P-WASHE O&M Task Team – April 2004

TABLE OF CONTENTS

ACTIVITY PAGE

1. INTRODUCTION 1
1.1. Objective and content.........................................................................................1
1.2. Target.................................................................................................................1
1.3. Application.........................................................................................................1
2. DESCRIPTION OF BOREHOLE 2
2.1. Borehole structure..............................................................................................2
2.1.1. Drilling depth.....................................................................................................2
2.1.2. Diameters of boreholes.......................................................................................2
2.1.3. Casing pipes and well screens:...........................................................................2
2.1.4. Gravel packing...................................................................................................2
2.1.5. Grouting.............................................................................................................3
2.1.6. Centralisers.........................................................................................................3
2.2. Borehole design..................................................................................................3
2.2.1. Borehole structural design..................................................................................3
2.3. Recommended type of lifting device.................................................................4
2.4. Advantages and disadvantages of boreholes......................................................4
3. SITING OF BOREHOLES 5
3.1. Participatory site selection process....................................................................5
3.1.1. Steps in the siting process..................................................................................5
3.2. Technical/scientific selection of a site...............................................................7
4. BOREHOLE CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES 8
4.1. General information...........................................................................................8
4.1.1. Important considerations....................................................................................8
4.1.2. Preparatory and initial works.............................................................................8
4.1.3. Supervision and monitoring arrangements.........................................................9
4.2. Borehole drilling................................................................................................9
4.2.1. Drilling Methods..............................................................................................10
4.2.2. Drilling plant, equipment, tools etc..................................................................13
4.2.3. Stratification sampling.....................................................................................15
4.3. Borehole casing................................................................................................16
4.4. Gravel packing and grouting............................................................................16
4.5. Borehole development......................................................................................17
4.5.1. Borehole development methods.......................................................................17
4.6. Borehole pumping test.....................................................................................18
4.6.1. Pumping test process........................................................................................18
4.7. Water quality analysis......................................................................................19
4.8. Water lifting devices........................................................................................19
4.9. Run-off water drainage facility / above ground works............................................20
5. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE 21
5.1. Preparation for operation and maintenance......................................................21
5.2. Implementation of o&m...................................................................................24
5.2.1. Organisation for implementation of O&M 24
5.2.2. Day to day running of the borehole..................................................................29
5.2.3. Maintenance of borehole facility......................................................................30
5.2.4. Resource mobilization for O&M......................................................................33

i
5.3. Trouble Shooting ……………………………………………………………
35

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

ABBREVIATION DESCRIPTION
AIDS Acquired Immuno Deficiency Syndrome
CFM
DTH Down The Hole
D-WASHE District Water Sanitation and Health Education
ETC Et cetra
FRP Fibre Reinforced Plastic
HIV Human Immuno-deficiency Virus
HRS Hours
I.E. That is
IRC International Resource Centre
KPA Kilo Pascal
L/S Litres per second
M Metres
M&E Monitoring and Evaluation
MM Millimetres
O&M Operation and Maintenance
PHHE Participatory Health and Hygiene Education
PSI Pressure in Kilograms per Square Inches
PVC Polyvinyl chloroprene
P-WASHE Provincial Water Sanitation and Health Education
RWSS Rural Water Supply and Sanitation
SUB DISTRICT WASHE Sub District Water, Sanitation and Health Education
TAZARA Tanzania – Zambia Railway Authority
V-WASHE Village Water Sanitation and Health Education
WASHE Water, Sanitation and Health Education
WHO World Health Organisation

LIST OF FIGURES
FIG DESCRIPTION PAGE
1 Cable tool percussion rig tools 13
2 Typical Caretaker selection Criteria 21
3 (a) Initial O&M Tools 22
3 (b) Tool Kit for installation, Reconditioning and Maintenance of India Mark II Deep 22
Well Pump [a. Standard Tools, b. Special Tools]
4 Areas of training for Care Takers 23
5 O&M Requirements 23
6 Composition of V-WASHE Committee 24
7 Reporting system for faults 28
8 Some Rules and Guidelines on use of Boreholes 29
9 Minor Repairs 32
10 Major Repairs 33

LIST OF TABLES
DESCRIPTION PAGE
Table 1: Drilling Methods 10
Table 2: Spares for pump – Head, Cylinder and GI riser pipes 23
Table 3: WASHE structures, Roles/Responsibilities 25
Table 4: Preventive Maintenance activities 31
Table 5: Trouble Shooting 35

ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The development of this manual on boreholes involved a series of activities and active
participation of officers from Northern province P-WASHE O&M Task Team.

The P-WASHE wishes to most sincerely thank the Task Team for their hard work and
commitment shown in the whole process of developing this new manual.

The P-WASHE further extends its gratitude to Development Cooperation Ireland

Northern Province Development Programme (NPDP) for the great support rendered in
the development of the manual through its technical and financial assistance.

Lastly but not the least, special thanks go to Mrs Mwaba from the Department of
Water Affairs for typing the manual.

May God bless

F.C.P. Ndhlovu
P-WASHE Chairperson

iii
1. INTRODUCTION

The Northern Province, Provincial Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Education (P-
WASHE) committee has developed a number of operation and maintenance manuals
to be used in the Rural Water Supply and Sanitation (RWSS) programme.

This manual is on the borehole technology. In Zambia, and in Northern Province in

particular, groundwater forms a significant proportion of water supply to the rural
communities. Boreholes are becoming a common means of abstracting this
groundwater to provide sufficient quantities of clean potable water for the rural
communities especially during periods of drought.

1.1. OBJECTIVE AND CONTENT

This manual is meant to serve as a guide for executing activities for boreholes. It
addresses aspects associated with construction, operation and maintenance of a
borehole facility in the 3-tier O&M system for Northern Province.

It presents descriptions of the technology, siting information, construction procedures,

operation and maintenance requirements as well as roles and responsibilities of
different players in operation and maintenance activities.

1.2. TARGET

The manual is to be used by all WASHE committees in Northern Province. It is

however, intended to guide communities and facilitators such as V-WASHEs, pump
minders, technical supervisors and Sub District-WASHEs on carrying out operation
and maintenance activities.

The three players, D-WASHE, Sub D-WASHE and the V-WASHE will find it handy
in performing their roles and responsibilities associated with the borehole technology.

1.3. APPLICATION

The desired improvements in operation and maintenance will largely depend on

proper utilisation of the manual. It is, therefore, recommended that the manual be
used at all levels of operation and maintenance activities.

Before construction activities, preferably during community mobilisation,

sensitisation and monitoring, the requirements in the manual should be thoroughly
discussed with all stakeholders. During construction, it is inevitable that the manual
be referred to step by step and all requirements stipulated therein adhered to. It is the
conviction of the developers of this manual that a properly constructed and equipped
borehole will present minimal operation and maintenance problems. Thus, in this
manual, construction procedures and adherence to technical specifications have been
considered as important pre-requirements for successful subsequent O&M activities.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 1

2. DESCRIPTION OF BOREHOLE

Boreholes are machine-bored wells into the ground to penetrate the water bearing
formation. Generally, the diameter ranges from 100mm to 250mm. It is lined and
protected against contamination and equipped with an appropriate water-lifting
device.
Depth
2.1. BOREHOLE STRUCTURE Diameter
Casing pipe, screws and bottom
The borehole structure can be described under the plugs
major components shown in the box. Gravel packing
Grouting
Centralism provision
2.1.1. Drilling depth Bottom plug and top cap

The depth of boreholes may vary from area to area

and depends on both geological and hydrogeological conditions. Information
available at Department of Water Affairs reveals that the potential zones for
groundwater occurrence have been established to be between 40-85m. Further, other
data in areas where projects have been executed reveal that aquifers are penetrated in
drilling range from 25-85m. The average depth of boreholes in Northern Province is
between 45-50m. For cost estimation the depth of 50m is often used

2.1.2. Diameters of boreholes

Two borehole diameters are used in rural areas of Zambia. These are 4 ” and 6’’ (100
mm and 150 mm). This is according to the planned population to be served based on
lifting devices. The latter is selected for sites where hydrogeological conditions are
favourable and population to be served likely to increase so that hand pumps are
replaced by motorised systems. In Northern Province, this is the size that has been
recommended.

2.1.3. Casing pipes and well screens:

Steel
Casing pipes are made in standard lengths of 3, 4 and 6 metres. PVC
Fibre Reinforced
The materials shown in the box are used for making casing
Plastic (FRP)
pipes and screens.

In recent years, the last two have been widely used. They are strong enough to
withstand earth pressure despite their lightweight, which allows for easy handling
during transportation and field works. They also fit well for groundwater with
abrasive nature because of their resistance to corrosion. Steel casing pipes are still in
use in many parts of the country especially where groundwater is not abrasive.

2.1.4. Gravel packing

This is an important part of borehole installation and should be carefully done.

Ideally well-washed and graded gravel should be used as gravel packing material.
The grading is such that large particles are placed against the well screen and in
diminishing size, the smaller particles placed on the wall of the borehole.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 2

Best gravel packing material could be found in meandering riverbeds. These are
usually made of quartz that withstands chemical and physical weathering. The
purpose of gravel packing is

 To fill the annular space between the casing and the borehole wall.
 To stabilise the formation.
 To prevent fines from the surrounding formation falling into the borehole.

Usually the grain particle size of gravel pack is about 6mm.

2.1.5. Grouting

Grouting is a process carried in borehole construction to seal off undesirable water

from entering the borehole. A strong mix of concrete is placed in sections of the
borehole depth where such undesirable water can enter the borehole.

2.1.6. Centralisers

Centralisers are installed in order to maintain the alignment of the casing pipes and
well screens in the centre of the borehole.

2.2. BOREHOLE DESIGN

The word “design” is used in the context of the practical realisation of a borehole
meeting the demand of the population and their accepting the facility. Among
factors to consider in the design of boreholes are:

 Location: This has been discussed under the section that deals with siting.
 It should safeguard the quantity and quality of water
 Unit supply rate of water should be targeted to meet the minimum requirement of
30 litres per capita per day and thus complying with WHO standards.
 Population to be served: Consideration should be made on the population to be
served and the rate. With the demand of 30 litres per capita per day, people to be
served can be estimated from the pumping rate.
 Hygiene conditions

2.2.1. Borehole structural design

The structural design of a borehole is derived from hydrogeological survey and the
drilling process. Following section 2.1.1 and considering these two processes the
borehole structure is determined as follows:

 Depth usually is determined from hydrogeological survey data.

 Diameters adopted are 4 and 6” (100mm or 150mm) for rural areas.
 Installation of casing and screen: In a typical design the plain casing is set at 80%
of the total depth of the borehole while the screen takes 20% of the total depth.
Screen slots are selected on the basis of removal of fine material from the
formation. From past practice, it has been common to select a slot that retains
40% of the sediment in the formation adjacent to the screen (This applies for
naturally developed borehole). For filter packed boreholes slot sizes are selected

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 3

 to retain 90% of the filter pack materials. Other issues to look at when selecting
slot sizes are effects on well development, yield of the borehole and pressure drop
near the borehole.

Screens are installed in water bearing sections of the borehole. This could be in a
continuous column or in staggered placement depending on aquifer positions. A clue
of screen positioning can be obtained from hydrogeological survey results and
confirmed during the drilling operations. Water bearing sections are determined by
soil sampling and physical water striking where there is sufficient water in the aquifer.

Bottom plugging is important to avoid debris or fine soil material being lifted up the
casing column.

2.3. RECOMMENDED TYPE OF LIFTING DEVICE

In rural areas a borehole can be installed with windlass and bucket mechanism or a
hand pump. The bucket is a cylinder of 5-litre capacity. There are several types of
hand pumps such as India Mark II, Bush Pump and Blair pump. The recommended
type of hand pump for Northern Province is India Mark II for boreholes with static
water levels beyond 15m because of the ease with which it can be operated and
maintained. In Northern Province the windlass and bucket mechanism is
recommended to be used only on boreholes with a static water level not greater than
15m.

2.4. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF BOREHOLES

Some of the advantages and disadvantages of a borehole as compared to a

conventional hand dug well are listed below;

Advantages Disadvantages

It is easy to use by all. It is comparatively expensive to

It is a hygienic way of drawing water as it construct and rehabilitate.
is sealed. Spares are expensive and not
It has less maintenance activities e.g. easily available in rural areas.
dewatering the pit is not necessary. Scarcity of tools and skilled
Water pressure inside can be maintained, manpower at local level.
reducing the danger of caving in. Vulnerable to vandalism.
Takes less time to construct than Provides low storage volume.
excavation by hand. It is difficult to deepen an
It is not labour intensive. existing borehole lined with PVC
It is more reliable especially in drought casings as perturbation of the bit
prone areas. could result in smashed casings
Not easily polluted.
Deeper ground water can be accessed.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 4

3. SITING OF BOREHOLES

Siting is the selection of a most suitable point for construction of a water point. This
involves two stages, the participatory site selection and the detailed geophysics
survey.

3.1. PARTICIPATORY SITE SELECTION PROCESS

It is important that community members fully participate in the site selection process
so that they accept the water facility, which in turn will lead to their willingness in
maintaining it. To ensure consensus and avoid biasness, participatory approaches
should be employed in this process.

3.1.1. Steps in the siting process

a) Making an appointment with community

Sub district WASHE members should inform V-WASHE members about the
upcoming site selection exercise. At this stage, the V-WASHE Committee is
requested to inform other Community Members about the exercise and upcoming
participatory community meeting, when and where the meeting will be held.

Note: that appointments with communities should be done preferably through the V-
WASHE well in advance either by sending written or radio message(s) where possible
or by visitation.

b) Participatory Community Meeting

Community Meetings should be facilitated by Sub District-WASHE and V-WASHE

members who should:

 Give brief background to site selection by stating that their visit is a response to
what the community had planned for - the borehole. Facilitators should find out
from community members how previous siting exercises were done.

 Explain the participatory process to follow in site selection exercise, how long it
would likely take and technical aspects to consider during actual siting.

 Brief community members about the participatory requirements to be adhered to

in the process. Additionally, roles to be performed by community members
should also be discussed.

 Request the community to provide a community map to assess social and resource
features in the community. Where a map is not available, communities should be
asked to draw the community map and in the process Sub D-WASHE members
should ask probing questions about the features on the map. Keen interest should
be taken in identifying where water points, latrines, animal pens or kraals, houses
for the aged, the chronically ill and the handicapped, graveyards, sacred grounds
are and the location of politicians and traditional leaders.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 5

 Note that community mapping will assist in preventing influential community
members such as politicians from bulldozing others on where to locate the site to
serve their own interests. In addition, keep in mind features on the map to refer to
and further probe communities during site visitation.

 The facilitator should divide community members into groups such as male adults,
female adults, male youths and female youths and ask them their preferred sites on
the community map.
 Facilitate consensus building on the order of priority after the groups present their
preferred sites through ranking.

c) Site visitation for actual siting

Although consensus with various groups, on the order of priority of sites would have
been reached during community meeting, groups of community members tend to have
competing and conflicting ideas on where the actual site should be. Sub district-
WASHE and V-WASHE members should, therefore, in the company of technical
staff conduct a technical feasibility survey of all the sites chosen by community
members. At this stage, it is important to consider the following:

Local knowledge and experience: Community’s local knowledge and experience in

siting should be given high consideration. Their experiences, for example, in divining
should be discussed and if a particular person can apply divining technique, should be
encouraged to do so. Divining can be used by rural communities to detect areas
where water could possibly be found by either using copper electrodes or a fresh
forked twig of Musekese tree branch.

Technical aspects: Technical aspects of importance that should be considered in

siting are:

 Location

 The borehole should be sited a walking distance of less or equal to 500m from
the furthest household and should not disadvantage majority of the people.
 The population size should be 20 – 40 households.
 The site should be accessible for material delivery and villagers through out
the year.
 The site should be on the upper side of the slope and at least 30 metres away
from latrines refuse pits, graveyards and kraals.

 Soil formations and topography

 Soil conditions must permit construction of a borehole.

 Borehole construction is best suitable in firm stable formations. Good aquifers
are either in structural discontinuities (e.g. fracturing, faults) in the rocks or
from weathered horizons at the interface between overlying sediments and the
rock head.
 In mountainous areas the best aquifers are found along the edges of the valley.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 6

 Vegetation

 Presence of water loving trees such as Mukuyu tree in a particular area

indicates possible availability of groundwater.

 Water Quality and Quantity

 Areas where the water table rises to less than 1 metre below the ground should
be avoided, as these are prone to pollution especially in case of floods in the
rain season.
 The borehole should be located at a site where there is a possibility of having
clean and adequate water through out the year.

d) Community Meeting to Provide Feedback

The findings of site(s) visitation(s) must be discussed with community members.

Details why a particular site could be recommended should be thoroughly discussed.
Sub district-WASHE and V-WASHE members together with the technical person
should ensure that consensus is reached on the appropriate site for borehole
construction. This should take into consideration participatory siting requirements to
ensure social acceptance of a site by all intended beneficiaries and to be assured of
community participation before, during and after construction.

Note: that the participatory process in siting will assist facilitators on planning and
how to approach the intended beneficiaries.

3.2. TECHNICAL / SCIENTIFIC SELECTION OF A SITE

Exact drilling points in the chosen sites or villages should be determined by qualified
staff based on Hydrogeological and Engineering conditions. Geophysical survey is
used to assess the groundwater potential of an area and further to locate an appropriate
point where a borehole can be drilled. Further more, a wide variety of methods are
being used all over the world to determine the presence of water in the subsoil,
including exploratory drilling, aerial surveys, seismic and geo-electrical methods.

 Geo Electrical Resistivity Measurements

With this method of siting, an electrical current from an artificial source is sent
through the sub-surface. Given the strength of the current applied, the apparent
sensitivity of a part of the sub-surface can be calculated. By varying the distance
between either the current electrodes (Schlumberger Configuration) or by both
electrodes (Wenner Configuration) different resistivities will be obtained. In this
respect, the further apart, the deeper the penetration of investigation. The specialist
who executes the measurements and the hydro geologist will draw curves which
represent the relationship between apparent resistivity and the distance between the
electrodes and will interpret the results to determine the probable structure of the sub-
surface and groundwater potential.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 7

4. BOREHOLE CONSTRUCTION PROCEDURES

(NB: A lot of the material in this section is taken from supplementary module 2B, Borehole standard
construction details, DISS 2002.)

Borehole construction involves the following critical steps: drilling, casing, gravel
packing and grouting, borehole development, pump testing, water quality analysis,
equipping and construction of headworks.

4.1. GENERAL INFORMATION

This section presents a framework and critical steps that precede the more detailed
borehole construction processes. It outlines organisational issues and other
preparatory requirements for the construction process.

4.1.1. Important Considerations

It is important to take into consideration the following:

a) Hygiene education incorporating gender awareness creation and HIV/AIDS

sensitisation should be conducted by the sub D-WASHE and the V-WASHE
committee before, during and after construction.

b) All technical decisions are to be taken by the technical supervisor in

consultations with the contractor’s representative or driller. The two will decide
on:
 When to stop drilling in difficult formations
 The final depth of the borehole
 When to stop the borehole development process
 Any other critical technical details as stipulated in the signed contract

c) It is the responsibility of the V-WASHE to ensure that the access road is

prepared and the site adequately cleared for the drilling equipment and to monitor
and take stock of the materials used by the contractor e.g. the type, number and
size of casing pipes used.

NB: The community is the employer while the contractor is the employee.

d) All necessary documents including copies of the signed contracts should be

availed to the D-WASHE committee and the technical supervisor.

e) The Technical Supervisor should ensure that after the borehole is completed
the contractor leaves a manual of the facility installed with the community (in the
custody of the Care Taker).

4.1.2. Preparatory and initial works

Preparatory work is as important as the actual construction process as it sets the

foundation for successful work. Information on the activities to be undertaken by the
community should be comprehensive, adequate and specific. The following activities
should be undertaken:
Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 8
a) The sub D-WASHE and the V-WASHE adequately prepares the community
through a process of sensitisation, participatory health and hygiene education and
mobilisation of requisite resources.

b) The community clears site and prepares access road.

c) The contractor meets D-WASHE committee and prepare schedule of work.

Technical supervisor is introduced to the contractor.

d) Technical supervisor introduces contractor to sub district WASHE and V-WASHE

members. V-WASHE committee takes contractor to site.

4.1.3. Supervision and monitoring arrangements

Effective Supervision and monitoring of the construction process is of utmost

importance to ensure a successfully completed borehole. It is the ultimate
responsibility of the community to ensure regular supervision and monitoring of
progress. The following guidelines should be followed:

a): The D-WASHE will appoint a technical supervisor(s) to supervise the contractor.
It is the responsibility of the supervisor(s) to ensure that the contractor adheres to
specifications and other contract provisions. In addition to the completion
certificate, the technical supervisor should prepare a written report to the D-
WASHE committee who should finally make a recommendation for payment to
the contractor.

b): At least one V-WASHE member, preferably the caretaker, must be present every
working day. The contractor should take deliberate steps to transfer basic
knowledge on the construction process to the caretaker. By doing so the
caretakers will be able to gain valuable knowledge necessary for proper operation
and maintenance of the completed borehole.

c): A Technical Supervisor will be responsible for the daily supervision of the
construction process. This entails that he/she will ensure that the construction
specifications are observed. He/she will keep records of progress and problems
encountered. Records will be kept in pre-designed borehole construction forms.

d): The V-WASHE committee, through caretakers, will conduct daily monitoring of
the construction process. The caretakers will keep records of daily activities
including usage of materials and community involvement.

e): D-WASHE monitoring of progress will be done in line with scheduled project
monitoring visits and in accordance with the provisions of M&E system.

4.2. BOREHOLE DRILLING

Various borehole-drilling methods are being employed in this country. They have
been universally developed because of different geological conditions. Geological
conditions range from hard rock such as granite and dolomite, consolidated formation

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 9

such as sandstone, mudstone to unconsolidated types such as Kalahari sands and
alluvial sediments.

In many cases, the usual drilling procedures may be varied depending on the type of
formation being penetrated. For instance, two different drilling methods can be
employed in completing one borehole. In an instance where hard basement is overlain
by loose formation two different drilling methods may be employed. It is therefore,
obvious that no single drilling method is best for all geological conditions. The
drilling engineer would need to be guided by the hydro-geologist in preparing correct
tools to suit the drilling procedure for a particular drilling condition through hydro-
geological reports.

Borehole construction comprises the following operations.

 Drilling
 Installing the casing and screens
 Installing gravel pack
 Grout to provide sanitary protection
 Developing the borehole to ensure sand/silt free condition

4.2.1. Drilling Methods

Borehole drilling and installation methods that have been developed have reached
advanced stage. The scope of this manual does not allow going into real detail. Only
basic principles are to be described and, are as discussed hereunder.

Table 1: Drilling Methods

Drilling Method Advantages Disadvantages
Percussion  Low technology rigs, and  Can drill only to shallow depths
drilling therefore cheap mobilisation and because of temporary casing
operation  Relatively slow drilling
 Needs small work area
 Uses little water
Rotary drilling,  No limit to depth of drilling  More expensive as compared to
direct circulation  Fast drilling percussion drilling
 Needs no temporary casing  May pollute aquifer by drilling fluid
DTH and air-  No pollution of aquifer by drilling  DTH not appropriate in soft
flush rotary fluid unstable formation
 Needs no water  Drilling depth below the water table
 DTH is very fast in hard is limited by hydraulic pressure
formation
Reverse  Leaves no mud cake  May use great volumes of water
circulation  Rapid drilling in coarse
unconsolidated / consolidated
aquifers at large diameters
Auguring  Uses low technology, and  Restricted to shallow depths
therefore is cheap, where labour
is cheap

Note: Whatever method is employed, setting up of the drilling rig to ensure verticality
of the hole is important.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 10

a) Cable Tool Percussion Drilling Method

This method of drilling involves the use of a drilling machine operating with a string
of tools comprising a drill bit, a steel wire cable controlled from a derrick or mast.
The drilling operation is accomplished by lifting and dropping regularly the
string of tools in the borehole. The drill bit breaks the formation into small
fragments. The weight of the string of tools provides the necessary impact to break the
formation. The reciprocating up and down action of the string of tools mixes the
crushed material with water to form slurry. The water to form the slurry is poured in
the hole if there is no water in the formation being penetrated.

The slurry is removed at intervals by means of a bailer. The slurry depth should not
be allowed to accumulate to so much depth because this slows the fall of the tools and
retards the rate of penetration. When there is an encounter of clay, sand is usually
added into the hole to facilitate penetration.

The cable tool method is suitable in both consolidated and unconsolidated formation.

b) Direct Rotary Drilling

The direct rotary drilling increases

the drilling speed and reaches
greater depth in most formations
in relatively shorter periods than
the cable tool percussion method.

The borehole is drilled by a

rotating bit that cuts the formation.
Cuttings are removed by
continuous circulation of a drilling
fluid as the bit rotates.

The bit is attached at the end of

the drill pipe, which transmits the
rotating action from the rig to the
bit. The drilling fluid is pumped
down through the drill pipe and
out through the jets in the bit. The
drill fluid then flows upwards in the annular space carrying the cuttings in suspension
to the top. At the surface, the fluid is channelled into a settling pit where cuttings
settle down. The clean fluid is then recycled and reticulated down the hole. The cycle
is started for picking up cuttings.

c) Reverse Circulation Rotary Drilling

This is done with the flow of drilling fluid reversed as compared with the system used
in the conventional drilling. The drilling fluid and the cuttings load move upwards
inside the drill tube and are discharged by a pump into a pit to settle.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 11

This kind of drilling offers the cheapest way of drilling larger diameter holes in
unconsolidated formations such as alluvial sand, silt, soft clay etc.

d) Air Drilling Method

Air drilling can only be done in hard and consolidated formations. Two methods use
air as a primary drilling fluid. These are direct rotary air and down the hole air
hammer. In conventional reverse circulation method air is used to assist but not as a
primary drilling fluid. In this method cuttings are lifted to the top by air, which after
passing through the drill pipe cools the bit and comes upward in the annular space.
The cuttings collect at the ground surface and are removed by use of a shovel or spade.
A small volume of water or surfactant should be injected in the drill system to control
dust and to lower the temperature of the air so that the swivel is cooled.

e) Drilling in collapsible formation

To drill in collapsible formations, mud and foam injection drilling methods are used.

For mud drilling, drill rigs are provided with mud pumps in addition to high capacity
compressors. The pump induces the circulation of the drilling fluid down the hole and
up through the annular space and settles in the tank at ground level. At this point the
cuttings, which are picked along by the drilling fluid are allowed to settle. Cuttings
should be finely ground to enhance their lifting to the surface through up-hole
velocity.

In clay formation, foam injection method is usually applied to separate the water from
the mud to facilitate penetration. Certain additives are added to the foam to form the
drilling fluids.

f) Down the Hole Drilling

This is the second direct rotational method. A pneumatic drill operates at the end of
the drill pipe striking the rock while the drill pipe rotates thereby cutting the rock
formation. The percussion effect is similar to that of the cable-tool drilling bit. This
method of drilling is widely used in hard and abrasive rock formations.

Information pertaining to air pressure, velocity and operation revolutions of the

drilling tools can be obtained from the Department of Water Affairs and other
institutional information resource centres in Water Resources Management.

g) Inverse Drilling

This method of drilling is a top head drive, direct rotary system that involves the
addition of air by an air-assist which passes through a special arrangement of string of
tools (see illustration next page)

Compressed air is injected through an injection stem into air channels mounted
outside the drill pipe and then into the drilling fluid as it moves up inside the drill
pipe. The drilling fluid and the cuttings are assisted by the airlift inside the drill pipe.
Use of this method can increase the capacity of a direct rotary rig to drill large

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 12

diameter boreholes. . It is briefly discussed in this
manual for the information of people with interest
in water boreholes drilling. More information is
available at the Department of Water Affairs.

4.2.2. Drilling plant, equipment, tools etc.

Plant, equipment, tools and materials for the

technology of drilling discussed above are
outlined below. Specifications are not discussed
because various models and makes of drilling
plant and accessories have different specifications.
The general outline is therefore, presented
hereunder for information of persons interested in
drilling equipment

a) Drilling Rigs
Rotary table type
Top head drive type
Drilling rigs may be
Rotary spindle type
classified as in the box:
Percussion type
The rigs can further be
classified by the method of mounting as follows:

 Truck mounted - these are mounted on trucks

which are 4x2 or 4x4
 Stationery deck mounted-these are put on
stationery drill table
 Trailer mounted • these are mounted on a trailer which can be towed by truck
 Crawler type-have traction chains that facilitate movement in rough and mud
conditions

In Zambia, truck and trailer mounting systems are common.

 Cable tool percussion rig tools Fig: 1: Cable tool percussion rig tools
and equipment: Trailer mounted
The rig derrick and accessories
and major components are as
The engine as driver for the locomotion of the
shown in fig 1. system mounted on a trailer or chassis
Control gear
 Rotary Rig String of tools i.e. drill bit, drill stem, drilling jars
and rope socket etc.
The following are major The bailer equipped with valve at the bottom
components of rotary drilling rigs Sand line
Sand pump
 Drilling derrick: The derrick is
made of steel pipes or structural
steel. The derrick provides the mast to facilitate the lifting and lowering of tools in
the drilling operation.

 Drill Head: The drill head facilitates the lifting and connection of drill rods.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 13

 Drill Rods: This is an important part of the drilling rig. The rod is actually the
part of the rig, which is moved by the rotating mechanism

 Core Barrels: These are steel pipes to take out core samples where necessary.
They have got diamond chisel

 Drill Bits: Drill bits perform the actual cutting of the formation. They are usually
made of diamond. Their configuration is dependent on the geological structure,
rock quality, depth of borehole, water volume, etc.

 Lifting and lowering tools: The following are lifting and lowering tools that can
be provided with rotary rigs

 Water swivel - an instrument used to send fluids such as plain water, mud water,
etc. from a pump into the interior of a rotating rod
 Hoisting water swivel - an instrument used to send water into the rotating drill rod
during lifting and lowering
 Hoisting plug - connected to a rope socket and used when lifting and lowering the
drill rods
 Hoisting rope socket - is a socket in the upper part of the hoisting plug to which a
hoisting wire rope has been welded with rabbit metal. In operation, a hoisting plug
is connected to the lower part. The assembly bearing in the socket allows it to rotate
freely
 Rod holder - is a tool for holding the drill rods when they are being hoisted or
lowered
 Snatch block - this is a pulley like instrument, which is usually set at the top of the
derrick and used when a drill string consisting of drill rods, core barrel, and drill bit
is lowered or lifted. In case the lifting weight is big, a crown block or travelling
block is used.
 Travelling block- this is a floating pulley used with 2 or 3 lines to lift or lower the
drilling tools beyond the capacity of the hoist.
 Crown block - this is installed at the top of the derrick and is mainly used for lifting
and lowering drill strings
 Come along- this tool is used for manually drawing out and lowering drilling rods.
 Other tools such as iron ropes, lowering iron, etc., are provided for lifting and
lowering

 Casing tools and accessories: These tools are described below:

 Casing pipe: this is a cylindrical tube made of either steel or plastic (PVC). It is
used to prevent a borehole from collapsing. It is also used to cut off water and to
cope with artesian water and gas blowouts where they may occur. There are two
types of connections of casing pipes i.e. the flush joint type, which directly connects
the pipes, and the flush coupled type, using couplings (sockets) at each joint (also
used in other methods of drilling i.e. cable tool).

 Casing Swivel: a tool, which is used to connect the casing pipe and the drill rod for
hoisting and lowering the pipes. It also enables casing the hole while drilling.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 14

 Casing head: a thread protector to be fitted at the upper-end of the casing after it has
been inserted
 Casing shoe: a tool to prevent the lower end of the casing from wearing-out
 Casing metal shoe: used for re-drilling collapsed stratum with a tube, diamond or
metal tip embedded at the top and outside of the shoe.
 Casing metal bit: Used for surface drilling or drilling in a collapsed stratum with a
casing tube. Diamond or metal tips are inserted on both inside or outside as well as
top of the bit
 Casing band: A tool which holds the casing tubes during lifting and lowering
operations
 Casing cutter: Used to cut off the casing pipe once caught in a hole or protruding
above the surface after completion of the work.

 Fishing tools: The following is a list of fishing tools: -

 Rod coupling cap - is a tool used to take out rods which are broken down the hole
 Rod inside/outside tap - this tool is used for the purpose mentioned above. The tool
is positively tapped inside (inside tap) or outside (outside tap) of the rod
 Casing tap - core barrel tap. These taps are used to recover casing tubes/core
barrels, which have dropped in the borehole. The tap is screwed into the tube/core
barrel and then pulled up
 Rod hand-this tool is used to hold a rod retained in the borehole when pulling up by
means of jacks
 Knocking block - this is a collar fixed at the upper end or joint of the rods and is
used to receive the impact when hammering up or down
 Drive hammer with chain - this tool is used for hammering up and receiving drill
strings which are jammed in a hole. The drive hammer can also be used to strike
in/up drive pipes
 Pipe pulling back jack - this tool is used to pull up caught drill strings

 Engineering tools: The following engineering tools are used in drilling operations:

 Parmalec wrench: This is a tool used for screwing and unscrewing thin walled pipes
like wire-line, core barrels without damaging tubes.
 Pipe wrench (bobo Jan.): Used .for screwing and unscrewing pipes such as drill
pipes, core barrels etc
 Super tong: Used for screwing and unscrewing pipes exceeding 100mm in diameter
 Other engineering tools such as metal setting tools, levels, plumb bobs, vennier
callipers are used in borehole construction operations

4.2.3. Stratification sampling

This is an important process of gathering information in the drilling or construction

of boreholes. It describes the geological formation of an area from surface to the
maximum drilled depth. This process involves taking samples of cuttings at
standardised depth (3m). The drilling Engineer or hydrogeologist analyses the
samples and in comparison to standard lithology establishes the formation and
aquifer characteristics.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 15

4.3. BOREHOLE CASING

Casing is the lining of the borehole using pipes. These pipes could be in steel or
plastic (PVC or Fibre Reinforced Plastic) materials. In Northern Province, because of
a generally low pH / high acidity of the ground water, PVC casings are recommended.
Plastic pipes are also light and easy to handle and transport. Casings are made in
standard lengthens of 3, 4 and 6 metres.

There are two types of casings namely the blank and the perforated. The portion
below water level and the production zones should be cased using perforated casings
whilst the portion above the water should be cased using blank casings. For the
perforated ones, the size of the perforations is critical. It is, therefore, important to use
machine-perforated casings as opposed to manually perforated ones.

The purpose of casing boreholes is to hold back the walls from collapsing. In hard and
stable formations, therefore, the portion below the water table may only be partially
cased. In soft and unstable conditions, however, temporal steel casings should be
provided to hold the hole open while drilling proceeds. For the 150mm permanent
casing pipes used in Northern Province, the temporal steel casings should be at least
200mm in diameter.

Centralisers are installed in order to maintain the alignment of the casing pipes and
borehole screens in the centre of the borehole.

4.4. GRAVEL PACKING AND GROUTING

All boreholes must be properly gravel packed and grouted.

Gravel Pack: This is an important part of borehole installation and should be

carefully done. Ideally borehole-washed and graded gravel should be used as gravel
packing materials. The grading is such that large particles are placed against the
borehole screen and in diminishing size. The smaller particles placed on the wall of
the borehole.

Best gravel packing material could be found in meandering riverbeds. These are
usually made of quartz that withstands chemical and physical weathering.
Purpose:

 To fill the annular space between the casing and the borehole wall.
 To stabilise the formation.
 To prevent fines from the surrounding formation falling into the borehole.

Usually the grain particle size of gravel pack is about 6 mm and free of organic matter
that could rot and compromise the water quality.

Grouting: is a process carried out in borehole construction to seal off undesirable

water from entering the borehole. A strong mix of concrete is placed in sections of the
borehole depth where such undesirable water can enter the borehole. The top three
metres of the borehole must always be grouted.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 16

4.5. BOREHOLE DEVELOPMENT

This is the procedure designed to maximise borehole yields and has two broad
objectives:

i. Repair damage done to the formation by drilling operations so that the natural
hydraulic properties are restored
ii. Alter the basic physical characteristics of the aquifer near the borehole so that
water will flow freely into the borehole.

Borehole development also helps to achieve sand free water at the highest possible
specific capacity. Therefore, all new boreholes should be developed. Older boreholes
may also require periodic redevelopment to maintain or improve the original yield and
drawdown conditions.

4.5.1. Borehole Development Methods

Different borehole development procedures have been evolved to suit physical

characteristics of aquifers and the type of drilling methods used. Any development
procedure should be able to clean the borehole so that sand concentration in the water
is below the maximum allowable limit for the set water use.

The following procedures can be employed in developing and or redeveloping

boreholes:

 Over pumping
 Backwashing
 Mechanical surging
 Air developing by surging and pumping

a) Over-pumping

In this method fine materials are removed by pumping from the borehole at a higher
rate than the borehole will be pumped when put into use. The use of this method has
some merit in that a borehole that is pumped sand free at high rate is always pumped
sand free at lower rate. This method is more effective in filter-packed boreholes and in
sandstone formations, which are non-stratified. Pumps of reasonable capacities are
required especially when large quantities of water are to be pumped.

b) Backwashing

This process employs reversed flow of water through screen openings. As this is done
the sediment is agitated and finer fractions removed while the remaining formation
particles get rearranged. Reversing the direction of flow breaks down the bridging
between large particles and screen openings that results when water flows only in one
direction. The process of backflow in the backwashing cycle breaks down the
bridging and the inflow then moves the fine material towards the screen and into the
borehole.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 17

c) Mechanical Surging

In this method of development water is forced to flow into and out of the screen by
operating a plunger up and down the casing similar to a piston in a cylinder. The tool
normally used is called a surge block, surge plunger or swab. Before starting to surge,
the borehole should be bailed to make sure that water would flow into it. The surge
block is lowered into the borehole until it is 3 to 5 m beneath the static water level but
above the screen. The water column will actively transmit the action of the block to
the, screen section. The initial surging motion should be relatively gentle, allowing
any material blocking in the screen to break up, go into suspension and then move
into the borehole. Particular care should be taken in operating the surge block in fine
sand, silt, or soft clay formations. These might slump into the screen.

As the block is lowered the force of the surging movement is increased. Development
should begin above the screen and move progressively downward to prevent the tool
from becoming sand locked.

d) Air Developing by Surging and Pumping

This is carried out by alternately surging and pumping with air and is carried out more
often in modern drilling using rotary drilling rig equipped with large air compressors.
Air is injected into the borehole to lift the water to the surface. As the water reaches
the top of the casing, air supply is shut off, allowing the aerated water column to fall.

Both air pressure and air volumes are important in maintaining the air surging or
lifting operation. Enough pressure should be created to overcome the initial head as a
result of the submergence of the airline. Air pressure of 125 PSI (862 Kpa) is capable
of airlift pumping in boreholes of 90 -120m depth. Air volumes required for airlift
pumping through this range of head is about 2.5 cfm. This pressure and air volume
can be effectively used to carry out airlift pumping in most boreholes drilled in
Zambia.

4.6. BOREHOLE PUMPING TEST

Pumping tests are carried out soon after the drilling operations have been completed.
However, pumping tests can also be performed on an existing borehole for the
purpose of establishing its characteristics where information is not available. Pumping
test on a borehole is carried out to determine its characteristics. Some of the important
characteristics are; specific yield, dynamic water level, draw down and recovery rate.
These characteristics are important as they assist in pump selection, suction head
determination and to some extent pumping duration of the borehole especially for
motorised systems. For the rural areas, where hand pumps would be installed, the
significance of pump testing is to establish the minimum yield, which should not be
less than 0.2 l/s.

4.6.1. Pumping test process

The process of pump testing involves continuous pumping of water from the borehole
over a certain period of time. For a percussion cable tool-reciprocating pump, the

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 18

practical pumping duration has been 24 hours. For faster pumping systems such as
submersible and airlifting, the pumping duration should be between 8 and 12 hrs.

The yield of the borehole is measured at a set time interval. The water level is also
measured at the same time interval. This is carried out to determine the dynamic water
level. Once the dynamic level is determined and set pumping duration achieved, a
recovery test is carried out. As water flows into the borehole from the aquifer water
level is progressively taken at a set time interval until a static condition is attained.
After this operation, the most basic characteristics of a borehole are established. As
mentioned above, these are: yield, dynamic water level and drawdown.

4.7. WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS

Quality analysis is carried out alongside pump testing. This is also an important
operation. Chemical analysis is carried in-situ. More complicated parameters (i.e..
Microbiological ones) are carried out at district or provincial laboratories. This
operation establishes how safe the water from the borehole is according to the
intended use.

4.8. WATER LIFTING DEVICES

Handpumps are recommended to be installed in boreholes for rural water supply

unless usage and population demand installation of a motorised system. Many types
and models of hand pumps are in use in this country. The multiplicity of hand pump
models has made operation and Maintenance (O&M) rather difficult in that spare part
dealers find it difficult to select which model to concentrate
on to provide spare parts. In view of this situation the Indian Mark II
Government is endeavouring to standardize the type of hand Indian Mark III
pumps to be adopted for use in this country. The Bush Pump
standardisation committee has short-listed the hand pumps Blair Pump
shown in the box for adoption as standard pumps for use in Consalen
rural water supply:

These pumps were decided upon because of the ease with which they can be operated
and maintained. Since 1992/93 the Indian Mark II has taken lead in being procured
and installed over boreholes. In Northern Province, this is the pump of choice.

The Indian Mark II hand pump comprises the following major parts:

 Pump head: This is an above ground mechanism fabricated in galvanised iron. It is

available in different mounting arrangements.
 Connecting rods of 12 mm diameter mild steel electro-galvanised in three metre
lengths with hexagonal couplings.
 Riser pipes (drop pipes) of 32 mm diameter nominal bore in three-metre length with
plain socket couplings.
 Cylinder assembly consisting of cast iron body lined from inside with rimless brass
liner of 63.5 mm internal diameter, gun metal valve components and nitrite rubber
cup seals. It is capable of giving a discharge of 0.32 litres per second.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 19

4.9. RUN-OFF WATER DRAINAGE FACILITY / ABOVE GROUND WORKS

The run-off water drainage facility also known as above ground works includes the
apron, drainage channel and soakaway pit.

Construction of this facility is as follows:

 Apron:

This should be as wide as possible and should be made from strong mass or reinforced
concrete of 1:2:4 mix. In circular shape, it should be at least 3m diameter. If
constructed in rectangular, it should have a surface area of at least 7.0 square metres.
The surface configuration should slope towards the water run-off channel / drainage
channel.

 Drainage Channel:

This should be as long as possible at least 4 metres. For sandy situations, however,
this should be longer than 4m and preferably about 10m. It can be made of reinforced
concrete or bricks mortared together on a solid base. The gradient of the channel
should be sufficient to drain off debris. However, where this accumulates, users
should clear it from time to time.

 Soakaway:

Run-off water disposal normally involves a soakaway system comprising a ditch filled
with stones, which can be removed for cleaning from time to time when saturated
with debris.

The disposal system could also be in form of a sump constructed in the middle of a
vegetable garden to provide water for irrigation. Alternatively, plants like bananas or
sugarcane could be planted in an ordinary disposal area to use the run-off water.
However, the new requirement is to use an improved design of a soakaway system.

 Facility Protection.

In order to restrict movement of animals around the borehole and prevent damage that
can be caused to the facility, fencing off the area in which the facility is situated has
been adopted in this country. A fence should be constructed of durable material
such as hard wood poles, bamboo's or even brick wall. In some instances, fences
are made of trees that could germinate and make an almost repair free situation.
However, experts should be consulted in selecting the kind of trees to be planted to
avoid trees that might deplete the groundwater through high evapotranspiration rates.

Manual on Boreholes –P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 20

 5. OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Operation and maintenance of small community water supply systems has been
neglected in the past in a great number of communities in Northern Province. This
neglect has resulted in poor accessibility, unreliability and unavailability of safe and
clean water thus affecting the well being of concerned populations. In order to
reverse this, operation and maintenance should be properly implemented for the
continued valuable investment in the development of water facilities in general and
boreholes in particular.

5.1. PREPARATION FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE

Communities should adequately prepare for operation and maintenance. In

preparation, the following should be done
Fig 2: Typical Caretaker selection Criteria
a) Selection of Caretakers
Self-motivated
After siting of the borehole, the Sub Authority and respect to control use of
District and V-WASHE should facilitate facilities.
the selection of caretakers. The Sub D- Able to carry out maintenance and small
WASHE and V-WASHE should provide repairs after training.
Good communication with women and
the community and water committee with
men about water use and hygiene.
information on issues such as HIV/AIDS, Living near the water facility.
health/hygiene education, gender and Seldom absent for long periods.
environmental protection. Selection Likely to remain in the community.
should be done democratically taking into Able to keep records.
account selection criteria given in the box

b) Training of Caretaker during Construction

During construction of the facility, the Sub D-WASHE members should ensure that
the caretaker participates and gains hands-on experience on the construction.

c) Community discussion on the Management of the Borehole

It is important that the community discusses all aspects relating to the management of
the borehole. This should be facilitated by the Sub-WASHE and V-WASHE using
participatory approaches.

The following issues should be discussed and agreed upon:

 Rules and guidelines on the use of the borehole

The community should agree on the rules and guidelines to govern the use of the
facility such as operation hours and security of the facility, restriction of certain
activities in the use of the borehole and its surrounding and on hygienic practices.

 Maintenance of the borehole and its surrounding

The community should agree on who will maintain the facility and its surrounding.
This should include agreements on sharing responsibilities among men and women,

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 21

 tariff setting and modalities of paying fees. It is necessary that before discussion, the
O & M requirements including financial costs are well explained to the community.

 LogisticalRequirements
The community should make logistical arrangements for the following:

 Tools: Fig 3 (a): Initial O&M Tools

1 Spades
Tools in figure 3a should be stocked by the Sub D- 1 Shovels
WASHE to be accessed by communities. A 1 Pick axe
minimum of two sets should be kept. 1 x 5kg Hammer
1 x 2Kg Hammer
1 chisel (9”)
The Sub District WASHE will make arrangements 1 wooden plastering trowel
for recording and storage of these tools. Tool 1 steel trowel
Kit for the installation, reconditioning and 1 building trowel
maintenance of the hand pump will also be kept at 1 pointing trowel
Sub District level or zone consisting of 10 1 pliers
handpump facilities (figure 3b)

Fig 3 (b): b. Special ToolsSelf locking clamp1 NoTank pipe

Tool Kit for installation, lifter1 NoCoupling spanner1 NoHandle axle punch1
Reconditioning and maintenance of NoConnecting rod lifter1 NoCrank spanner2
India Mark II Deep well Hand pumps. NosLifting spanner3 NosConnecting rod vice1
NoChain coupler supporting tool1 NoBearing
pressing tool1 NoTool box1 No
a. Standard Tools

Pipe Wrench 24”

Adjustable Spanner 12”
Open ended Spanner 17mm x 19mm
Hacksaw with Spare Blade 10”-12”
Flat file 10” fine
Half round file 10” fine
Stock and die to cut 1¼ BSP threads
with spare die.
Stock and die to cut M12 x 1.75
threads with spare die
M 12 x 1.75 tap set with handle
Small screw driver
Large screw driver
Engineering’s hammer ½ kg
Spirit level
Wire bush & Sandpaper
Chisel
5 metres measuring Tape
Oil can
Grease gun
Bench Vice

 Spare Parts

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 22

The V-WASHE should ensure that the water committee raises funds for spare parts
and that it sources for spares. The recommended spares for India Mark II deep well
hand-pump are listed below.

Table 2: Spare parts for Hand Pump, cylinder and GI riser pipes
Spares for pump – HeadQuantityHexagonal bolts M12 x 1.75 x Spares for CylinderQuantityLeather
40 mm long8 NosHexagonal bolts M 12 x 1.75 mm18 NosHigh sealing Cup washer4 NosLeather Sealing
tensile bolt M 10 x 1.5 x 40 mm long1 NoNyloc Nut M 10 x 1.5 rings6 Nos.Rubber seating (small)2
mm2 NosHandle axle (stainless steel)1 NoWasher (4 mm thick) NosRubber seating (big)2 Nos
for handle axle1 NoBearing (No. 620422) 2 NosSpacer
1 No.Chain with Coupling1 No.Bolt for front cover M 12
x 1.75 x 20 mm long1 No
Spares for G. I. Riser
PipeQuantityHexagonal Coupling M 12 x
1.75 x 504 NosPipe sockets for 32 mm
N.B. medium Grade G. I Pipes4 Nos

 Materials

In addition to the tools and spare parts, materials such as grease, stationery, manuals
and wire for fencing should be bought and stocked by the community.

N.B: For logistical requirement for a

borehole fitted with windlass and bucket, Fig 4: Areas of training for Care Takers
please refer to the manual on wells.
Preventive and corrective maintenance
d) Training of the Caretakers in the Health and hygiene education
Development of community borehole
Management of borehole
maintenance schedules
Fund raising and managing of finances
The Caretaker should be trained in technical Cross cutting issues such as HIV/AIDS,
and organisational management aspects of the gender and environmental protection.
operation and maintenance such as those given Leadership on the day-to-day activities
in fig 4:

e) Description of O&M requirements

Fig 5: O&M Requirements

Labour
Unskilled Semi-skilled Skilled
Users can carry out daily Caretaker can carry out Private sector (Area Mechanic) for
activities the weekly checks and concrete work
Water committee to carry out preventive Water agency maintenance team to
organise maintenance and maintenance to the pump carry out work requiring the removal of
collect, record and head the rising main.
dispense funds for spares Private sector/contractor to clean the
and repairs. borehole when necessary.

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 23

Materials and equipment
Available within the community Available within the province/District

Sand for mixing cement mortar/concrete Cement for platform repairs

Fencing materials Spare parts for pump repairs
Brush for cleaning platform and drain Tools for preventive maintenance and
Record book and pen repairs
Crashed stones
Pipes for the rising main e.t.c.
Manuals e.t.c.

Finance
Community funds Government Funds

Labour and materials for platform Back up support and major repairs
repair
Purchase of hand pump spare parts

5.2. IMPLEMENTATION OF O&M

5.2.1. Organisation for implementation of O&M

Implementation of O&M activities requires well-defined structures, roles and

responsibilities, a clear mechanism for decision-making and an effective support
system. With respect to boreholes, O&M will be organised as detailed in the sections
below:

a) Structures / roles and responsibilities

In the 3 –tier system adopted for Northern Province, O&M programmes and activities
are organised at three-linked levels. At community level there will be caretakers and
V-WASHE committee whilst at sub district and district levels there will be the sub D-
WASHE and D-WASHE committees respectively.

The organisation of the structures and their main roles

and responsibilities are as follows: Fig 6: Composition of
V-WASHE committee
 Caretakers: the V-WASHE will facilitate the Chairperson
appointment / election of two caretakers by the Vice chairperson
community at each borehole. One caretaker should be Secretary
female whilst the other one should be male. The two Vice secretary
Treasurer
caretakers should divide their roles and
Three committee members
responsibilities in consultation with the V-WASHE Two borehole caretakers
committee. The two caretakers should be members of
the V-WASHE committee.

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 24

 V-WASHE committee: this committee will have overall responsibilities for all
WASHE activities in a particular community including those for O&M. It will be
composed of members shown in fig 2. At least 5 of the committee members should be
women.

 Sub D-WASHE committee: this is an Intersectoral committee composed of

extension officers, NGOs and community leaders at catchment level. The committee
will have the responsibility of facilitating the engagement of Area Mechanic where
necessary and bear the responsibility of reporting on all O&M activities in their
catchment areas. The reporting will be done according to WASHE M&E guidelines.
The committee may facilitate the selection and training of more than one Area
Mechanic who could later be engaged for particular sections of the catchment area.

 D-WASHE: the committee will have overall responsibility for all district O&M
programmes. In particular, the committee will facilitate the development of reporting
forms and other mechanisms for documenting O&M activities at all levels. The D-
WASHE will establish a central stores at the local authority for operation and
maintenance of boreholes in the district.

Each of the levels above is organised according to the specific activities performed by
the different players at that level. The table below gives details on specific activities
undertaken by players as they perform their roles and responsibilities at a given level.

Table 3: Roles and responsibilities of WASHE structures at different levels

A. Village level
Actor Roles / Responsibility What is done
1. Community Conduct preventive maintenance  Cleaning of surrounding
 Observe and enforce hygiene rules
 Remunerate caretaker / area Mechanic
 Take care of maintenance tools
Raise resources for O&M  Participate in fundraising activities
 Make resource contribution for O&M
Disseminate health and hygiene  Correct erring members of the community
messages  Teach on how to use the borehole
Monitor usage of resources  Find out progress on usage of resources from
the leaders
Reporting  Make verbal or written reports to caretaker
Manage the usage of the borehole  Observe and enforce agreed guidelines on
usage of the borehole
2. Caretakers Conducting preventive  Greasing of chain
maintenance  Locking and opening of the borehole as
scheduled
 Enforce hygiene rules
Conducting repairs  Mending minor cracks in apron
 Unblocking of soak away
Organising community members for  Development of duty rosters
preventive maintenance  Preparation of maintenance schedules
 Conduct meetings
Managing usage of the borehole  Enforce agreed guidelines on water uses
 Organise community meetings health and
hygiene meetings with PHHE working groups
 Put in place security measures for the
borehole

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 25

 Reporting  Reporting faults that require attention of sub
district WASHE committee
 Writing maintenance reports
 Writing reports on day to day running of the
borehole
3. V-WASHE Making decisions on the overall  Conduct meetings with caretakers and
committee management of the borehole community on management of the Borehole
 Conduct regular V-WASHE meetings on
management of boreholes
 Requesting support from the Sub district
WASHE for major repairs
 Organising for planning activities
Conducting routine inspection of  Visit water points
the borehole  Conduct onsite meetings with caretakers
Organising community participation  Organise fundraising activities
 Mobilise community labour
 Mobilise contribution of local materials
Facilitate the education of  Link with sub district WASHE committee on
communities PHHE and awareness creation on HIV/AIDS,
gender etc
 Participate in the development and usage of
participatory tools especially those related to
O&M

A. Sub District Level

Actor Roles / Responsibility What is done
1. Area Conduct major repairs which are  Prepare tools and materials / spare parts
Mechanics beyond the scope of the caretaker  Repair defects together with community
(private Conduct training for the caretakers  Prepare training materials
sector)  Deliver training modules in training exercises
Report to sub district WASHE  Fill in pre-designed report forms
committee  Submit forms to sub district WASHE
Provide advise (when necessary) to  Conduct meetings with caretakers and V-
caretakers on how to maintain the WASHE
borehole  Write progress reports to sub district WASHE
2. Sub district Conduct monitoring of O&M activities  Compile records on O&M activities by V-
WASHE WASHEs
 Report to D-WASHE and give feed back to
community (V-WASHE) according to standard
M&E guidelines.
 Organise for water quality testing and
monitoring on a regular basis and as
required.
Training Caretakers in hardware &  Prepare training materials
software components.  Deliver training modules in training exercises
 Engage area Mechanic to conduct trainings
on hardware components
Facilitate selection of Area Mechanic.  Hold community meetings to elect Area
Mechanic
Conduct participatory education for  Prepare training materials
V-WASHE on all aspects of O & M.  Deliver training modules in training exercises
Planning for O & M  Conduct regular planning meetings with V-
WASHEs

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 26

C. District Level
Actor Roles / Responsibility What is done
D-WASHE Constituting an O&M committee  Conduct meeting to elect O&M committee
committee  Develop Terms of Reference for the
committee

Establish stores for spares and other  Establish link with private sector
maintenance materials  Find space for stores and establish stores
system
 Equip the stores with relevant tools,
materials, equipment
 Train stores personnel in stores
management
 Fix cost of spares and repairs of borehole
components
Establish funding arrangements for O&M  Hold participatory meetings to determine
in the district funding arrangement
 Define subsidy levels
Help the communities undertake major  Mobilise resources for maintenance
repairs (beyond the capacity of Area  Hold planning meetings with sub
Mechanic) WASHEs
 Provide technical advise and expertise
Monitor progress on O&M  Develop monitoring schedules
 Implement M&E system with regard to
O&M
Organise district-wide needs assessment  Implement M&E system with regard to
for O&M O&M
 Conduct needs assessment studies
Develop District Capacity Building plan  Conduct capacity gap analysis
for O&M  Revise capacity building plan to include
O&M strategies
Documentation of O&M activities,  Conduct documentation studies
practices, lessons and experiences.
Facilitate development of mechanisms  Implement capacity building plan
e.g. financial management and
income generating, Keeping of
records and usage,procurement
Assist communities access vital  Hold meetings with V-WASHE and sub
information on O& M, suppliers, district committees
supporting agencies etc.  Provide catalogue of suppliers
Monitor progress in O&M  Develop monitoring schedule
 Implement M&E strategies

b) Reporting Faults:

Any faults related to the functioning of the borehole noticed by the users will be
reported to the caretaker who will take corrective action. Reports from users will
largely be verbal but the caretaker will record all these reports in a pre-designed form
for receiving such complaints.

Faults beyond the capacity of the caretaker will be reported to the V-WASHE who
will in turn report to the sub district WASHE who will facilitate the engagement of an
Area Mechanic. Where the V-WASHE is in direct contact with the area mechanic
arrangements will be made directly with him/her.

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 27

When the Area Mechanic cannot Fig 7:
handle a problem, the sub D- Reporting system
WASHE committee will make a for faults
written report to the D-WASHE
committee. The report will be
made on a pre-designed form
stating the nature of the problem,
D is tr ic t W A S H E a b le D is tric t W A S H E
when it occurred, any works done S ta g e 4
to s o lv e th e p ro b le m ? ?
YES
s o lv e s th e p ro b le m
thus far and all such relevant
information. The D-WASHE will
make arrangements to redress the
problems. The D-WASHE
committee will lobby for external
assistance for all problems
beyond its capacity.
S u b D is tric t W A S H E a b le S u b D is tric t W A S H E
S ta g e 3 YES
t o s o lv e t h e p r o b le m ? ? s o lv e s th e p ro b le m
c) Back up System:

O&M can only function

sustainably where there is a
working partnership particularly
between the community and the
government. For the purpose of V -W A S H E
V -W A S H E a b le to
maintaining boreholes in S ta g e 2 s o lv e th e p ro b le m ? ?
YES s o lv e s th e p r o b le m

Northern Province the following P R O B E L M W I T H

THE W ELL
should be done

 Stores: Each district will

establish a central stores
within the Local Authority for
storage of all tools, equipment, C a re ta k e rs a b le to C a re ta k e rs
S ta g e 1
materials and spare parts for s o lv e th e p ro b le m ? ?
YES s o lv e s th e p ro b le m

construction and maintenance

of boreholes. All local
authorities will provide
personnel to manage the stores.
The personnel will be trained in
all areas of stores management
including procurement, record P R O B L E M W IT H
keeping, stock level T H E F A C IL IT Y

management and
entrepreneurial skills.

 Backup spares and tools: spares, tools and materials will be bought in bulk from
private sector organisations with clear contractual arrangements with the P-WASHE
and D-WASHE committees. P-WASHE will buy materials, tools, spares and
equipment in bulk whereby doing so would reduce on costs. The P-WASHE will
prepare a list of all materials that will be procured centrally. (Refer to figure 1)

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 28

A revolving fund will be established in each district with an initial seed fund for the
establishment of adequately stocked and fully functional stores. The initial seed
money will come from P-WASHE. This revolving fund will be replenished
periodically (3 years) from government resources and other external sources to
continue subsidising O&M needs at community level. The management of funds will
be done in accordance with WASHE financial guidelines and will be subject to
regular internal audit and periodic external audits.

The V-WASHE and Sub district WASHE committees will have an option of buying
spare parts from the D-WASHE stores at subsidised price which will be less or equal
to the factory price for any given item.

 Capacity Building Plan: P-WASHE and D-WASHE capacity building plans will
contain adequate provisions for development of skills at various levels for O&M.
These skills will include PHHE, organisational skills, construction skills,
participatory skills and financial management skills.

 Partnership with private sector: The P-WASHE and D-WASHEs will partner
with reputable private sector organisations such as TAZARA workshop in Mpika
for the bulk fabrication of spare parts when necessary.

Partnerships will also be developed with local contractors (registered with the
Ministry of Local Government and Housing) for the construction of boreholes. A
certification system will be put in place by the P-WASHE for all local contractors. P-
WASHE will facilitate the training of all registered contractors in borehole
construction according to the provisions of this manual. Contractors will renew
their construction licences annually upon satisfaction of examination
requirements before they can be considered for further contracts under
WASHE. Fig 8:
Some rules and guidelines
5.2.2. Day to day running of the on use of borehole
borehole
No handling before washing hands
The borehole needs to be run properly to No allowing under age children to draw water
give the intended benefits to the No allowing children to play at the borehole
community. Day to day running of the Put a fence around the borehole to prevent
animals getting access to the borehole
borehole facility involves paying Lock borehole when not in use
attention to the borehole so that Keep the surrounding of the platform clean and
breakdowns are minimised. In order to dry
achieve this the following guidelines Use the hand pump gently
should be adhered to: Operate the handle with long continuous strokes
without touching the top and bottom of the
bracket
 When all preparations have been Operate the handle by holding it at the end
made after construction of the Inform the village mechanic immediately when
borehole the caretakers will draw up the pump breaks down
preventive maintenance schedules. Any washing should be done at least 5 meters
away from the hand pump
These will include Use wastewater for plantation/gardening
 Scheduling of when the water point Clean the platform and drain regularly
will be opened and closed

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 29

 Preparation of duty rosters for general cleaning
 Programming of community based health and hygiene education related to the use
of the borehole
 Setting up mechanisms for the enforcement of rules on the use of the borehole

 All community members will wash their hands with soap or any local alternative
such as ash before handling the water lifting mechanisms for the borehole. For this
purpose all boreholes will be designed and constructed with a provision for
hand washing.

 Transportation of water from the borehole to the point of final use is as important
as the drawing of water itself. Users will use containers with closable lids to
transport drinking water from the borehole. Where open containers are used, care
should be taken to ensure that fingers are not dipped into the water during
transportation. Users should take necessary measures to ensure that all other
sources of contamination are avoided.

 The V-WASHE committee will conduct scheduled inspection visits – preferably

once in a quarter – for each borehole under its jurisdiction. During these visits the
committee will hold onsite discussions with the caretakers on major problems
encountered during the period and will strive to find collective solutions.

 The caretaker, using pre-designed forms, will record all issues and activities
related to the day-to-day running of the borehole. Records will include registers on
participation of households in general cleaning, materials used, etc.

 All materials and tools (such as keys and locks) that are relevant on a day-to-day
use of the borehole will preferably be kept by the caretakers or any other
community member assigned by the caretakers.

 The caretaker and the borehole committee will institute security measures where
there is a likelihood that criminal activities may occur with regard to the borehole.
These measures may include locking the borehole and in extreme cases making
arrangements for guarding the borehole – all these will depend on the nature of the
threat and what the community, collectively or through their leaders, determines as
the appropriate response.

5.2.3. Maintenance of borehole facility

Maintenance refers to measures and activities required to ensure the facility remains
in good working condition and to limit the amount of down time to minimal levels.
Practically these measures and activities are grouped into two categories namely
preventive maintenance and corrective maintenance.

a) Preventive Maintenance:

 Preparations for preventive maintenance will be as outlined in the section on day-

to-day running of the borehole

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 30

 Preventive maintenance will be spearheaded by the caretakers and will involve
regular servicing of the borehole facility to preserve and minimise its breakdown.
Preventive maintenance activities will include those in the table below:

Table 4: Preventive Maintenance Activities

Period Activity
Cleaning of surrounding and apron
Carry out an early morning test to check if the foot valve holds water in the rising main overnight
Check whether the pump delivery is normal or low.
Check if the handpump is firmly fixed in place.
Daily

Check for loose nuts and bolts on the handpump.

Clean the platform and drain.
Check the fence is in sound condition and the gate will close.
Carry out daily checks
Weekly

Tighten all the above ground nuts and bolts with a spanner.
Clean the accessible moving parts.

Conducting PHHE to enhance hygienic practices

Monthly

Carry out the weekly checks.

Collect* and record contributions to the water committee
Grease the chain
Dismantle the pump head parts.
Remove the connecting rods, piston assembly and foot valve.
Inspect all the parts.
Replace worn or defective parts.
Replace piston seals.
Straighten bent connecting rods, or replace.
Replace rods with badly corroded threads.
Yearly

Replace corroded or missing connecting rod lock nuts.

If connecting rods show severe corrosion, remove the rising main.
Check the rising main and replace badly corroded pipes - check the threads in particular.
Clean pipe threads and install the rising main.
Re-assemble and replace the below-ground parts.
Assemble the pump head.
Check the pump operation and pump until the water delivered is clean.
Record all significant actions.
Landscape the area around the borehole
Prevent soil erosion around the apron by laying bricks around perimeter of the apron and drain and
ensure that the bricks remain in place.
Prevent the construction of sources of contamination within distance of 30 m from the borehole
Irregular

Organise fundraising activities for the maintenance of the borehole

Repair cracks with cement mortar in the pump platform and drain.
If pump mounting bolts become loose in the concrete platform, remove pump, breakout old bolts, and
remount in fresh concrete.
Arrange to clean the borehole if the pump delivers cloudy water with silt.

* The time interval for the collection of payments will depend on local circumstances such as the seasonal income pattern.
Source: IRC (1995): Making your Water Supply work - Operation and Maintenance of small Water supply systems

 Environmental protection

The state of the environment can directly affect the quality and yield of the borehole.
Maintenance of the borehole in this case will include basic water resources
management activities besides the protection of the environment around the borehole.

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 31

 The community will protect catchment areas for ground water, which directly and
indirectly contribute to the yield in the borehole. This will involve prevention of
deforestation and instituting aforestation where necessary. It will also include
following procedures on proper positioning of latrines. The community through
the V-WASHE will ensure agricultural chemicals (fertilizers, pesticides and
herbicides) do not result in the pollution of the water borehole. Preferably all
agricultural activities involving the use of fertilisers will be positioned at a
minimum distance of 100m.

 Participatory activities on how men and women use the borehole catchment area
and the borehole itself will be conducted by the V-WASHE and the sub district
WASHE to raise awareness on how some of their activities in the catchment may
contaminate the borehole.

 The V-WASHE and the community will monitor and document all
activities happening in their area that are
likely to affect the borehole. OBSERVE!!!!!

 The caretaker and the V-WASHE will Deforestation and burning of

manage water use for the borehole to grasslands
avoid over exploitation of the water
resource, which may lead to adverse Removes the absorptive capacity of land
effects such as drying up of the borehole. to retain and slow the drainage of water.
The resulting rapid run off and reduced
The V-WASHE should note that over ground water recharge can result in water
exploitation of ground water sources by drying up.
both manual and motorised pumping for
agricultural purpose could result in
declining ground water levels. If measures are not taken to limit water abstraction,
the effect on domestic boreholes may be disastrous.

b) Corrective maintenance:

Corrective maintenance involves the restoration of a borehole to its normal operating

condition after a breakdown. This involves minor and major repairs. These repairs
must be done with minimal down time of the borehole and minimal inconvenience to
the users.

 Minor repairs Fig 9: Minor Repairs

Mending cracks on the apron and drains

This refers to all repairs that will be done
Unblocking the soak away when it blocks
by the users with tools and materials Tightening loose nuts and bolts on the
available in the community. Fig 9 gives handpump
some of the activities that will be done on Repairing fence
minor repairs.

 The caretakers and the V-WASHE will be responsible for organising for these
repairs. Reporting of faults will be done as outlined in the section on “reporting
faults - under organisation”.

 The V-WASHE will monitor the progress of the minor repairs and keep all

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 32

 records and case histories of all repairs in standard pre-designed forms that will
state the date and nature of the problem, nature of the repair, materials used and by
who, site details, etc.
Fig 10: Major Repairs
 Major repairs
Deepening of borehole
Fishing out of pump components eg
This refers to the correction of major defects cylinder
by local and external people to enable the Redevelopment of the boreholes (cleanout)
borehole to function as originally intended. Replacing the apron and drain
Major repairs will include those in fig 10 Overhauling of the handpump
Replacement of below surface components
 The V-WASHE and the sub district of the handpump
WASHE committees in conjunction with
the D-WASHE committee (when
necessary) will be responsible for organising these repairs. Reporting of faults will
be done as outlined in the section on “reporting faults’’ - under organisation.

 The V-WASHE will monitor the progress of the major repairs and keep all records
and case histories of all repairs in standard pre-designed forms that will state the
date and nature of the problem, nature of the repair, materials used and by who, site
details, etc.

NB: For pump installation and detailed operation and maintenance activities refer to
the India Mark II Deep Well Handpump Installation and Maintenance Manual.

5.2.4. Resource mobilization for O&M

Operation and maintenance require human, material and financial resources. These
need to be mobilised and be made available if implementation of O&M is to be
effective. While human and material resources have been available in many O&M
systems, a lack of or inadequate financial resources has been the cause of O&M
system failure. In the three-tier system, adopted for Northern Province, a greater
responsibility for O&M has been placed on the user. The community is, therefore,
responsible for raising money required for O&M activities. External support agencies
or government will only supplement community efforts by providing funds for major
works such as the rehabilitation of the borehole. The community is, therefore, under
an obligation to develop mechanisms for raising and managing funds. The following
sections should help communities on developing mechanisms for financing O&M
activities:

a) Estimation of recurrent costs

Sub-district WASHE must assist the community in estimating operation and

maintenance costs. They should proceed as follows:

 Identify and quantify materials (grease, cement, etc) and spare parts e.g. leather
cup washers, foot valves, rubber seatings, which would be required in a particular
year (include other indirect O&M costs such as transport and the remuneration of
caretakers and Area Mechanic where applicable).
 Cost these

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 33

 Divide the cost in (ii) by the number of households (taking cognisance of the
incapacitated or vulnerable) to obtain the expected contribution from each
household per year.
 The community should then agree on household contribution (set tariff) based on
the results in (iii) above. i.e. the O&M tariff can be calculated as shown in the
formula below:
Indirect + direct O&M cost
O&M Tariff =
Eligible number of households

NB: Some members of the community may choose to contribute in kind

(agricultural produce) and must not be discouraged. Agricultural produce contributed
by the community should be sold as quickly as possible to avoid losses through
rodents and pests.

b) Sourcing for funds

Communities will source for funds for O&M from their own contributions. They can
also source for funds, especially for major repairs from external financing agencies or
government. Communities will access external funding by preparing a project
proposal and forwarding a request to D-WASHE through Sub-District WASHE.

The following are other community initiatives that are used and should be explored
and suggested to other communities:

 Community fund raising projects such as:

 Brick moulding and selling of burnt bricks

 Community farming
 Working in other people’s farms at a fee (ichima)
 Community Credit Schemes – subject to obtaining money lenders licence from
the Local Authority.
 Beer brewing, e.g. Katata (avoid illicit brew such as Kachasu)

 Drama groups. Innovative communities can raise funds from drama performances
while at the same time providing entertainment for community members especially
children.

NB: Penalties should be instituted for community members deliberately not paying
the fees. Communities will decide on appropriate penalties for defaulters.

c) Management of funds

All funds raised for O&M should be used to finance O&M activities. They should be
accounted for as provided in the financial guidelines and utilised in accordance with
community resolutions. The community is the ultimate authority in deciding on how
their funds should be spent.

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 34

The Treasurer will prepare financial reports on income and expenditure at a frequency
agreed upon by the community, normally quarterly.

d) Required Financial Skills

Basic financial management skills are required in order to effectively generate,

manage and utilise O&M finances. These include basic skills in simple book keeping,
record management, entrepreneurship and community organisation.

5.3. TROUBLE SHOOTING

The table below gives some common problems with boreholes and actions to be taken

Table 5: Trouble Shooting

Trouble Causes Remedy
1. Pump handle  Water level gone down below  Add more pipes and rods.
works easily the cylinder assembly
but no flow of  Worn out cylinder leather cup  Overhaul the cylinder and replace the
water: washer. leather cup washer.
 Connecting rod joint  Pull out the pump and join the con-
disconnected. necting rod wherever necessary.
 Valve seats worn out  Replace valve seats.
 Pump cylinder cracked.  Replace cylinder assembly.
2. Delayed flow or  Damaged rising main  Replace the damaged pipe or dis-
small flow. connect the affected rising main.
 Leakage in cylinder check  Overhaul cylinder. Replace rubber
valve or upper valve. seats.
 Leather cup washers worn out.  Overhaul the cylinder and replace
leather cup washers.
3. Folding of  Improper Commissioning  Adjust the length of last connecting rod
chain during by cutting and taping suitably.
return stroke  Leather cup washers getting  Overhaul the cylinder and replace
jammed inside the cylinder leather cup washers.
4. Noise during  Stand assembly flange not  Level the flange.
operation: levelled properly.
 Bent connecting rod  Change the defective rod.
 Off-set of Hexagonal coupler  Change the defective rod.
welded
5. Shaky Handle  Loose handle axle nuts.  Tighten handle axle nuts.
 Worn out ball bearings.  Replace ball bearings.
 Spacer damaged or short in  Replace spacer.
length.
 Bearings loose in the bearing  Replace the handle assembly.
housing.

6. FINAL REMARK

The purpose of a manual is to guide the user on how to perform activities relevant to a
particular technology and its relevance and importance therefore lies in its being used.
This manual is the master key that users should use to open the doors for the borehole
technology. It opens the door for construction to reveal the inner contents in the
construction room, the door to operation and maintenance room to reveal the inner
Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 35
contents in that room etc. Thus unless this manual is read through and referred to by
those it is intended, it will be of little value. Not all contents will be relevant to all the
users. Users are therefore referred to appropriate sections for specific activities or
issues.

In an attempt to answer a lot of questions in one manual, the document has been made
large but convenient. Convenient in the sense that issues concerning organisation,
construction and operation and maintenance have been addressed in this one manual.
The manual recognises the target groups and the fact that boreholes are extremely
expensive installations, which should be properly constructed and maintained for the
communities to derive maximum benefit. Thus, it has been presented in the simplest
language possible and with finer details, which would have normally been excluded.
It is recommended that this manual be orderly disseminated and used.

Manual on Boreholes – P-WASHE Task Team (April 2004) 36