TIME BASE GENERATORS
TIME BASE GENERATORS
General features of a time base signal, methods of generating time base waveform, Miller and Bootstrap
time base generators - basic principles, Transistor miller time base generator, Transistor Bootstrap time
base generator, Current time base generators.
A time-base generator is an electronic circuit which generates an output voltage or current
waveform, a portion of which varies linearly with time. Ideally the output waveform should be a ramp.
Time-base generators may be voltage time-base generators or current time-base generators. A voltage
time-base generator is one that provides an output voltage waveform, a portion of which exhibits a linear
variation with respect to time. A current time-base generator is one that provides an output current
waveform, a portion of which exhibits a linear variation with respect to time. There are many important
applications of time-base generators, such as in CROs, television and radar displays, in precise time
measurements, and in time modulation. The most important application of a time-base generator is in
CROs. To display the variation with respect to time of an arbitrary waveform on the screen of an
oscilloscope it is required to apply to one set of deflecting plates a voltage which varies linearly with
time. Since this waveform is used to sweep the electron beam horizontally across the screen it is called
the sweep voltage and the time-base generators are called the sweep circuits.
GENERAL FEATURES OF A TIME-BASE SIGNAL
Figure 5.1(a) shows the typical waveform of a time-base voltage. As seen the voltage starting
from some initial value increases linearly with time to a maximum value after which it returns again to its
initial value. The time during which the output increases is called the sweep time and the time taken by
the signal to return to its initial value is called the restoration time, the return time, or the flyback time. In
most cases the shape of the waveform during restoration time and the restoration time itself are not of
much consequence. However, in some cases a restoration time which is very small compared with the
sweep time is required. If the restoration time is almost zero and the next linear voltage is initiated the
moment the present one is terminated then a saw-tooth waveform shown in Figure 5.1(b) is generated.
The waveforms of the type shown in Figures 5.1 (a) and (b) are generally called sweep waveforms even
when they are used in applications not involving the deflection of an electron beam.
In fact, precisely linear sweep signals are difficult to generate by time-base generators and moreover
nominally linear sweep signals may be distorted when transmitted through a coupling
network.
Figure 5.1 (a) General sweep voltage and (b) saw-tooth voltage waveforms.
The deviation from linearity is expressed in three most important ways:
1 . The slope or sweep speed error, es
2. The displacement error, ed
3. The transmission error, e,
The slope or sweep-speed error, es
An important requirement of a sweep is that it must increase linearly with time, i.e. the rate of change of
sweep voltage with time be constant. This deviation from linearity is defined as
The displacement error, ed
Another important criterion of linearity is the maximum difference between the actual sweep voltage
and the linear sweep which passes through the beginning and end points of the actual sweep. The
displacement error ed is defined as
As shown in Figure 5.2(a), vs is the actual sweep and v's is the linear sweep.
The transmission error, et
When a ramp signal is transmitted through a high-pass circuit, the output falls away from the input as
shown in Figure 5.2(b). This deviation is expressed as transmission error et, defined as the difference
between the input and the output divided by the input at the end of the sweep
where as shown in Figure 5.2(b), V's is the input and Vs is the output at the end of the sweep, i.e.
at t = TS
Figure 5.2 (a) Sweep for displacement error and (b) sweep for transmission error.
If the deviation from linearity is small so that the sweep voltage may be approximated by the sum
of linear and quadratic terms in t, then the above three errors are related as
which implies that the sweep speed error is the more dominant
one and the displacement error is the least severe one.
METHODS OF GENERATING A TIME-BASE WAVEFORM
In time-base circuits, sweep linearity is achieved by one of the following methods.
1. Exponential charging. In this method a capacitor is charged from a supply voltage through a resistor
to a voltage which is small compared with the supply voltage.
2. Constant current charging. In this method a capacitor is charged linearly from a constant current
source. Since the charging current is constant the voltage across the capacitor increases linearly.
3. The Miller circuit. In this method an operational integrator is used to convert an input step voltage
into a ramp waveform.
4. The Phantastron circuit. In this method a pulse input is converted into a ramp. This is a version of the
Miller circuit.
5. The bootstrap circuit. In this method a capacitor is charged linearly by a constant current which is
obtained by maintaining a constant voltage across a fixed resistor in series with the capacitor.
6. Compensating networks. In this method a compensating circuit is introduced to improve the linearity
of the basic Miller and bootstrap time-base generators.
7. An inductor circuit. In this method an RLC series circuit is used. Since an inductor does not allow the
current passing through it to change instantaneously, the current through the capacitor more or less
remains constant and hence a more linear sweep is obtained.
EXPONENTIAL SWEEP CIRCUIT
Figure 5.3(a) shows an exponential sweep circuit. The switch S is normally closed and is open at t = 0. So
for t > 0, the capacitor charges towards the supply voltage V with a time constant RC. The voltage across
the capacitor at any instant of time is given by After an interval of time Tx when the
sweep amplitude attains the value Vs, the switch again closes. The resultant sweep waveform is shown in
Figure 5.3(b).
Figure 5.3 (a) Charging a capacitor through a resistor from a fixed voltage and (b) the resultant exponential waveform
across the capacitor.
The relation between the three measures of linearity, namely the slope or sweep speed error es,
the displacement error ed, and the transmission error e, for an exponential sweep circuit is derived below.
Slope or sweep speed error, es
We know that for an exponential sweep circuit of Figure 5.3(a),
Rate of change of output or slope is
For small Ts, neglecting the second and higher order terms
Neglecting the second and higher order terms
So the smaller the sweep amplitude compared to the sweep voltage, the smaller will be the slope error.
The transmission error, e,
From Figure 5.2(b),
The displacement error, ed
From Figure 5.2(a), we can see that the maximum displacement between the actual sweep and the linear
sweep which passes through the beginning and end points of the actual sweep occurs at t =T S / 2
The actual sweep vs is given by
The displacement error ed is given by
If a capacitor C is charged by a constant current /, then the voltage across C is ft/C. Hence the rate of
change of voltage with time is given by
Sweep speed = I/C
UNIJUNCTION TRANSISTOR
As the name implies a UJT has only one p-n junction, unlike a BJT which has two p-n junctions.
It has a p-type emitter alloyed to a lightly doped n-type material as shown in Figure 5.4(a). There are two
bases: base B| and base B2, base B] being closer to the emitter than base B2. The p-n junction is formed
between the p-type emitter and n-type silicon slab.
Originally this device was named as double base diode but now it is commercially known as UJT.
The equivalent circuit of the UJT is shown in Figure 5.4(b). /? B] is the resistance between base B! and the
emitter, and it is basically a variable resistance, its value being dependent upon the emitter current i' E. /?B2
is the resistance between base 62 and the emitter, and its value is fixed.
Figure 5.4 (a) Construction of UJT, (b) equivalent circuit of UJT, and (c) circuit when iE = 0.
If IE = 0, due to the applied voltage VBB, a current i results as shown in Figure 5.4(c).
From the equivalent circuit, it is evident that the diode cannot conduct unless the emitter voltage
where Vy is the cut-in voltage of the diode.
This value of emitter voltage which makes the diode conduct is termed peak voltage and is denoted by VP.
It is obvious that if VE < VP, the UJT is OFF and if VE > VP, the UJT is ON.
The symbol of UJT is shown in Figure 5.5(a). The input characteristics of UJT (plot of VE versus /E) are
shown in Figure 5.5(b). The main application of UJT is in switching circuits wherein rapid discharge of
capacitors is very essential. UJT sweep circuit is called a relaxation oscillator.
SWEEP CIRCUIT USING UJT
Many devices are available to serve as the switch S. Figure 5.6(a) shows the exponential sweep circuit in
which the UJT serves the purpose of the switch. In fact, any current-controlled negative-resistance device
may be used to discharge the sweep capacitor.
The supply voltage VyY and the charging resistor R must be selected such that the load line intersects the
input characteristic in the negative-resistance region. Assume that the UJT is OFF. The capacitor C
charges from VYY through R. When it is charged to the peak value VP, the UJT turns ON and the
capacitor now discharges through the UJT. When the capacitor discharges to the valley voltage V v» tne
UJT turns OFF, and again the capacitor starts charging and the cycle repeats. The capacitor voltage
appears as shown in Figure 5.6(b). The expression for the sweep time Ts can be obtained as follows.
Figure 5.6 (a) UJT sweep circuit and (b) output waveform across the capacitor.
SWEEP CIRCUIT USING A TRANSISTOR SWITCH
Figure 5.8(a) shows the circuit diagram of a sweep circuit using a transistor switch. The input gating
waveform v,- may be the output of a monostable circuit in which case we get a triggered sweep circuit or
it might be the output of an astable circuit in which case we get a free-running sweep circuit. The input
and output waveforms are shown in Figure 5.8(b).
In the quiescent state, i.e. for t < 0, the input is clamped near ground and hence the transistor gets enough
base drive from VYY through R' and therefore goes into saturation. Hence the output voltage is at its
lowest magnitude (= VCE(sat) = Vv). At t = 0, the input goes to its lower level and remains at that level for
t = Ts. So for 0 < t < Ts, the transistor remains cut-off, the capacitor charges through R towards VYy with a
time constant RC. At t = Ts, the output is at its peak value. At the end of sweep time Ts, the capacitor
discharges and its final value is Vv.
A TRANSISTOR CONSTANT-CURRENT SWEEP
For a transistor in the common base configuration, except for very small values of collector-to-base
voltage, the collector current is very nearly constant when the emitter current is held constant. This
characteristic may be used to generate a quite linear sweep by causing a constant current to flow through
a capacitor connected in the collector circuit.
Figure 5.9(a) shows the circuit diagram of a transistor constant-current sweep circuit. In Figure 5.9(a), if
VEB is the emitter-to-base voltage, the emitter current is
The switch S is opened at t = 0. Assuming that VEB remains constant for t > 0, the collector current will
be a constant whose nominal value is
So the capacitor charges linearly with time and a sweep is obtained. The equivalent circuit from which to
determine the sweep voltage v, is shown in Figure 5.9(b).When
On applying KVL to the input mesh and KCL to the output node of Figure 5.9(b), we have
At t - 0, vs = 0, the solution to these equations is given by
Expanding the exponential into a power series in t/T and retaining only the first term,
If the capacitor current were to remain constant at this value, then
At t = TS
MILLER AND BOOTSTRAP TIME-BASE GENERATORS—BASIC PRINCIPLES
The linearity of the time-base waveforms may be improved by using circuits involving feedback. Figure
5.10(a) shows the basic exponential sweep circuit in which S opens to form the sweep. A linear sweep
cannot be obtained from this circuit because as the capacitor charges, the charging current decreases and
hence the rate at which the capacitor charges, i.e. the slope of the output waveform decreases. A perfectly
linear output can be obtained if the initial charging current / = VIR is maintained constant. This can be
done by introducing an auxiliary variable generator v whose generated voltage v is always equal to and
opposite to the voltage across the capacitor as shown in Figure 5.10(b). Two methods of simulating the
fictitious generator are discussed below.
Figure 5.10 (a) The current decreases exponentially with time and (b) the current remains constant.
In the circuit of Figure 5.10(b) suppose the point Z is grounded as in Figure 5.11(a). A linear sweep will
appear between the point Y and ground and will increase in the negative direction. Let us now replace the
fictitious (imaginary) generator by an amplifier with output terminals YZ and input terminals XZ as
shown in Figure 5.11(b). Since we have assumed that the generated voltage is always equal and opposite
to the voltage across the capacitor,
Figure 5.11 (a) Figure 5.10(b) with Z grounded and (b) Miller integrator circuit.
the voltage between X and Z is equal to zero. Hence the point X acts as a virtual ground. Now for the
amplifier, the input is zero volts and the output is a finite negative value. This can be achieved by using
an operational integrator with a gain of infinity. This is normally referred to as the Miller integrator
circuit or the Miller sweep.
Suppose that the point Y in Figure 5.10(b) is grounded and the output is taken at Z. A linear sweep will
appear between Z and ground and will increase in the positive direction. Let us now replace the fictitious
generator by an amplifier with input terminals XY and output terminals ZY as shown in Figure 5.12.
Since we have assumed that the generated voltage v at any instant is equal to the voltage across the
capacitor vc, then v0 must be equal to v,-, and the amplifier voltage gain must be equal to unity. The
circuit of Figure 5.12 is referred to as the Bootstrap sweep circuit.
Figure 5.12 Bootstrap sweep circuit.
The Miller sweep
The Miller integrating circuit of Figure 5.11(b) is redrawn in Figure 5.13(a). A switch S at the closing of
which the sweep starts is included. The basic amplifier has been replaced at the input side by its input
resistance and on the output side by its Thevenin's equivalent. R0 is the output resistance of the amplifier
and A its open circuit voltage gain. Figure 5.13(b) is obtained by replacing V, R and tf, on the input side
by a voltage source V in series with a resistance R' where
Neglecting the output resistance in the circuit of Figure 5.13{b), if the switch is closed at t = 0 and if the
initial voltage across the capacitor is zero, then v0 (f = 0+) = 0, because at / = 0~, V; ~ 0 and since the
voltage across the capacitor cannot change instantaneously.
This indicates that the sweep starts from zero.
At t = ∞, the capacitor acts as an open-circuit for dc. So no current flows and therefore
Figure 5.13 (a) A Miller integrator with switch S, input resistance Rf and Thevenin's equivalent on the output side
and (b) Figure 5.13(a) with input replaced by Thevenin's equivalent.
This indicates that the output is exponential and the sweep is negative-going since A is a negative number.
where Vs is the sweep amplitude and V is the peak-to-peak value of the output.
The deviation from linearity is times that of an RC circuit charging directly from a source V.
If R0 is taken into account, the final value attained by v0 remains as before, AV = - \A\V. The initial value
however is slightly different.
To find v0 at t = 0+, writing the KVL around the mesh in Figure 5.13(b), assuming zero voltage across the
capacitor, we have
From the above equations, we find
Therefore, if R0 is taken into account, v0(t = 0+) is a small positive value and still it will be a negative-
going sweep with the same terminal value. Thus the negative-going ramp is preceded by a small positive
jump. Usually this jump is/small compared to the excursion AV', Hence, improvement in linearity because
of the increase in total excursion is negligible.
The bootstrap sweep
Figure 5.14 shows the bootstrap circuit of Figure 5.12. The switch S at the opening of which the sweep
starts is in parallel with the capacitor C. Here, /?,- is the input resistance, A is the open-circuit voltage
gain, and R0 is the output resistance of the amplifier.
Figure 5.14 Bootstrap circuit of Figure 5.12 with switch S which opens at ( = 0, input resistance Rf, and
Thevenin's equivalent of the amplifier on the output side.
At t = 0~, the switch was closed and so vt - 0, Since the voltage across the capacitor cannot change
instantaneously, at t = 0* also, v(- = 0 and hence Av, = 0, and the circuit shown in Figure 5.15 results.
The output has the same value at t = 0 and hence there is no jump in the output voltage at t = 0.
Figure 5.15 Equivalent circuit of Figure 5.14 aU = 0.
At t = <*>, the capacitor acts as an open-circuit and the equivalent circuit shown in Figure 5.16 results.
Writing KVL in the circuit of Figure 5.16,
Since A « 1, and if R0 is neglected, we get
Since R0 « /?, v0 at t = 0 can be neglected compared to the value of v0 at t - <». Then the total excursion of
the output is given by
and the slope error is
This shows that the slope error is [1 - A + (R/Rj)] times the slope error that would result if the capacitor is
charged directly from V through a resistor.
Comparing the expressions for the slope error of Miller and bootstrap circuits, we can see that it is more
important to keep R/Rj small in the bootstrap circuit than in the Miller circuit. Therefore, the Miller
integrator has some advantage over the bootstrap circuit in that in the Miller circuit a higher input
impedance is less important.
THE TRANSISTOR MILLER TIME-BASE GENERATOR
Figure 5.17 shows the circuit diagram of a transistor Miller time-base generator. It consists of a three-
stage amplifier. To have better linearity, it is essential that a high input impedance amplifier be used for
the Miller integrator circuit. Hence the first stage of the amplifier of Figure 5.17 is an emitter follower.
The second stage is a common-emitter amplifier and it provides the necessary voltage amplification. The
third stage (output stage) is also an emitter follower for two reasons. First, because of its low output
impedance R0 it can drive a load such as the horizontal amplifier. Second, because of its high input
impedance it does not load the collector circuit of the second stage and hence the gain of the second stage
can be very high. The capacitor C placed between the base of Qi and the emitter of Q 3 is the timing
capacitor. The sweep speed is changed from range to range by switching R and C and may be varied
continuously by varying VBB.
Under quiescent condition, the output of the Schmitt gate is at its lower level. So transistor Q 4 is ON. The
emitter current of Q4 flows through RI and hence the emitter is at a negative potential. Therefore the diode
D conducts. The current through R flows through the diode D and the transistor Q4. The capacitor C is
bypassed and hence is prevented from charging. When a triggering signal is applied, the output of the
Schmitt gate goes to its higher level. So the base voltage of Q 4 rises and hence the transistor Q4 goes OFF.
A current flows now from 10 V source through RI. The positive voltage at the emitter of Q4 now makes
the diode D reverse biased. At this time the upper terminal of C is connected to the collector of Q4 which
is in cut-off. The capacitor gets charged from VBB and hence a run down sweep output is obtained at the
emitter of Q3. At the end of the sweep, the capacitor C discharges rapidly through D and Q4.
Considering the effect of the capacitance C\, the slope or sweep speed error is given by
THE TRANSISTOR BOOTSTRAP TIME-BASE GENERATOR
Figure 5.18 shows a transistor bootstrap time-base generator. The input to transistor Q] is the gating
waveform from a monostable multivibrator (it could be a repetitive waveform like a square wave). Figure
5.19(a) shows the base voltage of Qj. Figure 5.19(b) shows the collector current waveform of Qj and
Figure 5.19(c) shows the output voltage waveform at the emitter of q 2
Figure 5.18 A voltage time-base generator.
Quiescent conditions
Under quiescent conditions, i.e. before the application of the gating waveform at t - 0, Q| is in saturation
because it gets enough base drive from YCC through ^B- So the voltage across the capacitor which is also
the voltage at the collector of Qj and the base of Q2 is VCE (sat). Since Q2 is conducting and acting as an
emitter follower, the voltage at the emitter of Q2 which is also the output voltage is less than this base
voltage by VBE2, i.e.
is a small negative voltage (a few tenths of a volt negative). If we neglect this small voltage as well as the
small drop across the diode D, then the voltage across C\ as well as across R is Vcc-Hence the current i>
through R i§ Vcc/R- Since the quiescent output voltage at the emitter of Q2 is close to zero, the emitter
current of Q2 is VEE/J?E. Hence the base current of Q2 is iB2 = VEE / hFE RE
iR = iC1 + iB2
Since the base current of Q2, i.e. /B2 is very small compared with the collector current i C1 of Q1
For Qj to be really in saturation under quiescent condition, its base current (( Bi = VCC/RB) t be at least equal
to I'CI#*FE> i.e. VCC//IFE^. so that
Formation of sweep
When the negative-going gating waveform is applied at t - 0, the transistor Q] is driven OFF. The
current /Ci now flows into the capacitor C and so the voltage across the capacitor rises according to the
equation
Assuming unity gain for the emitter follower,
Since the voltage across C\ is constant and equal to VGO when the sweep starts, the diode is reverse biased
and the current through R is supplied by the capacitor C\ .
The equation, v0 ~ Vcct/RC is valid only if the gate duration Tg is small enough so that the calculated value
of v0 does not exceed Vcc- From Figure 5.18 it can be seen that when v0 approaches VCG, the voltage VCE
of Q2 approaches zero and the transistor Q2 goes into saturation. Then it no longer acts as an emitter
follower. Hence v0 (also vc) remains constant at Vcc. The current Vcc/K through Ci and R now flows from
base to emitter of Q2.
If the output v0 reaches the voltage Vcc m a time Ts < Tg, then Vcc = Vcc TS / RC or TS = RC
Figure 5.19 Voltage time-base generator of Figure 5.18: (a) the base voltage of Q1% (b) the collector current of
Qi, and (c) the output voltage at the emitter of Q2-
whereas if the sweep amplitude Vs is less than Vcc> then the maximum ramp voltage is given by
Retrace interval
At t = Tg, when the gate terminates, the transistor Qi goes into conduction and a current r' Bi = VCC/R-Q
flows into the base of Qi. Hence a current/ci =/IFE*BI flows into the collector of Qj. This current remains
constant till the transistor goes into saturation. Since Q] is ON the capacitor C discharges through Qi.
Because of emitter follower action, when vc falls, v0 also falls by the same amount and so the voltage
across R remains constant at Vcc. The constant current iR = Vcc/R also flows through Qi. Applying KVL at
the collector of Qi and neglecting /B2,
Since the discharging current of C, i.e. IA is constant, the voltage across C and hence the output voltage
falls linearly to its initial value.
If the retrace time is Tr, then the charge lost by the capacitor = IA Tr
where Vs is the sweep amplitude. That is,
After C is discharged, the collector current is now supplied completely through R and becomes
established at the value V^c/R-
The retrace time can be reduced by choosing a small value of Rs. However if RR is reduced
greatly, then the collector current may increase to the point where the transistor
dissipation may be excessive.
The recovery process
During the entire interval the capacitor C[ discharges at a constant rate because the
Current through it has remained constant. So it would have lost a charge
Hence at the time T when the voltage across C and at the base of Q2 returns to its value for t< 0, the
voltage across Ci is smaller than it was at the beginning of the sweep. The diode D starts conducting at t -
T, and the end of Ci, which is connected to D, returns to its initial voltage, i.e. Vcc- Therefore,.the other
terminal of Ci which is connected to the emitter of Ch is at a more positive potential than it was at t = 0
and so Q2 goes to cut-off. So the capacitor Ci charges through the resistor RE with a current,
The maximum recovery time T\ for C\ can be calculated as follows.
Charge lost by capacitor Ci in time T is
Charge gained by capacitor Ci in minimum recovery time T\ is
This shows that T\ is independent of C\ and varies inversely with VEE. T\ can be reduced by increasing
VEE. However this modification will increase the quiescent current in Q 2 and hence its dissipation.
CURRENT TIME-BASE GENERATORS
We have mentioned earlier that a linear current time-base generator is one that provides an output current
waveform a portion of which exhibits a linear variation with respect to time. This linearly varying current
waveform can be generated by applying a linearly varying voltage waveform generated by a voltage time-
base generator, across a resistor. Alternatively, a linearly varying current waveform can be generated by
applying a constant voltage across an inductor. Linearly varying currents are required for magnetic
deflection applications.
A SIMPLE CURRENT SWEEP
Figure 5.26(a) shows a simple transistor current sweep circuit. Here the transistor is used as a switch and
the inductor L in series with the transistor is bridged across the supply voltage. Rd represents the sum of
the diode forward resistance and the damping resistance. The gating waveform shown in Figure 5.26(b)
applied to the base of the transistor is in two levels. These levels are selected such that when the input, is
at the lower level the transistor is cut-off and when it is at the upper level the transistor Is in saturation.
For t < 0, the input to the base is at its lower level (negative). So the transistor is cut-off. Hence no
currents flow in the transistor and iL = 0 and VCE = Vcc- At f = 0, the gate signal goes to its upper level
(positive). So the transistor conducts and goes into saturation. Hence the collector voltage falls to v CE(sat)
and the entire supply voltage Vcc is applied across the inductor. So the current through the inductor
increases linearly with time. This continues till t = Tg, at which time the gating signal comes to its lower
level and so the transistor will be cut-off. During the sweep interval Ts (i.e. from t = 0 to t = Tg), the diode
D is reverse biased and hence it does not conduct. At t ~ Ts, when the transistor is cut-off and no current
flows through it, since the current through the inductor cannot change instantaneously it flows through the
diode and the diode conducts. Hence there will be a voltage drop of lLRd across the resistance Rd. So at t =
Tg, the potential at the collector terminal rises abruptly to Vcc + fiftd* i-e- there is a voltage spike at the
collector at t = Tg. The duration of the spike depends on the inductance of Z-^but the amplitude of the
spike does not. For t > Tg, the inductor current decays exponentially to zero with a time constant T- LIRd.
So the voltage at the collector also decays exponentially and settles at Vcc under steady-state conditions.
The inductance L normally represents a physical yoke and its resistance RL may not be negligible. If RCs
represents the collector saturation resistance of the transistor, the current increases in accordance with the
equation
If the current increases linearly to a maximum value IL, the slope error is given by
The inductor current waveform and the waveform at the collector of the transistor are shown in Figures
5.26(c) and 5.26(d) respectively. To maintain linearity, the voltage (RL + /?csXt across the total circuit
resistance must be kept small compared with the supply voltage Vcc.
A TRANSISTOR CURRENT TIME-BASE GENERATOR
Figure 5.30 shows the circuit diagram of a transistor current time-base generator. Transistor Q! is a switch
which serves the function of S in Figure 5.29. Transistor Qi gets enough base drive from V CC1 through KB
a
°d hence is in saturation under quiescent conditions. At / = 0, when the gating signal is applied it turns
off Qi and a trapezoidal voltage waveform appears at the base of Q 2. Transistors Q2 and Q3 are connected
as darlington pair to increase the input impedance so that the trapezoidal waveform source is not loaded.
Such loading would cause nonlinearity in the ramp part of the trapezoid.
The emitter resistor RE introduces negative current feedback into the output stage and thereby improves
the linearity with which the collector current responds to the base voltage. For best linearity it is
necessary to make the emitter resistance as large as possible. RE is selected so that the voltage developed
across it will be comparable to the supply voltage
