A COMPETITIVE BOOK OF

SEED SCIENCE
th
5
edition

A BOOK FOR ALL YOUR

GRICULTURAL
COMPETITIVE EXAMS

AGRI COACHING
SINCE 2016
CHANDIGARH
A Competitive Book of Seed Science 5th Edition

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SEED TECHNOLOGY
Seed Technology is the methods through which the genetic and physical
characteristics of seeds could be improved. It involves such activities as
variety development, evaluation and release, seed production, processing,
storage and certification.

What is Seed?
Seed is defined as fertilized, matured ovule consisting of an embryonic plant
together with a store of food, all surrounded by a protective coat.

❖ Characteristics of good quality seed

➢ It must be genetically pure

Type of seed Purity %

Breeder/Nucleus 100%
Foundation 99.5%
Certified 99%

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➢ It should have the required level of physical purity for certification

Crop Minimum Physical

Purity (%)
Carrot 95
Okra, Watermelon, and other 99
cucurbits
Ground nut 96
Rapeseed and Mustard, Sesame and 97
Soybean
All other crops 98

➢ It should have high pure seed percentage

Crop Pure seed Percentage

Bhindi 99%
Other crops 98%
Sesame, soybean & Jute 97%
Groundnut 96%

➢ It should have optimum moisture content for storage:

✓ Long term storage - 8 % & below

✓ Short term storage -10-13%

➢ Moisture Content of the Seeds: Seeds with high moisture content will lose its
germination vigour and viability soon. Hence, it is necessary to maintain
correct moisture content of the seeds to ensure the good germination capacity
and viability. Seeds should be stored at a safe moisture level of 8– 13%.

❖ Purity of seeds

➢ Physical Purity of Seeds: The physical purity of the seeds should be

maintained at 96-98% and the seeds should be of uniform size and shape
without any damage.

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➢ Genetic Purity: Genetic purity of the seed should be maintained in order to

ensure the quality of the seeds.

❖ Minimum Germination % of seeds

Crops Germination % (min)

Maize 90
Hybrid bajra, Arhar, Mung, peas and
Cowpeas 75
Hybrid jowar, Rice, Sesamum and linseed 80
Wheat, Barley, Gram, Rapeseed and 85
mustard
Ground nut, Soybean, Tomato, onion,
Radish and Brinjal 70
Urid, Cauliflower and Bhindi 65
Cotton, Sunflower, Watermelon, carrot 60
and chilies

Seed Dormancy
Seed dormancy is the temporary suspension of growth of viable seeds
accompanied by reduced internal metabolic activity. It is the resting stage of the
seed and it delays germination of the seed. Unfavourable climatic conditions
like temperature, variation and lack of water leads to seed dormancy. Dormancy
may occur due to the presence of a hard seed coat, immature embryo and also
due to the presence of germination inhibitors in the seeds.

DORMANCY BREAKING TREATMENTS

❖ Physical dormancy

I. Scarification
i. Acid

ii. Mechanical

iii. Physical treatment – hot water treatment

1. Scarification

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Any treatments may be physical or chemical that weakens or softens the seed
coat is known as scarification. This method is more applicable to Malvaceae
and Leguminosae group of seeds.

a) Acid scarification
By using concentrated H2SO4 @ 100 ml/kg of seed for 2-3 minutes treatments
dormancy can be overcome in the above group of seeds. The duration of
treatment will vary, and it depends on type and nature of seed coat.
E.g. Tree crops 1-3 hours, Rose seeds, treat the seed partially with acid and then
given with warm stratification.

b) Mechanical scarification
Seeds are rubbed on a sandpaper or with a help of mechanical scarifier or by
puncturing on seed coat with the help of needle to enhance / increase the
moisture absorption by seeds.
E.g. Bitter gourd for sand scarification, sand and seed 2:1 ratio should be
followed. Rub against hard surface of seed for 5 to 10 minutes.

2. Hot water treatments

It is effective in case of leguminous tree crop seeds. The seeds should be soaked
in boiled water for 1-5 minutes for 60-80 minutes. Some crops like Bengal gram
and Groundnut, hot water treatment for more than 1 minute is found injurious to
seed.

3. Stratification treatment
When seed dormancy is due to embryo factor, seeds can be subjected to
stratification treatments.

a) Cold stratification
Incubate the seed at low temperature of 0-5 oC over a moist substratum for 2-3
days to several months. It depends on the nature of seed and kind of dormancy.
(e.g.) Cherry and oil palm seeds, Cole crops.

b) Warm stratification
Some seeds require temperature of 40-50oC for few days e.g. paddy. In case of
oil palm it requires temperature of 40-50oC for 2 months for breaking

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dormancy. Care should be taken during the treatment and moisture content of
seed should not be more than 15%.

4. Leaching of metabolites (Inhibitors)

The seeds can be soaked in water for 3 days. But once in 12 hours fresh water
should be changed to avoid fermentation or seeds can be soaked in running
water for a day to leach out the inhibitors. (e.g.) Coriander (Coumarin),
Sunflower (Hydrocyanic acid)

5. Temperature treatments

a) Low temperature treatments

Plants which grow in temperate and cooler climates, require a period of chilling
for breakage of dormancy.
E.g. Apple seed dormancy can be released by low temperature treatment by
storing the seeds at 5oC.

b) High temperature treatment

Normally high temperature treatments are exhibited by early flowering "winter
" annuals.
E.g. Blue bell (Hyacinthoides nonscripta). Their seeds are shed in early summer
and do not germinate until they have been exposed to the heat during high
summer.

Classification of seed dormancy

Types Causes Embryo Pre-treatment
character
Physical Seed coat Fully Scarification
impermeable developed, non- (Mechanical and
dormant acid)
Physiological Physiological Fully developed Seed soaking in
inhibiting dormant growth regulators
mechanism of (GA3, Ethrel, and
germination in the chemical solutions
embryo (KNO3, Thiourea)
Combinations Physical + Fully developed Scarification
Physiological dormant followed by
chemical treatment

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Morphological Underdeveloped Underdeveloped Cold stratification

embryo non-dormant
Morpho- Underdeveloped Underdeveloped Stratification
physiological embryo, dormant followed by
physiological chemical soaking.

Factors Influencing Production

❖ Seed Multiplication Ratio (SMR): It is the number of seeds to be
produced from a single seed when it is sown and harvested.
Crop Seed Multiplication Ratio
Wheat 1:20
Paddy 1:70 to 1:80
Maize 1:80 to 1:100
Sorghum 1:100
Bajra 1:200
Ragi 1:80 to 1:100
Gram 1:10 to 1:12
Blackgram, green gram 1:40
Cowpea 1:40
Red gram 1:100
Potato 1:4
Soybean 1:16
Groundnut 1:8
Cotton 1:50
Mustard 1:100
Jute 1:100

❖ Seed Replacement Rate (SRR) Seed replacement rate is the percentage of

area sown out of total area of crop planted in the season by using certified /
quality seeds other than the farm saved seeds.
Seed Replacement rate of all over India (2016):
Crop SRR
Wheat 40.3
Paddy 39.8
Maize Hybrid Var. 64.68
Jowar Hybrid Var. 38.22
Bajra Hybrid Var. 57.09
Gram 31.83

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Urad 37.97
Moong 33.55
Arhar 48.11
Groundnut 25.24
Rapessed /Mustard 68.03
Soybean 38.17
Sunflower Hybrid Var. 30.67
Cotton

Seed Production:
Systemized crop production is known as seed production. In seed production
adequate care is given from the purchase of seeds up to harvest adopting proper
seed and crop management techniques.
Seed Treatment:
Seed treatment refers to the application of fungicide, insecticide, or a
combination of both, to seeds so as to disinfect and disinfect them from seed-
borne or soil-borne pathogenic organisms and storage insects. It also refers to
the subjecting of seeds to solar energy exposure, immersion in conditioned
water, etc.

Types of Seed Treatment:

1) Seed disinfection: Seed disinfection refers to the eradication of fungal spores
that have become established within the seed coat, or i more deep-seated
tissues. For effective control, the fungicidal treatment must actually penetrate
the seed in order to kill the fungus that is present.

2) Seed disinfestation: Seed disinfestation refers to the destruction of surface-

borne organisms that have contaminated the seed surface but not infected the
seed surface. Chemical dips, soaks, fungicides applied as dust, slurry or liquid
have been found successful.

3) Seed Protection: The purpose of seed protection is to protect the seed and
young seedling from organisms in the soil which might otherwise cause decay
of the seed before germination.

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❖ Classes of Seed:
The Association of Official Seed Certifying Agencies (AOSCA) has defined
these seed classes as follows:

❖ Breeder seed:
Breeder seeds are produced using nucleus seeds in the Research institutes or
Universities under the supervision of a breeder. The entire production process
will be monitored by the Scientists and Officers of the Seed Certification
Department and by the representatives of the National Seed Corporation. The
genetic purity of the breeder seeds is 100% and the tag provided for the breeder
seed is golden yellow in colour.

❖ Foundation seed:
Foundation seeds are produced from the breeder seeds. It is produced at
Government farms or by private seed producers. Its production can also be
taken up by the farmers by getting suitable breeder seeds. Genetic purity of the
foundation seeds is 99.5% and its certification tag is white in colour.

❖ Registered seed:
The progeny of the foundation seed so handled as to maintain its genetic
identity and purity and approved and certified by a certifying agency. It should
be of quality suitable to produce certified seed.

❖ Certified seed :

Seeds produced from foundation seeds are known as certified seeds. The
production of certified seeds is taken up by the National and State Seed
Corporation, private seed companies and also by farmers. The certified seeds
should possess uniformity and purity as defined by the Department of Seed
Certification. The genetic purity of the certified seeds is 99% and the
certification tag provided is blue in colour.

❖ Truthful labelled seed:

One more class of seeds is truthfully labelled seeds. This type of seeds does not
come under the purview of the Department of Seed Certification. This kind of
seeds are tested only for its physical purity and germination. By this method,
any farmer can produce seeds and market it as truthfully labelled seeds.
Labelling is compulsory but certification is voluntary.

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STEPS INVOLVED IN SEED CERTIFICATION

1. Application for seed production

2. Registration of sowing report

3. Field inspection

4. Seed processing

5. Seed sample and seed analysis

6. Tagging and sealing

Generation system of seed multiplication and quality control:

Nucleus Genetic
Purity is
seed 100%

certification
Breeder Genetic
tag is golden
Purity is
Seed yellow in
100%
colour

Foundatio Genetic certification

Purity is tag is white
n Seed 99.5% in colour

Certified Genetic certification

Purity is tag is blue in
Seed 99% colour

❖ Seed storage
Preservation of seed with initial quality until it is needed for planting.

❖ Cryopreservation
It is also called as cryogenic storage. Seeds are placed in liquid nitrogen at -
196°C.

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SEED GERMINATION AND PURITY STANDARDS

Variety Germination Purity Minimum
Minimum Percentage Percentage
Cowpea 75 98
Cluster beans 70 98
Field beans 75 98
Beans 75 98
Lady finger 65 99
Bitter gourd 60 99
Bottle gourd 60 99
Cucumber 60 99
Watermelon 60 99
Pumpkin 60 99
Cauliflower 65 98
Cabbage 70 98
Carrot 60 95
Radish 70 98
Brinjal 70 98
Tomato 70 98
Chillies 60 98
Capsicum 60 98
Greens 70 95
Fenugreek 70 98
Onion 70 98

Class of seed and its source:

Class of Seed Source of seed
Foundation class Breeder seed
Certified class Foundation seed

MINIMUM SEED STANDARDS

Physical Germination
Crop Moisture %
purity % %
Paddy 98 80 13
Cumbu- Hy & var 98 75 12
Ragi, Sorghum 97 75 12

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Maize - inbred 98 80 12
Maize - others 98 90 12
Barley, oat, wheat 98 85 12
Red gram-Hy 98 75 9
&var, cowpea
Bengal gram 98 85 9
Peas, Bean 98 75 9
Ground nut 96 70 9
Sunflower- 98 70 9
Variety/Hybrid
Soybean 98 70 12
Cotton (Hybrid) 98 65 10
cotton (variety) 98 65 10
Cucurbits 98 60 7
Brinjal V/Hy 98 70 8
Chillies 98 60 8
Bhindi 99 65 10
Tomato V/Hy 98 70 8
Cole crops 98 70 7
Onion V/Hy 98 70 8
Carrot V/Hy 95 60 8
Radish V/Hy 98 70 6
Papaya 98 60 12

❖ National Seeds Corporation

NSC was initiated under ICAR and Registered on 7th March 1963 as a limited
company in the public sector.
❖ Seed Certification
Seed Certification is a legally sanctioned system for the quality control of seed
during seed multiplication and production. The seed certification is voluntary.
Validity period of certification is for a period of nine months from date of
testing the samples.
The seed can be revalidated as long as it meets the required seed standards (for
six months).

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IMPORTANT FACTS
➢ Journal, Seed Science and Technology publishes by ISTA.
➢ Central seed testing laboratory- Banaras (1960).
➢ The Seed Act was passed on 29th December 1966.
➢ The Seed Act came into force throughout the country on 2nd October 1969.
➢ The seed act is applicable only to notified kinds/varieties of seed.
➢ International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants
(UPOV) was established by International Convention for Protection of New
varieties of plants, which was signed in Paris in 1961.
➢ The GOI enacted our own legislation on the Protection of Plant Varieties
and Farmer’s Rights Act (PPV&FR) in 2001.
➢ PPV&FR act is a unique model in the World as it provides equal rights to
farmers along with breeders.
➢ National Seeds Corporation (NSC) was registered on 7th March
1963 as a limited company in the public sector.
➢ NSC handled foundation and certified seeds of many varieties of crops.
➢ Isolation is required to avoid natural crossing with other undesirable
types, off types in the field and mechanical mixtures.
➢ Testing of variety for providing protection under PPV&FR act- NDUS test.
➢ NDUS test stand for- Novelty, Distinctiveness, Uniformity and Stability
test.
➢ A new variety is registered under the act after NDUS test.
➢ Association of Official Seed Analysts (AOSA) was formed in 1908.
➢ Father of seed testing- Frederick Nobbe
➢ Endosperm results of – Double fertilization.
➢ Genetic purity maintains during hybrid seed production- Isolation distance.
➢ Heterostyled flower is present in- Brinjal.
➢ In which crop plot technique is use in- Potato.
➢ Malachite green test use to identify- Mechanical damage.
➢ Percent of absorbed water used in photosynthesis- 0.2%.
➢ Seed control order was passed in- 1983.
➢ Seed year was celebrated during – 1993.
➢ Warm stratification is carried out for- Cashew.
➢ Longest phase of mitotic division is Interphase (NSC exam)
➢ Smallest phase of mitotic division is Anaphase (Net 2018)
➢ Chromosomes arranged on equatorial plate at Metaphase (net 2018)
➢ Longest phase of meiosis is Prophase

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➢ Crossing-over takes place in Pachytene stage (ADO exam)

➢ Top cross is a cross between an inbred and open pollinated variety (Question
bank Seed tech)
➢ Crossing of hybrid with one of the parents is called Back cross (Net 2018)
➢ Crossing of hybrid with recessive parent is called Test cross (Net 2017)
➢ Linkage is the opposite of crossing over (Seed tech question bank)
➢ Cell wall of fungi is made up of chitin (State exam)
➢ Most abundant form of RNA is rRNA (80%)
➢ Single gene affecting more than one character is known as Pleiotropy
➢ Powerhouse of the cell mitochondria (MSC entrance)
➢ Seed is a fertilised Ovule (IBPS)
➢ Impurity percentage of seed lot is called Dockage
➢ Seed plot technique used in potato by Pushkarnath in 1967. (Seed tech net
exam)
➢ Superiority of F1 hybrid over its parent is known as heterosis or hybrid
vigour (Net)
➢ Loss or reduction of vigour and fitness as a result of inbreeding is called
inbreeding depression
➢ Development of seed from anther is Androgenesis
➢ Tetrazolium test is used for Seed viability (NET)
➢ Grow out test is useful for Genetic purity (SRF)
➢ Rudimentary root of Seed or seedling that forms the primary roots of young
plant is called Radicle (NSC)
➢ In tetrazolium test colour of living tissue of Seed changed to Red (NET)
➢ In India generally Three generation system of seeds are used.
➢ In maize the effect of foreign pollen of same generation on development of
fruit or on phenotype of endosperm is called Xenia (NET Exam)
➢ Pure Seed percentage in Abelmoschus esculentus is 99% (MSC entrance)
➢ Slow drying seeds are Pulses (IBPS Exam)
➢ Physical basis of life is known as Protoplasm (NSC)
➢ Tift 23A is a male sterile line of bajra (IBPS AFO)
➢ Application of principles of genetics for the improvement of humankind is
called Eugenics
➢ Adaptation or adjustment of an introduced to a new variety is called
Acclimatization
➢ Seed control order was passed in 1983 (NSC)
➢ Detasseling is the technique used for hybrid Seed production in Maize
➢ Rope pulling is practised for good Seed set in hybrid Seed production of Rice
➢ Isolation distance for hybrid rice Seed production is 200

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SPACE FOR YOUR NOTES

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