Properties of Particulate Masses
Solid masses have the following distinctive properties:
1. The pressure is not the same in all directions.
2. A shear stress applied at the surface of a mass is transmitted throughout a static mass of
particles.
3. The density of the mass may vary, depending on the degree of packing of the grains.
4. Before a mass of tightly packed particles can flow, it must increase in volume to permit
interlocking grains to move past one another.
Depending on their flow properties, particulate solids are divided into two classes, cohesive and
noncohesive. Cohesive solids are characterized by their reluctance to flow through openings such as wet
clay. Noncohesive solids on the other hand flow out readily/easily from bins and silos like grain, dry sand
and plastic chips.
I. Pressure in Masses of Particles
The minimum pressure in a solid mass is in the direction normal to that of the applied pressure.
In a homogeneous mass, K’ is the ratio of the normal pressure to the applied pressure which is a
characteristic of the material. Fig.7.1a shows a right-angled triangular differential section of thickness b
and hypotenuse dL. The applied pressure is pV which acts on the base, the normal pressure is pL which
acts on the side and pressure p acts on the hypotenuse. The angle between base and hypotenuse is θ.
At equilibrium there must be a shear stress τ because the unequal pressures pV and pL cannot be balance
by a single pressure p. Fig.7.1b shows the resulting forces from these stresses.
Figure 7.1 Stresses and forces in granular solids: (a) stresses; (b) forces.
Equating the components of force at right angles to the hypotenuse gives
(7.1)
Dividing by bdL and noting that sin²θ = 1 -cos²θ lead to
(7.2)
Similarly equating forces parallel to the hypotenuse gives
(7.3)
When θ=0, p= pV ; when θ=90º, p= pL. In both cases τ=0.
II. Storage of Solids
Solids may store in silos and bins. Silos and bins are used to store bulk solids by virtually
every industry around the world. Silos are tall and relatively small in diameter while bins are not so
tall and usually fairly wide. These containers are loaded from the top and discharge ordinarily from
the bottom.
A. Silos
Figure 7.2 Terminology for parts of a typical silo
The pressures that develop in a silo are very different from those developing in a tank that
contains fluid. Fluid pressures depend uniquely on the head, and in most fluid storages flow velocities
are so low that dynamic effects are small. By contrast, pressures in silos are dominated by frictional
phenomena; the flow of bulk solids is controlled by frictional considerations and is largely independent
of head. The most critical aspect of pressures in silos is their effect on the structure designed to contain
the solid. Because the properties of solids vary widely, the pressures can also vary very much both in
magnitude, distribution and stability. Some conditions lead to very unpredictable pressure peaks that
can cause serious damage, whilst other arrangements are very benign and do not cause any concern
even to the unwary.
Silos are commonly classified according to the cross-sectional shape in plan section. Most silos
are circular, but some are rectangular. The pressure regime is principally important in silos of larger
dimensions, and the circular silo dominates these. Second way of classification is the overall size of the
silo. Small silos do not present structural challenges and can be designed using fairly simple calculations.
Very large silos need great attention to many details. Third way to classify is by the aspect ratio
(height H divided by horizontal dimension D) of the silos. Slender silos have H/D > 2 and squat silos have
H/D < 1. Figure 7.3 shows silos classified as slender, intermediate, squat and retaining.
Figure 7.3 Silo conditions for different aspect ratios
B. Bins
A bin can be divided into two major sections: cylinder and hopper (see Figure 7.4). The
cylinder section is that portion of the vessel that has constant cross-sectional area over its height, i.e.
vertical sidewalls. Note that by this definition a cylinder is not necessarily circular, although this is the
most common shape used for bins. In contrast to the cylinder section, a hopper has changing
cross-sectional area over its height. In most cases the hopper is converging, so its cross-sectional area is
smaller at the bottom than at the top.
Figure 7.4 Subdivisions of a bin:
cylinder (vertical section at top),
hopper (converging section below).
Bins vary tremendously in size, from ones that store only a few kilograms of material to those
with storage capacities in excess of 10 000 metric tonnes. The range of discharge rates can similarly vary
from a few grams per minute to several thousand tonnes per hour. Bins are typically used to store
incoming raw materials, intermediate products as part of the manufacturing process and/or outgoing
products to be shipped to customers. The most common function of a bin is to provide surge capacity to
compensate for effects of changes in production rate or frequency, and variations in rate or frequency of
incoming or outgoing shipments. Another somewhat less common but still important function of a bin
is to process, condition, age or blend the bulk solid stored therein.
III. Flow Pattern
When the outlet at the bottom of a bin containing free-flowing solids is opened, the material
immediately above the opening begins to flow. Two primary flow patterns can develop when a bulk solid
discharges from a bin: funnel flow and mass flow.
A. Funnel flow
- also called core flow, is defined as a flow pattern in which some material is stationary while the
rest is moving (see Figure 7.5). According to this definition, a bin that contains any stagnant material
during discharge qualifies the flow pattern as funnel flow.
Figure 7.5 Examples of funnel flow
The definition of funnel flow can be refined into pipe flow and mixed flow. The distinction
between the two is whether or not the flow channel intersects any portion of the walls of the bin
(usually in the cylinder section). If there is no intersection it is pipe flow, the flow channel walls may be
vertical (parallel pipe flow), converging from top to bottom (taper pipe flow), vertical along the sidewall
of the bin (eccentric parallel pipe flow) or converging along the sidewalls of the bin (eccentric taper pipe
flow) (see Figure 7.6). If the flow channel intersects the cylinder wall it is called mixed flow, the
converging flow channel may be symmetric about the centreline of the bin (concentric mixed flow), fully
eccentric if the hopper opening is to one side of the vessel (fully eccentric mixed flow), or intersecting
the cylinder walls at varying elevations because of a partially eccentric outlet (partially eccentric mixed
flow) (see Figure 7.7).
Figure 7.6 Forms of pipe flow
Figure 7.7 Forms of mixed flow.
B. Mass flow
In contrast to funnel flow, mass flow is a flow pattern in which all of the material is in motion
whenever anything is withdrawn (see Figure 7.8).
Figure 7.8 Mass flow
C. Expanded flow
A third flow pattern, expanded flow, is a combination of funnel flow and mass flow (see
Figure 2.6). Usually this is achieved by placing a small mass flow hopper below a funnel
flow hopper. The mass flow hopper section expands the flow channel from the outlet up
to the top cross section of the mass flow hopper .
Figure 7.9 Example of expanded flow.
IV. Problems in Storage
A. Ratholing/Piping
It occurs when the core of the hopper discharges
but the stagnant sides are stable enough to remain in
place without flowing, leaving a hole down through the
center of the solids stored in the bin.
B. Arching/Doming
It can result from either mechanical interlocking
or cohesive strength. Mechanical interlocking occurs when
particles are large relative to the outlet opening, whereas
cohesive arching occurs because of bonding between
particles. It holds the material in place and stop the flow
completely.
C. Insufficient flow
Its outlet size is too small. Material not sufficiently permeable to permit dilation in conical
section (“plop-plop” flow).
D. Time Consolidation-Caking
Many powders will tend to cake as a function of time, humidity, pressure and temperature.
Particularly a problem for funnel flow silos which are infrequently emptied completely.
E. Inadequate emptying
Usually occurs in funnel flow silos where the cone angle is insufficient to allow self draining of
the bulk solid.
F. Mechanical arching
Akin to a “traffic jam” at the outlet of bin- too many large particles competing for the small
outlet.
Table 7.1 Advantages and Disadvantages of Mass and Funnel flow
Mass Flow (+/-) Funnel flow (+/-)
+flow is more consistent + less height required
+ reduces effects of radial segregation -ratholing
+ stress field is more predictable -a problem for segregating solids
+ full bin capacity is utilized -first in/last out
+ first in/first out -time consolidation effects can be severe
-wall wear is higher (esp. for abrasives) -silo collapse
-higher stresses on walls -flooding
-more height is required -reduction of effective storage capacity
V. Conveyors
Used to transport solid materials that include screw conveyor, conveyor belt, bucket elevator,
vibrating conveyor and etc.
A. Screw Conveyor
It is usually consist of a trough or tube containing either a spiral coiled around a shaft, driven at
one end and held at the other, or a Shaftless Spiral, driven at one end and free at the other.
B. Conveyor belt (belt conveyor)
It is consists of two or more pulleys, with a continuous loop of material -the conveyor belt -that
rotates about them.
C. Bucket elevator
A mechanism for hauling flowable bulk materials (most often grain or fertilizer) vertically.
D. Vibrating Conveyor
It is consists of a trough, bed or tube that vibrates at a relatively high frequency and small
amplitude in order to convey individual units of products or bulk material.
