19(B), the arrangement of core and the secondary coils are tapped to permit
the magnetic lines of force, or magnetic flux, is unob- adjustment of the number of turns. Decreasing the sec-
structed when the iron shunt is separated from the pri- ondary turns reduces open-circuit voltage as well as the
mary and secondary coils. In this configuration, the inductance of the transformer, causing the welding cur-
output current is at its maximum. rent to increase.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 23

SECONDARY LIVE GRAPH

COILS 80 Click here to view
SHUNT
MAGNETIC
\ MINIMUM
FLUX V
PATH
PRIMARY
COILS
( 50 100 150 200 250
,IRON CORE
A

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
8C

\i

50 100 150 200 250

A
~

Figure 1.19-MovabIe-Shunt Alternating-CurrentPower Source

Movable-Core Reactor power source is relatively easy with this type of control
circuit, and it normally requires less maintenance than
The movable-core reactor type of alternating-current do mechanical controls. With this construction, the
welding power source consists of a constant-voltage main transformer has no moving parts. The volt-
transformer and a reactor in series. The inductance of ampere characteristics are determined by the trans-
the reactor is varied by mechanically moving a section former and the saturable-reactor configurations. The
of its iron core. The power source is diagramed in direct-current control circuit to the reactor system
Figure 1.20. allows the adjustment of the output volt-ampere curve
When the movable section of the core is in a with- from minimum to maximum.
drawn position, the permeability of the magnetic path is A simple, saturable-reactor power source is dia-
very low because of the air gap. The result is a low gramed in Figure 1.21. The reactor coils are connected
inductive reactance that permits a high welding current in opposition to the direct-current control coils. If this
to flow. When the movable-core section is advanced were not done, transformer action would cause high
into the stationary core, as shown by the broken-line circulating currents to be present in the control circuit.
rectangle in Figure 1.20, the increase in permeability With the opposing connection, the instantaneous volt-
causes an increase in inductive reactance, which reduces ages and currents tend to cancel out. Saturable reactors
the welding current. tend to cause severe distortion of the sine wave supplied
by the transformer. This is not desirable for gas tung-
Saturable-Reactor Control sten arc welding (GTAW) because the wave form for
that process is important. One method of reducing this
A saturable-reactor control is an electrical control distortion is by introducing an air gap in the reactor
that uses a low-voltage, low-amperage direct-current core. Another is to insert a large choke in the direct-
circuit to change the effective magnetic characteristics current control circuit. Either method, or a combination
of reactor cores. Remote control of output from the of both, will produce he desired results.
 Next Page

24 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

POSITION OF MOVABLE
SECTION FOR MINIMUM
CURRENT

SECONDARY

RIMARY COIL

Figure 1.20--MovablemCore Reactor Alternating-Current Power Source

AIR GAP

WELDING
TRANSFORMER
n I ELECTRODE

WORKPIECE

I, = CONTROL CURRENT
I , = WELDING CURRENT

Figure 1.21-Saturable Reactor Alternating-Current Welding Power Source

Previous Page

ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 25

The amount of current adjustment in a saturable Power Factor

reactor is based on the ampere-turns of the various
coils. The term ampere-turns is defined as the number The power factor (pf) of a welding power source
of turns in the coil multiplied by the current in amperes is the ratio of circuit power (in watts) to the circuit
flowing through the coil. volt amperes and can be measured and calculated as
In the basic saturable reactor, the law of equal follows:
ampere-turns applies. To increase output in the welding For a single-phase power source:
circuit, a current must be made to flow in the control
circuit. The amount of change can be approximated
with the following equation: (1.13)

(1.12) For a three-phase power source:

(1.14)
where
I, = Change in welding current, A;
I , = Change in current, A, in the control circuit; where
N, = Number of turns in the control circuit; and W = Watts as measured by a wattmeter con-
N, = Number of turns in the welding current nected to the single-phase or three-phase
circuit. input circuit of the power source;
VL L = Line-to-line voltage connected to the input
The minimum current of the power source is estab- line of the power source, as measured by a
lished by the number of turns in the welding current voltmeter; and
reactor coils and the amount of iron in the reactor core. A = Amperes in an input line to the power
For a low minimum current, a large amount of iron or a source, as measured by an ammeter.
relatively large number of turns, or both, are required.
If a large number of turns are used, a large number of Wattmeters contain multiple electrical coils that
control turns or a high control current, or both, are nec- detect the phase difference between the line voltage and
essary. The saturable reactors often employ taps on the line currents and display the actual power (wattage)
welding current coils to reduce the requirement for consumed by the power source.
large control coils, large amounts of iron, or high con- Constant-current alternating-current power sources
trol currents, creating multiple-range power sources. are characterized by low power factors because of the
The higher ranges would have fewer turns in these large inductive reactance. This is often objectionable
windings and thus correspondingly higher minimum because the line currents can be high, and power utility
currents. rates can penalize industrial users for low power fac-
tors. Power factor may be improved by adding capaci-
Magnetic Amplifier Control tors to the primary circuit of inductive loads such as
welding transformers. This reduces the primary current
Technically, the magnetic amplifier is a self-saturating from power lines while welding is being performed.
saturable reactor. It is called a magnetic amplifier Unfortunately, the current draw under light or no-load
because it uses the output current of the power source conditions will increase.
to provide additional magnetization of the reactors. In Large alternating-current-transformer power sources
this way, the control currents can be reduced and con- may be equipped with capacitors for power-factor cor-
trol coils can be smaller. While magnetic amplifier rection to approximately 75% at rated load. At load-
power sources are often multiple-range, the ranges of current settings lower than rated, the power factor may
control can be much broader than those possible with have a leading characteristic. When the transformer is
an ordinary saturable-reactor control. operating at no-load or very light loads, the capacitors
Figure 1.22 illustrates that by using a different con- are drawing their full corrective kVA, thus contributing
nection for the welding current coils and rectifying power-factor correction to the remainder of the load on
diodes in series with the coils, the load ampere-turns are the total electrical system.
used to assist the control ampere-turns in magnetizing When several transformer welding power sources are
the cores. A smaller number of control ampere-turns operating at light loads, it should be carefully ensured
will cause a correspondingly higher welding current to that the combined power-factor correction capacitance
flow because the welding current will essentially turn does not upset the voltage stability of the line. If three-
itself on. The control windings are polarity-sensitive. phase primary power is used, the load on each phase of
26 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

DC +
CONTROL
OUTPUT

WELDING
TRANSFORMER

-- -
0-
C
’
2 q-
C-)
AC c
PRIMARY ->

C,
- C-
<-> ACSECONDARY
‘Y
II
WORKPIECE
0 - ? I, = CONTROL CURRENT
I, = TOTAL WELDING CURRENT

Figure 1.22-Magnetic Amplifier Welding Current Control

the primary system should be balanced for best per- normally supplied with NEMA Class I and Class I1
formance. Power-factor correction, under normal welding power sources. The smaller NEMA Class 111
conditions, has no bearing on welding performance. power sources are generally equipped with a manually
operated primary switch and an input supply cable.
Some alternating-current power sources incorporate
Auxiliary Features a system for supplying a higher-than-normal current to
the arc for a fraction of a second at the start of a weld.
Constant-current alternating-current power sources This “hot start” feature provides starting surge charac-
are available in many configurations and with many teristics similar to those of motor-generator units. The
auxiliary features. Generally, these features are incorpo- hot start assists in initiating the arc, particularly at cur-
rated to better adapt the unit to a specific process or rent levels under 100 A. Other power sources, for
application, or to make it more convenient to operate. example those used for GTAW, may be equipped with a
The manufacturer should be consulted for available start control to provide an adjustable “soft” start or
features when considering these power sources. reduced-current start to minimize the transfer of tung-
Primary contactors or manually operated power sten from the electrode.
switches to turn the unit on and off are usually included Equipment designed for the GTAW process usually
in alternating-current power sources. Most NEMA incorporates an additional valve and timer to control
Class I and Class I1 units are furnished with a terminal the flow of shielding gas to the electrode holder. A high-
board or other means for the connection of various frequency, high-voltage unit may be added to assist in
rated primary-line voltages. Input supply cables are not starting and stabilizing the alternating-current arc.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 27

NEMA Class I and Class I1 power sources may be

provided with a means for the remote adjustment of
output power. This may consist of a motor-driven
device for use with crank-adjusted units or a hand con-
trol at the workstation when an electrically adjusted
power source is being used. When a weldment requires
frequent changes of amperage or when welding must be
performed in an inconvenient location, remote control
adjustments can be very helpful. Foot-operated remote
controls free the operator's hands and permit the grad-
ual increase or decrease of welding current. This is of
great assistance in crater filling for GTAW.
Safety controls are available on some power sources
A
to reduce the open-circuit voltage of alternating-current
arc welding power sources. They reduce the open-
circuit voltage at the electrode holder to less than 30 V.
I DCHEREA

Voltage reducers may consist of relays and contactors Figure 1.23-Schematic Representationof
that either reconnect the secondary winding of the main an Alternator Showing the Magnetic Field
transformer for a lower voltage or switch the welding Contained in the Rotor Assembly
load from the main transformer to an auxiliary trans-
former with a lower no-load voltage.

ALTERNATORS
Another source of alternating-current welding power
is an alternator (often referred to as an alternating-
current generator), which converts mechanical energy
into electrical power suitable for arc welding. The
mechanical power may be obtained from various

t
sources such as an internal combustion engine or an
electric motor. As illustrated in Figure 1.23, ac genera-
tors differ from standard dc generators in that the alter-
nator rotor assembly contains the magnetic field coils
instead of the stator coils. Slip rings are used to conduct
low direct-current power into the rotating member to
produce a rotating magnetic field. This configuration
precludes the need for the commutator and the brushes
used with direct-current output generators. The stator COMMUTATOR
(stationary portion), shown in Figure 1.24, has the
welding current coils wound in slots in the iron core.
The rotation of the field generates ac welding power in
these coils. Figure I.24-Schematic of a Generator
Showing the Magnetic Field Contained
The frequency of the output welding current is con-
in the Stator Assembly
trolled by the rotation speed of the rotor assembly and
by the number of poles in the alternator design. A two-
pole alternator must operate at 3600 rpm to produce
60-Hz current, whereas a four-pole alternator design
must operate at 1800 rpm to produce 60-Hz current. SQUARE-WAVE ALTERNATING-CURRENT
Saturable reactors and moving-core reactors can be POWER SOURCES
used for output control of alternators. However, the
normal method is to provide a tapped reactor for broad Alternating-current welding power sources for the
control of current ranges in combination with control SMAW, GTAW, PAW, and submerged arc welding
of the alternator magnetic field to produce fine control (SAW) processes were traditionally based on three
within these ranges. These controls are shown in Figure
I - methods of regulating their fields: moving coils, moving
1.25. shunt, and siturabfe reactors. The need for wider
28 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

(A)
Electrode Negative

ILIZER
FINE AMPERAGE
ADJUSTMENT
DC HERE e5
z
6
Figure I.25--Schematic of an Alternator Power 20
Source Showing a Tapped Reactor for Coarse
Control of Current and Adjustable Magnetic Field
Amperage for Fine Control of Output Current
ELECTRODE POSITIVE

TIME _____t

current ranges and remote current control led to the Figure 1.26-Comparison of Arc Current
development of magnetic amplifiers with silicon diodes. Wave Forms of (A) Magnetic Amplifier and
While these technologies served the welding industry (B)Square-Wave Power Source at
well, the need existed for power sources that would Same Average Current Level
produce welds of higher quality and improved reliabil-
ity. The development of power semiconductors has pro-
vided a new generation of welding power sources that
meet these needs.
With 6 0 - H ~alternating current, the welding current 2. High-frequency may cause etching of the work-
is reversed 120 times per second. With magnetic power piece in the immediate vicinity of the weld,
sources, the current reversal occurs rather slowly, which may be cosmetically undesirable;
hampering reignition of the next half-cycle. Even 3. High-frequency leakage may bother the operator,
though auxiliary methods can be used to provide a high and
ionizing voltage, such as superimposed high-frequency 4. Peripheral equipment may be damaged by HF.
energy for GTAW and PAW, often the instantaneously
available voltage is too low to assure reliable arc Various design approaches have been used to pro-
reignition. duce square alternating-current wave forms. Some
The reignition problem can be minimized by using a power sources use single-phase input and others use
current with a square wave form as diagramed in Figure three-phase input. Two common approaches are the use
1.26. With its rapid zero crossing, deionization may not of a memory core and inverter circuits.
occur or, at the very least, arc reignition may be
enhanced to the extent that the need for high-frequency
reignition is reduced. Memory Core
The trailing edge of the square wave form keeps the A memory core is a magnetic device, such as an
shielding gas ionized in preparation for reignition at the output inductor (arc stabilizer) that keeps the current
opposite polarity. These features are important in flowing at a constant value (a kind of electric flywheel).
installations where it becomes desirable to eliminate In conjunction with a set of four power SCRs, it can be
high frequency (HF) for one or more of the following used to develop a square-wave alternating current. The
reasons: memory core stores energy in proportion to the previ-
ous half-cycle of current, and then pumps that same
1. High-frequency radiation may cause radio or amount of current to the arc at the beginning of each
television interference; new opposite polarity half-cycle. The values of the
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 29

reignition current and the extinguishing current of the

half cycle are the same. The value is the “remembered”
multi-cycle average-current value maintained by the
memory core device. The transition time from one
polarity to the other is very short, in the range of
80 microseconds.
A sensor placed in the memory core current path
produces a voltage signal that is proportional to the
alternating-current output. That current signal is com-
pared with the desired current reference signal at a regu-
lator amplifier. The resulting actuating error signal is POSITIVE
processed to phase-fire four SCRs in the proper sequence
to bring the output to the proper level. Consequently, the
welding current is held within 1% for line voltage varia- r 45% ELECTRODE
tions of 10%. Response time is fast, thus lending itself
to pulsed alternating-current GTAW operations,
Another feature designed into this type of power
source is a variable asymmetric wave shape. This
enables the operator to obtain balanced current or vari-
ous degrees of controlled imbalance of direct current
electrode negative (DCEN) or straight polarity, versus
direct current electrode positive (DCEP) or reverse POSITIVE
polarity. This capability provides a powerful tool for
arc control. The main reason for using alternating ELECTRODE
current with the GTAW process is that it provides a
cleaning action. This is especially important when weld-
/-70% NEGATIVE
ing aluminum and magnesium. During DCEP cycles,
the oxides on the surface of the workpiece are removed,
exposing clean metal to be welded. Tests with various
asymmetrical power sources established that only a
small amount of DCEP current is required. Amounts as
low as 10% would be adequate, with the exception of
cases in which hydrocarbons may be introduced by the 30% ELECTRODE
filler wire. POSITIVE
Balance is set with a single knob to control the split TIME ___t
of positive and negative portions in a square-wave ac
wave form cycle period, as illustrated in Figure 1.27.
Trace A in Figure 1.27 has SO% of the ac cycle period Figure 1.27-Typical Wave Forms Produced
in electrode positive, and 50% in electrode negative, by Square-Wave Power Balance Control
hence a balanced ac wave form. Trace B favors elec-
trode positive ( 5 5 % ) and trace C favors electrode nega-
tive (70%). In effect, the balance control adjusts the
width of each polarity without changing current ampli-
tude or frequency. The regulating system holds the The asymmetrical wave with less DCEP time allows
selected balance ratio constant as other amperage val- the operator to use smaller-diameter electrodes without
ues are selected. the risk of high temperatures eroding the tip. In effect, it
This balance control is very useful. With a reason- allows a higher current density. This results in a smaller-
ably clean workpiece, the operator can adjust condi- diameter arc cone and better heat concentration. The
tions for a low percentage of cleaning action (using smaller gas nozzle often allows the operator to get into
DCEP). With the resulting high percentage of DCEN tighter joint configurations.
wave form, the heat balance approaches that of DCEN,
providing more heat into the workpiece, less arc wan- Inverter with Alternating-Current Output
der, and a narrower bead width. Considering that gas
tungsten arc welding is often selected because of its con- Another approach to achieving a square-wave
centrated arc, this balance control allows the greatest alternating-current output is to use inverter circuits.
utilization of the best characteristic of this process. Several systems are used with the inverter-circuit
30 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

approach to achieve a square-wave alternating-current additional reverse-current source, a fifth transistor and
output with rapid zero crossover. These systems are blocking diode are not necessary. Alternating-current
dual sources with inverter switching, single sources balance can be controlled like the memory-core source
with inverter switching, and synchronous rectifier and the dual-source inverter. However, DCEP current
inverters. must be the same in amplitude as the DCEN current
The dual source with inverter switching uses solid- and cannot be increased, as with the dual-source
state SCR technology. It combines two three-phase, inverter. Both the single-source and dual-source invert-
adjustable-current, direct-current power sources. The ers can vary the frequency of the ac square-wave
power source that provides the main weld current is output, whereas the memory-core source must operate
SCR-controlled and typically rated for 300-A, 50-V at line frequency (50 Hz or 60 Hz).
direct-current output. It supplies current during both A third approach uses a device called a synchronous
DCEN and DCEP phases of operation. The other rectifier. This method starts with a power source with
power source is a conventional reactor-controlled an inverter in the primary that produces a high-
power source typically rated at 5 A to 100 A for 50-V frequency ac output. The high-frequency alternating
direct-current output. Its function is to provide higher current is applied to the synchronous rectifier circuit,
current during the DCEP phases of operation so which, on command, rectifies the high-frequency alter-
that cleaning is improved. Tests have shown that nating current into either DCEN or DCEP output. By
the most effective etching is obtained when DCEP switching the synchronous rectifier alternately between
current is higher but applied for a much shorter time DCEN and DCEP, a synthesized lower frequency
than the DCEN current. Both power sources must pro- alternating-current output can be created.
vide 50-V output to ensure good current regulation
when welding.
The switching and combining of current from the
two power sources is controlled by five SCRs, as shown
in Figure 1.28. Four of these SCRs form part of an DIRECT-CURRENT POWER
inverter circuit that switches the polarity of the current
supplied to the arc. The four SCRs are arranged to SOURCES
operate in pairs.
One pair (SCR 1 and SCR 4) is switched on to pro- Direct-current power sources are the most com-
vide current from the main power source during the monly used. They can be used in a variety of arc weld-
DCEN portions of the square wave. The other pair ing processes, including GMAW, FCAW, GTAW,
(SCR 2 and SCR 3) is switched on to provide current SMAW, SAW, and PAW. They are essentially power con-
from both power sources during DCEP portions of the verters that convert high-voltage ac utility power or
square wave. A shorting SCR (SCR 5) is used with a mechanical energy into low-voltage, high-current dc
blocking diode to bypass current from the second output suitable for welding. The load of a dc power
power source around the inverter circuit during the source consists of a cable, electrode holder, and electri-
DCEN portion of the cycle, thereby preventing its addi- cal arc in series. The output characteristics are process-
tion to the welding current. dependent, which can be constant current (for GTAW
The SCRs are turned on by a gating circuit, which and SMAW), constant voltage (for GMAW or FCAW),
includes timing provisions for adjustment of the DCEN or a more dynamic volt-ampere curve, such as pulsed
and DCEP portions of the square-wave output. The current for improved process control. The design can be
DCEN time can typically be adjusted from 5 milli- a dc generator-engine drive, transformer type, thyrister-
seconds to 100 milliseconds, and the DCEP time from controlled, or a high-frequency switching topology such
1 millisecond to 100 milliseconds. For example, a typi- as an inverter.
cal time setting for welding thick aluminum might be
19 milliseconds DCEN and 3 milliseconds DCEP. The
SCRs are turned off by individual commutation cir- CO NSTANT-VO LTAGE POWER S 0URCES
cuits. The current wave form is shown in Figure 1.29.
The single source with inverter switching is a much Constant-voltage, or constant potential, power
simpler and less bulky approach than the dual-source sources are commonly used for GMAW, FCAW, and
system. With the single-source approach, one dc constant- SAW. These power sources are rotating, transformer-
current power source is used. Figure 1.30 shows a single- rectifier, or inverter power sources. Generators that can
source, ac, square-wave inverter using transistors supply constant-voltage welding power are normally
instead of SCRs. The operation of this source is very the separately excited, modified compound-wound
similar to that of the dual source. The four transistors type. The compounding of constant-voltage units dif-
are arranged to operate in pairs. In the absence of an fers from that of constant-current units to produce flat
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 31

DIODE
+-

MAIN WELD ADDITIONAL

CURRENT REVERSE
SOURCE CURRENT
3A TO 300A SOURCE
5A TO 1OOA

-- INVERTER CIRCUIT

Figure I.28--lnverter Circuit Used With Dual Direct-CurrentPower Sources

for Controlling Heat Balance in Gas Tungsten Arc Welding

DEC
MAIN WELD
CURRENT
a 3A TO 300A
F
z
W
LT
n:
3
* 5 TO 100 MILLISECONDS -C
1
0

DEC 1 TO 100 MILLISECONDS -- -r "DZFIONAL

CURRENT
5A TO 1OOA

Figure I.29-Typical Arc Current Wave Form for

DuabAdjustableBalance Inverter Power Source
32 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

I
General Design
+O Many designs of constant-voltage power sources are
Q1 Q2 available. The advantage of any particular type is
CONSTANT-
CURRENT
related to the application and to the expectations of the
POWER 4 A R C
user.
SOURCE WORKPIECE TORCH
3A TO 300A Open=Circuit Voltage. The open-circuit voltage of
some transformer-rectifier power sources is adjusted by
- Q3 Q4
changing taps on the transformer. Another type of
power source controls the open-circuit voltage with
secondary coils, carbon brushes driven by a lead screw
Figure 1.30-Alternating-Current to slide along the secondary coil conductors. A second
Inverter Circuit (Single Source) control is often included to adjust the volt-ampere char-
acteristics to provide the requirements of the welding
process. This is called slope control because of its addi-
tional effect on the volt-ampere output curve.
Constant-voltage power sources have a wide range
of open-circuit voltages. Electrically controlled power
volt-ampere output characteristics. These power sources may have an open circuit as high as 80 V.
sources may have solid-state devices in the excitation Tapped or adjustable transformers have open-circuit
circuit to optimize performance and to provide remote- voltage that can be varied from 30 V to 50 V maximum
control capability. Various types of electronic circuits to 10 V minimum.
such as phase-angle controlled SCRs and inverter
circuits are used for this purpose. Slope. Slope control is generally obtained by changing
Transformer-rectifier and inverter constant-voltage taps on reactors in series with the alternating-current
power sources for industrial applications are normally portion of the circuit. Slope control can be provided by
three-phase. Small single-phase power sources, usually carbon brushes attached to a lead screw contacting the
rated 200 A or below, are typically designed for light- reactor turns. This variable reactor provides continuous
duty applications. adjustment of slope. Another method of control uses
magnetic amplifiers or solid-state devices to electrically
Electr ica I Character ist ics regulate output voltage. These power sources may have
either voltage taps or slope taps in addition to electrical
Constant-voltage power sources are characterized by control.
their typically flat volt-ampere curves. A negative slope Some of the advantages of electrical controls are easy
of 1 V to 5 V per 100 A is common. As a result, the adjustment, the capability to use remote control, and
maximum short-circuiting current is usually very high, the absence of moving parts. Some electrically con-
sometimes in the range of thousands of amperes. Power trolled power sources permit adjustment of output
sources with volt-ampere curves having slopes of up to during welding. This is helpful for tasks such as crater
8 V per 100 A are still categorized as constant-voltage filling or changing welding conditions. The combina-
power sources. tion of taps with electrical control to give fine output
There are many varieties and combinations of adjustment between taps is a suitable arrangement in an
constant-voltage power sources. A fixed slope may be application in which the power source requires little
built into the power source, or the unit may have an attention during welding. Power sources that are fully
adjustment to adapt the slope of the volt-ampere curve controlled electrically are easier to set up and readjust
to the welding process. when welding requirements change rapidly. Slope can
The dynamic characteristics of these power sources also be controlled electronically by circuitry in most
are of prime importance. If inductance is used to adjust phase-angle controlled SCR and inverter power sources.
the slope, it will change not only the static but also the Electrically controlled power sources frequently have
dynamic characteristics of the power source. In some fixed, all-purpose slopes designed into them.
cases, adjustable inductors are used in the direct-current Slope control on constant-voltage generators is usu-
portion of the circuit to obtain separate control of the ally provided by a tapped resistor in the welding circuit.
static and dynamic features. The direct-current inductor This is desirable because of the inherent slow dynamic
will not alter the static characteristics, but will affect response of the generator to changing arc conditions.
the dynamic characteristics. Direct-current inductors Resistance slope controls limit maximum short-circuiting
are very important for short-circuiting transfer in current. Reactor slope control also limits maximum
GMAW. short-circuiting current. However, it slows the rate of
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 33

response of the power source to changing arc condi- rent to output direct-current power. Generators convert
tions more than resistive slope control. the mechanical energy of rotation to electrical power.
While no fixed rule exists for volt-ampere slope in The open-circuit voltages of constant-current recti-
the welding range, most power sources have slopes fier power sources vary as required by the specific weld-
ranging from 1 V to 3 V per 100 A. ing application, ranging from 50 V to 100 V. Most
NEMA Class I and Class I1 power sources are fixed in
Inductance. Gas metal arc welding power sources the 70 V to 80 V range.
designed for short-circuiting transfer generally incorpo-
rate additional direct-current inductance to improve
performance by providing the dynamic characteristics Electr ica I Characteristics
required. This inductance can be variable or fixed. The relationship of the output current to the output
voltage is an important electrical characteristic. Both a
Ripple. Single-phase power sources generally require static (steady-state) relationship and a dynamic (tran-
some type of ripple filter arrangement in the welding sient) relationship are of special interest. The static
circuit. This filter is usually a bank of electrolytic capac- relationship is usually shown by volt-ampere curves
itors across the rectifier output. The purpose is to pro- such as those shown in Figure 1.14. The curves usually
vide a smooth direct-current output capable of clearing represent the maximum and minimum for each current-
a short circuit. An inductor is used to control the output range setting. As discussed in a previous section, the
of the capacitors. Without some inductance, the dis- dynamic relationship is difficult to define and measure
charge of the capacitors through a short circuit would for all load conditions. The dynamic characteristics
cause excessive spatter. determine the stability of the arc under actual welding
conditions. Dynamic characteristics are influenced by
Control Devices circuit design and control.
Constant-voltage power sources are usually
equipped with primary contactors. Electrically con- General Design
trolled models typically have remote voltage-control The usual voltages of the alternating current supplied
capabilities. Other features available on certain power by electric utility companies in the United States are
sources are line-voltage compensation and accessories nominally 208 V, 240 V, and 480 V with a frequency of
to interface with wire feed equipment to change feed 60 Hz. The line frequency is 50 Hz in Europe, Asia, and
rate and welding current. Australia, and variations of 50 and 60 Hz are supplied
in Central and South America. Line voltages vary in
Electrical Rating different countries. The 230/400 V lines are common in
Western Europe, but 220/380, 100/500, 400/690, and
Primary ratings of constant-voltage power sources 127/220 lines also exist. Voltages in Asia are more
are similar to those discussed previously. Constant- diverse: China uses 220/380 V lines; Japan uses 100/
voltage power sources typically have a more favorable 200 V lines, and Korea uses 110/220/380 V lines. The
power factor than constant-current power sources and voltage tolerance is also country-specific. Transformers
do not require power-factor correction. Open-circuit are designed to work on all these voltages. This is
voltage can be well below the established maximum of accomplished by arranging the primary coils in sections
80 V dc. Current ratings of NEMA Class I power with taps. In that way, the leads from each section can
sources range from 200 A to 1500 A. be connected in series or parallel with other sections to
Constant-voltage power sources are normally classi- suitably match the incoming line voltage. On three-
fied as NEMA Class I or Class 11. It is the usual practice phase power sources, the primary can be connected
to rate them at 100% duty cycle, except for some of the in the delta or “Y” configuration. The secondary is
light-duty units of 200 A and under, which may be frequently connected in the delta configuration, as
rated as low as 20% duty cycle. this connection is preferred for low voltage and high
current.
The current is usually controlled in the section of the
CONSTANT-CURRENT POWER SOURCES power source between the transformer and the rectifi-
Welding power sources that are called constant- ers. Current control employs the principle of variable
current power souyces can be used for SMAW, GTAW, inductance or impedance. The following systems are
SAW, and plasma arc welding and cutting. These power used for varying the impedance for current control:
sources can be inverters, transformer-rectifiers, or gen-
erators. The transformer-rectifier and inverter power 1. Moving coil,
sources are static, transforming input alternating cur- 2. Moving shunt,
34 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

3. Saturable reactor or magnetic amplifiers, frequency allows a greatly reduced size of transformer
4. Tapped reactor, and reduced transformer losses.
5. Moving reactor core, and
6. Solid-state controls.
MOTOR-DRIVEN AND ENGINE-DRIVEN
In addition to these six control systems, another con- GENERATORS AND ALTERNATORS
figuration employs resistors in series with the direct-
current portion of the welding circuit. Systems 1,2, and Generator power sources and alternators convert
5 in the list above are classed as mechanical controls. mechanical energy into electrical power suitable for arc
Systems 3 and 6 are classed as electric controls, and Sys- welding. Rotating mechanical power can be obtained
tem 4 and the external resistor types are classed as tap from an internal combustion engine or an electric
controls. These same systems are also used for control- motor. For welding, two basic types of rotating power
ling constant-current transformer sources. sources are used: the generator and the alternator. Both
An inductance is usually used in the direct-current have a rotating component, called a rotor or an
welding circuit to control excessive surges in load cur- armature, and a stationary component, called a stator.
rent. These current surges may occur because of A system of excitation is needed for both types.
dynamic changes in arc load. Inductance is also used to In a rotating power source, voltage is induced in elec-
reduce the inherent ripple found after rectifying the trical conductors when the conductors are moved
alternating current. A three-phase rectifier produces through a magnetic field. Physically, it makes no differ-
relatively little ripple; therefore, the size of its inductorence whether the magnetic field moves or the conductor
is determined primarily by the need to control arc load moves, just so the coil experiences a changing magnetic
surges. A high ripple is associated with single-phase field. In practice, a generator has a stationary field and
rectification. The size of inductors for single-phase moving conductors, while an alternator has a moving
power sources is determined by the need to reduce field and stationary conductors.
ripple. Therefore, they are larger than those used in The dc generator has a commutator-brush arrange-
three-phase power sources of the same rating. Power ment for changing alternating current to direct-current
sources of this type frequently have a switch on the welding power. Normally, the direct-current generator
direct-current output so that the polarity of the voltage is a three-phase electrical device. Three-phase systems
at the power source terminals can be reversed without provide the smoothest welding power of any of the
reversing the welding cables. electro-mechanical welding power sources.
A direct-current generator consists of a rotor and
stator. The rotor assembly is comprised of a through
Auxiliary Features shaft; two end bearings to support the rotor and shaft
The auxiliary features are similar to those available load; an armature, which includes the laminated arma-
for constant-current ac power sources, although not all ture iron core and the current-carrying armature coils;
features are available on all power sources. The manu- and a commutator. It is in the armature or rotating coils
facturer can supply complete information. that welding power is generated.
In addition to the features listed previously, current- The stator is the stationary portion of the generator
pulsing capabilities are available with many direct- within which the rotor assembly turns. It holds the
current power sources as standard or optional equip- magnetic field coils of the generator. The magnetic field
ment. Pulsed-power sources are capable of alternately coils conduct a small amount of direct current to main-
switching from high to low welding current repetitively. tain the necessary continuous magnetic field required
Normally, high- and low-current values, pulse duration, for power generation. The direct-current amperage is
and the pulse repetition rate are independently adjust- normally no more than 10 A to 15 A and very often is
able. This feature is useful for out-of-position GMAW less.
and critical GTAW applications. In electric power generation, there must be relative
motion between a magnetic field and a current-carrying
conductor. In the direct-current generator, the rotating
INVERTER POWER SOURCE armature is the current-carrying conductor. The station-
ary magnetic field coils are located in the stator. The
An inverter power source is different from a trans- armature turns within the stator and generates the
former-rectifier type in that the inverter rectifies ac line welding current.
current, uses an inverter circuit to produce a high- The armature conductors of a welding generator are
frequency ac, reduces that voltage with an ac trans- relatively heavy because they carry the welding current.
former, and rectifies that to obtain the required dc The commutator, located at one end of the armature, is
output. Changing the ac frequency to a much higher a group of conducting bars arranged parallel to the
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 35

rotating shaft to make switching contact with a set of 115-V direct current. With an alternator power source,
stationary carbon brushes. These bars are connected to 120-V or 120/240-V alternating current is usually avail-
the armature conductors. The whole arrangement is able. Voltage frequency depends on the engine speed.
constructed in proper synchronization with the mag-
netic field so that, as the armature rotates, the commu-
tator performs the function of mechanical rectification. Output Characteristics
An alternator power source is very similar, except Both generator and alternator power sources gener-
that the magnetic field coils are generally wound on the ally provide welding current adjustment in broad steps
rotor and the heavy welding current winding is wound called ranges. A rheostat or other control is usually
into the stator. These power sources are also referred to placed in the field circuit to adjust the internal magnetic
as revolving or rotating field power sources. field strength for fine adjustment of power output. The
The alternating-current voltage produced by the fine adjustment, because it regulates the strength of the
armature coils moving through the magnetic field of the magnetic field, typically changes the open-circuit volt-
stator is carried to copper commutator bars through age. When adjusted near the bottom of the range, the
electrical conductors from the armature coils. The con- open-circuit voltage can be substantially lower than at
ductors are soft-soldered to the individual commutator the high end of the range.
bars. The latter may be considered as terminals, or col- Figure 1.31 shows a “family” of volt-ampere curve
lector bars, for the alternating current generated from characteristics for either an alternator or generator
the armature. power source.
The commutator is a system of copper bars mounted With many alternator power sources, broad ranges
on the rotor shaft. Each copper bar has a machined and are obtained from taps on a reactor in the ac portion of
polished top surface. Contact brushes ride on the top the circuit. As such, the dynamic response of an alterna-
surface to pick up each half-cycle of the generated alter- tor is limited for shielded metal arc welding, and thus a
nating current. The purpose of the commutator is to suitable inductor is generally inserted in series with one
carry both half-cycles of the generated alternating cur- leg of the dc output from the rectifier. Direct-current
rent, but on separate copper commutator bars. Each of welding typically requires an inductor.
the copper commutator bars is insulated from the other A limited overlap of ranges is normally provided by
copper bars. rotating equipment so that the desired welding current
The carbon contact brushes pick up each half-cycle can be obtained over a range of open-circuit voltages. If
of generated alternating current and direct it into a con- welding is performed in this range, welders have a bet-
ductor as direct current. It may be said that the brush- ter opportunity to adapt the power source to the job.
commutator arrangement is a type of mechanical recti- With lower open-circuit voltage, the slope of the curve
fier, since it changes the generated alternating current to is less. This allows the welder to regulate the welding
direct current. Most of the brushes are an alloy of current to some degree by varying the arc length. This
carbon, graphite, and small copper flakes. The direct- can assist in weld-pool control, particularly for out-of-
current characteristics are similar to those of single- and position work.
three-phase transformer-rectifier power sources. Some dc welding generators carry this feature
Alternator construction (shown in Figure 1.23) places beyond the basic design described above. Generators
the heavy conductors in the stator, eliminating the need that are compound-wound with separate current and
for carbon brushes and a commutator to carry high cur- voltage controls can provide the operator with a selec-
rent. The output, however, is alternating current, which tion of volt-ampere curves at nearly any amperage, as
requires external rectification for direct-current applica- shown in Figure 1.31. Thus, the welder can set the
tion. Rectification is usually accomplished with a bridge desired arc voltage with one control and the arc current
using silicon diodes. An alternator usually has brushes with another. This adjusts the generator power source
and slip rings (shown in Figure 1.25) to provide the low to provide a static volt-ampere characteristic that can
direct current to the field coils. Both single- and three- be customized to the job throughout most of its range.
phase alternators are available to supply alternating The ranges of volt-ampere curves available as each con-
current to the necessary rectifier system. trol is changed independently are shown in Figures 1.32
An alternator or generator may be self-excited or and 1.33.
separately excited depending on the source of the field Welding power sources are available that produce
power. Both may use a small auxiliary alternator or both constant current and constant voltage. These units
generator, with the rotor on the same shaft as the main are used for field applications where both constant cur-
rotor, to provide exciting power. In many engine-driven rent and constant voltage are needed at the job site and
units, a portion of exciter field power is available utility electric power is not available. Many designs use
to operate tools or lights necessary to the welding oper- solid-state circuitry to expand a variety of volt-ampere
ation. In generators, this auxiliary power is usually characteristics.
36 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

i4AXIMUM LIVE GRAPH

Click here to view
0°1 )PEN-CIRCUIT
JOLTAGE
RANGES A, B, C, AND D ARE FOUR CURRENT
RANGE SETTINGS OFTHE POWER SOURCE

RANGE A, MAX

RANGE B, MAX
RANGE C, MAX

50

0 \ \
100 200 300 400
AMPERES

Figure 1.31- Volt=AmpereRelationshipfor a Typical

Constant=CurrentAlternator or Generator Power Source

Sources of Mechanical Power to 40% lagging power factor at no-load. No-load

power input can range from 2 kW to 5 kW, depending
Generators are available with alternating-current on the rating of the motor-generator set. The power
drive motors of several voltage and frequency ratings factor of induction motor-driven welding generators
and with direct-current motors. Welding generators are may be improved by the use of static capacitors similar
usually single units with the drive motor and generator to those used on welding transformers. Some welding
assembled on the same shaft. generators are built with synchronous motor drives to
Induction motor-driven welding generators are correct the low power factor.
normally available for 200-V, 240-V, 480-V, and 600-V
three-phase, 60-Hz input. Other standard input require- Rotating-type power sources are used for field or
ments are 220 V, 380 V, and 440 V with 50-Hz input. on-site welding when utility-supplied electric power is
Few are made with single-phase motors, since trans- not available. For this use, a wide variety of internal
former welding power sources usually fill the need for combustion engines are available. Both liquid-cooled
single-phase operation. The most commonly used and air-cooled engines are used depending on specific
driving motor is the 230/460-V, three-phase, 60-Hz power source applications. In the United States, gaso-
induction motor. line is the most popular fuel because of price and avail-
Figure 1.34 summarizes some of the electrical char- ability. Diesel fuel can lower operating costs and usage
acteristics of a typical 2301460-V, three-phase, 60-Hz is therefore increased. However, local, state, and federal
induction motor-generator set-overall efficiency, regulations should be consulted, as some codes permit
power factor, and current input. The motors of direct- the use of diesel fuel only for engines used in specific
current welding generators usually have a good power applications. An example is the use of diesel engines for
factor (SOY0to 90%) when under load, and from 30% welding power sources on offshore drilling rigs.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 37

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view POWER FACTOR
I oor

l
100 200 300 400 500 600
Figure 1.32-Effect of Current.Control
Variations on Generator Output OUTPUT CURRENT, A

Figure I.34--'Fypical Characteristic Curves

MAX of a 300-Ampere Direct=Current
MotofiGenerator Power Source

Propane is used in some applications because it

burns cleaner than gasoline. However, it requires a spe-
cial carburetion system.
(I)
5 Parallel Operation
P
Increased current output can be obtained by connect-
MIN ing engine-driven power sources in parallel. However,
parallel connection is not advised unless the manu-
facturer's specific instructions are followed. Caution is
necessary because successful parallel connections
depend on matching the output voltage-ampere charac-
teristic and polarity of each power source. In the case of
self-excited generators, the problem is further compli-
cated by the necessity to equalize the excitation between
MIN MAX the generators.
AMPERES The blocking nature of the rectifiers makes direct-
current alternators easy to operate in parallel. Care
should be taken to ensure that connections are of the
Figure I.33--Effect of Voltage=Control same polarity. Rotating-type power sources operated in
Variations on Generator Output parallel require close operator attention to adjustment
so that the welding load is equally shared.

Diesel fuel is more popular than gasoline in

Auxiliary Features
Western Europe and the Far East, but globally the Rotating-type power sources are available with
consumption statistics of diesel and gasoline are about many auxiliary features such as attachments for
equal, In general, larger engine drives are designed hand or foot controls that the operator takes to the
for diesel fuel and smaller machines are designed for workstation to make power source adjustments while
gasoline. welding.
38 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

Gas engines are often equipped with idling devices to high enough to prevent arc loss. Peak current is raised
save fuel. These devices are automatic in that the engine above the transition current for a sufficient time to
will run at an idle speed until the electrode is touched to allow at least one drop to form and transfer. Power
the work. Under idle, the open-circuit voltage of the sources have been designed with controlled pulsed-
generator is low. Touching the electrode to the work- current outputs for pulsed gas metal arc welding
piece energizes a sensing circuit that automatically (GMAW-P).
accelerates the engine to operating speed. When the Independent settings can be made for all aspects of
arc is broken, the engine will return to idle after a set the pulse wave form, including peak current, back-
time. ground current, peak time, and background time. These
Engine-driven generators and alternators are often variables are shown in Figure 1.35. The slope-up rate
equipped with a provision for auxiliary electric power. defines how fast current rises from background level to
Auxiliary power (typically 120 V to 240 V ac) is avail- peak level, in amperes per millisecond. Because of the
able when the engine is operating at rated speed and inductive component in the circuit, current decays
may be limited when welding power is used. Other aux- exponentially from the peak current to an optional
iliary features that can often be obtained on engine- intermediate level called step-off current, at slope-down
driven welding power sources are polarity switches (to speed (or exponent), before it reaches the background
change easily from DCEN to DCEP), running-hour current level.
meters, fuel gauges, battery chargers, high-frequency By designing a wave form for specific welding con-
arc starters, tachometers, and output meters. Some ditions, the objectives of flat bead shape, penetration
larger engine-driven units are equipped with air profile, high travel speed, low spatter level, and low tip
compressors. wear can be optimized. Conditions may include the type
of gas, wire type and size, workpiece thickness, surface
mill scale, joint type, fitup, and even cable length.

PULSED AND SYNERGIC POWER Synergic Adjustments and Controls

SOURCES
Pulse welding involves controlling more parameters
Pulsed-current power sources are used for GMAW, than constant-voltage spray or constant voltage short-
GTAW, SMAW, FCAW, and SAW. Of these processes, circuiting processes. Instead of requiring the user to
GMAW and GTAW are the most commonly used. Early adjust numerous wave form control parameters, manu-
versions of pulsed-current power sources appeared on facturers preprogram the wave forms for commonly
the market in the 1970s. used welding wires and gases. The operator controls
usually consist of two knobs-one to adjust wire feed
Pulsed-Spray Transfer Power Sources speed (or current) and the other to refine or trim the
voltage adjustment. The user simply turns the wire
Pulsed-mode welding power sources are used with speed knob to pick one of the preprogrammed wave
the GMAW process to reduce heat input, decrease forms, hence the term one-knob control. When the
workpiece distortion, and minimize fumes and spatter. wire-speed knob is turned, an entire new wave form is
The pulse spray transfer process is an advantage when selected along with all the parameters defining the wave
welding thin-gauge and non-ferrous metals, such as form, hence the term synergic. The preprogrammed
aluminum and nickel alloys, and when performing all- wave forms assume a desired arc length (or arc voltage)
position welding using projected-drop spray transfer. for a particular wire speed, gas, stickout, travel speed,
In a shielding gas environment in which argon is pre- and cable length. A second knob is provided to allow
dominant, ejection of liquid metal from the tip of the the user to change the preprogrammed arc voltage,
electrode can be achieved when the peak instantaneous which basically trims the arc voltage up and down
current exceeds a critical level, called the transition around the preprogrammed set point. A diagram of typ-
current. Instantaneously raising the current above the ical circuit elements for this type of power source is
transition current causes the liquid metal to be pro- shown in Figure 1.36.
pelled across the arc. This peak current period is then The top section of Figure 1.36 is a converter,
followed by a lower current period. It is thereby possi- although inverter circuitry is also commonly used. The
ble to obtain the desirable qualities of spray transfer bottom section of the control circuit can be imple-
while reducing the average current significantly, allow- mented by discrete analog and logic electronics, but
ing the GMAW process to be used in all positions and microprocessor designs are more often used. The wave
for welding sheet metal. form generator selects preprogrammed wave form
The pulsed current level during the low interval is parameters by wire-speed setting. At higher wire speed,
kept sufficiently low to prevent any metal transfer but pulse frequency is increased to maintain one-droplet-
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 39

-
PULSE PERIOD = l/FREQUENCY
4

PULSE TIME
b
SLOPE-
DOWN
PEAKTIME -- --
TIME
-- BACKGROUNDTIME

P
TIME. MILLISECOND

Source: The Lincoln Electric Company

Figure 1.35-Pulsed-Spray Metal Tkansfer Wave Form Variables

WIRE

INSULATED GATE FEEDER

BIPOLAR TRANSISTOR OUTPUT
SMOOTHING
CHOKE
1
Locq~cT
DC

I
II
PULSE I *FREEWHEELING

-
I
t
I
WIDTH
MODULATOR I
I
DIODE

SETTING
%?
J,

Figure 1.36-Basic Circuit for Synergic Pulse Operation

40 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

per-pulse, which proves to be a stable droplet transfer. trode initially shorts to the weld pool, the current is
The control regulates arc voltage by adjusting at least quickly reduced to below background current to ensure
one aspect of the selected current wave form to adapt to that the molten ball at the end of the electrode wets into
contact-tip-to-work distance variations. The strategies the weld pool. A pinch current then establishes a
of designing the wave form for a given wire speed and magnetic field, which squeezes the molten metal down
adjusting the wave form to control arc length are highly into the pool, while the necking of the liquid bridge is
specific to the application and vary with different monitored from electrical signals. When the liquid
power source manufacturers. bridge is about to break, the power source reacts by
reducing current before the arc is re-established. Fol-
Short Circuiting Gas Metal Arc Welding lowing the arc establishment, a peak current is applied
Power Sources to produce a plasma force pushing down on the weld
pool to prevent accidental shorts to the melt of the wire
When pulsed gas metal arc welding (GMAW-P) is while forming the next ball for transfer to the weld
performed using a controlled short-circuiting transfer pool. Finally, the slope-out and background currents
process, the wave form adapts to the physics of the are adjusted to regulate input heat and fusion.
welding arc and metal transfer, as illustrated in Figure
1.37. It reduces spatter by reducing the pinch force The controlled short-circuit process has advantages
(current) when the liquid-metal bridge of the short is when welding thin-gauge materials, open root passes on
about to break and establish an arc. Without the energy pipe, single-sided heavy plate, and thin sheet metallic
of a high current, the liquid bridge is then broken by lining (called wallpapering). Notable advantages of the
surface tension and fluid-mechanical inertia. process are the following:
Figure 1.37 shows that a background current
between 50 A and 100 A typically maintains the arc 1. Less skill is required of the operator to control
and contributes to workpiece heating. After the elec- fusion when stickout is varied;

PEAK-
TIME
1-PEAK
CURRENT

I-
z
W
U
U
3
0
BACKGROUND U
a
CURRENT
; BACKGROUND

k
B
L!-7+
CURRENT REDUCTION
I I

Figure 1.37-A Controlled Short-circuit Current Wave Form for Gas Metal Arc Welding
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 41

2 . Excellent backbead profile can be achieved with- adjustments such as starting circuits and controlled cur-
out backing material; rent-time slopes. A diagram showing the current wave
3 . Precisely controlled input heat helps to control form possibilities when programming a GTAW power
joint distortion; source is illustrated in Figure 1.38.
4. Fewer fumes are generated; and Pulsed gas tungsten arc welding is characterized by a
5. Spatter is reduced, resulting in less cleanup and repetitive variation in arc current from a background
savings in labor cost. (low) value to a peak value. Both peak and background
current levels are adjustable over a wide range. The
peak current time added to the background current
Pulsed Gas Tungsten Arc Power Sources time is equal to the duration of one pulse cycle. The
The purpose of pulsing is to alternately heat and cool peak current duration and background current duration
the molten weld metal. The heating cycle (peak current) are independently adjustable.
is based on achieving a suitable weld pool size during
the peak pulse without excessive groove face fusion or
melt-through, depending on the joint being welded. The MULTIPLE-OPERATOR POWER SOURCES
background current and duration are based on achiev-
ing the desired rate of cooling of the weld pool. The Multiple-operator welding equipment is economical
purpose of the cooling (background-current) portion of for shops that have a number of welding stations in a
the cycle is to speed up the solidification rate and small area. This equipment has also been used to
reduce the size of the weld pool without interrupting advantage in shipbuilding, in water tower erection, on
the arc. Thus, pulsing allows alternately increasing and oil platforms, at construction sites, and in welding
decreasing the size of the weld pool. training facilities.
The fluctuation in weld pool size and penetration is Multiple-operator equipment is commercially avail-
related to the pulsing variables: travel speed; the type, able in three configurations: a single power source with
thickness, and mass of the base metal; filler metal size; multiple remote resistor or electronic control modules,
and welding position. Because the size of the weld pool a multiple output power source, and the single rack
is partially controlled by the current pulsing action, the mounting of multiple conventional or inverter power
need for arc manipulation to control the molten metal sources. A brief description of each type of multiple-
is reduced or eliminated. Thus,. pulsed current is a operator configuration follows, with a list of equipment
useful tool for manual out-of-position gas tungsten arc advantages.
welding.
Pulsed current has also been applied with consider- Multiple Modules
able effectiveness in the gas tungsten arc welding pro-
cess (GTAW-P). The GTAW process frequency differs The grid resistor module and electronic module con-
from that of the GMAW process and generally ranges figurations are frequently used in shipbuilding and
from 2 seconds per pulse to 10 pulses per second, with training facilities. One large-capacity constant-voltage
the lower frequencies most commonly used. The power source can be connected with multiple weld
complexity of control required for pulsing makes it cables to as many as eight to twelve operator stations.
advantageous to provide other appropriate control When a grid resistor module is connected to the work
end of the weld cable, the operator station becomes a
constant-current power source for shielded metal arc
welding. Depending on the type of electronic modules
connected to the weld cables, SMAW or GMAW is pos-
sible at the individual operator stations. All operator
PEAK PULSE CURRENT stations share a common workpiece connection. Since
+I
a f the 5% to 20% duty cycle of the SMAW process is fac-
tored into sizing the equipment, the cost of equipment
for eight to twelve operator stations is significantly less
than eight to twelve individual power sources.

'START TIME- FINISH

Multiple Control Panels
A single, large-capacity constant voltage power
Figure 1.38-Typical Pulsed Gas TLingsten source with six or eight control panels, each individu-
Arc Welding Program Showing ally connected by weld cable to an operator station, is
Upslope and Downslope commonly used on construction sites, for example, in
42 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

water tower erection. Control panels are available with

constant-current, constant-voltage, and constant- ECONOMICS
current-constant-voltage outputs. All operator stations
can share a common workpiece connection if the work
site conditions allow. Equipment configurations will The economics of welding processes have cost fac-
permit SMAW, GMAW, and GTAW processes on a tors similar to many manufacturing operations. The
single power source with appropriately selected control four major economic factors to be considered in choos-
panels. Since the welding duty cycles increase for ing a welding process are the following:
GMAW, fewer arcs or operator stations are typically
included in this configuration. The equipment cost of 1. Equipment cost required by the selected welding
control panel configurations for six or eight operator process,
stations is less than the cost of six or eight individual
power sources. 2. Energy costs for operating the welding process,
3 . Labor costs to staff the welding process, and
4. Material costs of metals, gases, and consumables
Multiple-Operator Facilities used in the process.
The third multiple-operator configuration typically
consists of from four to six conventional or inverter The selection of the welding process is the single
power sources mounted in a common rack or enclosure. most important factor in determining the cost of a
Each power source has an individual electrode cable, welding operation. The chapters in this volume on
and multiple power sources can share a common work- shielded metal arc welding, gas metal arc welding, gas
piece connection cable. Job site relocation is more con- tungsten arc welding, plasma arc cutting and gouging,
venient when one electric utility line and only one piece and arc cutting and gouging provide an overview of
of equipment are involved. A rack of inverter power welding processes and guidance in selecting the appro-
sources with SMAW, GMAW, GTAW, and pulsed/ priate process and the best methods of preparing and
synergic processes can be very effective when applied to joining metals.
complex work-site demands. Capital equipment costs Once a welding process has been determined, the
are typically higher for this configuration because the
rack is required, but the higher welding duty cycles of selection of equipment and the required type of power
become identifiable costs. This section focuses on the
the individual power sources are also available and may
compensate for the additional cost. economic factors to be considered when selecting a
welding power source and the type of energy required
for operation.
Advantages of Multiple-Operator Equipment.
Capital equipment selection and expenditures often
present a trade-off when low (5% to 25%) duty cycle
welding and frequent workstation moves are construc- CAPITAL INVESTMENT
tion site requirements. Some advantages of multiple-
operator equipment are the following: The capital investment for a welding power source is
determined by the type of welding process it is capable
1. One power source location provides welding of performing, the rated output current, and the type of
current from multiple cables to multiple weld power or fuel used. Power sources for shielded metal
stations located in one general area; arc welding are generally less expensive than those for
2. Utility power electric service is only required at a gas metal arc welding. A gas tungsten arc welding
single connection or drop point for all weld sta- power source tends to be more expensive, and a
tions, which minimizes reconnect time and multiple-process power source, a unit that provides for
effort; all three of these processes, is most expensive.
3. Only one power source (or rack) and the utility The cost of a power source increases as the output
power service must be relocated on large con- current increases; for example, an 85-A GMAW power
struction sites or shipbuilding projects; source is considerably less expensive than a 450-A unit.
4. Capital equipment costs are reduced, except for Generally, a power source that connects to utility-line
the rack-mounted equipment, because low duty power is less expensive than an engine-driven power
cycle welding allows an increase in the number source of the same output amperage. Within these
of operator stations per power source; and classes, a single-phase power source is less expensive
5. Parallel connections of multiple-operator modules, than a three-phase unit; a 60-Hz power source is less
panels, or power sources permits increased output expensive than a 50 Hz unit; and a gasoline engine is
currents. less expensive than a diesel power source.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 43

90

80

70
w
z
3 60
53U
50
s!
8 40
>
0
z
30
0
L
LL
W
$? 20

10

0
0 25 50 75 100 125
LIVE GRAPH % OF RATED LOAD ON POWER SOURCE
Click here to view

Figure 1.39-Efficiency Versus Output Load for Welding Power Sources

OPERATING EFFICIENCY Oversized welding power sources are frequently

purchased for an immediate small job for a number of
When specifying or purchasing a welding power justifiable reasons. A larger power source allows big-
source, the effect of operating efficiency on utility ger jobs to be done in the future, and using a power
power or fuel costs should be considered. Figure 1.39 source at lower currents may promote longer equip-
shows a comparison of two power sources, one with ment life. However, the continuous use of a power
81% efficiency and the second with 62% efficiency at source at only a fraction of the rated output current
rated output current. Note that when operated at 7 5 % requires more electric power or fuel, and therefore
of load, the power source at Point C requires 28% more costs more to operate. (For example, Figure 1.39,
utility power or fuel over its operating life than the which charts a power source capable of operating at
higher-efficiency power source operating at Point A. 81% efficiency, at 100% rated load. If this power
The impact of reducing fuel costs by 28% is significant, source operates at Point A or 75% of rated current,
particularly when high fuel and fuel transport costs are the efficiency still remains high at 78%; but operation
involved. Older welding power sources tend to have at Point B or 25% of rated current yields a much
lower efficiencies. High-efficiency power sources are lower efficiency of 6 5 % ) . Choosing a lower-cost,
readily available, and frequently a new capital equip- appropriately sized power source in this case also
ment purchase can be justified when lower operating reduces operating costs. A higher-capacity power
costs will return the purchase price in three years or source also requires larger and more expensive electric
less. services.
44 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

Low Power Factors power sources. For example, when cooling is not
required, some power sources automatically turn off
The cost of using power sources with low power fac- the cooling fan, which reduces energy consumption and
tors (pf) should be evaluated at the time of purchase, requires less cleaning to remove dust and dirt accumula-
because the cost of installing higher-capacity electric tions from the enclosure. When the output current is
utility service to the building in which they are to be not present for a selected length of time, some power
used is a consideration. The kVA rating or electric ser- sources can be set to turn off automatically. Engine-
vice entrance size is increased by the effect of low PF driven power sources are also available that have an
welding power sources. The service entrance size is automatic return-to-idle speed feature when no arc con-
determined by the total kilowatts of the connected ditions have existed for a period of time.
power sources divided by the average pf, as follows;

kW
kVA = -
nr:1-I‘
(1.15) SAFE PRACTICES
Higher power factors are in the 0.8 to 1.0 (some- Although electricity is a phenomenal force that has
times expressed as 80% to 100%) range, while lower facilitated the extraordinary progress of industry, com-
power factors are 0.7 or less. Utility power companies merce, and lifestyle, it can be a destructive force that
may also charge a higher rate per kilowatt hour for must be recognized and respected. The hazards of elec-
the power used by customers with low-power-factor tric shock and fire are always present. Everyone who
equipment. works with electricity, welding power sources, and the
machines thev drive must know how to use electricitv
and electric equipment safely.
Power and Fuel Costs Only qualified persons with knowledge and under-
Utility power and fuel costs become more significant standing of the principles of electricity and certified
as the cost of energy increases. Electricity generated and training in safe practices should test, repair, or perform
distributed by large centralized power utilities are typi- maintenance on electrical equipment. They must read
cally the least expensive sources of welding power. the manufacturers’ manuals before working on power
Small gasoline-driven welding power sources operating sources or accessory equipment and carefully follow all
in remote areas and requiring fuel transportation over instructions. National, state, and local codes must be
long distances are usually the most expensive to oper- followed. The standard Safety in Welding, Cutting, and
ate. Business conditions, such as the ability to rapidly Allied Processes, ANSI Z . 1-49, should be consulted.l2
move welding equipment for emergency repairs, may Appendix B of this volume, “Safety and Health Codes
justify the specification of higher-priced power and and Other Standards” lists health and safety standards,
equipment even though lower cost alternatives exist. codes, specifications, and other publications used in the
Generally, welding power from gasoline and diesel welding industry. Workers should be trained in safe
engines is more expensive because of the additional practices and should be proficient in cardiopulmonary
energy conversions required. Gasoline and diesel fuel resuscitation (CPR).
first must be converted to a rotating motion, which is This section provides an overview of electrical safety
then used to generate electricity, and finally must be hazards and preventive measures that must be followed
converted to welding current. Calculations of the cost when working with power sources and associated weld-
of power at local rates, whether it is electric utility ing equipment.l3
power, diesel, or gasoline, should be a factor in equip-
ment purchasing decisions.
Power costs are typically determined by geographical ELECTRIC SHOCK
location and local policy. Therefore, a power source
operating at idle or no-load may be more expensive to Electrical shock can occur when the body becomes
operate in some countries than the same power source part of the electric circuit, either when an individual
when welding at the rated output current in a different comes in contact with both wires of an electrical circuit,
geographic location. with one wire of an energized circuit and the ground, or

12. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Accredited Stan-

dards Committee 249, 1999, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied
SPECIAL EQUIPMENT FEATURES Processes, ANSI 249.1:1999, Miami: American Welding Society.
13. Adapted with permission from Miller Electric Manufadturing
Special equipment features that reduce operating Company, R. Jennings, M. Sherman, and Training Group, 2003, Safety
costs should be considered when purchasing welding Quick-Guide, Appleton, Wis.: Miller Electric Manufacturing Company.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 45

with a metallic part that has become energized by Table 1.6

contact with an electrical conductor. Body Responses to Electric Shock
The severity and effects of electrical shock depend on
factors such as the path of the current through the 0.5-3 mA Start to feel the energy, tingling sensation
body, the amount of current, the length of time of the 3-10 mA Experience pain, muscle contraction
exposure, and whether the skin is wet or dry. Water 10-40 mA Grip paralysis threshold (brain says let go, but
readily conducts electricity, which flows more easily in physically unable to do so)
wet conditions and through wet skin. The effect of 30-75 mA Respiratory system shuts down
shock may range from a slight tingle to severe burns
and cardiac arrest. Table 1.6 shows body responses of 100-200 mA Experience heart fibrillation
an electric shock victim to various amounts of current. 200-500 mA Heart clamps tight
Values are in milliamperes (mA),where 1,000 mA equal Over 1,500 mA Tissue and organs burn
1 A. A typical welding process uses from 50 A to 300 A. Source: Adapted with permission from Electrical Safety Foundation International (ESFI),
Rosslyn, Virginia.

GENERAL PRECAUTIONS
As used in this section, the word technician refers to
all persons working with or near electrical equipment,
including welders, fitters, electricians, repair techni- tion should be administered until emergency medical
cians, engineers, supervisors, and helpers. Technicians personnel arrive.
should wear safety glasses with side shields. They
should wear appropriate clothing, avoid loose-fitting or Preliminary Examination
damp clothes, and remove jewelry. The technician
should stand or work on a dry insulating mat large When troubleshooting, the first steps are to discon-
enough to provide insulation and prevent contact with nect the input power using the line disconnect switch or
the ground. Work should be performed carefully and circuit breakers, or by removing the plug from the
precisely and should take place in an area where the receptacle, and then to check for simple problems such
technician will not be startled or distracted by other as bare or shorted wiring, loose connectors, and cor-
workers or visitors. An energized unit must never be left roded, burned, or pitted switch contacts.
unattended. If a welding power source is to be moved, Inverter power sources require special safety consid-
the supply line should be deenergized and the input erations, and recommendations in manufacturers’ tech-
power conductors disconnected before moving it. nical manuals must be followed. Failed parts or parts
Electric shock from the power source, wiring, or installed incorrectly can explode or cause other parts to
cables can be fatal. It is important for technicians to explode when power is applied to inverters. The techni-
know the primary source and status of electrical power. cian should always wear a face shield and long sleeves
During repair or replacement of parts, the power source when servicing inverters.
should be turned off, the input power should be discon- Inspection items for both inverter and conventional
nected, and the supply circuit locked out and tagged power sources that should be performed prior to ener-
out. A testing device, such as a meter or test lamp, gizing the units for operation are the following:
should be used to verify that the circuit is deenergized.
Engine-driven equipment should be turned off before 1. Inspect primary power cables and input power
work begins. Electrolytic capacitors should be dis- cables for accessories, such as wire feeders and
charged using a resistor, such as a 1000-ohm, 25-watt control systems.
resistor. 2. Ensure that the wiring and the condition of the
If it is necessary to work on an energized unit, a good plug, cord, jumper links, and connections inside
technique is to work with one hand (if it is safe to do the unit are in good condition.
so), keeping the other hand at the side or in a pocket to 3. Check the internal safety ground circuit to be
avoid contact with conductive material and to reduce sure the input ground conductor is securely con-
the possibility of current passing through the chest cav- nected to the power source grounding terminal
ity. If a person comes in contact with a live electrical (see the input voltagekonnection label, where
conductor, a coworker or attendant should not touch applicable, or the equipment manual, or both).
the equipment, input power cable, or the person. The 4. Inspect all interior and exterior safety labels and
rescuer should immediately disconnect the input power replace damaged or unreadable labels.
by turning off the disconnect switch at the supply fuse 5. Check hoses and cables, especially at connection
box or circuit breaker panel and when applicable, pull points and stress areas of bending and flexing, and
out the plug. If necessary, cardiopulmonary resuscita- replace if cracked, damaged, or poorly spliced.
46 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

6. Clean the inside of the power source (vacuum or tag has a space to put the date and the name of the
blow it out with compressed air), check for loose person who locked out the equipment so that he or she
connections, and look for signs of overheating. may be easily found or notified. The job supervisor
7. Clean the outside of the unit and check the should be informed about the proposed work, and per-
condition and movement of knobs and switches. mission should be obtained to lockout and tagout the
8. Inspect the power source case for damage and equipment. Employees should be trained in the purpose
check for possible affected parts inside. and procedures of the lockout and tagout modes and
9. Clean and tighten weld terminals. informed when it is taking place.
The equipment is shut down and locks and tags are
These items should be also checked before repairing placed on the switches and valves to prevent their use. If
and replacing parts. The power must be off and electro- more than one person is performing work on the equip-
lytic capacitors must be discharged before starting the ment, it is recommended that they have their own locks
inspection. and tags on the lockout point.

Testing STAT IC ELECTRICITY

A digital multimeter (DMM) is commonly used for A static charge is an imbalance of electrons that can
testing and troubleshooting welding power sources and build up on objects and then transfer to another object,
associated equipment. The technician should read the such as a person’s body, producing a static electric
meter manufacturer’s technical manual and understand shock. A static shock may be more surprising than
the proper use of DMMs to avoid possible injury before painful. However, secondary injuries can occur, for
and during the taking of electrical measurements. The example, when a person rapidly pulls his or her hand
technician must avoid shorting metal tools, parts, or away from a static source and hits a hand or elbow
wires during testing and servicing. against a wall, a fan, or another object. It should be
The meter should be calibrated before use to assure noted that static electricity can produce a spark that
correct readings. A DMM rated for the anticipated could ignite flammable materials or gases in the work
maximum voltage should be used. For example, to area.
test 480 volts, the meter should be rated for 600 or Static electricity can cause costly damage to static-
1000 volts to prevent injury or damage to the meter. sensitive electrical parts and items such as printed-
The selector switch on the meter must be turned to the circuit boards, metal oxide semiconductor field effect
correct function and range. For example, the meter can transistors (MOFSETs), insulated gate bipolar tran-
become a hazard if an attempt is made to test voltage sistors (IGBTs), erasable programmable read-only
while the meter is set for current (amperes). For high- memory (E-Proms), complementary metal-oxide semi-
voltage circuits, the best practice is to turn the power conductor (CMOS) devices, operational amplifiers (Op
off, connect the meter leads, and then turn the power Amps), transistors, microprocessors, and inverter power
on again. When using a meter that is not an auto- modules. To prevent damage to the equipment, the
ranging model, the technician should start with the technician should wear a grounded wrist strap. The
highest range when measuring unknown values and wrist strap must make good contact with the skin and
work down to prevent meter damage and injury. the clip end should be grounded to an earth ground, not
When practical, the technician should perform “one- a machine frame. The technician should refer to the
handed testing” by using at least a one-meter lead that manufacturer’s equipment manual for guidance in when
has a self-retaining spring clip such as an alligator clip. to wear the wrist strap. The wrist strap must never be
Test leads must be in good condition; they should be worn with the equipment power turned on.
replaced if the insulation is frayed or broken. The test Static-sensitive items should be stored, moved, or
leads must be properly connected to the meter. transported in static-shielding bags or packages.

Lockout a nd Ta go ut Procedures
Sometimes work must be performed on equipment
GENERAL RECOMMENDATIONS
and machinery that may contain electrical energy or In addition to observing the precautions for the safe
other hazards. Contact with these hazards may result in use of electricity, workers must also follow the recom-
injury or death. The term lockout means to install a mendations for safety in welding, cutting, and related
locking device that keeps the switch or other mecha- processes. The hazards include electric shock, fumes
nism from being turned on. Tugout means to put a tag and gases, radiation, noise, fire and explosion, mechan-
on the locking device. The tag indicates “danger” or ical hazards, falls, and falling objects. Special pre-
“warning” and carries a brief descriptive message. The cautions must be followed by persons who wear
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 47

pacemakers and those who wear contact lenses. Safety and the International Organization for Standardization.
standards commonly used in the welding industry are Contact information for these organizations and others
listed in Appendix B. is provided in Appendix B of this volume, “Safety and
Precautionary labels are often used with graphic Health Codes and Other Standards.”
symbols to supplement written messages with visual Examples of precautionary symbols from the
images. These symbols provide quick interpretation of National Electrical Manufacturers Association docu-
possible hazards. Standardized symbols have been ment Guidelines for Precautionary Labeling for Arc
endorsed by the National Electric Manufacturing Asso- Welding and Cutting Products, NEMA EW6,15 and
ciation,14 the American Welding Society, the American endorsed by the American Welding Society are shown
National Standards Institute, the FMC Corporation, in Table 1.7.

14. National Electrical Manufacturers’ Association (NEMA) Guide-

lines for Precautionary Labeling for Arc Welding and Cutting Prod- 15. American Welding Society (AWS) Safety and Health Committee,
ucts, Arc Welding Section, NEMA EW6, Washington, D.C.: National Safety and Health Fact Sheets, Miami: American Welding Society,
Electrical Manufacturers Association. Fact Sheet 14.

Table 1.7
Sources of Hazards and Standard Symbols

HAZARD SOURCE OF HAZARD SYMBOL SOURCE

Electric Shock Welding Electrode I D ISO, FMC, NEMA

Electric Shock Wiring ISO, FMC

Electric Shock I Weldina Electrode and Wirina I ISO, FMC, NEMA

Fumes and Gases Any Source FMC. NEMA

Fumes and Gases Welding Fumes and Gases ISO, FMC, NEMA

Arc Rays Welding Arc ISO, FMC, NEMA

I I

(Continued)
48 CHAPTER1 ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES

Table 1.7 (Continued)

Sources of Hazards and Standard Symbols

HAZARD SOURCE OF HAZARD SYMBOL SOURCE

Fire Engine Fuel FMC. NEMA

Fumes and Gases Engine Exhaust ISO, FMC, NEMA

Fumes and Gases Engine Exhaust and Welding Arc ISO, FMC, NEMA

Moving Parts Causing Bodily Injury Moving Parts Such as Fans and Rotors FMC, NEMA

This information will help in the selection of a power

CONCLUSION source compatible with the selected arc welding, cut-
ting, or allied process, including shielded metal arc
welding, submerged arc welding, gas metal arc welding,
This chapter has provided basic information on arc gas tungsten arc welding, flux cored arc welding,
welding power sources intended to enhance the readers' plasma arc welding, arc cutting and gouging, and
understanding of the principles of the arc welding pro- thermal plasma spraying.
cesses presented in the subsequent chapters of this vol-
ume. The electrical basics of power sources were
introduced in the following areas:

1. Electrical terminology-duty cycle, open-circuit BIBLIOGRAPHY"

voltage, inductance, ripple, slope, and other
terms necessary to the understanding of arc American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Accred-
welding power sources; ited Standards Committee 249. 1999. Safety in
2. Electrical components, such as transformers, welding, cutting, and allied processes, ANSI
inductors, silicon-controlled rectifiers, and 249.1 :1999. Miami: American Welding Society.
transistors; American Welding Society (AWS) Safety and Health
3 . Arc-welding electrical circuits, including genera- Committee. 1998. Safety and health fact sheets.
tors, alternators, single-phase controls, three- Miami: American Welding Society.
phase bridges, and inverters; and Electrical Safety Foundation International (ESFI).
4. Types of power sources such as constant-current www.electrica1-safety.org. Rosslyn, Virginia: Elec-
versus constant-voltage; alternating current, trical Safety Foundation International.
direct current, and pulsed welding wave forms;
5. Rotating generators and static transformers; and 16. The dates of publication given for the codes and other standards
6. Magnetic silicon-controlled rectifier and inverter listed here were current at the time this chapter was prepared. The
power source controls. reader is advised to consult the latest editions.
ARC WELDING POWER SOURCES CHAPTER1 49

Miller Electric Manufacturing Company. R. Jennings Grist, F. J., and F. W. Armstrong. 1980. A new ac
and M. Sherman. 2003. Safety quick-guide. Apple- constant-potential power source for heavy plate,
ton, Wisconsin: Miller Electric Manufacturing deep groove welding. Welding Journal 59(6): 30-35.
Company. Hackman, R. and A. F. Manz. 1964. D C welding
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). power sources for gas shielded metal arc welding.
1988 (R1999). Electric arc-welding power sources. Welding Research Council, Bulletin 97. New York:
EW-1:1988 (R1999). Washington, D.C.: National Welding Research Council.
Electrical Manufacturers Association. Kashima, T. Development of the inverter controlled dc
National Electrical Manufacturers Association (NEMA). TIG arc welding power source. Document IIW-XII-
Guidelines for precautionary labeling for arc welding 878-85. London: International Institute of Welding.
and cutting products, EW-6. Washington, D.C.: Kyselica, S. 1987. High-frequency reversing arc switch
National Electrical Manufacturers Association. for plasma arc welding of aluminum. Welding
Journal 66(1):31-35.
Lesnewich, A. 1972. M I G welding with pulsed power.
Bulletin 170. New York: Welding Research Council.
Lucas, W. 1982. A review of recent advancements in arc
SUPPLEMENTARY welding power sources and welding processes in
READING LIST Japan. Document 19911982. Abington, Cambridge,
United Kingdom: The Welding Institute.
Malinowski-Brodnicka, M., G. den Ouden, and W. J. P.
Amin, M. 1981. Microcomputer control of synergic Vink. 1990. Effect of electromagnetic stirring on
pulsed MZG welding. Report 16611981. Abington, GTA welds in austenitic stainless steel. Welding
Cambridge, United Kingdom: The Welding Institute. Journal 69(2):52-s to 59-s.
Amin, M. 1986. Microcomputer control of synergic Manz, A. F. 1973. Welding power handbook. New
pulsed MIG welding. Metal Construction 18(4): York: Union Carbide Corporation.
216-221. Needham, J. C. 1980. Review of new designs of power
Amin, M., and P. V. C. Watkins. 1977. Synergic pulse sources for arc welding processes. Document XII-F-
M I G welding. Report 4611977. Abington, Cam- 217-80. London, England: International Institute of
bridge, United Kingdom: The Welding Institute. Welding.
Amin, M. 1981. Synergic pulse MIG welding. Metal Pierre, E. R. 1985. Welding processes and power
Construction 13(6):349-353. sources. 3rd ed. Minneapolis: Burgess Publishing
Bailey, K., and R. Richardson. 1983. A microprocessor- Company.
based SCR type arc welding power supply. Technical Rankin, T. 1990. New power source design breaks with
Report 529501-83-14. Columbus, Ohio: Center for tradition. Welding Journal 69(5): 30-34.
Welding Research. Schiedermayer, M. 1987. The inverter [welding] power
Brosilow, R. 1987. The new GMAW [gas metal arc source. Welding Design and Fabrication 60(6): 30-
welding] power sources. Welding Design and Fabri- 33.
cation 60(6):22-28. Shira, C. 1985. Converter power supplies-more
options for arc welding. Welding Design and Fabri-
Correy, T. B., D. G. Atteridge, R. E. Page, and M. C. cation 58(6):52-55.
Wismer. 1986. Radio frequency-free arc starting in
Spicer, R. A., W. A. Baeslack 111, and T. J. Kelly. 1990.
gas tungsten arc welding. Welding Journal 65(2): Elemental effects on GTA spot weld penetration in
33-41. cast alloy 718. WeldingJournal69(8): 2 8 5 s to 288-s.
Cullison, A., and Montiel B. Newton. 1990. Changes Tomsic, M. J., S. E. Barhorst, and H. B. Cary. 1984.
are coming for welding power sources. Welding Welding of aluminum with variable polarity power.
Journal 69(5): 37-42. Document No. XII-839-84. London: International
Frederick, J. E., R. A. Morgan, and L. F. Stringer. 1978. Institute of Welding.
Solid-state remote controllable welding power sup- Tomsic, M. and S. E. Barhorst. 1984. Keyhole plasma
plies. Welding Journal 57(8): 32-39. arc welding of aluminum with variable polarity
Ogasawara, T., T. Maruyama, T. Saito, M. Sato, and power. Welding Journal 63(2):25-32.
Y. Hida. 1987. A power source for gas shielded Villafuerte, J. C., and H. W. Kerr. 1990. Electro-
arc welding with new current wave forms. Welding magnetic stirring and grain refinement in stainless
Journal 66(3):57-63. steel GTA welds. Welding Journal 69(1): 1-s to 13-s.
Grist, F, J. 1975. Improved, lower cost aluminum weld- Xiao, Y. H., and G. den Ouden. 1990. A study of GTA
ing with solid-state power sources. Welding Journal weld pool oscillation. Welding Journal 69(8): 289-s
54(5): 348-357. to 293-S.
CHAPTER
C H A P T E2 R 9
Prepared by the
Welding Handbook
Chapter Committee
on Shielded Metal
Arc Welding:

SHIELDED METAL M. A. Amata, Chair

ESAB Welding & Cutting
Products
Y. I. Adonyi

ARC WELDING LeTourneau University,

Welding and Materials
Joining Program
T. E. Brothers
ESAB Welding & Cutting
Products
S. R. Fiore
Edison Welding Institute
D. Hatfield
Tulsa Welding School
K. Y. Lee
The Lincoln Electric
Company
J. A. Luck
Miller Electric
Manufacturing Company
J. M. Rolnick
Consultant

Welding Handbook
Volume 2 Committee
Member:
D. B. Holliday
Northrop Grumman
Marine Systems

Contents
Introduction 52
Fundamentals 52
Equipment 60
Materials 68
Applications 80
Joint Design and
Preparation 82
Welding Variables 85
Weld Quality 96
Economics 98
Safe Practices 99
Conclusion 101
Bibliography 101
Supplementary
Reading List 102
Photograph courtesy of The Lincoln Electric Company
52 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

CHAPTER 2

SHIELDED METAL
ARC WELDING
INTRODUCTION
Shielded metal arc welding (SMAW) is a process that a SMAW electrode compatible with the output of the
uses an arc between a covered electrode and a weld power source, suitably sized welding cable, an electrode
pool to accomplish the weld. As the welder steadily holder, and a workpiece lead.
feeds the covered electrode into the weld pool, the This chapter covers the principles of operation,
decomposition of the covering evolves gases that shield introduces the techniques that are applicable to the
the pool. The process is used without the application of making of a weld, explains some of the metallurgical
pressure, and with filler metal from the covered elec- dynamics of the shielded metal arc weld, and describes
trode.1, 2 The sound weld metal deposited by the pro- the equipment and materials used in the process.
cess is used not only for joining, but also for applying a Because they are of essential importance to the process
functional surface to metal products. In welding booths and are definitive to the success of the weld, covered
and shops, the linear metal rod with a covering is electrodes are discussed in detail. For the convenience
commonly referred to as a stick and the shielded metal of the reader, the text is arranged for easy reference to
arc welding process is popularly referred to as stick specific classifications of electrodes.
electrode welding.
Other topics discussed are welding variables, joint
Because of the many possible variations in the com- design and preparation, welding techniques, procedures,
position of the electrode covering and the large selec- weld quality, economics and safe practices. References
tion of core wire chemistry, the process can produce an to pertinent standards and specifications are included
extensive range of weld metal deposits with desirable throughout the chapter and listed in the bibliography at
mechanical and physical properties, while providing for the end of the chapter.
a smooth arc, uniform metal transfer characteristics,
and ease of operation. These features combine to make
shielded metal arc welding the favorite process of many
welders and fabricators. It is one of the oldest and sim-
plest welding processes and continues to be widely FUNDAMENTALS OF THE
used. The simplicity of the process extends to the num- PROCESS
ber and nature of the circuit components required—a
power source of adequate current rating and duty cycle,
The phrase shielded metal arc welding refers to a
1. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Definitions and method of joining two pieces of metal or adding metal
Symbols, 2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS A3.0: to an existing metal surface. Each word in the phrase
2001, Miami: American Welding Society.
2. At the time of the preparation of this chapter, the referenced codes
conveys an attribute of the process: shielded refers to its
and other standards were valid. If a code or other standard is cited ability to displace the air surrounding the weld to avoid
without a date of publication, it is understood that the latest edition the harmful effects of the gases in air; metal denotes the
of the document referred to applies. If a code or other standard is core of the electrode, which is a conducting rod that
cited with the date of publication, the citation refers to that edition contributes a substantial portion of liquid metal to the
only, and it is understood that any future revisions or amendments to
the code or standard are not included. As codes and standards weld pool; arc refers to the plasma discharge that con-
undergo frequent revision, the reader is advised to consult the most verts the electrical energy into heat. The term welding,
recent edition. in this case, denotes that the metals are joined by
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 53

Photograph courtesy of ESAB Welding and Cutting Products

Figure 2.1—Typical Covered Electrodes Used in Shielded Metal Arc Welding

fusion. These attributes distinguish this process from PRINCIPLES OF OPERATION

other welding processes; however, the distinctive feature
of shielded metal arc welding is the physical presence of The shielded metal arc welding process uses an elec-
the covering (coating) that surrounds the core wire of tric circuit that supports a welding arc to convert elec-
the consumable electrode. The covered rod is called an tric line power or fuel into heat. The heat from the
electrode because it functions as the terminal from welding arc is intense and extremely concentrated and
which the electric flow changes from the conducting immediately melts a portion of the workpiece and the
solid to the conducting plasma of the welding arc. end of the electrode. The welder maintains the arc
The electrode for any given application must meet length by holding a consistent space or “gap” between
three criteria. It must shield the arc and the weld metal, the electrode and the weld pool that forms on the work-
add metal to the weld, and sustain a welding arc. These piece. As the arc is removed, the liquid fuses and the
functions are accomplished by the constituents of the melt solidifies into continuous metal.
covering on the metal core of the electrode. The cover- As shown in the schematic of the process in Figure
ing contains ingredients that, when sufficiently heated, 2.2, the power source is connected into a circuit with
(1) decompose into gases and displace the air at the the electrode and the workpiece in series. The welding
weld site, thus providing a shield for the arc and the cable used in the circuit, the electrode holder, and the
weld metal, (2) ionize to support the arc plasma, and connection between the cable and the workpiece are
(3) flux the molten metal, and on cooling, form a pro- also important elements of the circuit.3 The power
tective slag cover on the weld bead. The electrode cov- source has two distinct output terminals. From one ter-
ering may also contain metal powders that enhance the minal, a connection is made to the workpiece; from the
metal contribution of the electrode to the weld pool. As other terminal, a connection is made to the electrode.
a rule, the covering is nonconductive; therefore, to facil- When using direct current (dc), the proper terminal for
itate the electrical circuit, the covering is removed from the electrode connection is dictated by the required
one end (the grip end) of the electrode and is sharpened polarity for that type electrode. When using alternating
at the other end (the strike end). The core normally con- current (ac), the electrode may be connected to either
sists of a wire, but for some applications may consist of terminal. The circuit is open between the workpiece and
a cored wire with a powdered metal filler. Because of the electrode. As long as the SMAW electrode is held
the numerous electrode coverings and core wire combi-
nations, a large variety of SMAW electrodes are avail- 3. Welders should not touch live electrical parts such as the conduc-
able for joining ferrous and nonferrous metals. Several tive surface in the jaws of the electrode holder and the workpiece
typical SMAW electrodes are shown in Figure 2.1. while the power source is running.
54 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

ELECTRODE HOLDER
AC OR DC POWER SOURCE
AND CONTROLS ELECTRODE

ARC

WORKPIECE LEAD WORKPIECE

ELECTRODE LEAD

Figure 2.2—Elements of a Typical Welding Circuit for Shielded Metal Arc Welding

away from the workpiece, the circuit remains open and ings contain an abundant amount of stabilizers such as
a voltmeter can be used to measure the voltage drop salts of sodium and potassium, which produce a rela-
between the electrode holder and the workpiece for this tively cooler arc that is nonetheless extremely effective
open-circuit (pre-welding) condition. for joining metals.5
The welder grasps the handle of the electrode holder The intense heat of the arc instantly melts the core
and after lowering his or her welding helmet, initiates wire adjacent to it and burns off the concentric cover-
the arc by striking the tip of the electrode onto the ing. Some of the ingredients of the covering vaporize
workpiece and retracting it slightly. This momentary and decompose, producing a large volume of gases.
contact and retraction provides a path for current flow. Some ingredients may persist and begin to shape a pro-
As long as the tip of the electrode remains in proximity tective cone inward to the core wire; other ingredients
to the workpiece, the voltage drop across the narrow melt and combine with the core wire in the form of
gap induces the flow of current through the air, result- drops that are propelled across the arc. Simultaneously,
ing in an arc. a pool of molten metal begins to form at the surface of
the workpiece in proximity to the arc. A quasi-steady
The current in the arc is carried by a plasma, which
state is instantly established, in which a distinct weld
is the ionized state of a gas. In electrical terminology,
pool becomes visible and the welder is poised to manip-
the current flows out of the positive terminal of the arc
ulate the electrode. It is at this instant—at the onset of
(the anode) and to the negative terminal (the cathode),
making the weld—that the weld is most vulnerable
while electrons flow in the opposite direction. If the
to porosity because the shielding has not fully evolved
welding machine circuit is set for direct current elec-
and the air at the weld site has not yet been totally
trode positive (DCEP), the cathode is on the workpiece
expelled.
and the anode is on the tip of the SMAW electrode. The
amount of energy that is converted into heat by the arc When the arc becomes established and the weld pool
is a function of the ease with which a gas ionizes and of defined, the welder begins to feed the electrode into the
the amount of current transmitted.4 The temperature arc and manipulate it within the weld joint while
distribution is a function of the heat generated, the heat maintaining a constant arc length between the electrode
dissipated, and the dimensions of the arc. For the
shielded metal arc welding process, the electrode cover- 5. The characteristics of the welding arc are described in “Physics of
Welding and Cutting,” Chapter 2 of American Welding Society
(AWS), Welding Handbook Committee, C. L. Jenney and A. O’Brien,
4. For shielded metal arc welding, the maximum temperature is eds., 2001, Welding Science and Technology, Vol. 1 of Welding
reported as ~6000°K. Handbook, 9th ed., Miami: American Welding Society.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 55

tip and the weld pool. (For best mechanical properties amount of slag is the minimum level that uniformly
and weld metal soundness, the arc length should be covers the weld bead. The bead-on-plate weld usually
held as short as practicable). As the electrode is con- presents the greatest surface-to-weld ratio and the
sumed into the arc, the metal constituents of the elec- greatest challenge to fully cover.
trode melt and transfer into the weld pool in droplets. The slag shields the high-temperature surface from
In some cases, the droplets gather into a large globular the atmosphere. Premature removal or fracturing of the
mass that periodically transfers across the arc without slag may cause discoloration of the weld or, at times,
disruption to the current flow. In some instances, the multi-coloration (i.e., stainless steel welds). The slag
droplets are forcefully detached without regard to also serves as a heat barrier that lowers the cooling rate
direction, for example, when using large electrode sizes of the weld metal. Slag detachability is an important
of the E6010 type.6 In other cases, the transfer is totally aspect of weld cleanup. For the most part, slag removal
hidden and confined within the cone from the outer with shielded metal arc welding is easily accomplished,
edge of the covering to the core wire (also referred to as which contributes to the efficiency of the process. This
the crucible). The exact nature of the forces acting on removal becomes more difficult, however, in deep, nar-
the droplets have not been extensively studied and row weld grooves.
quantified; however, the effects of gravity, explosive The welder continually evaluates the flow of the
pressure from gas formation and expansion, electro- solidifying slag, the wetting of the weld bead, the stabil-
magnetism, and surface tension are known to be impor- ity of the arc, the quietness of the metal transfer, and
tant influences.7 the direction of the arc. The welder intuitively guides
As the arc is advanced, the quenching effect of the and advances the electrode to maintain a consistent
workpiece anchors some of the atoms in the melt onto weld in the intended joint. With some electrodes, the
the workpiece and starts to grow dendrites into the welder merely drags the electrode covering along the
liquid of the weld pool. From the fusion with the work- joint. With others, the welder must quickly remove the
piece, the solidification proceeds normal (perpen- arc from the weld pool and return it in a whipping
dicular) to the temperature gradient in the weld pool motion to avoid overheating.
and toward its geometric center. Various factors, such The welder must be sensitive to changes caused by
as weld travel speed, the steepness of the temperature arc blow (the deflection of the arc from its normal path
gradient, the degree of undercooling and the composi- due to magnetism) and react by reorienting the elec-
tion and shape of the weld pool combine to determine trode. When the weld is completed, the welder with-
whether the solidified structure will be planar, colum- draws the electrode, and the arc fades and extinguishes.
nar, or equiaxed. The structure and composition of the However, in some joints merely withdrawing the elec-
weld will determine its mechanical properties. The flow trode may leave an unacceptable void or crack in the
of heat through the workpiece may cause structural crater (a depression in the weld face at the very end of
changes within it. The region of change, an unmelted the weld bead). In those instances, the welder backfills
area called the heat-affected zone (see Figure 2.3), will by returning past the center of the weld pool and then
have mechanical properties that are different from the withdrawing the electrode. In this manner, a skilled
balance of the workpiece. welder uses the additional filler metal to achieve a
The center of the weld pool may be stirred by mag- sound weld joint termination free of porosity, cracks,
netic forces, and some solidifying slag or oxidation and so forth.
products, or both, may be seen floating toward the
outer rim of the weld pool. At the trailing edge of the
weld pool, slag is seen advancing with the movement of
the electrode. The slag consists of solidified fluxing COVERED ELECTRODES
compounds, oxidized metals, decomposition products,
and high-melting oxides. These materials tend to con- All SMAW electrodes have a covering with constitu-
geal sooner than the weld metal solidifies, and because ents that facilitate the welding process and add alloying
they have a lower density, will float to the top and form elements that impart useful properties to the weld.
a protective cover on the weld bead. The desirable Without the covering, the arc would be very difficult to
maintain, the weld deposit would be brittle with dis-
6. E6010 electrodes and others are described in American Welding
solved oxygen and nitrogen, the weld bead would be
Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals and Allied Materials, dull and irregularly shaped, and the workpiece would
1991, Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal be undercut.
Arc Welding, AWS A5.1, Miami: American Welding Society. The manufacturer applies the covering on shielded
7. Metal transfer across the arc is described in “Physics of Welding metal arc electrodes by either the extrusion process or
and Cutting,” Chapter 2 of American Welding Society (AWS) Welding
Handbook Committee, Jenney, C. L. and A. O’Brien, eds., 2001, the dipping process. Extrusion is much more widely
Welding Science and Technology, Vol. 1 of Welding Handbook, 9th used and is achieved by mixing the dry components
ed., Miami: American Welding Society. with liquid silicates. The dipping process is employed
56 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

primarily for SMAW electrodes used to weld cast iron those that contain potassium. The incorporation of
and for some specialty electrodes that have a complex these compounds into the covering enables the elec-
core wire. trode to operate on alternating current.
The covering contains most of the stabilizing, shield- For commercial flat-position and horizontal welding,
ing, fluxing, deoxidizing and slag-forming materials the joint completion speed is an important consider-
essential to the process. In addition to sustaining the arc ation. Therefore, electrodes with very high deposition
and supplying filler metal for the weld deposit, the rates and process efficiency are preferred, for example,
decomposition of the electrode covering introduces ferrous SMAW electrodes with iron powder included in
other key materials into or around the arc, or both. the coverings such as E7018, E7024, and E7028. The
Depending on the type of electrode being used, the elec- iron powder provides another source of metal available
trode covering provides the following: for deposition, supplementing that obtained from the
core of the electrode. The presence of iron powder in
1. A gas to shield the arc and prevent excessive the covering also makes more efficient use of the arc
atmospheric contamination of the molten metal; energy. Metal powders other than iron are frequently
2. Deoxidizers to react with and deplete the level added to electrode coverings, and although they
of dissolved gaseous elements that can cause increase the deposition rate, their primary purpose is to
porosity; alter the mechanical properties of the weld metal or to
3. Fluxing agents to accelerate chemical reactions deoxidize the weld pool.
and cleanse the weld pool;
4. A slag blanket to protect the hot weld metal
from the air and to enhance the mechanical
properties, bead shape, and surface cleanliness of ARC SHIELDING
the weld metal;
The shielding action of the shielded metal arc weld-
5. Alloying elements to achieve the desired micro- ing process illustrated in Figure 2.3 is essentially the
structure; same for all SMAW electrodes, but the specific method
6. Elements and compounds to control grain of shielding and the volume of slag produced vary from
growth; one electrode type to another. As depicted in Figure 2.3,
7. Alloying materials to improve the mechanical two mechanisms are at work to prevent the detrimental
properties of the weld metal; effect on the weld pool caused by the gases contained in
8. Elements to affect the shape of the weld pool; the air. The first is the forceful displacement of the air
9. Elements that affect the wetting of the workpiece by gases produced by the burning and decomposition of
and the viscosity of the liquid weld metal; and the electrode covering. The second is the blanketing
10. Stabilizers to help establish the desirable electri- action of the flux or slag, which prevents diffusion of
cal characteristics of the electrode and minimize the air constituents into the liquid metal. Electrode cov-
spattering. erings vary in their reliance on these two mechanisms to
provide the most advantageous shielding action for a
The chemical compounds in the covering, in combi- specific weld.
nation with the core wire composition, create unique When electrodes that rely on air displacement are
mechanical properties in the weld and enhance welding used, the bulk of the covering is converted to gas by the
characteristics such as arc stability, metal transfer type, heat of the arc and only a small amount of slag is pro-
and slag. The different types of electrodes are formu- duced. This type of electrode depends largely on a gas-
lated not only to weld different metals but also to opti- eous shield to prevent atmospheric contamination. The
mize certain characteristics of the process and gain an weld bead produced with these electrodes will charac-
advantage in a particular area of application. For exam- teristically have a very light layer of slag that may not
ple, for farm or repair shop welding, the economical ac completely cover the surface.
transformer welder is very popular; consequently an When electrodes that rely on a blanketing action are
electrode covering designed for welding with ac would used, the bulk of the covering is converted to slag by the
be ideally suited for non-industrial ferrous sheet metal heat of the arc, and only a small volume of shielding gas
and plate welding. With ac, the welding arc extin- is produced. As the small globules of metal are trans-
guishes and reestablishes each time the current reverses ferred across the arc they are entirely coated with a thin
its direction. For good arc stability, it is necessary to film of molten slag. This slag floats to the surface of the
have a gas in the gap between the electrode and the weld pool because it has a lower density than that of
weld pool that will remain ionized during each reversal the molten metal of the weld pool. As the temperature
of the current. This ionized gas makes possible the of the weld pool drops, the slag solidifies and continues
smooth re-ignition of the arc. Gases that readily ionize to shield the weld pool and later shields the hot solidi-
are produced by a variety of compounds, including fied weld metal from oxidation. Welds made with these
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 57

Source: Adapted from Linnert, G. E., 1994, Welding Metallurgy, 4th ed., Miami: American Welding Society

Figure 2.3—Schematic of Shielded Metal Arc Welding

electrodes can be identified by the heavy slag deposits PROCESS ADVANTAGES

that completely cover the weld beads. Various electrode
types use different combinations of these two mecha- A valuable advantage of shielded metal arc welding
nisms, each with different combinations of gas and slag is the large variety of metals and alloys the process is
shielding. capable of welding. Procedures and electrodes are avail-
Variations in the amount of slag and gas shielding able to weld carbon and low-alloy steels, high-alloy
also influence the welding characteristics of covered steels, coated steels, tool and die steels, stainless and
electrodes. Electrodes that produce a heavy slag can heat resisting steels, cast irons, copper and copper
carry high amperage and provide high deposition rates, alloys, nickel and cobalt alloys. Figures 2.4 and 2.5
making them ideal for heavy weldments in the flat posi- illustrate two typical applications: pipe welding and
tion. Electrodes that produce a light slag layer are used structural steel welding. The process can also be used
with lower amperage and provide lower deposition for some aluminum applications.
rates. These electrodes produce a smaller weld pool and Short welds common to the production of com-
are suitable for making welds in all positions. When the ponents or finished products, maintenance and
differences in welding characteristics are compared, one repair work, and field construction are important areas
type of covered electrode usually emerges as the best of application for the shielded metal arc welding
selection for a given application. process.
58 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Photograph courtesy of The Lincoln Electric Company

Figure 2.4—Pipe Welding with Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Following are other advantages of the process: 7. The process is flexible and can be applied to a
variety of joint configurations and welding posi-
1. The equipment is relatively simple, inexpensive, tions; and
and portable; 8. Optimum results can be readily and reliably
2. The SMAW electrode provides both the shielding obtained.
and the filler metal to make a sound weld;
3. Auxiliary gas shielding or granular flux is not
required;
4. The process is less sensitive to wind and draft PROCESS LIMITATIONS
than the gas shielded arc welding processes;
5. The dimensions of the SMAW electrodes are Metals with low melting temperatures, such as lead,
ideal for reaching into areas of limited access tin, and zinc and their alloys are not welded with
(electrodes can be bent, and with the aid of shielded metal arc welding. These metals also have rela-
mirrors, applied in blind spots; tively low boiling points and the intense heat of the
6. The process is suitable for most of the commonly SMAW arc immediately causes them to vaporize from
used metals and alloys; the solid state. Shielded metal arc welding is likewise
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 59

Figure 2.5—Structural Steel Welding with the Shielded Metal Arc Process

not suitable for reactive metals such as titanium, zirco- cesses. The deposition rate is lower because the maxi-
nium, tantalum and niobium (columbium) because the mum useful current is limited. Because covered
shielding provided is not sufficiently inert to prevent electrodes are produced and used in discrete lengths
contamination of the weld. (230 mm to 460 mm [9 to 18 in.]) that conduct
The shielded metal arc welding process yields lower current from the moment the arc is initiated until the
deposition rates than the gas metal arc welding electrode is practically consumed, they are subject to
(GMAW) and flux cored arc welding (FCAW) pro- resistance heating. The amount of heat converted by
60 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

the SMAW electrode is a function of the amount of

current, the resistance of the core wire, and the weld- EQUIPMENT
ing time.
If the electrode is too long or if the current is too Shielded metal arc welding equipment falls into four
high, the amount of heat generated within the SMAW categories: (1) the equipment that is essential to estab-
electrode will be excessive. After welding has started, lish the electric circuit that sustains a welding arc—the
the temperature of the covering will eventually rise to a power source, welding cable, workpiece connector and
range that will cause the premature breakdown of the electrode holder; (2) the devices and gear necessary to
covering. The breakdown of the covering, in turn, trig- ensure the safety and well being of the welder and oth-
gers a deterioration of the arc characteristics and ers in the welding area; (3) the accessories used to com-
reduces the level of shielding. Consequently, welding plete a weld according to a specified welding procedure;
must stop before the electrode has been fully consumed. and (4) items of expedience, such as those needed to
Hence, the amount of current that can be used is limited properly isolate the welding booth within the work
within a range that prevents the overheating of the elec- environment or a fixture to position the workpiece for
trode and the breakdown of the covering. The limited welding. Some of the more generally used equipment
useful current results in generally lower deposition rates within the first three categories is considered in this
than those obtainable with the gas metal arc or flux chapter.
cored arc welding processes.
Another inherent drawback of the shielded metal arc
welding process is stub loss. The stub is the grip end of
the SMAW electrode that is discarded. It consists of the
POWER SOURCES
core wire within the grip of the electrode holder and a Power sources deliver output current and voltage
small portion of the covered length. The stub loss with the electrical characteristics that make arc welding
affects the deposition efficiency, not the deposition rate. possible.9 Two types of power sources are used for
Longer stub losses translate directly into lower deposi- shielded metal arc welding: static machines that convert
tion efficiency. the energy supplied by electric power companies and
The operator factor (i.e., arc time as a percentage of motor generators that combust fuel (chemical energy).
the welder’s total labor time) for the shielded metal arc The selection of a power source is the most important
welding process is usually lower than that obtained and most expensive element of the welding electrical
with a continuous electrode process such as gas metal circuit and is the first consideration in implementing the
arc welding or flux cored arc welding.8 Inherent in the shielded metal arc welding process.
shielded metal arc welding process is the need to reload
a new electrode when the previous one has been con-
sumed. A lengthy SMAW weld consists of a series of Power Source Selection
connected weld beads, each made with an individual
Several factors should be considered when selecting a
electrode. The weld beads are tied together by slightly
power source for shielded metal arc welding:
overlapping the previous weld bead, which requires the
immediate removal of the slag from the crater of that 1. The type of welding current required,
bead. This necessary step adds to the total cleaning 2. The output characteristics of the power source,
time. The reloading of the electrodes and the cleaning 3. The amperage range required,
of craters are eliminated with a continuous electrode 4. The positions in which welding will be done, and
process. 5. The primary type of power available at the
When the weldment requires a large volume of filler workstation.
metal, the combination of low deposition rates and a
lower operator factor detracts from the use of the The selection of the type of current—alternating cur-
shielded metal arc welding process. In these instances, rent, direct current, or both—is based largely on the
the weld completion rate may be too slow and the weld kind of welds to be made and on the types of electrodes
cost relatively high. that are suitable for use. For ac welding, a transformer

8. The operator factor and its use in the calculation of welding costs 9. For additional information on power sources, see Chapter 1 of this
are discussed in “Economics of Welding and Cutting,” Chapter 12 of volume. For information on power sources manufactured before
American Welding Society (AWS), Welding Handbook Committee, 1991, see “Arc Welding Power Sources,” Chapter 1 of American
Jenney, C. L. and A. O’Brien, eds., 2001, Welding Science and Tech- Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook Committee, O’Brien, R.
nology, Vol. 1 of Welding Handbook, 9th ed., Miami: American L., ed. Welding Processes, Vol. 2 of Welding Handbook, 8th. ed.,
Welding Society. Miami: American Welding Society.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 61

or an alternator-type power source can be used. For dc Instances of Excessive Voltage Drop. When the
welding, the choice is between a transformer-rectifier or work is located a long distance from the power source,
motor-generator power source. When both ac and dc long electrical cables will be required. The resistance to
are to be used, a single-phase transformer-rectifier or an current flow in long cables may affect the output of the
alternator-rectifier power source can be used. Other- welding power source and the welding characteristics of
wise, two welding machines are required, one for ac the process. The voltage drop in the welding cables is
and one for dc. lower with ac; therefore, if the welding is to be done at
As explained in the section “Significance of the Volt- a long distance from the power supply ac is more effi-
Ampere Curve,” the output characteristics of the power cient. It should be noted that long cables that carry ac
source refer to the response of the power source to should not be coiled because the inductive losses
changes in arc length as caused by the welder. A encountered in such cases can be substantial.
response that maintains a nearly constant current is pre-
ferred for high-deposition (high-amperage) welding. Welding with Low Current. With small-diameter
For low-amperage applications, a substantial change in electrodes and low welding currents, dc provides better
current with varying arc length can improve arc starting operating characteristics and a more stable arc.
and can help the welder to avoid “snuffing” or “stub-
bing,” a situation in which the electrode fuses in the Arc Initiation. Striking the arc is generally easier with
weld pool and sticks to the workpiece. dc, particularly if small-diameter electrodes are used.
The amperage requirements are determined by the With ac, the welding current passes through zero during
sizes and types of electrodes to be used. When a variety each half cycle, requiring periodic re-ignition of the
of electrodes will be used, the power source must be arc. This presents problems for arc starting and arc
capable of providing the amperage range needed. The stability.
power source must have the appropriate duty cycle for
the maximum current that will be used. Because of the Maintaining Constant Arc Length. Welding with
low operating factor for the shielded metal arc welding a short arc length (low arc voltage) is easier with dc
process, a satisfactory requirement is a 60% duty cycle than with ac. The shortest practical arc length is pre-
at the maximum current.10 ferred for optimum physical properties of the weld
The positions in which welding will be done should metal. Therefore, the ability to weld with a short arc
also be considered. If vertical or overhead welding is length is an important consideration, except when elec-
planned, the ability to adjust the slope of the V-A curve trodes with a high iron powder content are to be used.
is desirable (see Figure 2.6) and the power source must With these electrodes, the deep crucible formed by the
provide this feature. A machine with this capability usu- heavy covering automatically maintains the proper arc
ally requires controls for both the open-circuit voltage length when the electrode tip is dragged on the surface
and the current. of the joint.
A welding power source must be fueled. Therefore, a
determination must be made as to whether electricity is Arc Blow. Alternating current rarely presents a prob-
available at the work site and whether it is single-phase lem with arc blow because the magnetic field is con-
or three-phase. The welding power source must be stantly reversing (120 times per second). Arc blow can
designed for the type of electricity available. If electric- be a significant problem with dc when welding ferritic
ity is not available, an engine-driven generator or alter- steel. Unbalanced magnetic fields that arise can deflect
nator can be used. the arc and eject the transferring metal droplets.

Out-of-Position Welding. For vertical and overhead

Type of Output Current welds, dc is somewhat better than ac because the weld-
ing performance is better at lower amperages. However,
Either ac or dc can be employed for shielded metal with suitable electrodes, satisfactory welds can be made
arc welding. The specific type of current and the output in all positions with ac.
of the power source influence the performance of the
electrode. Each current type has its advantages and lim- Metal Thickness. Both sheet metal and heavy sec-
itations, and these must be considered when selecting tions can be welded using dc. The welding of sheet
the type of current for a specific application. The dis- metal with ac produces a less desirable weld than with
tinctive performance in each of the following areas dc. Arc stability is better with dc at the low current
must be considered. levels required for thin materials. However, properly
sized and designed ac electrodes, such as the E6013
10. For an explanation of the duty cycle, see Chapter 1 of this volume. types, are used for sheet metal applications.
62 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Mechanical Properties. As a rule, welds made with than the response of a drooper. At low amperage set-
DCEP prove to have better mechanical properties, espe- tings, the welder, with a small change in the arc length,
cially weld metal toughness. Skilled welders can exer- can momentarily achieve a desired change to the depo-
cise a greater degree of control of the average arc length sition rate. At these low amperage settings, the larger
with DCEP. The shorter arc results in lower traces of increase in the current is beneficial because it acts as a
dissolved elements that originate from the air. built-in control of the arc length. As the arc length
shortens, the arc voltage diminishes and the current
substantially increases. The higher current accelerates
the melting of the SMAW electrode, which tends to cor-
Power Source Preferences rect the arc to the intended length. As the arc length
Power sources are readily available for ac, dc, and increases, there is a substantial decrease in the current
combination ac/dc service. A review of the welding that slows the melting of the electrode, which again
application will generally determine whether ac or dc is helps to achieve the desired arc length. In this manner, a
most suitable. The preferred power source for the flatter response at low current settings on the power
shielded metal arc welding process is a constant- source can assist the welder in several ways: (1) main-
current type with at least 60% duty cycle at the maxi- taining a constant arc length, (2) making an instanta-
mum application current. Constant-voltage power neous adjustment to deposition rate, and (3) improving
sources are not used with shielded metal arc welding arc starting by preventing the electrode from sticking to
because the output electrical characteristics require the the workpiece in the weld pool. A constant-current,
welder to maintain a constant arc length, which is constant-voltage machine is capable of delivering the
nearly impossible. desired steep droop for normal welding and the flatter
response at low amperage settings. Power sources with
merely a less steep droop—a flatter response—are still
considered constant-current machines; a constant-
Significance of the Volt-Ampere Curve voltage machine is characterized by an almost flat
The electrical output characteristics of the power response.
source are usually best presented by graphing the volt- Figure 2.6 shows curves of typical volt-ampere out-
age as a function of current at varying resistances.11 The put characteristics for both ac and dc power sources.
resulting volt-ampere (V-A) curve spans from maximum These curves can be plotted by measuring the current
voltage at zero current (analogous to infinite resistance flow and the voltage at various conditions. The starting
or open circuit) and droops to zero voltage, maximum point for plotting the curves is at zero current and open-
current (zero resistance, electrode shorted to the work- circuit voltage, when the arc length between the elec-
piece, zero arc length). The response of the power trode and the workpiece is too great for the voltage to
source can be gauged by noting the change in the volt- induce current flow and the power source is not under
age and in the current under varying resistances. During load. The ending point is zero voltage and maximum
welding, changes in arc length vary the resistance of the current for a given setting on the amperage dial of the
arc. A shorter arc length produces lower resistance; a power source. In this condition, the electrode is shorted
longer arc length produces higher resistance. By chart- to the workpiece (arc length is zero) and the power
ing the curves with the machine set at minimum amper- source is under the maximum load for that setting. The
age and again with the machine set at maximum functional relationship between these two points is
amperage, the response region of the power source can obtained by holding an arc between the electrode and
be fully depicted. For the shielded metal arc welding the workpiece and measuring the amperage and the
process, the preferred response is a minimal change in voltage. As the arc diminishes in length, the current and
current with varying resistances. This type of response the voltage approach the value at the shorting condi-
produces a steeply drooping volt-amperage curve, tion. At all times, the amperage and the voltage will fall
which is the trait of constant-current machines (called on one curve. Although the arc length is difficult to
droopers). If a nearly steady current is maintained, the measure absolutely, the functional relationship between
melting rate of the electrode will remain uniform and the voltage and the current for the power source can be
will provide the constancy required to make the weld. accurately graphed.
There are occasions when the welder can benefit Two related sets of constant-current curves are illus-
from a flatter response to a change of the arc length. A trated in Figure 2.6. Each set consists of four volt-
flatter (but still steep) response means that as the arc ampere curves plotted by measuring at four unique
length is changed to produce a different arc voltage, the amperage settings on the power source. One group of
magnitude of the current change is substantially higher curves was produced at a high open-circuit voltage
(OCV) and another at a lower OCV. The OCV is com-
11. See “Volt-Ampere Characteristics” in Chapter 1 of this volume. mon to each curve in its group because at this point it is
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 63

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view
100
CONSTANT VOLTAGE PERFORMANCE
CONSTANT CURRENT PERFORMANCE

80

60
VOLTS

40

20

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
CURRENT, A

Figure 2.6—Typical Volt-Ampere Curves for

Constant-Current and Constant-Voltage Power Sources

the characteristic response of the power source; the in the current, even with a substantial change in arc
resistance (load) from the welding circuit is zero. The length.
curves droop downward toward the maximum current, For applications that involve high welding currents
which occurs when the electrode is shorted to the work- with large-diameter electrodes, a steeper volt-ampere
piece. Figure 2.6 also depicts the typical flat response of curve is desirable. When more precise control of the size
a constant-voltage power source. of the weld pool is required—for example, for out-of-
The graph can be used to assess the voltage and the position welds and root passes of joints with varying
current that the welder will encounter as the arc length is fitup configurations—a flatter volt-ampere curve is
varied while making the weld. With a power source that desirable. The flatter response enables the welder to
produces a constant-voltage output, i.e., a flat volt- substantially change the welding current within a spe-
ampere curve, even a slight change in arc length produces cific range simply by changing the arc length. A flat
a relatively large change in amperage. The large change response gives the welder greater control over the
in current translates into large changes in resistance amount of filler metal that is being deposited. Figure
heating of the electrode and hence in a variable rate of 2.7 portrays these different volt-ampere curves for a
melting of the electrode. Therefore, a power source that typical welding power source. Even though there are
produces a constant-voltage response will not produce a substantial differences in the slope of the various
steady electrode melting rate and is not suitable for curves, the power source is still considered a constant-
shielded metal arc welding. A power source that pro- current power source. The changes shown in the volt-
duces a constant-current response is preferred for manual ampere curve are accomplished by adjusting both the
welding because the steeper slope of the volt-ampere open-circuit voltage and the current settings on the
curve (within the welding range) results in a small change power source.
64 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

100 LIVE GRAPH

Click here to view

MAXIMUM OCV
VOLTAGE

50 NOTE: LOWER SLOPE GIVES A

MINIMUM OCV GREATER CHANGE IN WELDING
CURRENT FOR A GIVEN CHANGE
IN ARC VOLTAGE.

32 LONG ARC

27 NORMAL ARC LENGTH ARC VOLTAGE

22 SHORT ART

125 A
27 V

100 15 200
CURRENT, A
40

Figure 2.7—The Effect of the Volt-Ampere Curve on the Welding Current

and Arc Voltage with a Change in Arc Length

Open-Circuit Voltage, Welding Current, between the electrode and the workpiece during weld-
ing. For any given electrode, arc voltage is mostly
and Arc Voltage determined by arc length. Open-circuit voltages gener-
The term open-circuit voltage, which is a char- ally range between 40 V and 100 V; arc voltages mea-
acteristic of the power source, must be distinguished sure between 17 V and 40 V. If the circuit voltage is
from the term arc voltage. Open-circuit voltage is monitored, the reading starts with the open-circuit
defined as the voltage between the output terminals voltage and then drops to the arc voltage as the arc is
generated by the welding machine when no welding is struck and the welding machine begins to energize the
being done. Arc voltage is the electrical potential welding circuit.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 65

The term welding current denotes the amperage dur- the holder must be insulated to protect the welder’s
ing welding. The welding current rises from zero to an hand from the welding circuit. The jaws must be
ampere reading that is consistent with the arc length recessed or caged to prevent incidental grounding. The
and the setting on the machine. The electrode being design of the holder should allow it to be easily and
used and the amperage set at the machine generate a safely set aside while the power source is running. The
unique volt-ampere response curve that falls within the electrode holder should not be set aside with an elec-
possible volt-ampere response range of the welding trode or stub extending from the jaws.
power source and that reflects the range of arc lengths Electrode holders are sized or rated according to the
held by the welder. maximum current that can be conducted by the holder.
For the selected SMAW electrode and setting on the The jaws of the holder should accommodate the range
power source, the arc length determines the value of the of standard electrode diameters that are designed to
arc voltage and the welding current. If the arc is length- weld within the electrical current range of the holder.
ened, the arc voltage increases and the welding current The best electrode holder is the one that provides the
decreases. The change in amperage produced by a highest level of operator safety and comfort. Usually it
change in arc length is determined by the volt-ampere is the lightest in weight for the rated current.
curve. If the volt-ampere curve slopes steeply at the
welding set point, then the change in amperage will be
minimal. If the slope is only slightly less steep, the Workpiece Connection
change will be greater; if it is extremely flat, the current
The workpiece connection fastens the cable lead to
will change radically and the process will not be stable.
the workpiece. For light duty, a spring-loaded clamp
Control of the open-circuit voltage is a useful feature
may be suitable. For high currents, however, a screw
for some shielded metal arc welding applications, but it
clamp may be needed to provide a good connection
is not a necessary item. Hence, many power sources do
without overheating the clamp. The clamp should
not provide for control of the open-circuit voltage;
produce a strong connection and attach easily to the
instead, the output is optimized at one set value.
workpiece.

ELECTRODE HOLDER WELDING CABLES

The electrode holder is the physical link in the pro-
cess that allows the welder to take control of the Welding cables are used to connect the power source
SMAW covered electrode. It places the covered elec- to the electrode holder and to the workpiece connec-
trode in series in the welding circuit. Typically, the elec- tion. They are part of the welding circuit, as shown in
trode holder has an electrically insulated handle and a Figure 2.2. Welding cable is constructed for maximum
clamping device that mechanically holds and conducts flexibility to permit easy access to the workpiece with-
current to the electrode. The electrode holder should be out unduly restricting the manipulation of the electrode
designed for optimum welder comfort and safety. holder. Welding cables must have an insulating cover
The current is transferred to the electrode through that is resistant to wear and abrasion.
the jaws of the holder, which may be grooved to maxi- Suitable welding cable consists of many fine copper
mize the contact area and prevent overheating. If the or aluminum strands of wire enclosed in an insulated
jaws are grooved, the orientation of the grooves will cover. The cable cover is made of synthetic rubber or a
dictate the relative angle that the electrode will project type of plastic that has good toughness, high electrical
out of the jaws. In order to provide multiple orienta- resistance, and excellent heat endurance. Flexibility, a
tions, multiple grooves are machined onto the jaw desired feature of welding cable, is achieved by a pro-
plates. The jaws of the electrode holder must be kept in tective wrap placed between the cable and the insulat-
good condition to assure minimum contact resistance ing covering; the wrapping allows for slip between the
and avoid overheating the holder. The overheating of cable and the plastic.
the holder makes grasping the handle uncomfortable Welding cable is produced in a range of sizes stan-
for the welder, and the energy lost from the circuit dardized by American Wire Gauge (AWG) numbers and
impairs the welding performance of the electrode. Both is available in sizes from about AWG 6 to 4/0. The size
conditions reduce the quality of the weld. of the cable required for a particular welding circuit
The electrode holder must be designed to grip the depends on the maximum welding current, the total
electrode securely and hold it in position with good length of welding cable required (roughly twice the dis-
electrical contact. Insertion of the electrode and ejection tance between the power source and the workpiece),
of the stub must be quick and easy. The holder should and the duty cycle of the welding machine. Table 2.1
be light in weight and easy to manipulate, yet it must be shows the recommended size of copper welding cable
sturdy enough to withstand rugged use. The handle on for various power sources and circuit lengths. When
66 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Table 2.1
Recommended Copper Welding Cable Sizes
Power Source AWG Cable Size for Combined Length of Electrode and Ground Cables
0 to 15 m 15 to 30 m 30 to 46 m 46 to 61 m 61 to 76 m
Size in Amperes Duty Cycle, % (0 to 50 ft) (50 to 100 ft) (100 to 150 ft) (150 to 200 ft) (200 to 250 ft)
100 20 6 4 3 2 1
180 20–30 4 4 3 2 1
200 60 2 2 2 1 1/0
200 50 3 3 2 1 1/0
250 30 3 3 2 1 1/0
300 60 1/0 1/0 1/0 2/0 3/0
400 60 2/0 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0
500 60 2/0 2/0 3/0 3/0 4/0
600 60 2/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 *
*Use two 3/0 cables in parallel.

aluminum cable is used, it should be two AWG sizes PROTECTIVE EQUIPMENT

larger than designated copper cable for the application.
Cable sizes are increased as the length of the welding The welder must protect the eyes and skin from radi-
circuit increases to keep the voltage drop and the result- ation from the arc by using a welding helmet with the
ing power loss in the cable at acceptable levels. correct filter lens and by wearing leather gloves and
If long cables are necessary, several sections can be suitable clothing to protect against burns from arc spat-
ter. Figure 2.8 shows appropriate protective clothing.
joined by suitable cable connectors. The connectors
must provide good electrical contact with low resis-
tance, and the insulation of the connectors must be Welding Helmet
equivalent to that of the cable. Soldered joints and
mechanical connections are also used. The connection The welding helmet is a protective mechanical appa-
between the cable and a connector or lug must be ratus worn by the welder to protect the eyes, face and
strong with low electrical resistance. Aluminum cable neck from arc radiation, radiated heat, spatter or other
requires a good mechanical connection to avoid over- harmful matter that may be expelled during the welding
heating. Oxidation of the aluminum significantly process. Helmets are usually constructed of pressed
increases the electrical resistance of the connection. The fiber insulating material molded to the general contour
higher resistance can lead to overheating, excessive of the face. A rectangular viewing portal fitted with a
power loss, and cable failure. shaded filter lens provides protected vision. A helmet
should be light in weight and should be designed to give
The ends of the welding cables that attach to the the welder the greatest possible comfort.
power source are normally lugged to connect to the
The welding helmet is held in place by an adjustable
stud at the machine’s output terminals. It is a common band encircling the welder’s head at the forehead. The
practice to locate the output connections safely on the front shielding surface is initially positioned above the
power source and to secure the connections with nut- head, and with a slight nod of the welder’s head, the
and-bolt assemblies. This protective connection on the helmet pivots into the welding position before the
welding machine does not require insulation. welder strikes an arc.
Welding cables should be carefully handled to avoid Coordinating the position of the welding helmet with
damage to the covering of the cable, particularly the the strike of the arc is not an easy chore. In some
electrode cable. If hot metal burns the cable covering or instances, a confined welding zone may not provide suf-
if sharp edges cut it, the welder and others in the area ficient height to execute the routine helmet start. For
will be at serious risk for electric shock. The cables this reason, helmets with photosensitive millisecond-
should be routinely inspected and maintained. response filter lenses that darken to a target shade are
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 67

Figure 2.8–Welding Helmet and Protective Clothing for Shielded Metal Arc Welding

popular. Some helmets have an optional “flip lid” that ing light—the higher the number, the darker the shade.
permits the dark filter plate in the shield to be flipped up Each application requires a minimum shade number.
so the welder has normal vision for tasks such as chip- The “Safe Practices” section at the end of this chapter
ping the slag from the weld after the arc is extinguished. provides information on additional lens shade numbers.
The welding helmet must be equipped with a lens For shielded metal arc welding, a Number 7 shade is
that fully blocks the ultraviolet (UV) and infrared (IR) usually the minimum required. The minimum shade is
rays from the arc. The lens shade number is a propor- determined by the intensity of the arc (welding current).
tionate measure of the effectiveness of the lens in block- Any darker shade can be used; the actual shade selected
68 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

from the permissible range is a matter of welder prefer- base metal, cut tack welds, and chip slag from the weld
ence for the application. Typically, a range of shades bead.
will provide the level of protection required before Welding is often performed in accordance with a
viewing becomes inadequate. A glass cover plate is fre- welding procedure specification (WPS). The specified
quently used to protect the shaded lens. The filter lens procedure usually requires control of the interpass and
and the glass cover plate must remain clean. A dirty lens preheat temperatures and of the heat input. For these
or cover plate will irregularly darken the view and applications, temperature-indicating sticks, a timer, a
interfere with the crisp image required for good elec- metal ruler and an ammeter (or tong meter) are
trode manipulation. required to measure the pertinent variables to assure
The welder and others in the area must not directly that the weld is in conformance with the WPS.
view the arc without proper protection. The rays emit-
ted by the arc will cause burns and temporary loss of
sight. Even with due diligence to protect the eyes, on
occasion, especially in multiple arc welding zones, eye MATERIALS
burn (flashing) can occur. After several hours, a
“flashed” person will feel as if he or she has sand in the
eyes. The irritation may last for several days. Conse- The essential materials for the shielded metal arc
quently, the welder must use a welding helmet to view welding process are the base plate and the covered elec-
the arc and block the rays; others in the weld area can trode. The materials for the base plate include the many
use a hand shield. The hand shield performs the same metals and alloys that can be welded or surfaced by the
function as the helmet, but because the viewer is not as process. Covered electrodes are materials that include
close to the arc and can choose a position that avoids numerous classified or unclassified types of solid and
direct exposure, the level of protection required is not cored rods with a covering that is specially formulated
as great. All persons in a welding area must wear for the shielded metal arc process to weld or to apply a
goggles or safety glasses with side shields.12 surface.

Gloves BASE METALS

Gloves must be worn during welding to protect the Shielded metal arc welding is used in joining and sur-
hands from the rays of the arc and from the heat facing applications on a variety of metals. Whether a
produced by the arc. The weld, the slag, the workpiece base metal (also referred to as base plate or workpiece)
and the electrode stub are very hot immediately after is a suitable material for the process depends on the
welding and unfortunately, these items often give no intrinsic physical properties of the base metal and the
physical sign of being at elevated temperatures. Conse- availability of a covered electrode that will produce
quently, gloves must also be worn for such tasks as weld metal with compatible composition and mechani-
cleaning the weld, handling the workpiece, and pinch- cal properties. Shielded metal arc welding electrodes are
ing the electrode covering to help restrike, thus render- available for joining the following base metals:
ing harmless any contact with these hot surfaces.
Leather gloves in good condition (pliable) are highly 1. Carbon steels,
recommended; they also provide an additional insulat- 2. Low-alloy steels,
ing layer to prevent electric shock. 3. High-alloy steels,
4. High-strength low-alloy steels,
5. Coated steels,
MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT 6. Tool and die steel,
7. Stainless and heat-resisting steels,
Cleanliness is important in welding. The surfaces of 8. Precipitation-hardening steels,
the workpieces and the previously deposited weld metal
9. Cast irons (ductile and gray),
must be cleaned of dirt, slag, fume and any other for-
eign matter that would interfere with welding. To 10. Aluminum and aluminum alloys,
accomplish this task, the welder should have a steel 11. Copper and copper alloys, and
wire brush, a hammer, a chisel and a chipping hammer. 12. Nickel and cobalt alloys.
These tools are used to remove dirt and rust from the
Electrodes are also available for applying surfacing
12. See American National Standards Institute (ANSI), Practice for to these same base metals to make them resistant to
Occupational and Educational Eye and Face Protection, ANSI Z87.1, wear, impact or corrosion. Surfacing may also be
Des Plaines, Illinois: American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE). applied to enhance the appearance of the product.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 69

Table 2.2
AWS Specifications for Covered Electrodes

Type of Electrode AWS Specification

Carbon steel Specification for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.1
Low-alloy steel Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.5
Corrosion resistant steel Specification for Stainless Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.4
Cast iron Specification for Welding Electrodes and Rods for Cast Iron, AWS A5.15
Aluminum and aluminum alloys Specification for Aluminum and Aluminum Alloy Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.3/A5.3M
Copper alloys Specification for Covered Copper and Copper Alloy Welding Electrodes, AWS A5.6
Nickel alloys Specification for Nickel and Nickel Alloy Welding Rods for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.11/A5.11M
Surfacing Specification for Solid Surfacing Welding Rods and Electrodes, AWS A5.13
Specification for Composite Surfacing Welding Rods and Electrodes, AWS A5.21

COVERED ELECTRODES other element is merely a residual amount.13 Shielded

metal arc welding electrodes for welding carbon steels
In the United States, electrodes are categorized by the are described in Specification for Carbon Steel Elec-
American Welding Society (AWS) and by the U.S. trodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.1.14
Department of Defense. The categorizing documents This is a prime defining document that facilitates com-
are referred to as AWS specifications and Mil/Military mercial applications of the shielded metal arc welding
specifications. The content of the specification estab- process.
lishes classifications (or types) of SMAW covered elec-
In this standard, an alphanumeric system is used to
trodes for use on groups or categories of base material,
title each electrode classification. For example, in
as shown in Table 2.2. The specification defines the
E6010, the “E” designates an electrode (a material that
classifications on the basis of one or more of the follow-
ing attributes: functions as an electrical terminal or juncture). The first
two digits, 60, specify the minimum tensile strength of
1. The type of welding current, the undiluted weld metal (thousands of pounds-force
2. The type of electrode covering, per square inch of area [ksi]).15 The third digit, 1, repre-
3. Welding position, sents the welding positions in which the electrode can
be applied. (In this case, 1 refers to all positions). The
4. Chemical composition of the undiluted weld
metal, and last digit in conjunction with the prior digit, 10, desig-
5. Mechanical properties of the undiluted weld metal. nates the type of covering on the electrode and the type
of current with which the electrode can be used.
Both AWS specifications and military specifications are The specification provides for optional designators
periodically updated. An AWS revision of a specifica- to be appended to the primary classification title to
tion is identified by the last two digits of the year of accommodate electrodes with a low-hydrogen covering.
publication, which is appended to the specification The letter “R” is appended if the moisture content of
number. Revisions to the military specifications are
indicated by the appendage of a capital letter in alpha- 13. For guidance on electrodes for carbon steel plate, see “Carbon
betical sequence beginning with “A.” and Low-Alloy Steels,” Chapter 1 of American Welding Society
(AWS) Welding Handbook Committee, Oates, W. R., and A. M.
In addition to the information specific to SMAW Saitta, eds., 1998, Materials and Applications—Part 2, Vol. 4 of
provided in Table 2.2, AWS filler metal specifications Welding Handbook, 8th ed., Miami: American Welding Society.
and related documents are listed in Appendix C. 14. See Reference 6.
15. The reader familiar with base plate designators must not confuse
Carbon Steel Electrodes. Carbon steels are alloys the practice of designating yield strength with the AWS system of des-
ignating tensile strength in the type identifier. In the AWS system, the
of iron and carbon in which the carbon does not yield strength for SMAW electrodes intended for multiple-pass groove
exceed 1.0%; manganese does not exceed 1.65%; cop- and fillet welding is also specified. Thus, the referenced specification
per and silicon each do not exceed 0.60%, and any must be researched to obtain the actual requirement.
70 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

the covering is equal to or less than the specified limits accommodate a large number of designators, only sev-
for as-manufactured electrodes even after atmospheric enteen primary types are defined in the latest edition of
exposure of the electrodes. For testing purposes, expo- AWS A5.1.
sure is simulated by placing the electrodes into a cham- The A5.1 specification also specifies other important
ber maintained with a very high water vapor content properties of the undiluted weld metal. These properties
(controlled humidity and temperature) for a minimum include yield strength, ductility, toughness, soundness,
time. and chemical composition. In addition, physical proper-
The letter “H” immediately followed by a number ties of the electrodes are also specified. These include
indicates the level of the hydrogen content, (2, 4, 8, or the length and diameter of the core wire, the concentric-
16) if a hydrogen test is successfully performed. The ity of the covering, the configuration of the strike end
E7018H4R is an example of the designator for a low- and the holder end, and so forth. The specification also
hydrogen electrode that is moisture resistant and when provides requirements for the manufacture, storage,
hydrogen tested, gives results that are less than 4 millili- and drying of the electrodes.
ters (mL) per 100 grams of deposited metal. Of the types defined in AWS A5.1, some are closely
For historical reasons, the designation for the related in design and intended function but they differ
E7018M class is somewhat of an exception. This classi- in the type of welding current to be used. For example,
fication title and the corresponding requirements were the Exx10 and Exx11 classifications are ideal for use on
adopted from a military specification before a cohesive rusty or oily carbon steel, galvanized steel, and open
system for communicating the level of hydrogen evolu- root welding. The Exx10 and Exx11 classes are often
tion from the weld metal and the moisture content of the first choice for farm and repair shop use. However,
the covering were incorporated in AWS A5.1.16 Conse- the Exx10 class is designed to operate on dc and the
quently, for E7018M electrodes, the tests for hydrogen Exx11 class on ac. As a result, the Exx10 class is widely
evolution and for the moisture content of the covering used in the field when welding pipe with diesel-powered
are mandated by the specification, and therefore welding machines and the Exx11 class is often used for
optional designators would be redundant and are not farm and repair shop applications with economical ac
used with the E7018M designator. The only difference power sources. The primary polarity for dc is usually
between an AWS A5.1-91 E7018M and a MIL-E- electrode positive, although a few of the electrodes are
0022200/10A(SH) MIL 7018-M is that the AWS intended for direct current electrode negative. Some
classification has a more lenient limit on the exposed electrodes can be used with either polarity. The E6010s
moisture content of the covering. The final anomaly of can be used with electrode negative to handle large root
the E7018M class is the lack of a minimum tensile openings.
requirement. Therefore, undiluted weld metal made
with E7018M electrodes can have less than 480 kPa Low-Hydrogen Carbon Steel Electrodes. Another
(70,000 psi) tensile strength. example of related electrode types are the basic slag (low-
The AWS A5.1 classification also uses a -1 designa- hydrogen) electrodes: the Exx15, Exx16, Exx18, Exx28,
tor to distinguish closely linked electrode types. The -1 and Exx48 classes. These electrodes not only have cover-
is the first appendage to either the E7016, E7018 or the ings with a very low hydrogen content but they also
E7024 classifications, which indicates that the depos- contain minerals that are deemed basic in the welding
ited weld metal meets more stringent toughness require- operation. The term basic implies that the chemicals in
ments as measured by the Charpy V-notch impact test. the electrode cover function to reduce the oxygen content
For covered electrodes manufactured to meet the in the weld and diminish the number of harmful oxide
AWS A5.1 specification, at least one printing of the type inclusions at the grain boundaries of the microstructure.
designator must appear on the covering. However, the As a result, the weld metal deposited is cleaner and hence
“E” common to all covered electrode types is omitted has the potential to attain very high toughness or Charpy
from the printed identification on each electrode. The V-notch values. The low-hydrogen content in the cover-
remaining numeric class designator consists of one of ing results in very low levels of diffusible hydrogen in the
two choices of tensile strength, 60 or 70, followed by a weld. Hydrogen in the weld metal can be extremely det-
single digit that indicates the welding position: 1, all rimental and is often the cause of brittle failures and
positions; 2, flat and horizontal; and 3, downhill (often delayed cracking. Hydrogen cracks occur when these
called vertical down). A final digit is added, which is to four factors are simultaneously present:
be read in combination with the third digit. These last
two digits taken together (i.e. Exx18) designate the type 1. Diffusible hydrogen is in the weld metal or the
of covering on the electrode and the type of welding heat-affected zone of the base metal, or both;
current used. Although the classification system can 2. The weld metal has high residual stresses caused
by the constraint of the joint members and the
16. See Reference 6. heat input from the arc;
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 71

3. The weld metal has a susceptible microstructure Of these types, the E7018 class is the most popular
or the heat-affected zone of the base plate devel- because it can be used in all positions, achieves high
ops a susceptible microstructure, or both; and deposition rates, and has excellent welder appeal. Basic
4. The temperature of the weldment is in the range SMAW low-hydrogen electrodes are also used on car-
of –101°C to 204°C] (–214°F to 400°F). bon steel plate. The electrodes tend to desulfurize the
weld pool and diminish the tendency for hot cracking.
Other related electrode types available for use on
The crack may be parallel to the fusion boundary
carbon steels are the titania (rutile) and the high-iron
and within the heat-affected zone or may originate in
oxide groups. A good guide for the areas of application
the weld deposit. The crack tends to form after the
for these types is presented in the appendix to Specifica-
completion of the weld. Because of the location of the
tion for Carbon Steel Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc
crack and the time lag for forming, the cracking mecha-
Welding, AWS A5.1.17
nism has been identified as underbead cracking and also
as delayed cracking. The loss of weld metal ductility
due to hydrogen is apparent in tensile testing. A hydro- Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes
gen-affected tensile specimen contains a slight but
noticeable level of hydrogen at the time of testing. The Low-alloy steel SMAW electrodes are designed for
hydrogen affect manifests itself as voids on the frac- the welding of carbon steels and low-alloy steels of
tured surface and a slight loss in the elongation at fail- matching composition. The low-alloy designation
ure. The fracture surface of the hydrogen-damaged implies that no one element in the undiluted weld metal
tensile specimens are partially or fully brittle (shiny in exceeds 10.5% and at least one element exceeds the
appearance) and measure very low in elongation. The chemical limits of the AWS A5.1 specification. As a gen-
risk of hydrogen-induced cracking is higher when weld- eral rule, the “matching” composition for the undiluted
ing hardenable carbon steels and rises proportionately weld metal will be leaner in alloy content than the base
to the thickness of the plate steel. Consequently, the material. The reduced alloy content offsets the increase
low-hydrogen electrode types are excellent candidates in tensile strength that results from the high cooling
rates inherent in arc welding.
for use in these applications.
The standard Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Elec-
Although there are many similarities in the perfor- trodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.5,18
mance of the weld metal, each classification of the low- classifies low-alloy steel electrodes according to the
hydrogen group provides different characteristics. The same numbering system described for carbon steel elec-
E7015 has a basic covering and is designed for dc; The trodes, except that the low-alloy steel classification uses
E7016 is similar to the E7015 but operates with ac. an additional suffix consisting of one or more letters to
These types are sometimes preferred for circumferential indicate the dominant alloying elements, followed by a
pipe welding because the covering is thin, which number to identify each type of alloy. For example, in
improves accessibility to the root of the joint. the electrode classification E7010-A1, the letter “A” in
The E7018 has a large amount of iron powder in the the suffix A1 indicates that carbon and molybdenum
covering and performs best when applied with DCEP, are the primary alloying elements that this electrode
although ac is possible. The iron powder quiets the adds to the undiluted weld metal, and the 1 means it is
metal transfer and increases the deposition rate. The the first listed of the carbon-molybdenum type. Another
E7018 class is a popular choice for many applications example is E8016-C2, where the “C” signifies that
because it can be used in all positions with high depo- nickel is the primary alloying element. The following
sition rates. Some E7018 electrodes are specifically alloy systems are defined in the specification AWS A5.5:
designed for ac application and are sold as E7018AC.
These ac E7018 electrodes are usually not as resistant A = carbon-molybdenum;
to moisture as the more popular versions. B = chromium-molybdenum;
The E7028 class is designed with a thick covering C = nickel;
and a high iron powder content. They achieve the high- NM = nickel-molybdenum; and
est deposition rate among the low-hydrogen electrode D = manganese-molybdenum.
types. However, the thick covering and fluid nature of
the molten weld limit the application versatility and In the low-alloy specification, the required minimum
hence they are the economical low-hydrogen choice for undiluted weld metal tensile strengths range from
horizontal- and flat-position welding only.
The E7048 class is similar to the E7018 type, but is 17. See Reference 6.
18. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals
optimized for downhill applications. The E7048 elec- and Allied Materials, Specification for Low-Alloy Steel Electrodes for
trodes are not very popular because multiple-pass, Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.5, Miami: American Welding
X-ray-quality welds are difficult to achieve consistently. Society.
72 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

480 MPa to 830 MPa (70 ksi to 120 ksi) in 70 MPa which the air had a high water content (125 grains of
(10 ksi) increments. The condition of the tensile specimen moisture at 27°C (80°F). The limit of moisture content
for testing the strength levels is either as welded or of the as-received electrodes ranges from 0.1% to 0.4%
stress relieved, depending on the anticipated use of the by weight, depending on the classification of the elec-
alloy system. When stress relieving is required, the weld trode. The higher the strength level of the classification,
test assembly is subjected to postweld heat treatment the lower the limit is on the as-received moisture con-
(PWHT) for one hour at the temperature specified for tent. The limit for moisture of electrodes with a low-
that electrode classification. Fabricators using holding moisture-absorbing covering (with the “R” suffix desig-
times that are significantly different from one hour at nator) in the exposed condition is 0.4% by weight.
temperature or holding temperatures that are sub- Unfortunately, the amount of moisture in the exposed
stantially higher may have to be more selective in the condition is not specified for SMAW electrodes not
electrodes they use. They may be required to run tests bearing the “R” designator.
to demonstrate that the mechanical properties of the The first consideration in avoiding hydrogen-
weld metal from the selected electrode will be adequate induced cracking when welding low-alloy steels is to
after the specific heat treatment temperature and hold- select SMAW electrodes with the lowest moisture con-
ing time. The AWS A5.5 specification also sets radio- tent and with coverings that have very little tendency
graphic quality standards for deposited weld metal and to absorb moisture. It is equally important to follow
notch toughness requirements for the SMAW electrode the recommendations for preheat and interpass tem-
classifications. perature, heat input, and cooling rate. Higher preheat
There are some SMAW electrodes that are not clas- temperature, higher heat input, and slow cooling rates
sified in AWS specifications. These electrodes may not are usually preferred. Finally, the code requirements for
be listed because they are designed for very specific handling the electrodes should not be compromised.
base material not commonly used or they broadly Exposure to high humidity (in the range of 70%
match a steel composition listed in a standard pub- relative humidity or higher) may increase the moisture
lished by the American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI)19 content of the electrode to an unacceptable level in
for low-alloy steel base metal compositions, such as only a few hours.
4130. These unclassified electrodes are usually
imprinted with the alloy type and are made with a
low-hydrogen covering.
Military specifications are also published that gov- High-Alloy Steel Electrodes
ern the use of SMAW electrodes for joining low-alloy
High-alloy steels generally possess high tensile
and higher-strength steels. Fortunately, these specifica-
strength with good toughness at the recommended ser-
tions use designators similar to those in the AWS speci-
vice temperature. In these steels, the quantity of alloy-
fication. A harmonization effort is in progress between
ing elements exceeds 10% by weight. The objective of
the federal government and the American Welding
alloying is not to create exceptional corrosion resistance
Society in which military specifications will be discon-
(stainless steels), improve high-temperature service
tinued and the requirements of the AWS classifications
(chrome-molybdenum steels), achieve very high hard-
will be changed to better reflect the needs of military
ness (tool-steels) or attain cryogenic toughness (austen-
applications.
itic stainless steels), but to achieve three valued
Controlling and maintaining a very low moisture
properties: high strength, good ductility, and toughness.
content in SMAW electrodes is more important for the
In this context, the high-alloy steels are similar to the
welding of low-alloy and higher-strength steels than for
low-alloy steels except for the amount of alloying ele-
the welding of mild steel. The risk for hydrogen-
ments they contain.
induced cracking in welding high-strength and low-
alloy steels is heightened because the residual stresses of The specific high-alloy steels tend to be proprietary
the joint are higher and because the propensity for and fall into three categories: nickel-cobalt steels,
forming a susceptible microstructure is significantly maraging steels, and austenitic manganese (Hadfield)
increased. For this reason, the AWS A5.5 specification steels. Of the high-alloy steels, SMAW electrodes are
sets limits on the moisture content of low-hydrogen practicable only for the Hadfield steels. The level of
electrodes in the as-received or reconditioned state and impurities resulting from the use of the shielded metal
in the as-exposed state.20 These two conditions bracket arc welding process is too high to obtain the desired
the moisture content of the electrode between the start toughness and avert the possibility of hot cracking in
of welding and at the finish of a work shift on a day in nickel-cobalt steels and maraging steels.
The Hadfield steels are alloyed with manganese
19. American Iron and Steel Institute (AISI), 1101 17th St. N.W., (11% to 14%) and carbon (0.7% to 1.4%). During its
Suite 1300, Washington, DC 20036-4700. manufacture, the steel is quenched from 982°C to
20. See Reference 18. 1038°C (1800°F to 1900°F) to room temperature with
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 73

agitated water. The rapid cooling preserves the austen- Electrodes for Coated Steel
itic structure by suppressing the formation of carbides
and the eventual transformation to ferrite and car- Coatings are applied to carbon steels to achieve a
bides. Although the room-temperature austenitic struc- processing advantage, to protect it from corrosive envi-
ture thus obtained is very stable, heating the steel to a ronments, or to achieve a decorative finish. The coat-
temperature in excess of 316°C (600°F) will allow it to ings are either metallic or organic paint. The SMAW
transform to ferrite and carbides. The formation of electrodes for joining these coated steels must possess
carbides embrittles the steel, and in service, may cause unique characteristics to cope with the constituents of
steel sections to fail by spalling. Consequently, the the coating and must deposit weld metal compatible
reheating of the austenitic manganese steels should be with the base steel. SMAW electrodes that are success-
avoided. fully used with coated steels are classified under the
The properties of austenitic manganese steel that appropriate steel specification (i.e., AWS A5.1).22
make it commercially popular are moderate strength, The most popular coatings applied to carbon steels
good ductility and toughness, and most advantageous are zinc metal and zinc alloys. The zinc is applied in a
of all, the rapid work-hardening of the surface in batch hot-dip process (general galvanizing), in a con-
response to compressive loads or impacts. As a result of tinuous hot-dip process, or in an electrolytic bath. The
these characteristics, a product fabricated with austen- amount and type of the coating varies depending on
itic manganese steel has a very hard surface with a very the process. The welding procedure and techniques are
tough underlying structure—an ideal combination for a likewise type-specific. Heavier coatings, characteristic
variety of applications. of general galvanizing, require specific welding proce-
dures and preparation to achieve sound welds. Steel
Some of the electrodes used for the welding of
with light coatings applied with a continuous hot-dip
austenitic manganese steels are classified in Specifi-
or an electrolytic process is typically welded with the
cation for Solid Surfacing Welding Rods and Elec-
qualified procedure normally applied to the underlying
trodes, AWS A5.13.21 This standard categorizes
steel.
SMAW electrodes solely on the basis of the chemical
composition of the undiluted weld metal. The class With heavily coated galvanized plate, the presence of
name is derived by appending the chemical symbols of liquid zinc at the weld root must be avoided or mini-
the principal alloying elements to the letter “E.” If the mized, because the liquid zinc may penetrate into the
basic group requires subdivision, a hyphen (-) fol- alloy-rich dendrites of the base metal microstructure
lowed by a letter in alphabetical order starting with and cause cracking. Liquid zinc can similarly embrittle
“A” is added. Further subdivision is achieved by add- the weld metal. The liquid zinc is more severe in attack-
ing a number to the letter. For example, two electrodes ing weld deposits that contain more than 0.40% silicon.
are used for welding austenitic manganese steel; one, Consequently, cellulose (EXX10 and EXX11) elec-
an alloy of iron and manganese with some nickel, is trodes and rutile (EXX12 and EXX13) electrodes are
designated EFeMn-A; the other, containing similar preferred when the level of zinc is high. Sometimes a
primary alloys but with molybdenum instead of combination of electrode types can be used to achieve
nickel, is designated EFeMn-B. Both classifications can the best mechanical properties. A low-silicon type can
be used to join manganese steel. The EFeMn-A weld be used in the root and a basic type (EXX16 or EXX18)
metal is tougher, whereas the EFeMn-B weld metal has can be used to fill the joint.
higher strength. The detrimental effects of the zinc can be minimized
by removing it from the joint with grit blasting or by
For applications in which abrasive wear or high-tem-
beveling the edges of the base plate. Alternatively, pro-
perature exposure is a dominant concern, proprietary
viding a slight gap at the root or between the backing
and recently developed chromium-nickel austenitic
strip and the plate will provide an exit path for the liq-
SMAW electrodes offer superior performance. Austen-
uefied and vaporized zinc and will reduce the volume of
itic stainless steel electrodes are often used for welding
zinc that can interact with the weld pool. In some
austenitic manganese steel to mild and low-alloy steels;
instances, a slight whip of the electrode helps to volatil-
however, these electrodes may develop a brittle inter-
ize some of the zinc ahead of the arc, thereby improving
face that will cause the weld to have very low resistance
the probability for sound welds. Nonetheless, a reduc-
to wear. Austenitic manganese steel electrodes, manga-
tion of joint speed is common for successful welding on
nese-chromium electrodes, and proprietary electrodes,
general galvanized plate.
when properly applied, are better choices for the weld-
ing of these dissimilar metals. Galvanized sheet produced in a continuous hot dip
or electrolytic galvanizing process has a lighter coating
weight and is typically welded with the cellulosic or
21. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals
and Allied Materials, Specification for Solid Surfacing Welding Rods
and Electrodes, AWS A5.13, Miami: American Welding Society. 22. See Reference 6.
74 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

rutile electrodes using settings that are normally used and uses appendages to communicate the unique traits
for uncoated mild steel. The cellulosic electrodes pro- of each type.
duce a highly penetrating arc and therefore may not be Taking E310-15 and E310-16 as examples, the pre-
desirable for use on thin sheet steel. However, cellulosic fix “E” indicates an electrode. The first three digits
electrodes are the lowest in silicon content and are best refer to the alloy type, with respect to chemical compo-
suited for minimizing the risk of liquid zinc embrittle- sition. These may be followed by the symbol of a chem-
ment. A galvannealed coating is composed of iron-zinc ical element and either the letters “L” or “H.” The
alloys and is usually easily weldable because the letter “R” may be added to indicate a modification to
amount of zinc per unit surface is tolerable. the all-weld-metal chemistry of the parent class. For
A coating of aluminum on steel generally does not example, in E310Mo-15, Mo (the symbol for molybde-
cause porosity or slag inclusions, but the wetting of the num) signifies that the molybdenum content is different
weld metal is detrimentally affected. Two reasons are from the E310-15 weld metal. The letters “L” and “H”
cited for this behavior: (1) the aluminum oxide that inform the user that the carbon content is controlled
forms around the weld pool is not easily fluxed, and (2) within a desired range. When an electrode type bears
any aluminum dissolved into the weld pool causes it to the “L” appendage, it means that the carbon limit is
be more viscous and sluggish, achieving less wetting of lower. All electrodes of the “L” type also meet the
the base plate during solidification. When choosing a requirements of the parent class. For example, the
SMAW electrode for this application, it is necessary to E308MoL-XX electrodes also meet the chemical
consider the mechanical property requirements for the requirements of the E308Mo-XX class. The “H” desig-
weld metal and whether protection of the weld from the nator indicates that the minimum required carbon con-
corrosive environment must be employed. A choice is tent is higher or that the carbon range exceeds the level
usually made between mild steel and stainless steel of the parent class. The letter “R” signifies that detri-
SMAW electrodes that would be proper if the steel were mental residuals are restricted to low levels. Finally, a
bare. The welds made with mild steel electrodes must hyphen (-) links the chemistry designation to two digits
be protected with a coating. that individually refer to the position of welding and
Steels that are coated with zinc-base paints can be the type of current for which the electrodes are suitable.
readily welded using procedures similar to those used The first number immediately following the hyphen is
on uncoated steel. The coating may cause more spatter either 1 or 2. The number 1 indicates that electrode
and arc instability, but it does not substantially affect diameters 4 mm (5/32 in.) and smaller are usable in all
weld integrity. The basic SMAW electrodes are most apt positions and larger sizes are usable only in the flat and
to produce occasional porosity. Organic paints should horizontal positions. The number 2 indicates that all
not be present on the joint surface because the paint sizes are meant to be used only in the flat and horizon-
will not survive the heat from the welding arc and will tal positions. If the second digit is a 5, the electrodes are
disrupt the welding. Organic paints may also cause suitable for use with DCEP only, but if the second digit
porosity. If the paint cannot be removed, a cellulosic is a 6 or a 7, the electrodes are suitable for either ac or
SMAW electrode is the best choice for achieving a DCEP.
sound weld. The last two digits taken together describe a unique
electrode covering that produces distinguishable weld
properties and welding characteristics. Limestone pow-
der, which consists primarily of calcium carbonate, is a
Stainless And Heat-Resisting Steel dominant chemical in the covering of the E310-15
Electrodes class. For this reason, this variety is also known as lime
electrodes.24 The E310-15 produces a sharp, forceful
Covered electrodes for welding stainless and heat- arc that promotes good weld penetration into the base
resisting steels are classified in Specification for Stain- plate, generally better weld metal soundness, and
less Steel Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc higher quality welds when subjected to radiographic
Welding, AWS A5.4.23 Each classification in this specifi- inspection. The weld pool is somewhat agitated and at
cation is based on the chemical composition of the times this causes good-sized globules to be expelled
undiluted weld metal, the position of welding, and the from the joint as spatter. The liquid slag is very stiff
type of welding current for which the electrodes are (viscous) and crowds the arc by failing to clear the
suitable. The classification system uses the familiar
numeric representations for the chemical composition
24. The E310-15, E310-16, and E310-17 varieties of SMAW stainless
electrodes have familiar common names. Some of the most frequently
23. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals used names are E31015: lime, lime-basic, dc; E310-16: rutile, titania,
and Allied Materials, Specification for Stainless Steel Welding Elec- ac/dc, basic-rutile; E310-17: acid-rutile, European. The E310-17,
trodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.4, Miami: American E310-26 and E310-26 varieties were first listed in the AWS A5.4.92
Welding Society. revision.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 75

surface of the weld pool about the hot spot. The slag typically much larger than the corresponding all-posi-
solidifies rapidly as the electrode is advanced. Hence, tion variety.
the weld beads tend to be convex, with more irregular- Stainless steels can be classified into three general
ity and coarse ripples. However, the fast-freezing slag types: austenitic, martensitic, and ferritic, and four spe-
and good penetration allows the welder greater control cialty types: precipitation hardening, superaustenitic,
during out-of-position work, such as pipe welding. The superferritic, and duplex. The names of these steels
friable slag requires chipping and scraping for com- emphasize the composition of the alloy; the prefix
plete removal. super conveys that there is an abundance of alloying.
The covering of the E310-16 ac/dc variety contains The resistance of these steels to corrosion is attributed
high levels of titanium dioxide and may be bonded with to a passive oxide film that seals the surface. In iron
potassium silicate or enhanced with potassium minerals alloys, this film is first achieved when the chromium
to achieve a smooth arc, less spatter, and good perfor- content in solid solution exceeds 10.5%. Iron alloys,
mance when using alternating current. With this elec- by definition, must have iron as the largest portion by
trode class, the slag readily clears away from the weld weight. For this reason, the austenitic stainless steel
pool, which allows the welder to have greater control electrodes are not unlike some electrodes designated as
when welding in the horizontal and flat positions. The nickel types that use the same alloying elements. In
finished beads are finely rippled, slightly convex, and nickel-alloy electrodes, however, nickel is the largest
weight fraction.
very uniform. In out-of-position welding, the fluidity of
the slag requires the welder to work the electrode with a The great variety of commercially available stainless
wider weaving motion to achieve a reasonably good steels arises from the need for products that resist
bead profile. The slag is dense and strong but easily diverse corrosive chemical solutions or atmospheres
detaches from the weld. The vigorous use of a chipping and that attain longevity in service. Each composition
hammer is generally not required, unless, for example and microstructure has unique properties that must be
considered for the intended use and for its suitability
in the root pass of a flat butt weld, the slag locks
for joining by the shielded metal arc welding process.
between the joint faces.
The ideal stainless alloy with the desired solid phase(s)
The E310-17 type is a popular and distinct version would be stable throughout the temperature cycles
of an electrode once falling within the E310-16 class. experienced during welding and in service. Unfortu-
The E310-17 improvements were achieved by enlarging nately, during welding and other exposure to high tem-
the size of the covering and by substituting silica (SiO2) perature, changes can occur in the constitution and
for some of the titania (TiO2). These changes improved structure of stainless steel plate and weld metal. Chemi-
the welding performance in horizontal and flat applica- cal reactions can generate new, unwanted phases and
tions. The E310-17 coverings achieve a smoother arc may deplete a needed element in the solid solution. The
and a spray metal transfer mode. The wider arc “feath- microstructure may become very coarse grained, which
ers” the bead edges into the base plate and enhances the raises the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature to an
wetting of the weld pool to achieve a concave bead unacceptable level. A hard, brittle martensite can form;
cross section. The slag freezes slowly, resulting in a uni- or certain elements can segregate or diffuse to the grain
form, finely rippled weld surface. The slag often self boundaries. These changes can have a devastating effect
detaches from the surface when the weld is completed. on the performance of a welded stainless steel structure.
However, the slag is more fluid, which compromises Therefore, the joining of each stainless steel assembly
uphill welding and generally requires the vertical beads should be well planned.25
to be made with a weaving motion. As a result, the Of the different categories of stainless steel elec-
smallest sized fillet deposit made with the E310-17 is trodes, the austenitic group (2XX and 3XX) has by far
larger than that achieved by the same diameter E310-15 the largest number of types. For this group, the required
or E310-16 varieties. undiluted weld metal may differ from the composition
The EXXX-25 and EXXX-26 varieties are similar in of the base metal in order to produce a weld deposit
composition to the E310-15 and E310-16, respectively. that is not fully austenitic but which contains ferrite.
However, the coatings are purposely alloyed to obtain The ferrite prevents the solidification cracking of the
higher deposition rates. In some designs of EXXX-25 weld metal. The amount of ferrite common to the vari-
and EXXX-26 electrodes, the total alloy content of the ous welding electrodes is discussed in detail in the stan-
core wire is very low relative to the alloy content of the dard Specification for Stainless Steel Welding Electrodes
undiluted weld metal, for example, when mild steel
core wire is used to make an E308L-25. In these cases, 25. For more detailed information, see “Stainless and Heat-Resisting
Steels,” Chapter 5 of American Welding Society (AWS) Welding
large amounts of metallic powders must be added to Handbook Committee, Oates, W. R. and A. M. Saitta, eds., Materials
the covering to achieve the required analysis of the and Applications—Part 2, Vol. 4 of Welding Handbook, Miami:
weld deposit. Hence, the diameter of the covering is American Welding Society.
76 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.4.26 In gen- has grown, the need for a matching shielded metal arc
eral, a minimum ferrite content in the range of ferrite welding electrode for these applications has not fol-
number (FN) 3 to 5 is sufficient. The WRC-1992 dia- lowed, and probably will not materialize. Most of the
gram27, 28 can be used to predict the ferrite number of applications are light-gauge sheet, which is more eco-
the 300 Series stainless steels and the Espy diagram29 nomically welded with flux-cored or metal-cored elec-
can be used to predict the ferrite number of the 200 trodes. In addition, when welding the ferritic stainless
Series. The ferrite number can also be directly measured steels, austenitic stainless steel electrodes and nickel
with magnetic instruments.30 electrodes are often more easily applied than a corre-
Certain austenitic stainless steel weld metals (types sponding electrode of matching composition. For these
310, 320, 320LR, and 330, for example) do not form reasons, the development of a ferritic stainless steel
ferrite because their nickel content is too high. For these SMAW electrode with matching composition may not
materials, the phosphorus, sulfur, and silicon content of be warranted.
the weld metal should be limited or the carbon content The weld metal of the E430-XX electrode is bal-
should be increased as a means of minimizing the ten- anced to provide adequate strength and ductility. How-
dency for solidification cracking. ever, at elevated temperature the weld metal and the
Using appropriate welding procedures can also heat-affected zone of the plate can transform to austen-
reduce the solidification cracking tendency. Low heat ite, and on air-cooling, into brittle martensite. During
input, for example, is beneficial. During welding, the welding, chromium carbides can form near the grain
welder can utilize a small amount of weaving as a boundaries, depleting the chromium in solid solution
means of promoting cellular grain growth, which is and leaving the grain boundaries of the welded struc-
more resistant to cracking. Moving the electrode back ture susceptible to intergranular corrosion. Thus, to
over the weld pool before breaking the arc will help obtain optimum mechanical properties and corrosion
avoid deep craters and diminish the possibility of crater resistance, the weldment should be heat-treated after
cracks. welding.
The publication Specification for Stainless Steel The E630 electrodes are designed for welding the
Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, martensitic and semiaustenitic precipitation-hardening
AWS A5.4 contains two classifications of electrodes for stainless steels. Optimum results are obtained when the
joining some of the 4XX Series stainless steels, E410- dilution of the weld metal composition from the base
XX and E410NiMo-XX.31 The weld metal produced plate is kept to a minimum. The welded structure must
with both types of electrodes is susceptible to the for- be postweld heat treated to attain the nominal or
mation of martensite during the cooling phase of the required strength and to relieve welding stresses. If high
welding cycle. The resulting martensitic structure may strength is not required (if under-matching is allowed,)
be excessively hard, brittle, and sensitive to hydrogen- austenitic electrodes are more commonly used.
induced cracking. Consequently, preheating the base The superferritic stainless steels are produced in a
plate before welding and heat-treating the welded struc- process that minimizes the content of the interstitial
ture immediately after is essential to achieving a weld elements and adds elements that further stabilize the
deposit fit for its intended service. ferrite. The shielded metal arc welding process cannot
The specification contains one ferritic type, E430. achieve the precise control over the carbon-plus-
Although the use of the various ferritic stainless steels nitrogen content and cannot efficiently transfer reactive
elements such as aluminum and titanium. Therefore, no
26. See Reference 23.
superferritic matching composition SMAW electrodes
27. Kotecki, D. J., and T. A. Siewert, 1992, WRC 1992 Constitution are available.
Diagram for Stainless Steel Weld Metal: a Modification of the WRC- The term superaustenitic applies to austenitic com-
1988 Diagram, Welding Journal, 71(5), 171s—178-s. Miami: Ameri- positions of stainless steel that have a higher molybde-
can Welding Society.
28. See “Stainless and Heat-Resisting Steels,” Chapter 5 of American num content and greater resistance to pitting corrosion.
Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook Committee, Oates, W. R., The pitting resistance equivalent (PRE) number is com-
and A. M. Saitta, eds. Materials and Applications—Part 2, Vol. 4 of puted from the chemical composition of the stainless
Welding Handbook, 8th ed., P 261, “Ferrite in Austenitic Stainless steel. The usual practice is to classify as superaustenitic
Steel Weld Metal,” Miami: American Welding Society.
29. Espy, R. H., 1982, Weldability of Nitrogen-Strengthened Stain-
those austenitic stainless steel compositions that meet
less Steels, Welding Journal, 61(5), 149-s—155-s, Miami: American or exceed a value of 40. The linchpin for the successful
Welding Society. development of the various grades of superaustenitic
30. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals steels was the introduction of nitrogen as an alloying
and Allied Materials, 1997, Standard Procedures for Calibrating element. Nitrogen, a strong austenite stabilizer, retards
Magnetic Instruments to Measure the Delta Ferrite Content of Auste-
nitic Stainless Weld Metal, AWS A4.2/A4.2M, Miami: American the formation of brittle phases at higher temperatures
Welding Society. when a high amount of molybdenum is present. The
31. See Reference 23. E383, E385, and nickel-base electrodes are used for
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 77

joining these steels. During the welding process, the electrode can be used with low amperage and no pre-
heat input, the loss of nitrogen, and the segregation of heat. If the ENiFe-CI-X electrode is selected, a choice
molybdenum must be considered. exists between electrodes made with a core wire that is
The term duplex is a fitting name for the stainless a composite of nickel surrounded by iron or those made
steel compositions that have a dual structure of ferrite with a nickel-alloy core wire. The latter overheat
and austenite. The composition is balanced to solidify because of the high resistivity of the nickel-alloy core
primarily as ferrite, and on further cooling, to partially wire, causing very high stub losses. Nonetheless, even
transform to austenite. In welding, the cooling rate and with the high stub loss, the nickel alloy core wire elec-
the heat input are critical to the ratio of the phases that trodes are usually less expensive than the composite
develop. For a given application, the acceptable heat electrodes.
input must be bracketed. The E2209 and E2553 elec- The tin-bronze and the aluminum-bronze electrodes
trodes are used to weld the corresponding 22% and described in Specification for Covered Copper and
25% chromium duplex stainless steel alloys. Austenitic Copper Alloy Arc Welding Electrodes, AWS A5.6 are
stainless steel electrodes and nickel electrodes are gener- also used to braze weld cast iron or to apply surfac-
ally not used to join duplex stainless steel. ing.33 The braze welding process is accomplished by
preheating the casting to about 400°F (200°C), and
using the lowest amperage (direct current electrode pos-
Electrodes for Cast Iron itive) that will produce a good bond between the weld
The successful welding of cast iron is challenging. metal and the base metal. Care must be exercised to
Success is generally inversely proportional to the avoid melting the surface of the casting.
strength of the material and directly proportional to its
ductility, and only achieved by the conscientious appli- Aluminum and Aluminum-Alloy
cation of a proven procedure with the correct SMAW
electrode.
Electrodes
The standard Specification for Welding Electrodes The standard Specification for Aluminum and
and Rods for Cast Iron, AWS A5.15 classifies the Aluminum-Alloy Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc
SMAW electrodes for welding cast iron.32 The designa- Welding, AWS A5.3, contains three classifications of
tor for the electrodes classified in A5.15 consists of the covered electrodes for the welding of aluminum base
letter “E” followed by the atomic symbol of the major metals.34 The electrodes are classified according to the
elements in descending order. The SMAW filler metal mechanical properties they produce in a defined groove
designations are ENi for nickel, ENiFe for nickel-iron, weld and according to the chemical composition of the
ENiFeMn for nickel-iron-manganese, ENiCu for nickel- core wire. The chemical requirements for each type of
copper alloys, and ESt for mild steel compositions (“St” core wire are identical to the corresponding wrought
in the specification stands for mild steel). In addition, in aluminum alloy classification. Consequently, the elec-
those instances where the type designations may be con- trode type is designated by appending the four-digit
fused with those from another specification, “-CI” (cast number in common use to identify the wrought alloy to
iron) must be appended to the designator. The designa- the familiar “E” for electrode.
tion is completed by adding a letter in alphabetical The E1100 and the E3003 classifications are
order beginning with “A” to the first and subsequent intended for the welding of alloys of similar composi-
variations in a given class, e.g., ENiFe-CI-A. tion. The E4043 electrodes have broader application;
Once an electrode with the required strength and the silicon content increases the fluidity and reduces the
machining characteristics has been selected, a welding melting point. When welding aluminum, it is imperative
procedure that addresses the amperage range (heat that the weld pool solidifies at a temperature that is
input), joint design, surface cleanliness, the need for lower than the melting point of the base plate. The
preheat, preheat temperature, welding sequence, length E4043 electrodes are used to weld the 6XXX series,
of the stringer welds, interpass temperature, cooling, some 5XXX (up to 2.5% magnesium), aluminum-
postweld heat treatment, peening, anchoring or groov- silicon casting alloys, and aluminum base metals 1100,
ing and so forth, must be worked out. The final values 1350(EC), and 3003.
are a function of the casting grade, the mass and the
complexity of the cast part, and the choice of electrode. 33. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals
Small pits and cracks can be repair welded without and Allied Materials, Specification for Covered Copper and Copper
excessive preparation of the casting. A “-CI” nickel Alloy Arc Welding Electrodes, AWS A5.6 (R 2000), Miami: American
Welding Society.
34. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals
32. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals and Allied Materials, Specification for Aluminum and Aluminum-
and Allied Materials, Specification for Welding Electrodes and Rods Alloy Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.3/A5.3M,
for Cast Iron, AWS A5.15, Miami: American Welding Society. Miami: American Welding Society.
78 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

The low melting point of aluminum and the tena- The electrodes classified in the specification A5.6 are
cious oxide film that readily forms on the surface generally used with DCEP. The welder holds a short arc
require the use of alkali (low-melting) halides in the and often uses a weaving motion equal to three times
electrode covering. These chemical compounds dissolve the electrode’s nominal diameter to minimize slag
the oxide film to promote wetting and fusion. However, entrapment.
they are very corrosive to aluminum and must be com- Copper electrodes are used to weld unalloyed copper
pletely removed after welding. Also, these halides may and to repair copper cladding on steel or cast iron.
contain or acquire moisture if the electrodes are not Silicon-bronze electrodes are used to weld copper-zinc
properly stored. Moisture readily leads to porosity alloys, copper, and some iron-base materials. They are
within the weld metal. Aluminum and its alloys have a also used for surfacing to provide corrosion resistance.
very low solubility for hydrogen in the solid state; the Phosphor-bronze and brass base metals are welded
liquid has a higher solubility. If hydrogen from moisture with phosphor-bronze electrodes. These electrodes are
or other sources contaminates the weld pool, it is also used to braze weld copper alloys to steel and cast
rejected as a gas during solidification, forming porosity iron. The phosphor-bronzes are rather viscous when mol-
in the weld. ten, but fluidity is improved by preheating to about 200°C
Aluminum electrodes are used primarily for shielded (400°F). The electrodes and the base plate must be dry.
metal arc welding and repair applications that are not Copper-nickel electrodes are used to weld a wide
critical. The standard Structural Welding Code—Alu- range of copper-nickel alloys and to apply copper-nickel
minum, AWS D1.2, makes no provision for the use of cladding on steel. In general, preheat is not necessary
the SMAW process.35 for these materials.
The SMAW aluminum electrodes are used with Aluminum-bronze electrodes have broad use for
DCEP. To avoid porosity, the electrodes should be welding copper-base alloys and some dissimilar metal
stored in a heated cabinet until they are used. Elec- combinations. They are used to braze weld many fer-
trodes that have been exposed to moisture should be rous metals and to apply overlays that provide a bear-
reconditioned (baked) before use, or discarded. ing surface or surfaces that are resistant to wear and
corrosion. Welding is usually done in the flat position
If the arc is broken during welding, the molten slag with some preheat. Aluminum-bronze electrodes are
may fuse over the end of the electrode. To use the particularly suitable for welding galvanized and alumi-
remaining stub, the slag must be removed before nized steel. Welds on these coated steels have good
restriking an arc. Because slag on the weld bead can be corrosion resistance, which eliminates the need for
very corrosive to aluminum, it is important that all of it painting or galvanizing.
be removed upon completion of the weld. Manganese-nickel-aluminum-bronze electrodes are
used to weld and repair bronzes of similar composition.
These bronzes have excellent resistance to corrosion,
Copper and Copper-Alloy Electrodes erosion, and cavitation. They are widely used for the
casting of ship propellers.
The standard Specification for Covered Copper and
Copper Alloy Arc Welding Electrodes, AWS A5.6,36
classifies copper and copper-alloy SMAW electrodes on Electrodes for Nickel and Cobalt Alloys
the basis of the chemical composition and mechanical
properties of the undiluted weld metal. The designation Nickel and nickel alloys are generally welded with
system, as first conceived and published in 1948, con- SMAW electrodes that are of similar composition.
sists of the letter “E” followed by the chemical symbols However, the electrodes may also contain specific addi-
of the major alloying elements. If more than one type tions of elements such as titanium, manganese, magne-
contains the same major alloying elements, each is sium, and niobium. These additions deoxidize the weld
identified by the letters A, B, C, and so on. Later, the metal and neutralize the deleterious effects of some
convention of following this letter with a number was harmful impurities. Ultimately, the addition of these
adopted to further subdivide the types, for example, reactive metals improves the soundness of the weld and
ECuAl-A2. The primary types are CuSi for helps to prevent cracking.
silicon bronze; CuSn for phosphor (tin) bronze; CuNi The standard Specification for Nickel and Nickel-
for copper-nickel; CuAl for aluminum-bronze; and Alloy Welding Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc
CuMnNiAl for manganese-nickel-aluminum-bronze. Welding, AWS A5.11/A5.11M,37 establishes five related

35. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Structural 37. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals
Welding, Structural Welding Code—Aluminum, AWS D1.2, Miami: and Allied Materials, Specification for Nickel and Nickel-Alloy Weld-
American Welding Society. ing Electrodes for Shielded Metal Arc Welding, AWS A5.11, Miami:
36. See Reference 33. American Welding Society.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 79

groups of alloys and makes provision for the require- describe the particular function of the surfacing. The
ments of the electrodes and the naming of each classi- term cladding denotes that the surfacing will provide
fication. The type designation focuses on the corrosion or heat resistance. The term buttering means
composition of the alloy. The familiar “E” for electrode that the layer will provide an underlay of compatible
is followed by the symbol for nickel and then the sym- weld metal for the subsequent completion of the weld.
bols for the principal elements in the weld metal. The When the term buildup is used, it means that the layer
symbols are indicated sequentially in proportion to the is added to achieve a required dimension. The term
weight fraction. Successive numbers are then added to hardfacing is used to describe surfaces that are applied
identify each type within its classification. For example, to withstand impact or abrasive wear.
ENiCrFe-1 contains nickel and significant amounts of Covered electrodes for a particular surfacing applica-
chromium and iron. tion should be selected after a careful review of the
Because nickel alloys have a face-centered cubic struc- required properties of the weld metal when it is applied
ture throughout the temperature range of the solid to a specific base metal. Many of the nickel- and cop-
phase, the hardening of these alloys is accomplished by per-base SMAW electrodes previously described are
solid solution reactions or cold work. Nickel- and used in cladding and buttering. The SMAW electrodes
cobalt-base weld metal and alloys have excellent resis- for buildup and hardfacing are classified in Specifica-
tance to various corrosive environments, even at elevated tion for Solid Surfacing Welding Rods and Electrodes,
temperatures. Therefore, nickel-base electrodes are AWS A5.1338 or Specification for Composite Surfacing
widely used for surfacing, cladding, joining dissimilar Welding Rods and Electrodes, AWS A5.21.39 A wide
metals and joining austenitic and superaustenitic stain- range of SMAW electrodes are described in these and
less steels. Precipitation-hardenable nickel alloys are not other AWS filler metal specifications to provide resis-
welded with the shielded metal arc welding process. tance to wear, impact, heat, or corrosion on a variety of
Most of the electrodes are intended for use with base metals.
DCEP. Some can also be used with ac to overcome The covered electrodes specified in AWS A5.13 have
problems that may be encountered with arc blow (for a solid core wire; those specified in AWS A5.21 may
example, when 9% nickel steel is welded). The specifi- have a composite core wire. The electrode designation
cation assumes that the manufacturer of the electrodes system in both specifications is the same, and is similar
will specify the usable polarity and current range. It is to that used for copper-alloy electrodes.
extremely important to use a welding current within the The designation system for tungsten carbide SMAW
recommended range. Because the core wire will typi- electrodes is unique. All tungsten carbide electrodes
cally have a high electrical resistance, the use of a cur- have a core that consists of a sealed steel tube filled
rent setting that exceeds the recommended maximum with tungsten carbide granules that comprise a substan-
will overheat the electrode and damage the covering, tial portion of the total weight of the electrode. Because
causing arc instability and unacceptable amounts of the surfacing performance of tungsten carbide elec-
spatter. trodes is also dependent on the size of the granules, the
The weld pool during welding is sluggish (stiff), so a mesh range (U.S. Standard Sieve) is included in the clas-
small weave is required to wet the edges of the weld. sification designator. The complete designator for the
However, the width of the weave must be carefully con- tungsten carbide SMAW electrodes consists of the “E”
trolled to avoid slag inclusions and porosity. Although followed by “WC,” the chemical symbol for tungsten
most nickel-base electrodes can be used in all positions, carbide, and the mesh size limits for the tungsten car-
it is best to plan for welding in the flat position. As a bide granules in the core, i.e. EWC-30/40.
rule, when welding the Ni-Mo alloys with ENi-Mo elec-
trodes, welding in other than the flat position is not rec-
ommended. The best results for out-of-position welds
are achieved using electrodes of 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) diame- ELECTRODE STORAGE AND
ter and smaller. CONDITIONING
Shielded metal arc welding electrode coverings inter-
Electrodes for Surfacing act with the atmosphere. The coverings absorb mois-
ture and carbon dioxide. The amounts absorbed vary,
Surfacing with SMAW electrodes involves the appli- depending on the type of covering and the particular
cation of a layer or layers of metal to a base metal by composition of the covering. The amounts absorbed are
means of arc braze welding or arc welding. The reasons
for applying the layer are reflected in the several terms
38. See Reference 21.
that are often used interchangeably with surfacing. 39. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Metals
These terms, cladding, buttering, buildup, and hardfac- and Allied Materials, Specification for Composite Surfacing Welding
ing, however, are not synonymous and are best used to Rods and Electrodes, AWS A5.15, Miami: American Welding Society.
80 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

also a function of the temperature and atmospheric

content of these vapors in the storage environment. The APPLICATIONS
absorption of carbon dioxide may appear as a white
dusting of the surface of the covering. The extent of
moisture absorption can be determined by laboratory The application of the shielded metal arc welding
measurement. The absorption of these vapors causes process for a joining project requires a review of the
changes in the welding operation and in the quality of nature of the base materials, the availability and selec-
the deposit. A wet covering may increase the spatter tion of the appropriate electrode, the welding position,
rate, destabilize the arc, and cause porosity. The the dimensions of the workpieces, the orientation of the
absorption of carbon dioxide has been primarily associ- weld seam and the environmental conditions at the site
ated with a deterioration of the appearance and tough- of the project. Typical applications are shown in Figures
ness of the electrode covering. 2.9 and 2.10.
Control of moisture pickup in the covering is
extremely important for the low-hydrogen electrodes
used to join high-strength steels with the shielded metal
arc welding process. The moisture these electrodes MATERIALS
acquire on exposure to a humid atmosphere dissociates Shielded metal arc welding can be used to join most
to form hydrogen and oxygen during welding. The of the common metals and alloys, including carbon
atoms of hydrogen dissolve into the weld and diffuse steels, low-alloy steels, stainless steels and cast iron, as
into the heat-affected zone and may cause cold crack- well as copper, nickel, and aluminum, and some alloys
ing. This type of crack is more prevalent in highly of these metals. The process is also used to weld many
restrained joints of high-strength steel that form a chemically dissimilar metals.
susceptible microstructure in the heat-affected zone.
The process is not used for metals that react unsatis-
Consequently, the moisture content of SMAW low-
factorily to the gaseous products that the electrode cov-
hydrogen electrodes in critical applications must be
strictly controlled.
To minimize moisture problems, particularly for the
low-hydrogen types, the electrodes must be properly
packaged, stored, and handled. Electrodes shipped and
stored in hermetically sealed steel containers offer the
most resistance to moisture pickup. After the electrodes
are removed from the container, a heated holding oven
provides the best storage conditions. Once the elec-
trodes are issued for use, it is a good practice to keep
them in a rod warmer and to minimize the time interval
in which the electrodes are exposed to the prevailing
atmosphere. For critical work governed by construction
codes, the maximum exposure time permitted is clearly
specified. This may vary from as little as a half an hour
to as much as eight hours, depending on the strength
designation of the electrode, the humidity during expo-
sure, and even the specific covering on the electrode.
The time that an electrode can be kept out of an oven or
rod warmer is reduced as the humidity increases. The
temperature of the holding oven should be in the range
of 110°C to 150°C (225°F to 300°F).
Low-hydrogen SMAW electrodes that have been
exposed too long require baking at a substantially
higher temperature to remove the absorbed moisture.
The specific recommendations of the manufacturer of
the electrode must be followed because the time and
temperature limitations can vary from one manufac- Photograph courtesy of The Lincoln Electric Company
turer to another, even for electrodes within a given clas-
sification. It should be noted that excessive heating Figure 2.9—On-Site Welding with
could damage the covering of the electrode. the Shielded Metal Arc Process
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 81

Figure 2.10—Repair Welding with the Shielded Metal Arc Process

ering normally produces to shield the arc. Among these be established, unless the joint is supported in a proper
are reactive metals such as titanium and zirconium and fixture and a special welding procedure is employed.
refractory metals such as niobium and tantalum. The There is no upper limit on thickness, but other pro-
shielded metal arc welding process is also not suited for cesses such as submerged arc welding (SAW) or FCAW
the structural joining of aluminum and its alloys, or for are capable of providing higher deposition rates and
some high-strength steels that require very clean, undi- better economies for most applications involving mate-
luted weld metal. rial thickness exceeding 38 mm (1-1/2 in.). Therefore,
most of the applications of the shielded metal arc weld-
Base Metal Thickness ing process are on thicknesses between 3 mm and
38 mm (1/8 and 1-1/2 in.). However, when irregular
The shielded metal arc process is adaptable to any configurations are encountered or when the welding is a
material thickness within certain practical and eco- one-time event, automated welding processes may be an
nomic limitations. For thin materials less than about economic disadvantage. In such instances, the shielded
1.6 mm (1/16 in.), the base metal will melt through and metal arc process is used to weld materials as thick as
the molten metal will fall away before a weld pool can 250 mm (10 in.).
82 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

WELDING POSITION or have been joined. It is the spatial volume occupied or

to be occupied by the weld metal. The configuration of
One of the major advantages of shielded metal arc the volume is determined by edge preparation and the
welding is the ability to weld in any position. This ver- orientations of the abutting base plates. The weld will
satility makes the process useful for joints that cannot achieve the desired mechanical properties and intended
be placed in the flat position. Despite this advantage, function only if the joint is properly designed and
welding should be performed in the flat position when- prepared.
ever practical because larger electrodes with corre-
spondingly higher deposition rates can be used and less
skill is required of the welder. Vertical and overhead TYPES OF WELDS
joints are welded with smaller-diameter electrodes with
corresponding lower deposition rates and require more Welds are designed primarily on the basis of the
skill on the welder’s part. strength and the safety required of the weldment under
The position of welding is defined by the orientation the service conditions imposed on it. The manner in
of the joint, the base metal, the SMAW electrode and which the stresses will be applied and the temperature
the weld pool relative to the earth. The welding posi- of the weldment in the service environment must always
tions are identified as flat, horizontal, vertical, and be considered. A welded joint required to sustain
overhead.40 The position of welding is an important dynamic loading may be quite different from one that is
variable that can affect the weld metal quality. Conse- permitted by code to operate under static loading condi-
quently, welding positions are strictly defined in weld- tions. Dynamic loading requires consideration of fatigue
ing codes, such as the American Society of Mechanical strength and resistance to brittle fracture. These proper-
Engineers’ (ASME) Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code41 ties, among others, require that the joints be designed to
and Structural Welding Code—Steel, AWS D1.1.42 reduce or eliminate points of stress concentration in the
weld. The joint design and the welding procedure, par-
ticularly the bead sequence, should also balance the
LOCATION OF WELDING residual stresses resulting from welding to obtain as low
a net residual stress level as possible. The weld must
The simplicity and portability of shielded metal arc have the required strength, ductility, and toughness.43
welding equipment makes the process easily adaptable In addition to service requirements, weld joints
to varied locations and environments. Welding can be should be designed to achieve the lowest cost and to
done indoors or outdoors, on a production line, a ship, provide accessibility for the welder during fabrication.
a bridge, a building framework, an oil refinery, a cross- Good accessibility to the weld joint improves the ability
country pipeline, or almost any other conceivable loca- of the welder to meet good workmanship and quality
tion. No gas or water hoses are needed and the welding requirements, and can assist in the control of distortion
cables can be extended quite some distance from the and in the reduction of welding costs.
power source. In remote areas, gasoline- or diesel-
powered units can be used. Despite this versatility, for
outdoor applications the process should always be used Groove Welds
in an environment that shelters it from the wind. Groove welds are joint designs in which at least part
of the weld occurs within the thickness of the thinner
base plate. The groove configuration that is most
appropriate for a specific application is influenced by
JOINT DESIGN AND the following:
PREPARATION 1. Suitability for the structure under consideration,
2. Accessibility to the joint for welding,
The weld joint is the junction of members or the 3. Position in which welding is to be done, and
edges of members of a weldment that are to be joined 4. Cost of welding.

40. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Definitions and A square groove weld is the most economical to pre-
Symbols, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS A3.0, pare. It requires only the squaring-off of the edge of
Miami: American Welding Society, p. 84.
41. American Society of Mechanical Engineers’ (ASME) Boiler and
Pressure Vessel Committee, Boiler and Pressure Vessel Code New 43. For further information on weld design, see Chapter 5 of
York: American Society of Mechanical Engineers. American Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook Committee,
42. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Structural Weld- Jenney, C. L. and A. O’Brien, eds., 2001, Welding Science and
ing, Structural Welding Code—Steel, AWS D1.1, Miami: American Technology, Vol. 1 of Welding Handbook, 9th ed., Miami: American
Welding Society. Welding Society.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 83

each member. However, this design greatly increases the WELD BACKING
potential for slag entrapment, and if the joint members
are sufficiently spaced (gapped), the economic advan- When full penetration welds are required and weld-
tage is lost. Therefore, the square groove is limited to ing is done from one side of the joint, weld backing may
thicknesses with which satisfactory strength and sound- be necessary. The backing supports the weld pool dur-
ness can be obtained. For shielded metal arc welding, ing deposition of the first layer of weld metal and pre-
that thickness is usually not greater than about 6 mm vents the molten metal from escaping through the root
(1/4 in.) and then only when the joint can be welded of the joint. Backing strips or inserts, or both, are used
in the flat position from both sides. The type of mate- to accomplish this purpose.
rial to be welded is also a factor to be considered Four types of backing are commonly used:
when evaluating whether a square groove weld will be
satisfactory. 1. Backing strip,
When thicker members are to be welded, the edge of 2. Copper backing bar,
each member must be prepared with a contour that will 3. Nonmetallic backing, and
permit the arc to be directed to the point in the joint 4. Backing weld.
where the weld metal is to be deposited. The contour is
necessary to provide the required depth of fusion of the
base metals. Backing Strip
For economy as well as to reduce distortion and A backing strip is a narrow piece of metal placed on
residual stresses, the joint design should have a root the back of the joint, as shown in Figure 2.11(A). The
opening and a groove angle that will provide adequate first weld layer ties both members of the joint together
strength and soundness with the deposition of the least and to the backing strip. The strip can be left in place if
amount of filler metal. The key to soundness is accessi- it will not interfere with the serviceability of the weld or
bility to the root and groove faces (sidewalls) of the the function of the fabricated product. Otherwise, it
joint. V-groove joints are typical, but may have to be must be removed, although the back side of the joint
replaced by the J-groove or U-groove joint on thick sec- must be accessible to accomplish this. If the back side is
tions. In very thick sections, the savings in filler metal not accessible, another means of obtaining a proper
and welding time alone are sufficient to offset the added root pass must be used.
cost of preparing the base material to achieve one of The backing strip must always be made of a material
these joint configurations. For each weld layer depos- that is metallurgically compatible with the base metal
ited, the angle of the groove faces must be large enough and the welding electrode to be used. When design per-
to prevent slag entrapment. mits, another member of the structure may serve as
backing for the weld. Figure 2.11(B) provides an exam-
ple of this situation. In all cases, it is important that the
Fillet Welds backing strip and the surfaces of the joint are cleaned
A fillet weld is used to join two base materials in a before welding to avoid porosity and inclusions in the
nearly perpendicular configuration. The joint profile weld. It is also important that the backing strip fits
properly and is of sufficient thickness. Otherwise, the
appears as a “T,” a lapped surface, or a corner. Fillet
molten weld metal can run out through any gap
welds made on T-joints, lap joints and corner joints are
between the strip and the base metal at the root of the
approximately triangular in cross section. Unlike
joint.
groove welds, fillet welds require little or no joint prep-
aration. When the service requirements of the weldment
permit, fillet welds are frequently used in preference to
groove welds. In instances when a continuous fillet
weld would provide more strength than is required to
carry the intended load, greater economy may be
achieved by substituting intermittent fillet welds.
A fillet weld is often combined with a groove weld to
provide the required strength. The fillet weld eliminates
abrupt junctures and hence reduces the stress concen-
tration at the weld. To minimize the stress concentra- (A) Backing Strip (B) Structure Backing
tion at the toe of the fillet weld the weld metal should
feather into the base material. A weld exhibiting over-
lap onto the base material is undesirable. Figure 2.11—Fusible Metal Backing for a Weld
84 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Copper Backing Bar

GROOVE WELD MADE
A copper backing bar is sometimes used as a means AFTER WELDING OTHER SIDE
of supporting the weld pool at the root of the joint.
Copper is used because of its high thermal conductivity,
which helps prevent the weld metal from melting the
surface of the copper and fusing to the backing bar. In
addition to the rapid conduction of heat, the copper bar
must have sufficient mass to avoid melting during the
deposition of the first weld pass. In high-production
applications, water can be passed through holes in the
bar to remove the heat that accumulates during contin-
uous welding. Regardless of the method of cooling, the
arc should not be allowed to impinge on the copper BACKING WELD
backing bar, for if any copper melts, the weld metal can
become contaminated with copper. The copper bar may
be grooved to obtain a desired root surface contour and Figure 2.12—A Typical Backing Weld
reinforcement.

Nonmetallic Backing
pleted, all subsequent passes are made in the groove
Nonmetallic backing of either granular flux or a from the face side. After the backing weld is made, the
refractory material can also be used to produce a sound root of the joint can be ground or gouged to produce
first pass. These materials are used primarily to support sound, clean metal on which to deposit the first pass on
the weld metal and to shape the root surface. The gran- the face side of the joint.
ular flux layer or backing made with a refractory mate-
The backing weld can be made with the same process
rial, which is usually supplied in individual tiles, are
or with a different process from that to be used for
supported against the underside of the joint with alumi-
welding the groove. If the same process is used, the elec-
num adhesive tape. The tiles are shaped to function in a
trodes should be of the same classification as those to
variety of joint configurations and often are grooved to
be used for welding the groove. If a different process is
obtain a properly shaped root bead. Refractory backing
used, such as gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW), the
may also consist of a flexible, shaped form that is held
welding rods should deposit weld metal with composi-
on the back side of the joint by clamps or pressure-
tion and properties similar to those of the SMAW weld
sensitive tape.
metal. The backing weld must be large enough to
A method for supporting the flux against the back support any load that is temporarily placed on it during
side of the weld involves the use of a pressurized fire the welding operation. This requirement is especially
hose. In this method, an inflatable rubberized canvas important when the weldment must be repositioned
fire hose is placed in a trough under the weld; granular after the backing weld has been deposited and before
flux is arranged on a thin piece of flexible sheet material the groove weld is made.
and placed over the hose. The workpieces are posi-
tioned over the trough containing the hose and flux so
that the flux is in contact with the back side of the weld.
The hose is inflated to no more than 35 kPa to 70 kPa JOINT FITUP
(5 psi to 10 psi) to apply moderate pressure to the flux Joint fitup refers to the positioning of the members
on the back side of the weld. A system of this type is of the joint to provide the specified groove dimensions
generally used for production line work and is not and alignment for welding. The points of concern are
widely used for shielded metal arc welding. An illustra- the size of the root opening and the misalignment of the
tion of this method appears in Chapter 6, Figure 6.20. members along the root of the weld. Both the root
opening and the alignment of the joint have an impor-
Backing Weld tant influence on the quality of the weld and the eco-
nomics of the process. After the joint has been properly
A backing weld is applied with one or more backing aligned throughout its length, the fitup of the work-
passes in a single-groove weld joint. The backing weld pieces should be maintained by clamps or tack welds.
is deposited on the back side of the joint before the first Finger bars or U-shaped bridges (strongbacks) can be
pass is deposited on the face side, as illustrated in Figure placed across the joint and tack welded to each member
2.12. After the first pass of the backing weld is com- of the weldment.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 85

If the root opening is not uniform, the amount of

weld metal will vary from location to location along the WELDING VARIABLES
joint. Consequently, the shrinkage and the resulting dis-
tortion will not be uniform. This can cause problems
when the finished dimensions have been predicated on The application of the shielded metal arc welding
the basis of uniform, controlled shrinkage. process to a given joining project requires a review of
several welding variables. The welding variables that
Misalignment along the root of the weld may result must be considered are the type and size of the electrode
in lack of penetration in some areas or poor root sur- and its orientation during welding, the type and magni-
face contour, or both. An inadequate root opening can tude of current, arc length, and travel speed. The welder
also cause incomplete joint penetration. Too wide a must implement welding techniques that are fundamen-
root opening makes welding difficult and requires more tal for good workmanship, and also must exercise good
weld metal to fill the joint. More weld metal means judgment as to whether to grind starts and stops, clean
more welding time, and of course, additional cost. In the residues, adjust the workpiece temperature, and so
thin members, an excessive root opening may cause forth. Control of the important variables in the shielded
excessive melt-through on the back side. It may even metal arc welding process will permit the trained welder
cause the edge of one or both members to melt away. to achieve a quality weld.

Typical Joint Geometries

ELECTRODE DIAMETER
The weld grooves shown in Figure 2.13 illustrate
typical designs and dimensions of joints for the shielded The diameter of the core wire used to manufacture
metal arc welding of steel. These joints are generally the SMAW electrode defines its nominal size or elec-
suitable for economically achieving sound welds. Other trode diameter. In a given application, the correct elec-
joint designs or changes in the suggested dimensions of trode diameter is one that, when used with the proper
the noted joints may be required for special applications. amperage and travel speed, produces a weld of the
required size in the least amount of time. The electrode
diameter ultimately selected for an application will
Runoff Weld Tabs. In some applications, it is neces- depend largely on the thickness of the material to be
sary to completely fill the groove to the very ends of the welded, the position in which welding is to be per-
joint. However, with the SMAW process, weld starts formed, and the type of joint to be welded. In general,
tend to be overfilled and weld craters underfilled. These larger electrodes will be selected for applications involv-
features create an unfavorable shape at the start and at ing thicker materials and for welding in the flat position
the end of multiple-pass groove and fillet welds. There- in order to take advantage of the higher deposition
fore, runoff tabs are used to completely fill out the rates of these electrodes.
groove and achieve a uniform weld. The runoff tabs For welding in the horizontal, uphill, and overhead
extend the groove beyond the ends of the workpieces. positions, the bead shape is an important consideration.
The welding is started on a runoff tab and carried In these positions, the weld pool tends to flow out of
over into the finishing runoff tab. This technique the joint due to gravitational forces. Consequently,
assures that the entire length of the joint is uniformly when it solidifies into weld metal, it has a convex pro-
filled with sound weld metal to the necessary depth. file. The severity of the convex profile of the bead shape
Runoff tabs provide an excellent method for starting can be controlled by the selection of small-diameter
and stopping welding because all defects typically asso- electrodes, typically 4.8 mm (1/8 in.) and smaller. The
ciated with starts and stops are located in areas that small-diameter electrodes have lower heat input and
later will be discarded. A typical runoff tab is shown in create a smaller weld pool. Electrode manipulation and
Figure 2.14. increased travel speed along the joint also aid in reduc-
The selection of material for runoff tabs is impor- ing the weld pool size.
tant. The composition of the tabs should not be allowed Weld groove design must also be considered when elec-
to adversely affect the properties of the weld metal. For trode size is selected. The electrode used in the first few
example, for stainless steel that is intended for corrosive passes must be small enough for easy manipulation in the
service, the runoff tabs should be of a compatible grade root of the joint. In V-grooves, small-diameter electrodes
of stainless steel. Carbon steel tabs would be less expen- are frequently used for the initial pass to control melt-
sive, but fusion with the stainless steel filler metal through and bead shape. Larger electrodes can be used to
would change the composition of the weld metal at the complete the weld to take advantage of the deeper pene-
junction of the carbon steel tab and the stainless steel tration and higher deposition rates they provide.
members of the joint. The weld metal at this location The expertise of the welder often has a bearing on
probably would not have adequate corrosion resistance. the electrode size to be used. This consideration is
86 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

T T 60° 1.6 mm
MIN (1/16 in.)
T 60° MAX
MIN
T = 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) MAX FOR ALL JOINTS
3.2 mm
Square Groove Joints Welded from One Side 3.2 mm TO 1.6 mm TO 6.4 mm
6.4 mm (1/8 in. (1/16 in.) MAX 10° TO 15° (1/8 in. TO
TO 1/4 in.) 1/4 in.)
T R T R
JOINT RECOMMENDED
FOR HORIZONTAL POSITION
DIMENSION T DIMENSION R
3.2 mm (1/8 in.) MAX 0 Double V-Groove Joints Welded from Both Sides
3.2 mm TO 6.4 mm T/2 MAX
(1/8 in. TO 1/4 in.) MAX
45° 45° 1.6 mm (1/16 in.)
Square Groove Joints Welded from Both Sides MIN MIN MAX

T T MIN T T MIN 3.2 mm TO 3.2 mm TO 6.4 mm

6.4 mm (1/8 in. 1.6 mm (1/16 in.) (1/8 in. to 1/4 in.) MAX
to 1/4 in.) MAX
T = 4.8 mm (3/16 in.) MAX
45° 45°
Square Groove Joints Welded from One Side with Backing MIN MIN

1.6 mm
60° 60°
(1/16 in.) MAX
MIN MIN 1.6 mm
(1/16 in.) 1.6 mm 4.8 mm
6.4 mm 3.2 mm TO (1/16 in.) 3.2 mm TO (3/16 in.)
3.2 mm MAX
(1/4 in.) 6.4 mm MAX 6.4 mm MIN
(1/8 in.) MAX MIN (1/8 in. TO (1/8 in. TO
1.6 mm TO 3.2 mm
1/4 in.) 1/4 in.)
(1/16 in. to 1/8 in.)

3.2 mm (1/8 in.) MAX Single Bevel-Groove Joints Welded from One or Both Sides
60°
MIN 3.2 mm TO 6.4 mm
(1/8 in. TO 1/4 in.)
X X X
10° TO 15°
JOINT RECOMMENDED FOR 4.8 mm
HORIZONTAL POSITION R R (3/16 in.)
R MIN
Single V-Groove Joints Welded from One or Both Sides
ANGLE X DIMENSION R POSITIONS
X X
45° 6.4 mm (1/4 in.) ALL
20° 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) ALL
4.8 mm 12° 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) F, V, O
R R (3/16 in.)
MIN
X
45° R
MIN X
6.4 mm JOINT RECOMMENDED
(1/4 in.) MIN FOR HORIZONTAL POSITION
5° TO 10° R
ANGLE X DIMENSION R POSITIONS
45° 6.4 mm (1/4 in.) ALL ANGLE X DIMENSION R POSITIONS
20° 13 mm (1/2 in.) F, V, O 45° 6.4 mm (1/4 in.) ALL
12° 13 mm (1/2 in.) F 35° 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) ALL
Single V-Groove Joints Welded from One Side with Backing Single Bevel-Groove Joints Welded from One Side with Backing

Figure 2.13—Typical Joint Geometries for the Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Steel
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 87

1.6 mm (1/16 in.) 13 mm

1.6 mm TO 3.2 mm
45° MAX (1/2 in.) R
X (1/16 in. TO 1/8 in.)
MIN
45° 13 mm (1/2 in.) R 35° 4.8 mm
MIN 3.2 mm TO (3/16 in.)
6.4 mm (1/8 in. MAX
4.8 mm (3/16 in.)
TO 1/4 in.)
1.6 mm 3.2 mm TO MAX 1.6 mm TO 4.8 mm
(1/16 in.) 6.4 mm (1/8 in. (1/16 in. TO 3/16 in.)
45°
MAX TO 1/4 in.) MIN X X
13 mm (1/2 in.) R

1.6 mm 1.6 mm
1.6 mm (1/16 in.) MAX TO 3.2 mm 4.8 mm TO 3.2 mm 4.8 mm
3.2 mm TO 6.4 mm
(1/16 in. (3/16 in.) (1/16 in. (3/16 in.)
(1/8 in. TO 1/4 in.)
TO 1/8 in.) MAX TO 1/8 in.) MAX
Double Bevel-Groove Joints Welded from Both Sides
ANGLE X POSITIONS
35° ALL
6.4 mm X 6.4 mm X 25° F, V, O
(1/4 in.) (1/4 in.)
Single J-Groove Joints Welded from One or Both Sides

4.8 mm R = 13 mm
1.6 mm TO 9.5 mm
(3/16 in.) R = 13 mm (1/2 in.)
(1/16 in. TO 3/8 in.) 3.2 mm X
MAX (1/2 in.)
(1/8 in.)
1.6 mm TO 4.8 mm
MAX
35 (1/16 in. TO 3/16 in.)
6.4 mm (1/4 in.)
1.6 mm TO 9.5 mm 4.8 mm
45° 1.6 mm 4.8 mm
(1/16 in. TO 3/8 in) JOINT (3/16 in.) MAX
MIN TO 4.8 mm (3/16 in.)
RECOMMENDED R = 13 mm
4.8 mm (3/16 in.) MAX (1/16 in. MAX
FOR HORIZONTAL X (1/2 in.)
TO 3/16 in.)
5° TO 10° 1.6 mm TO 9.5 mm POSITION
(1/16 in. TO 3/8 in.)
ANGLE X POSITIONS
35° ALL
ANGLE X POSITIONS 25° F, V, O
45 ALL 1.6 mm TO 4.8 mm
35°
20 F, V, O (1/16 in. TO 3/16 in.)
12 F
4.8 mm (3/16 in.) MAX

Single U-Groove Joints Welded from One or Both Sides Double J-Groove Joints Welded from Both Sides

1.6 mm 45°
6.4 mm 1.6 mm
TO 9.5 mm
(1/4 in.) TO 9.5 mm
6.4 mm X (1/16 in.
(1/16 in. T
(1/4 in.) TO 3/8 in.)
45° TO (3/8 in.) DIAMETER
MIN 4.8 mm
(3/16 in.) DIMENSION T DIAMETER
4.8 mm 5° TO 10° MAX UNDER 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) 6.4 mm (1/4 in.) MIN
(3/16 in.) 3.2 mm TO 13 mm (1/8 in. TO 1/2 in.) 2 T MIN
MAX OVER 13 mm (1/2 in.) T + 13 mm (1/2 in.)
JOINT RECOMMENDED FOR
HORIZONTAL POSITION
Joints for Plug Weld
ANGLE X POSITIONS
45° ALL R = W/2
20° F, V, O DIMENSION T DIMENSION W
W UNDER
Double U-Groove Joints Welded from Both Sides 3.2 mm (1/8 in.) 2 T MIN
Key: 10 T MAX 3.2 mm (1/8 in.)
GROOVE WELDS SLOT WELDS POSITIONS AND OVER 1-1/2 T MIN
R = Root opening R = Radius F = Flat T
T = Thickness W = Width O = Overhead
X = Groove angle V = Vertical Joint for Slot Weld

Figure 2.13 (Continued)—Typical Joint Geometries for the Shielded Metal Arc Welding of Steel
88 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

because the amperage and direction of current flow is

SAME GROOVE not constantly changing as it is with ac. Most covered
AS PLATE electrodes operate better on direct current electrode
positive, also referred to as reverse polarity, although
some electrodes are designed for use with direct current
PLATE
electrode negative, also referred to as straight polarity.
Direct current electrode positive produces deeper pene-
tration, but direct current electrode negative produces a
higher electrode melting rate. The dc arc produces good
wetting action by the molten weld metal and uniform
RUNOFF WELD TAB
weld bead size, even at low amperage. For these rea-
sons, dc is particularly suited to welding thin sections.
Most electrodes designed to operate with either type of
Figure 2.14—Runoff Weld Tab at End of a Joint current actually operate better on dc than on ac.
Direct current is preferred for the vertical and over-
head welding positions and for welding with a short
arc. The dc arc has less tendency to short out and to
eject the globules of molten metal as they transfer
particularly true for out-of-position welding, since the across the arc and into the weld pool. The sinusoidal
welder’s skill governs the size of the weld pool that can profile of the ac current requires easily ionized elements
be successfully controlled and the maximum deposition in the electrode covering to sustain the arc.
rate that can be obtained. Arc blow may be a problem when magnetic metals
The electrode used should be as large as possible, (iron and nickel) are welded with dc. The magnetic field
provided that it does not exceed any pertinent heat that is induced by the current may deflect the arc and
input limitations or layer thickness limitation or deposit eject metal droplets from the arc area. One way to over-
too large a weld. Welds that are larger than necessary come this interference with dc is to change to ac.
are more expensive, and in some instances, they may be
detrimental in service. Any sudden change in section
size or in the contour of a weld, such as might be caused
Alternating Current
by inconsistent welding, should be avoided because it For shielded metal arc welding, alternating current
creates stress concentrations. Choosing the correct elec- offers two advantages over direct current. One is the
trode diameter and using it with the proper amperage absence of arc blow and the other is the cost of the
and travel speed will produce a weld of the required size power source.
for the least cost.
Without arc blow, larger electrodes and higher weld-
ing currents can be used. Certain electrodes (specifically,
those with iron powder in the covering) are designed
WELDING CURRENT for use at higher amperages with ac. The highest weld-
ing speeds for the shielded metal arc welding process
Electric current is the transfer of energy in a circuit
can be obtained using these electrodes on ac with the
and amperage is a measure of the intensity of the current
drag technique. The absence of arc blow with ac also
in units of coulombs per second, or amperes. Shielded
minimizes any impact of the material used in the con-
metal arc welding can be accomplished with either alter-
struction of a welding fixture, the design of the fixture,
nating or direct electrical current, provided that the
and the location of the workpiece connection.
appropriate electrode has been selected. The magnitude
of the welding current, the polarity, and the constituents An ac transformer costs less than an equivalent dc
in the electrode covering influence the melting rate of all power source. However, the cost of the equipment
covered electrodes. For any given electrode, the melting alone should not be the sole criterion in the selection of
rate is directly related to the electrical energy supplied to the power source. It is best to consider all of the perti-
the arc, but only a fraction of this energy is used to melt nent factors.
the electrode. The remaining energy melts and heats the
base metal or is lost to the environment.
Amperage
Direct Current Covered electrodes of a specific size and classifica-
tion will operate satisfactorily at various amperages
Direct current always provides a steadier arc and within a given range. This range will vary somewhat
smoother metal transfer than alternating current with the formulation and thickness of the covering.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 89

Deposition rates increase as the amperage increases. cause excessive spatter, arc blow, undercut, and weld
For a given size of electrode, the amperage ranges and metal cracking. Figure 2.16 illustrates the effect of
the resulting deposition rates will vary from one elec- amperage, arc length, and travel speed on the resulting
trode classification to another. The relationship bead shape.
between deposition rates and amperage for several clas-
sifications of carbon steel electrodes of one size is
shown in Figure 2.15.
With a specific type and size of electrode, the opti- ARC LENGTH
mum amperage depends on several factors, such as the
position of welding and the type of joint. The amperage Arc length is the distance from the molten tip of the
must be sufficient to obtain good fusion and penetra- electrode core wire to the surface of the weld pool.
tion, yet permit proper control of the weld pool. For Although arc length is easily defined, it is rather diffi-
welding in the vertical and overhead positions, the opti- cult to visually perceive and measure. The welder must
mum amperages will likely fall on the low end of the visualize the relative distance between the electrode tip
allowable range. and the weld pool while feeding the electrode and main-
Amperage beyond the recommended maximum taining this distance as consistent as possible. The
should not be used. This can overheat the electrode and assessment of the proper arc length is important in

LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH LIVE GRAPH

Click here to view Click here to view Click here to view Click here to view

11 5

10
E6027 E7024

9 4

8
DEPOSITION RATE, lb/h

E7028
7

kg/h
3

5
E7018 E7014
2

4
E6012
E6013
E6010 (DC)
3 E6011

1
2
125 175 225 200 250 300 225 275 325 200 250 300

WELDING CURRENT, A

Figure 2.15—The Relationship between Deposition Rate and Welding Current

for Various Types of 4.8 mm (3/16 in.)-Diameter Carbon Steel Electrodes
90 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

A B C D E F G

(A) Proper Amperage, Arc Length, and Travel Speed; (B) Amperage Too Low; (C) Amperage Too High; (D) Arc Length Too Short; (E) Arc Length Too Long;
(F) Travel Speed Too Slow; (G) Travel Speed Too Fast

Figure 2.16—The Effect of Welding Amperage, Arc Length, and Travel Speed

obtaining a sound welded joint with optimum mechani- not exceed the diameter of the core wire of the elec-
cal properties. The arc voltage is an indicator of the arc trode. The arc length is usually shorter than this value
length. The metal transfer from the tip of the electrode for electrodes with thick coverings, such as iron powder
to the weld pool is not a smooth, uniform action. As (drag) electrodes.
droplets of molten metal stream across the arc they Too short an arc length will lead to erratic operation
cause the instantaneous arc voltage to vary, even when as the metal droplets short-circuit during metal transfer,
a constant arc length is maintained. However, the varia- causing increased spatter. With some electrodes, shield-
tion in arc voltage is usually minimal during welding ing gases may not be generated and porosity will form.
when the proper amperage and arc length is main- Too long an arc will lack direction and drive, which will
tained. In general, the welder has the highest probabil- tend to scatter the molten metal as it moves from the
ity for maintaining a consistent arc length when the electrode toward the weld pool. Penetration is sacri-
electrode is run at optimum amperage. The best mea- ficed because the base plate is not fully melted. With a
sure of arc voltage is obtained as an average value dur- long arc, the spatter may be heavy and hence the depo-
ing a period in which all welding variables are held sition efficiency will be low. In addition, the gas and
relatively constant. flux generated by the electrode covering are not as con-
The correct arc length varies according to the elec- centrated, so they may not effectively shield the arc and
trode classification, diameter, and covering composition the weld metal. The dissipation of the shielding gases
as well as the amperage and welding position. The opti- can result in porosity and contamination of the weld
mum arc length increases with increasing electrode metal by oxygen or nitrogen, or both. Control of the
diameter and amperage. As a rule, the arc length should arc length is largely a matter of welder skill, involving
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 91

the welder’s knowledge, experience, visual perception, edges of the weld. It will also make slag removal diffi-
and manual dexterity. Although the optimum arc length cult and entrap gas (causing porosity) in the weld metal.
does change to some extent with changing conditions, The effect of high travel speed on bead appearance is
certain fundamental principles can serve as a guide to shown in Figure 2.16(G). With low travel speed, the
the proper arc length for a given set of conditions. weld bead will be wide and tend to be convex with shal-
During flat or horizontal welding, particularly with low penetration, as illustrated in Figure 2.16(F). The
large-diameter heavily covered electrodes, the electrode shallow penetration is caused by allowing the arc to
can be dragged lightly along the joint. The arc length, in dwell on the weld pool instead of leading it. If the arc
this case, is automatically determined by the covering leads the weld pool, more heat is directed into the base
thickness and the melting rate of the electrode. Thus, metal. The depth of penetration, in turn, affects dilution
the arc length is uniform. For vertical or overhead weld- of the weld metal. When dilution must be kept low, as
ing, the arc length is gauged by the welder. In such in cladding operations, the travel speed must also be
cases, the proper arc length is the one that permits the kept low.
welder to control the size and motion of the weld pool. Travel speed also influences heat input, which affects
For fillet welds, the electrode is pushed as deeply into the metallurgical structure of the weld metal and the
the weld pool as the arc from the electrode allows heat-affected zone. Low travel speed increases heat
without causing shorting or excessive penetration. This input and this, in turn, increases the size of the heat-
provides for the highest deposition rate and best pene- affected zone and reduces the cooling rate of the weld.
tration. The same is true of the root passes in groove The travel speed is necessarily reduced with a weave
welds in pipe where the electrode coating touches the bead as opposed to the higher travel speed that can be
groove faces of the joint. obtained with a stringer bead. Higher travel speed
When arc blow is encountered, the arc length should reduces the size of the heat-affected zone and increases
be reduced as much as possible without shorting the the cooling rate of the weld. The increase in the cooling
electrode. The various classifications of electrodes have rate can increase the strength and hardness of a weld in
widely different operating characteristics, including the a heat-hardenable steel, unless preheat of a level suffi-
proper arc length. It is important, therefore, for the cient to prevent hardening is used. The cooling rate is
welder to be familiar with the operating characteristics also a function of the temperature of the base plate.
of the various types of electrodes in order to recognize
the proper arc length and to know the effect of different
arc lengths. The effect of a long and a short arc on bead ELECTRODE ORIENTATION
appearance with a mild steel electrode is illustrated in
Figures 2.16(D) and 2.16(E). The orientation of the electrode in relation to the
workpiece and the weld groove controls the direction
and location of the arc and is an important factor in the
TRAVEL SPEED quality of a weld. Improper positioning of the electrode
can result in slag entrapment, porosity, and weld under-
Travel speed is the rate at which the electrode moves cut. The proper orientation in the joint depends on the
along the joint. The correct travel speed is the one that type and size of electrode, the welding position, and the
produces a weld bead of proper contour and appear- geometry of the joint. A skilled welder automatically
ance, as shown in Figure 2.16(A). Travel speed is influ- evaluates these factors when deciding the orientation
enced by several factors: to be used for a specific joint. The positioning of the
electrode relative to the joint and the workpiece is
1. Type of welding current, amperage, and polarity; described by the travel angle and the work angle.
2. Position of welding; The term travel angle denotes the angle (less than
3. Melting rate of the electrode; 90°) between the electrode axis and a line perpendicular
4. Thickness of base metal; to the weld axis, in a plane determined by the electrode
5. Surface condition of the base metal; axis and the weld axis. The term work angle denotes
6. Type of joint; the angle (less than 90°) between a line perpendicular to
7. Joint fit-up; and the major workpiece surface and a plane determined by
8. Electrode manipulation. the electrode axis and the weld axis.
When the electrode is pointed in the direction of
The welding travel speed should be adjusted so that welding, the technique is termed forehand welding. The
the arc is slightly ahead of the weld pool. Up to a point, travel angle, then, is known as the push angle. When
increasing the travel speed will narrow the weld bead the electrode is pointed in the opposite direction to that
and increase penetration. Beyond this point, higher of welding, the technique is termed backhand welding.
travel speeds can decrease penetration, cause the sur- The travel angle in backhand welding is called the drag
face of the bead to deteriorate and cause undercut at the angle. These angles are shown in Figure 2.17.
92 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Source: American Welding Society (AWS) Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, A3.0: 2001, Miami: American Welding Society, Figure 21, p. 74.

Figure 2.17—Orientation of the Electrode

SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 93

Table 2.3
Typical Shielded Metal Arc Electrode Positioning and Welding Technique for Carbon Steel Electrodes
Joint Type Welding Position Work Angle (Degree) Travel Angle (Degree) Welding Technique
Groove Flat 90 *5–10* Backhand
Groove Horizontal 80–100 5–10 Backhand
Groove Uphill 90 5–10 Forehand
Groove Overhead 90 5–10 Backhand
Fillet Horizontal 45 *5–10* Backhand
Fillet Uphill 35–55 5–10 Forehand
Fillet Overhead 30–45 5–10 Backhand
*Travel angle may be 10° to 30° for electrodes with heavy iron powder coverings.

Correct placement of the electrode helps to achieve attempt to remove it is hazardous and usually only suc-
control of the weld pool, attain the desired penetration, ceeds in bending the overheated electrode. At this point,
and assure complete fusion to the base plate. Typical the electrode should be released from the holder, the
electrode orientation and welding technique for groove holder safely stored, and the electrode removed with a
and fillet welds for use on carbon steel with carbon steel hammer and chisel.
electrodes are listed in Table 2.3. These values may be The initiation of an arc with a stub (a partially con-
different for other electrodes and materials. sumed electrode) is referred to as restriking. The tech-
A large travel angle may cause a convex, poorly nique of restriking an arc varies somewhat, depending
shaped bead with inadequate penetration, whereas a on the type of electrode and the timing of the restrike.
small travel angle may cause slag entrapment. A large Generally, the covering at the tip of the electrode
work angle can cause undercutting, while a small work becomes conductive when it is heated during welding. If
angle can result in incomplete fusion. the stub is sufficiently hot, the arc is easily initiated. If
the stub has had time to cool, generally in excess of 20
seconds, the fused glassy material on the tip of the core
WELDING TECHNIQUE wire may no longer be conductive, and arc initiation
may be difficult. If the electrode is a type that has large
The first step in shielded metal arc welding is to amounts of metal powders or graphite in the covering,
assemble the proper equipment, materials, and tools for
then it is possible that the covering is electrically con-
the job. The next steps are to determine the type (and ductive when cold. In these cases, arc initiation with the
polarity, if dc is used) of welding current needed, and to
stub, as with a new electrode, is much easier. However,
assure that the electrode and ground cables are con- when using heavily covered electrodes that do not have
nected to the proper terminals of the power source. If conductive coverings, such as the low-hydrogen and the
the power source permits, the open-circuit voltage must
stainless steel electrodes, it may be necessary to break
also be set to give the proper volt-ampere characteristic off (pinch) the covering of the stub to expose the core
for the size and type of electrode to be used. After this, wire at the tip.
the workpiece is positioned for welding and clamped in
place if necessary. Initiating the arc with low-hydrogen electrodes
After lowering the welding helmet, the welder strikes requires a special backwashing technique to avoid
an arc by tapping the end of the electrode on the work- porosity in the weld at the point where the arc is
piece near the point where welding is to begin, then started. This technique consists of initiating the arc a
quickly withdraws it to produce an arc of the proper few electrode diameters ahead of the place where weld-
length. Another technique is to use a scratching motion ing is to begin. The arc is then quickly moved back to
similar to that used in striking a match. The motion of the starting point, where welding proceeds in the nor-
the electrode helps to initiate a discharge across the nar- mal manner. As the arc approaches the original initia-
row gap between the electrode and the workpiece. tion point, it melts any small globules of weld metal
If the electrode touches the workpiece, it may stick to that may have remained in the weld pool.
the workpiece. When the electrode sticks, it must be During welding, the welder maintains a uniform arc
broken free very quickly or it will overheat and fuse to length by moving the electrode toward the workpiece as
the workpiece. When a conducting electrode fuses, any the electrode melts. At the same time, the welder
94 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

steadily moves the electrode along the joint in the direc- cuted because it is a juncture in the electrical circuit.
tion of welding to form a uniform bead. A uniform arc The location of the workpiece lead is especially impor-
length is maintained by skillful manipulation in tant with dc welding. Improper location may promote
response to visual input; for most seasoned welders the arc blow, making it difficult to control the arc. More-
action has become instinctive. over, the method of attaching the lead is important. A
Any of a variety of techniques may be employed to poorly attached workpiece lead will not provide consis-
extinguish (break) the arc. One method is to rapidly tent electrical contact, and the workpiece connection
shorten the arc, then quickly remove the electrode side- will heat up. A heated connection can interrupt the cir-
ways out of the crater. This technique is used when cuit and momentarily extinguish the arc. A copper con-
replacing a spent electrode, in which case welding will tact shoe secured to the base metal with a C-clamp is
continue from the crater. Another technique is to stop the best method of connection. If copper pickup from
the forward motion of the electrode and allow the cra- this attachment is detrimental, the copper shoe should
ter to fill. Then the electrode is gradually withdrawn. be fastened to a plate made of material compatible with
When continuing a weld from a crater, the arc should the base metal and this assembly should be used to
be struck at the forward end of the crater. It should then attach the workpiece lead. For rotating work, contact
be quickly moved to the back of the crater and slowly should be made by sliding shoes on the workpiece or
brought forward to continue the weld. In this manner, through roller bearings on the spindle on which the
the crater is filled and porosity and entrapped slag are workpiece is mounted. If sliding shoes are used, at least
avoided. This technique is particularly important for two shoes should be employed to guard against a break
low-hydrogen electrodes. in the circuit if a single shoe temporarily loses contact.

Slag Removal Arc Stability

Welds deposited with SMAW electrodes have a slag A stable arc is required if high-quality welds are to
that covers and protects the weld during the welding be produced. Discontinuities, such as incomplete
cycle. After the weld is completed, it is customary and fusion, entrapped slag and porosity (blowholes), can be
at times essential to remove the slag from the weld sur- the result of an unstable arc. The following are impor-
face. The detachability of the slag depends on the com- tant factors influencing arc stability:
position of the covering and often on the condition of
the covering. For a multiple-pass weld, the extent to 1. The open circuit voltage of the power source,
which the slag is removed from each weld bead before 2. Transient voltage response characteristics of the
welding over the bead has a direct bearing on weld power source,
quality. Failure to clean each bead thoroughly increases 3. Size of the molten drops of filler metal and slag
the probability of trapping slag and thus producing a in the arc,
defective weld. Complete and efficient slag removal 4. Ionization of the arc path from the electrode to
requires that each bead be properly contoured and the workpiece, and
blended smoothly into the adjacent bead or base metal. 5. Manipulation of the electrode.
Small beads cool more rapidly than large beads. This
fast quench tends to make slag removal from small The first two factors are related to the design and
beads easier. Concave or flat beads that wash or feather operating characteristics of the power source. The next
smoothly into the base metal or any adjoining beads two are dependent on the type of welding electrode.
tend to minimize undercutting and avoid a sharp notch The last one represents the skill of the welder.
along the edge of the bead where slag can become The arc of a covered electrode is a transient element
trapped in a subsequent layer. It is imperative that weld- in the circuit even when the welder maintains a fairly
ers recognize the areas where slag entrapment is likely constant arc length. The welding machine must be able
to occur and intervene to prevent it. Skilled welders to respond rapidly when the arc tends to extinguish
understand that complete removal of slag is necessary because the resistance of the arc momentarily increases,
in making quality multiple-pass welds. They also recog- or when a large droplet partially or totally short-circuits
nize that after the weld is made, complete cleanup is a the gap. In these instances, a surge of current is needed
very important step in the final inspection and prepara- to restore the arc. With ac, it is imperative that the volt-
tion of the weldment for service. age cycle leads the current cycle to sustain the arc. If the
voltage and current were in phase, the arc would be
Workpiece Connection very unstable. This phase shift must be designed into
the welding machine.
The workpiece connection, the attachment of the Some ingredients of the electrode covering tend to
workpiece lead to the workpiece, must be properly exe- stabilize the arc. These are necessary ingredients for an
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 95

electrode to operate well on ac. A few of these ingredi-

ents are titanium dioxide, feldspar, and various potassium
compounds (including the binder, potassium silicate).
The inclusion of one or more of these arc-stabilizing
compounds in the covering provides arc plasma that
readily ionizes and achieves a quiet arc. Thus, the elec- WORKPIECE CONNECTION
trode, the power source, and the welder all contribute
to arc stability. DIRECTION OF WELDING

Arc Blow
Figure 2.18—The Effect of the Location of the
The term arc blow is used to describe the undesirable Workpiece Connection on Magnetic Arc Blow
deflection of the arc by magnetic forces. Arc blow is
encountered principally with the dc welding of mag-
netic materials (iron and nickel). It may be encountered
with ac under some conditions, but those cases are rare
and the intensity of the blow is always much less severe. welded. The difference in permeability between the steel
Direct current flowing through the electrode and the and the air causes the equal flux lines to assume ellipti-
base metal sets up magnetic fields around the electrical cal shapes. At the beginning of current flow, if welding
path that tend to deflect the arc from its intended were started at the center of the plate, the lines would be
course. The arc may be deflected to the side at times, closely packed on the steel sides and elongated along the
but it is usually deflected either forward or backward joint. Moreover, because the magnetic flux passes
along the joint. Back blow is encountered when welding through (permeates) steel more readily than it passes
away from the workpiece connection near the end of a through air, the path of the flux concentrates within the
joint or into a corner. Forward blow is encountered steel plates. For this reason, when the electrode is near
when welding away from the workpiece connection at either end of the joint, the magnetic flux encircling the
the start of the joint, as shown in Figure 2.18. electrode is highly concentrated between the weld pool
Arc blow can result in incomplete fusion, excessive and the end of the plate and very diffuse on the opposite
weld spatter, and distorted bead shape, and at times, side. This higher concentration of magnetic flux on one
may be so severe that a satisfactory weld cannot be side of the arc, at the start or at the finish of the weld,
made. When welding with high-iron electrodes and deflects the arc away from the end of the workpiece.
electrodes that produce a heavy slag, forward blow can Forward blow exists for a short time at the start of a
be especially troublesome. When it is encountered, it weld, and then diminishes. This calming effect occurs
pushes the molten slag, which is normally confined to because the magnetic flux finds an easy path through
the edge of the crater, forward under the arc, multiply- the weld metal. Once the magnetic flux behind the arc
ing the risk of weld defects. is concentrated in the plate and the weld, the arc is
The deflection or “bending” of the arc is caused by influenced mainly by the flux in front, particularly by
an unbalanced magnetic field. A magnetic field natu- the imbalance as the magnetic field crosses the root
rally arises and encircles an electrical conductor that opening. At this point, back blow may be encountered.
carries current. The intensity of the magnetic field is Back blow can occur right up to the end of the joint,
proportional to the current and to the reciprocal of the where it can become extremely severe. As the welding
radius. When there is a substantial imbalance in the approaches the end, the magnetic flux ahead of the arc
concentration of magnetic flux in the region of the arc, becomes more concentrated, increasing back blow.
the arc will always bend away from the greatest concen- The passing of the welding current through the
tration toward the least. The strength of the magnetic cable, the workpiece, the arc, and the electrode creates
flux can be visualized as a closely packed series of con- a magnetic field around each conductor. The field is
centric circles emanating from the center of the conduc- perpendicular to the path of current, and the strength of
tor. When the conductor makes a sharp turn, the circles the field is proportional to the amperage. As the current
thin out on one side and concentrate on the opposite passes from the electrode through the arc to the work-
side. Therefore, a change in the direction of current piece and through the workpiece, the current path
flow, for example, from the electrode into the work- bends. The change in the direction of the path always
piece, is one cause for an unbalanced magnetic field. concentrates the magnetic flux on the side that is the
Another characteristic of magnetic flux is that it shortest distance from the weld pool to the workpiece
passes through a magnetic material more readily than it connection. This magnetic field imbalance tends to
passes through air. In welding, the magnetic flux is push the arc away from the location of the workpiece
superimposed on the steel and across the joint to be connection.
96 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Arc blow is caused by an imbalance in the magnetic DISCONTINUITIES

field in the region of the arc. The magnetic field can
become unbalanced because the conducting path makes Welded joints, by their nature, contain discontinui-
a turn. In addition, the vastly different permeability of ties of various types and sizes. The discontinuities are
the base plate and of the air may lead to substantial dif- not considered harmful if they are below an applicable
ferences in magnetic flux. These two mechanisms cause acceptance level. Above that level, they are considered
the arc to deflect and the welding to become erratic. defects. The acceptance level can vary with the severity
Unless the arc blow is unusually severe, certain steps of the service to which the weldment will be subjected.
can be taken to eliminate it or reduce its severity. Cor- The acceptable limit should be considered at the design
rective actions may include some or all of the following: stage and should be established within the fabrication
contract, usually by incorporating an applicable code or
1. Placing workpiece lead connections as far as specification. The following discontinuities are some-
possible from the joints to be welded; times encountered in welds made by the shielded metal
2. If back blow is the problem, placing the work- arc welding process:
piece connection at the start of welding, and
welding toward a heavy tack weld; 1. Porosity,
3. If forward blow is causing trouble, placing the 2. Slag inclusions,
workpiece connection at the end of the joint to 3. Incomplete fusion,
be welded; 4. Undercut, and
4. Positioning the electrode so that the arc force 5. Cracks.
counteracts the arc blow;
5. Using the shortest possible arc consistent with Porosity
good welding practice to help the arc force coun-
teract the arc blow; The term porosity is used to describe gas pockets or
6. Reducing the welding current; voids in the weld metal. These voids result from gas
7. Welding toward a heavy tack or runoff tab; that forms when certain chemical reactions take place
8. Using the backstep sequence of welding; during welding or that is expelled from the liquid but
9. If backing is used, welding the entire length of captured within the crystalline structure of the solidi-
the backing to each base plate; fied weld. These discontinuities are usually round and
10. Changing to alternating current, which may contain gas rather than solids, and in this respect they
require a change in electrode classification; and differ from slag inclusions.
11. Wrapping the workpiece lead around the work- The welder can usually prevent porosity by using the
piece in a direction so that the magnetic field it proper amperage and holding a proper arc length.
sets up will counteract the magnetic field causing Assuring that the electrodes are dry is also helpful in
the arc blow. many cases. The deoxidizers in a covered electrode that
are needed to produce sound weld metal are more
extensively reacted or lost during deposition when high
amperage or a long arc is used. The remaining deoxidiz-
ers are then insufficient for the proper deoxidation of
WELD QUALITY the molten metal.

A successfully welded joint must have the required Slag Inclusions

physical and mechanical properties that will enable it to
perform its function in service. The weld metal may Inclusions are discontinuities caused by entrapped
also need a specific microstructure and chemical com- solids within the weld metal that can be detected with
position. The weldment may require abrasion or corro- the unaided eye or with low magnification. An inclu-
sion resistance. All of these objectives are influenced by sion can occur if a solid with a high melting point or a
the choice of the base metals, the welding materials, dense solid, or both, is immersed in the weld pool and is
and the manner in which the weld is made. trapped within the weld during solidification. Slag
The size and shape of the weld and the soundness of inclusions are oxides and nonmetallic solids that are
the joint affect its performance. Shielded metal arc intended to form the protective slag but are sometimes
welding is a manual welding process, and the quality of entrapped in the weld metal. This can be in the bead
the welded joint largely depends on the skill of the itself, between adjacent beads or between the weld and
welder who makes it. For this reason, the materials to the base metal.
be used must be selected with care, the welding proce- In shielded metal arc welding, during deposition and
dure must be correct, and the welder must be proficient. subsequent solidification of the weld metal, many
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 97

chemical reactions occur. Some of the products of these can occur adjacent to the back side of the root weld and
reactions consist of solid, nonmetallic compounds that on the beads in the final layer. In fillet welds, undercut
are insoluble in the weld pool. Because of their lower can occur on either side of the weld. Undercut can
specific gravity, these compounds will rise to the surface result from either of two situations. One is the melting
of the molten metal and form a part of the slag unless away of the face of a joint by the arc ahead of the weld
they become entrapped in the solidified weld metal. pool, which forms a sharp recess in the face of the joint
Slag formed from the covering on shielded metal arc and is not filled by the weld. The other is the gradual
electrodes may be forced below the surface of the mol- melting and flowing of base plate material into the
ten metal by the stirring action caused by the arc within weld, which leaves a depression at the line where the
the pool. Slag may also flow ahead of the arc if the weld metal ties into the surface of the base metal (i.e., at
welder is not careful. This kind of slag entrapment can the toe of the weld).
easily happen when welding over the crevice between Both types of undercut are usually due to the specific
two parallel but convex beads, or between one convex welding technique used by the welder and the type of
bead and a sidewall of the groove. It can also occur electrode selected. High amperage and a long arc
when welding in the downhill position. In such cases, increase the tendency to undercut. Incorrect electrode
the molten metal may flow over the slag and the slag position and travel speed are also causes, as is insuffi-
becomes entrapped beneath the bead. The risk of slag cient dwell time in a weave bead. The various classifica-
entrapment is increased by factors such as highly vis- tions of electrodes show widely different characteristics
cous or rapidly solidifying slag or insufficient welding in this respect. With some electrodes, even the most
current. skilled welder may be unable to avoid undercutting
Most slag inclusions can be prevented by good weld- completely in certain welding positions, particularly on
ing practice. In problem areas, the proper preparation joints with restricted access.
of the groove before depositing the next bead of weld Undercut of the groove face has no effect on the
metal can reduce the likelihood of inclusions. In these completed weld if the undercut is removed and a bead is
cases, care must be taken to correct contours that are subsequently deposited at that location. A sharpened
difficult to adequately penetrate with the arc. chipping tool or a grinding wheel is required to remove
the undercut. If the undercut is slight, however, an
experienced welder who knows just how deep the arc
Incomplete Fusion will penetrate may not need to remove the undercut.
The term incomplete fusion describes a weld discon- The amount of undercut permitted in a completed
tinuity that occurs between the weld metal and the base weld is usually dictated by the governing fabrication
metal or between the weld metal and an adjacent weld code. The requirements specified should be strictly fol-
bead. This discontinuity may be localized or it may be lowed because excessive undercut can significantly reduce
extensive. It can occur at any point in the weld groove the strength of the joint. The reduced strength is particu-
and may even occur at the root of the joint. larly severe in applications subject to fatigue loading. For-
Incomplete fusion may be caused by failure to raise tunately, undercut can be detected by visual examination
the base metal (or the previously deposited bead of weld of the completed weld, and it can be corrected by grind-
metal) to the melting temperature. It may also be caused ing it to blend in or by depositing an additional bead.
by improper fluxing, which fails to dissolve any oxides
on the surface of the base metal, or by the improper
removal of a coating on the surfaces of the workpieces.
Cracks
Incomplete fusion can also result from slag entrapment. Cracking is a fracture in the weld metal, the heat-
Incomplete fusion can be avoided by making certain affected zone of the base metal, or the surrounding base
that the surfaces to be welded are smooth, clean, and metal that occurs as a result of the welding cycle. A
properly prepared and fitted. In the case of incomplete crack in a weldment is a three-dimensional discontinu-
root fusion, the corrections involve assuring that (1) the ity with a sharp tip and high ratio of length and width
root face is not too large, (2) the root opening is not too (depth) to the opening displacement, not unlike an
small, (3) the electrode is not too large, (4) the welding exaggerated tall, narrow “V.” If cracking is observed
current is not too low, and (5) the travel speed is not during welding, the cracks must be removed prior to
excessive. further welding. A crack at the base of a joint is very
likely to propagate into the newly deposited weld metal.
Cracking in welded joints can be classified as either hot
Undercut or cold cracking.
The term undercut is used to describe an observable
groove in the base metal adjacent to the weld toe or Hot Cracking. Hot cracking occurs during solidifica-
weld root that is left unfilled. Undercut in groove welds tion. As the weld metal and base plate cool, stresses
98 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

arise from shrinkage during transformation into the mium steel, must be welded with low heat input and
solid phase and from the contraction during the cooling low interpass temperatures. In all cases, notches must
of the metal. These stresses lead to failure if a liquid be avoided.
persists in the microstructure among the dendrites or at More information on the quality of welded joints
the edges of grains, or both. The stresses simply draw can be found in Chapter 13, “Weld Quality” and Chap-
apart the solidifying dendrites or the grains touching ter 14, “Welding Inspection and Nondestructive Exami-
the liquid. The rupture proceeds along the grain bound- nation,” Welding Science and Technology, Volume 1 of
aries or in between dendrites. The main cause of hot the Welding Handbook, 9th edition. 44
cracking is the presence of constituents in the weld
metal that have a relatively low melting temperature
and that accumulate at the grain boundaries during
solidification. A typical example is iron sulfide in steel. ECONOMICS
Coarse-grained, single-phase structures have a marked
propensity for this type of cracking. Solutions to hot
cracking problems include: Shielded metal arc welding is often the first choice
for a great variety of welding applications because the
1. Changing the base metal, for example, using a equipment is inexpensive, portable, and versatile. The
steel with manganese additions, or another addi- process provides a wide range of electrodes, parame-
tion such as rare earths for sulfide shape control; ters, and techniques that can have a positive influence
2. Changing filler metal, for example, using a filler on the cost of welding.
metal with sufficient ferrite when welding auste- In some instances, choosing a welding process other
nitic stainless steel; and than shielded metal arc welding is the best economic
3. Changing the welding technique or procedure, decision. Other processes may be used to advantage in
or both, by lowering the preheat and interpass the following situations:
temperatures and reducing the welding current.
1. When the weldment requires a large volume of
Cold Cracking. Cold cracking encompasses restraint filler metal and results in increased labor and
cracking and hydrogen-induced cracking. Restraint material costs, unless only a few joints will be
cracking is the result of inadequate ductility or strength welded.
in the base plate or in the weld metal. In hardenable 2. When welding light-gauge sheet, which is more
steels, most cold cracking is hydrogen-induced cracking economically welded with flux-cored or metal-
that occurs when these conditions are present: cored electrodes.

1. Diffusible hydrogen is in the weld metal; One way to evaluate the economic performance of a
2. The weld metal has high residual tensile stresses joining process for a weldment is to determine the cost
per unit length of the weld must be computed.45 This
caused by the constraint of the joint members
and the heat input from the arc; calculation requires approximating the cost of filler
metal, equipment and labor. In addition, consideration
3. The weld metal has a susceptible microstructure
must be given to special circumstances, for example, if
(martensitic); and
an accelerated completion date impacts the cost of
4. The temperature of the weldment is in the range financing.
of –240°C to 750°C (–150°F to 400°F). To compute the labor cost, the operating factor
(defined as the arc time divided by the total working
The use of dry low-hydrogen electrodes and proper pre- time; for SMAW it is typically 30%) and the deposition
heat is required to prevent cold cracking in hardenable rate (the amount of weld metal added to the joint per
steels. unit of arc time) must be known or approximated. To
A crack will develop if the base metal or the weld compute the electrode material cost the price must be
metal has inadequate toughness in the presence of a known, the amount (total weight) of electrode approxi-
mechanical or metallurgical notch and if the welding
generates stresses of sufficient magnitude. These stresses 44. American Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook Commit-
do not have to be very high in some materials, for tee, Jenney, C. L. and A. O’Brien, eds., 2001, Welding Science and
instance, large-grained ferritic stainless steel. Cold Technology, Vol. 1 of Welding Handbook, 9th ed., Miami: American
cracking will also occur if the weld is too small or too Welding Society, Chapters 13 and 14.
concave to provide sufficient strength to overcome the 45. For information on welding costs refer to Chapter 12 of Ameri-
can Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook Committee, Jenney,
stresses. Preheat is also required for materials that are C. L. and A. O’Brien, eds., 2001, Welding Science and Technology,
naturally low in ductility or toughness. Materials sub- Vol. 1 of Welding Handbook, 9th ed., Miami: American Welding
ject to extreme grain growth, for example, 28% chro- Society.
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 99

LIVE GRAPH
Click here to view

Figure 2.19–Typical Deposition Rates for Shielded Metal Arc Electrodes

mated from the joint volume, and the deposition effi- efficiency with no adjustment for stub loss, that is, sim-
ciency (the ratio of the weight of metal deposited to the ply state the amount of metal deposited divided by the
weight of electrode used, typically 0.60 for SMAW). amount of electrode consumed. This approximate dep-
Deposition rates for the particular electrodes, if not osition efficiency must then be adjusted by using a mea-
printed on the packaging, are readily available from the sure for the expected stub loss. The computation to
manufacturer. Figure 2.19 shows some typical values. adjust the deposition efficiency for stub loss is based on
Once these values are known, the labor and material the original length of the electrode; the efficiency
cost can be calculated as follows: increases with increased length. Table 2.4 shows the
approximate deposition efficiency for the various stan-
Labor cost, $/ft = dard electrode lengths when adjusted for stub loss.

lb of weld/ft
× direct labor, $/hr
deposition rate, lb/hr × 0.30

Material cost, $/ft =

SAFE PRACTICES
lbs of weld/ft
Cost of electrode, $/lb × Before undertaking the welding operation, the
0.60 welder and all persons who will have access to the
welding station must clearly understand the hazards
The convention within industry for the shielded and the potential harm that may result from the use of
metal arc welding process is to report the deposition welding materials and equipment. They must know and
100 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

Table 2.4
Approximate Deposition Efficiency, in Percent, at Various Lengths of Stub Loss
Stub Loss
Electrode Length Zero Stub Loss 50 mm (2 in.) 75 mm (3 in.) 125 mm (5 in.)
300 mm (12 in.) 60 50 45 35
70 58 52 40
80 67 60 47
350 mm (14 in.) 60 51 47 38
70 60 55 45
80 68 62 51
450 mm (18 in.) 60 53 50 43
70 62 56 50
80 71 66 57

practice the appropriate safety measures. A copy of preferably wool, to protect the skin. Leather gloves and
Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Processes, ANSI clothing should be worn to protect against burns from
Z49.146 should be consulted and kept in the vicinity for arc spatter.
reference. Manufacturers’ safety data sheets (MSDS) Welding helmets are available with filter plate win-
detailing the proper handling and use of the materials dows that absorb 99% or more of the infrared and
should be consulted before using the materials. Operat- ultraviolet rays from the arc. The filter plate selected by
ing manuals provided by the equipment manufacturer the welder should be capable of absorbing infrared
for the safe operation of the welding equipment should rays, ultraviolet rays, and most of the visible rays ema-
be consulted. nating from the arc. The standard filter plate size is
Other sources of safety information should be con- 51 mm by 130 mm (2 in. by 4-1/8 in.), but larger open-
sulted. These include documents from such organizations ings are available.
as the National Electric Manufacturers Association,47 The selection of the appropriate filter plate shade
Underwriters Laboratories (UL)48 and the National Fire depends on the electrode size. For electrodes up to
Protection Association (NFPA).49 Appendix B of this 4 mm (5/32 in.) diameter, a Number 10 filter plate
volume, “Safety and Health Codes and Other Stan- shade should be used. For 4.8 mm to 6.4 mm (3/16 in.
dards” lists health and safety standards, codes, specifi- to 1/4 in.) electrodes, a Number 12 should be used.
cations, and other publications. The publishers, the For electrodes over 6.4 mm (1/4 in.), a Number 14
letter designations of the organizations, and the facts of filter plate shade should be used. The filter plate
publication are also listed. should be protected from molten spatter and from
A brief discussion of some of the safety consider- breakage. Placing a plate of clear glass or other suitable
ations follows. material on both sides of the filter plate can provide
this protection.
The operator must protect eyes and skin from radia- Persons who are not welding but are working near
tion from the arc. A welding helmet with a suitable the arc also need protection. Permanent or portable
filter lens should be used, as well as dark clothing, screens can be used to provide this protection. Failure
to use adequate protection can result in eye burn (some-
46. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Accredited Stan- times called flashing) to the welder or those working
dards Committee Z49, Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Pro-
cesses, ANSI Z49.1, Miami: American Welding Society.
around the arc. Eye burn, which is similar to sunburn,
47. National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA), Electric is extremely painful for a period of 24 to 48 hours.
Arc Welding Power Sources, EW1, Rosslyn, Virginia: National Elec- Unprotected skin exposed to the arc may also be
tric Manufacturers Association. burned. A physician should be consulted in the case of
48. Underwriters Laboratories (UL), Transformer-Type Arc Welding severe arc burn, whether it involves the skin or the eyes.
Machines, UL551, Northbrook, Illinois: Underwriters Laboratories.
49. National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). National Electric If welding is performed in confined spaces with poor
Code, (NEC®), ANSI/NFPA 70, Quincy, Massachusetts: National ventilation, auxiliary air should be supplied to the
Fire Protection Association. welder. This should be supplied through an attachment
SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING CHAPTER 2 101

to the helmet. The method used must not restrict the SMAW process is one of the most important welding
welder’s manipulation of the helmet, interfere with the processes developed in the history of welding.53
field of vision, or make welding difficult. Additional Although many have predicted the demise of
information on eye protection and ventilation is pub- shielded metal arc welding because other arc welding
lished in Safety in Welding, Cutting, and Allied Pro- processes appear to have tremendous economic advan-
cesses, ANSI Z49.1.50 Documents covering these safety tages, the reliability and simplicity of the process con-
issues are also available from the United States Occupa- tinue to ensure its classic role in the industry.
tional Safety and Health Administration.51 Exposure
limits for fumes and gases are detailed in documents
from the American Conference of Governmental Indus-
trial Hygienists.52 From time to time during welding, BIBLIOGRAPHY 5454
sparks or globules of molten metal are thrown out from
the arc. This is always a point of concern, but it
becomes more serious when welding is performed out American Conference of Governmental Industrial
of position or when extremely high welding currents are Hygienists (ACGIH). Threshold limit values for
used. To ensure protection from burns under these con- chemical substances and physical agents in the work-
ditions, the welder should wear flame-resistant gloves, a room environment. Cincinnati, Ohio: American
protective apron, and a jacket. The welder’s ankles and Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists.
feet may also need protection from slag and spatter. American National Standards Institute (ANSI) Accred-
Pants without cuffs and high-top work shoes or boots ited Standards Committee Z49. 1999. Safety in
are recommended. welding, cutting, and allied processes. ANSI
To avoid electric shock, the operator should follow Z49.1:1999. Miami: American Welding Society.
recommendations provided by the equipment manufac- American National Standards Institute (ANSI). 1989.
turer. The welder should not weld while standing on a Practice for occupational and educational eye and
wet surface. Welding and auxiliary equipment should face protection. ANSI Z87.1-1989. Des Plaines, Illi-
be examined periodically to make sure there are no nois: American Society of Safety Engineers (ASSE).
cracks or worn spots on the electrode holder or cable American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Struc-
insulation. Welders should not touch live electrical tural Welding. 2002. Structural Welding Code—
parts such as the conductive surface in the jaws of the Steel, AWS D1.1. Miami: American Welding Society.
electrode holder and the workpiece while the power American Welding Society Committee on Structural
source is running. A stub should never be left in the jaw Welding. 1997. Structural welding code—Alumi-
of the electrode holder when the holder is stowed and num, AWS D1.2-97. Miami: American Welding
the power source is on. Society.
American Welding Society Committee on Filler Metals
and Allied Materials. 1997. Specification for nickel
and nickel-alloy welding electrodes for shielded
metal arc welding. AWS A5.11/A5.11M-97. Miami:
American Welding Society.
CONCLUSION American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler
Metals and Allied Materials and Welding Research
Shielded metal arc welding is a manual arc welding Council (WRC) Subcommittee on Stainless Steels.
process that has a proven historical record of success in 1997. Standard procedures for calibrating magnetic
the field of metal joining and surfacing. In its special instruments to measure the delta ferrite content of
niche, the process will continue to serve welders and austenitic stainless weld metal. AWS A4.2/A4.2M:
fabricators for generations to come. 1997. Miami: American Welding Society.
American Welding Society Committee on Filler Metals
No one process can fit all applications, but consid- and Allied Materials. 1996. Specification for low-
ering its worldwide use and its numerous types of alloy steel electrodes for shielded metal arc welding.
electrodes, some have expressed the opinion that the AWS A5.5-96. Miami: American Welding Society.
American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler
50. See Reference 45. Metals and Allied Materials. 1992. Specification for
51. United States Occupational Safety and Health Administration,
Code of Federal Regulations, Title 29 Labor, Part 1910, Washington,
D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office. 53. Welding Journal Reader Forum, Welding Journal 73(6), p. 19,
52. American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists Miami: American Welding Society.
(ACGIH), Threshold Limit Values for Chemical Substances and Phys- 54. The dates of publication for the codes and other standards listed
ical Agents in the Workroom Environment, Cincinnati, Ohio: Ameri- here were current at the time this chapter was prepared. The reader is
can Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists. advised to consult the latest edition.
102 CHAPTER 2 SHIELDED METAL ARC WELDING

stainless steel welding electrodes for shielded metal Kotecki, D. J. 1992. Constitution diagram for stainless
arc welding. AWS A5.4-92 (R 2000). Miami: American steel weld metal: a modification of the WRC-1988
Welding Society. diagram. Welding Journal. 71(5). 171-s–178-s.
American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Occupational Safety and Health Administration
Metals and Allied Materials. 1990. Specification for (OSHA). 1999. Code of federal regulations, Title 29
welding electrodes and rods for cast iron. AWS Labor, Part 1910. Washington, D.C.: U.S. Govern-
A5.15-90. Miami: American Welding Society. ment Printing Office.
American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler Underwriters Laboratories (UL). Transformer-type arc
Metals and Allied Materials. 1984. Specification for welding machines, UL551. Northbrook, Illinois:
covered copper and copper alloy arc welding elec- Underwriters Laboratories.
trodes. AWS A5.6-84. (R 2000), Miami: American
Welding Society.
American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Filler
Metals and Allied Materials. 1980. Specification for SUPPLEMENTARY
solid surfacing welding rods and electrodes. AWS
A5.13-80. Miami: American Welding Society. READING LIST
American Welding Society Committee on Filler
Metals and Allied Materials. 1980. Specification for ASM International 1993. Welding, brazing, and solder-
composite surfacing welding rods and electrodes.
ing. Vol. 6 of Metals handbook. 1st ed. Materials
AWS A5.21-80. Miami: American Welding Society.
Park, Ohio: ASM International.
National Electric Manufacturers Association (NEMA),
Bhadeshia H, K. D. H. 1992. Bainite in steels: transfor-
Electric arc welding power sources, EW1. Rosslyn,
mations, microstructure and properties. London
Virginia: National Electric Manufacturers Association.
SY1Y 5DB UK: Institute of Metals.
National Fire Protection Association (NFPA). National
electric code (NEC ®), ANSI/NFPA 70. Quincy, Mas- Barbin, L. M. 1977. The new moisture-resistant elec-
sachusetts: National Fire Protection Association. trodes. Welding Journal 56(7): 15–18.
American Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook Chew, B. 1976. Moisture loss and gain by some basic
Committee. Jenney, C. L., and A. O’Brien, eds. 2001. flux covered electrodes. Welding Journal 55(5):
Welding science and technology. Vol. 1 of Welding 127-s–134-s.
handbook. 9th ed. Miami: American Welding Cranyon, H., 1991. Fundamentals of welding metal-
Society. lurgy. New York: Welding Research Council.
American Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook Gregory, E. N. 1969. Shielded metal arc welding of
Committee. O’Brien, R. L., ed. 1991. Welding Pro- galvanized steel. Welding Journal 48(8): 631-s–638-s.
cesses. Vol. 2 of Welding handbook. 8th ed. Miami: Jackson, C. E. 1973. Fluxes and slags in welding. Weld-
American Welding Society. ing Research Council Bulletin 190. New York: Weld-
American Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook ing Research Council.
Committee. Oates, W. R., ed. 1991. Materials and Silva, E. A., and T. H. Hazlett. 1971. Shielded metal arc
Applications—Part 1. Vol. 3 of Welding handbook. welding underwater with iron powder electrodes.
8th ed. Miami: American Welding Society. Welding Journal 50(6): 406-s–415-s.
American Welding Society (AWS) Welding Handbook Stout, R. D., C. W. Ott, A. W. Pense, D. J. Snyder, B. R.
Committee. Oates, W. R., ed. 1996. Materials and Somers, and R. E. Somers. 1987. Weldability of
Applications—Part 2. Vol. 4 of Welding handbook. steels. New York: Welding Research Council.
8th ed. Miami: American Welding Society. The Lincoln Electric Company. 1994. The procedure
Espy, R. H. 1982, Weldability of nitrogen-strengthened handbook of arc welding. 13th ed. Cleveland: The
steels. Welding Journal. 61(5) 149-s–155-s. Lincoln Electric Company.
CHAPTER
C H A P T E3 R 9
Prepared by the
Welding Handbook
Chapter Committee
on Gas Tungsten Arc
Welding:

GAS TUNGSTEN J. T. Salkin, Chair

Arc Applications, Inc.
K. W. Beedon

ARC WELDING
Elliott Turbomachinery,
Inc.
B. K. Henon
Arc Machines, Inc.
K. R. Jelonek
Arc Applications, Inc.
D. B. O’Donnell
Raft Engineering, Inc.

Welding Handbook
Volume 2 Committee
Member:
D. R. Amos
Siemens Westinghouse
Power Corporation

Contents
Introduction 104
Fundamentals 104
Applications 107
Equipment 109
Techniques 128
Materials 135
Joint Design 139
Weld Quality 140
Economics 142
Safe Practices 142
Conclusion 144
Bibliography 144
Supplementary
Reading List 145

Photograph courtesy of Arc Machines, Inc.

104 CHAPTER 3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

CHAPTER 3

GAS TUNGSTEN
ARC WELDING
INTRODUCTION
Gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) is an arc welding The process has been called nonconsumable elec-
process that uses an arc between a nonconsumable trode welding and is very often referred to as TIG
tungsten electrode and the workpiece to establish a (tungsten inert gas) welding. However, because shield-
weld pool. The process is used with shielding gas and ing gas mixtures that are not inert can be used for cer-
without the application of pressure, and may be used tain applications, the American Welding Society (AWS)
with or without the addition of filler metal.1, 2 Because adopted gas tungsten arc welding (GTAW) as the stan-
of the high quality of welds that can be produced by gas dard terminology for the process.
tungsten arc welding, the process has become an indis- Numerous improvements have been made to the
pensable tool for many manufacturers, including those process and equipment since the early days of the
in the aerospace, nuclear, marine, petrochemical and invention. Welding power sources were developed spe-
semiconductor industries. cifically for the process, some providing pulsed direct
The possibility of using helium to shield a welding arc current and variable-polarity alternating current.
and weld pool was first investigated in the 1920s.3 How- Water-cooled and gas-cooled torches were developed.
ever, there was no incentive for further development or The tungsten electrodes were alloyed with small
use of this process until the beginning of World War II, amounts of active elements to increase emissivity, thus
when a great need emerged in the aircraft industry to improving arc starting, arc stability, and electrode life.
replace riveting as the method for joining reactive mate- Shielding gas mixtures were identified for improved
rials, such as aluminum and magnesium. The welding welding performance. Researchers continue to pursue
industry responded by producing a stable, efficient heat improvements in such areas as automatic controls,
source with which excellent welds could be made using a vision and penetration sensors, and arc length controls.
tungsten electrode and direct current arc power with the The fundamentals of the GTAW process and a varia-
electrode negative. Helium was selected to provide the tion that uses pulsed current (GTAW-P) are discussed in
necessary shielding because it was the only inert gas this chapter, along with applications of the process,
readily available at the time. Tungsten electrode inert gas equipment and consumables used, techniques and pro-
torches typical of that period are shown in Figure 3.1. cedures, welding variables, weld quality, and safety
considerations.
1. American Welding Society (AWS) Committee on Definitions and
Symbols, 2001, Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, 2001,
Standard Welding Terms and Definitions, AWS A3.0:2001, Miami:
American Welding Society.
2. At the time this chapter was prepared, the referenced codes and FUNDAMENTALS
other standards were valid. If a code or other standard is cited without
a date of publication, it is understood that the latest edition of the
document referred to applies. If a code or other standard is cited with Gas tungsten arc welding uses a nonconsumable
the date of publication, the citation refers to that edition only, and it is tungsten or tungsten alloy electrode held in a torch.
understood that any future revisions or amendments to the code or Shielding gas is fed through the torch to provide an
other standard are not included. As codes and standards undergo fre-
quent revision, the reader is advised to consult the most recent edition. inert atmosphere that protects the electrode and the
3. H. M. Hobart, U.S. Patent 1,746,081; 1926, and P. K. Devers, U.S. weld pool while the weld metal is solidifying. The elec-
Patent 2,274,361; 1926. tric arc, produced by the passing of current through the
GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING CHAPTER 3 105

The four basic components common to all GTAW

setups are a torch, the electrode, a welding power
source, and shielding gas. A typical setup is shown in
Figure 3.3.

ADVANTAGES OF GTAW
Gas tungsten arc welding offers advantages for an
extensive range of applications, from the high-quality
welds required in the aerospace and nuclear industries
and the high-speed autogenous welds required in tube
and sheet metal manufacturing to the welds typical of
Photograph courtesy of Miller Electric Manufacturing Company
fabricating and repair shops, where the ease of opera-
tion and the flexibility of the process are welcomed.
Figure 3.1—Early Gas Tungsten The process can be automated and is readily program-
Arc Welding Heads with a Torch Body mable to provide precise control of the welding variables
and Flow Meter, Circa 1943 with remote welding control capability. Flexibility is
gained when using gas tungsten arc welding because the
process allows the heat source and filler metal additions
to be controlled independently. Excellent control of root
pass weld penetration can be maintained.
conductive ionized shielding gas, is established between Welds can be made in any position, and applications
the tip of the electrode and the workpiece. The weld are almost unlimited. The process is capable of produc-
starts as heat generated by the arc melts the base metal ing consistent autogenous welds of superior quality at
and establishes a weld pool. The torch is moved along high speeds, spatter-free, and generally with few
the workpiece and the arc progressively melts the sur- defects. Almost all metals, including dissimilar metals,
faces of the joint. If specified, filler metal, usually in the can be welded with the GTAW process. The process
form of wire, is added to the leading edge of the weld can be used with or without filler metal, as required by
pool to fill the joint. The gas tungsten arc welding pro- the specific application. A further advantage is that rela-
cess is illustrated in Figure 3.2. tively inexpensive power sources can be used.

DIRECTION
OF TRAVEL ELECTRICAL CURRENT
CONDUCTOR

INLET FOR
INERT GAS
GAS NOZZLE SHIELDING
TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE

WELD ROD FOR GASEOUS SHIELD

FILLER METAL
BASE WELD
METAL BEAD

ARC

Figure 3.2—Schematic of a Manual Gas Tungsten Arc Welding Operation

106 CHAPTER 3 GAS TUNGSTEN ARC WELDING

ing gas type, flow rates, nozzle diameter and electrode

extension.
The amount of energy produced by the arc is propor-
tional to the current and voltage. The amount of energy
TORCH ELECTRICAL transferred per unit length of weld is inversely propor-
CONDUCTOR tional to the travel speed. The arc shielded with helium
TUNGSTEN
ELECTRODE
is generally hotter and more penetrating than the argon-
shielded arc. However, because all of these variables
GAS
strongly interact with one another, it is impossible to
PASSAGES treat them as truly independent variables when estab-
POWER lishing welding procedures for fabricating specific joints.
ARC SOURCE

GAS
WORKPIECE INSULATING
SUPPLY
Welding Current
SHEATH
SHIELDING GAS
In general, welding current controls weld penetration
in gas tungsten arc welding—the effect of current on
Figure 3.3—Gas Tungsten Arc
penetration is directly proportional, if not somewhat
Welding Equipment Arrangement
exponential. Welding current also affects the voltage.