Steam turbine cogeneration: Combined heat and power (CHP) systems

A steam turbine by definition is a mechanical device that extracts thermal energy from pressurized steam and
converts it into useful mechanical work.

What is cogeneration:
By definition, a cogeneration or combined heat and power (CHP) is the use of a heat engine or power station to
generate electricity and useful heat at the same time.
A typical fossil-fuel power plant has an average thermal-to-power efficiency of 35–45%, because its steam turbine
can only extract so much electrical energy from high-pressure steam, and because the low-pressure steam that exits
the turbine cannot be used. Therefore, the steam exiting the turbine must be condensed, and its potential energy is
lost.
Industrial plants, however, have a competitive advantage over power plants because they have several process
units that can use the lower-pressure outlet steam, which eliminates the need for inefficient steam condensing.

In a cogeneration system, the steam that passes through the turbines is maintained at an outlet pressure high
enough to be used by process units. Because energy at the turbine outlet is re-used, cogeneration systems have
overall efficiencies that can be higher than 85%, which allows industrial plants to generate electrical power at
lower-than-market costs.

In a cogeneration plant, the two types of steam turbines most widely used are the backpressure and the extraction-
condensing types

Types of turbines: General outline

Non condensing
Noncondensing or backpressure turbines are most widely used for process steam applications. The exhaust
pressure is controlled by a regulating valve to suit the needs of the process steam pressure. These are commonly
found at refineries, pulp and paper plants, and desalination facilities where large amounts of low-pressure process
steam are required.
Condensing
Condensing turbines are most commonly found in electrical power plants. These turbines exhaust steam in a
partially saturated state, typically of a quality greater than 90%, at a pressure well below atmospheric to a
condenser. Steam is extracted at suitable stages of the turbine and sent to boiler feedwater heaters to improve
overall cycle efficiency. In this case, the extraction quantity is adjusted automatically to suit the requirement of the
feed water to the boiler.
Reheat
Reheat turbines are also used almost exclusively in electrical power plants with capacities generally greater than
200 MW. In a reheat turbine, steam flow exits from a high-pressure section of the turbine and is returned back to
the boiler where additional superheat is added. The steam then goes back into an intermediate pressure section of
the turbine and continues its expansion.
Extraction

Extracting type turbines are common in process industries. In an extracting type turbine, steam is extracted in
considerable quantities from suitable stages of the turbine, and used for industrial process needs. Extraction flows
may be controlled with a valve or left uncontrolled.
The thermodynamics of cogeneration
An understanding of the basic thermodynamic terms and concepts is needed to analyze a turbine’s energy
conversion efficiency.
Specific enthalpy (h) is the amount of energy per unit mass of steam. It is usually expressed in BTU/lb, MWh/kg, or
GJ/kg.
Specific heat of vaporization (∆hlg) is the amount of energy per unit mass required to effect a change of state from
water to steam at constant pressure. It is usually expressed in units of BTU/lb, MWh/kg, or GJ/kg.
Specific entropy (s) can be thought of as the potential energy of steam, where a lower entropy value means higher
potential energy and a higher entropy value means lower potential energy. For a closed system with no losses, the
overall system entropy can only increase or stay constant (sfinal ≥ sinitial).

Steam turbine efficiency (ηeff) is the ratio of the actual work produced by the turbine to the maximum amount of
work that the turbine could extract if the process were ideal (i.e., a no-loss isentropic expansion).
Backpressure turbines: Different scenarios
Many industrial processes require electrical power and heat. This heat is often provided from large quantities of
low-pressure steam. In a back pressure turbine, the pressure is raised to above atmospheric pressure so that the
turbine exhaust steam can be transported to the process heat load then the steam will give up its latent heat
usefully rather than reject this to the condenser cooling water. Although the steam turbine output is reduced, the
overall efficiency is increased significantly as the generated steam is used to provide both heat and electrical power.
The two types of steam turbines most widely used are the backpressure and the extraction-condensing types. The
choice between backpressure turbine and extraction-condensing turbine depends mainly on the quantities of
power and heat, quality of heat, and economic factors. The extraction points of steam from the turbine could be
more than one, depending on the temperature levels of heat required by the processes.

Image A: Back-pressure turbo-alternator

operating in parallel with the grid supply

Image: A The simple back-pressure turbine provides the maximum economy with the simplest installation. An ideal
backpressure turbogenerator set relies on the process steam requirements to match the power demand. However,
this ideal is seldom realized in practice. In most installations, the power and heat demands will fluctuate widely,
with a fall in electrical demand when steam flow, for instance, rises. These operating problems must be overcome
by selecting the correct system. The image above shows an arrangement that balances the process steam and
electrical demands by running the turbo-alternator in parallel with the electrical supply utility. The turbine inlet
control valve maintains a constant steam pressure on the turbine exhaust, irrespective of the fluctuation in process
steam demand.
Image: A back-pressure turbine with PRDs valve
and dump condense

Image: B
This process steam flow will dictate output generated by the
turbo-alternator and excess or deficiency is made up by
export or import to the supply utility, as appropriate. The
alternative to the system in Image A is to use a back-
pressure turbine with a bypass reducing valve and dump
condenser, as shown in Image B. On this system, the turbine
is speed controlled and passes steam, depending on the
electrical demand. The bypass reducing valve with an
integral desuperheater makes up any deficiency in the
steam requirements and creates an exhaust steam pressure
control. Alternatively, any surplus steam can be bypassed to
a dump condenser, either water or air-cooled, and returned
to the boiler as clear condensate.

Back-pressure turbines are inexpensive, thermally efficient, and compact, and usually the most economical
proposition for partial generation schemes; but inflexible. Power generation is dependent on the steam flow
required to meet process requirements and the pressure drop over the turbine. The running cost for electrical
generation is therefore the marginally additional cost of generating steam at higher pressure and temperature than
would be required for process usage only, plus the fuel equivalent of the heat drop across the turbine. Exhaust
pressure from the turbine is determined by process steam pressure requirements. Inlet steam conditions,
therefore, depend on the power generation required; seldom more than 4.5 MPa gauge, 400°C, although in large-
scale chemical industry pressures may be up to 13 MPa. Thermal efficiencies in the range 75–85% are common, and
this is virtually unaltered by varying the back pressure provided that all the steam can be used. Steam can be blown
into the atmosphere or passed to a dump condenser to increase electrical generation in relation to process steam
demand, but if this is practiced for more than short-term emergency occasions, the costs involved can cancel out
the financial savings of the scheme.
Advantages and disadvantages of backpressure turbine
[1] Back-pressure turbines are inexpensive, thermally efficient, and compact, and usually the most economical
proposition for partial generation schemes; but inflexible.
[2] Power generation is dependent on the steam flow required to meet process requirements and the pressure drop
over the turbine. The running cost for electrical generation is therefore the marginally additional cost of generating
steam at higher pressure and temperature than would be required for process usage only, plus the fuel equivalent
of the heat drop across the turbine.
[3] Exhaust pressure from the turbine is determined by process steam pressure requirements. Inlet steam
conditions, therefore, depend on the power generation required; seldom more than 4.5 MPa gauge, 400°C,
although in large-scale chemical industry pressures may be up to 13 MPa. Thermal efficiencies in the range 75–85%
are common, and this is virtually unaltered by varying the back pressure provided that all the steam can be used.
Steam can be blown into the atmosphere or passed to a dump condenser to increase electrical generation in
relation to process steam demand, but if this is practiced for more than short-term emergency occasions, the costs
involved can cancel out the financial savings of the scheme.
Pass-out condensing turbines

Image C: The pass-out condensing turbine

If the process steam demand is small when compared with the electrical demand then a pass-out condensing
turbine may provide the optimum solution. Image C illustrates a typical scheme, which consists of a backpressure
turbine. This gives operational flexibility of the back-pressure turbine with improved power output.
Back pressure with double pass-out
Many industries require process steam at more than one pressure, and this can be done by use of a backpressure
turbine supplying two process pressures Image: D

Image: D The double pass-out turbo-

alternator

Image: D
Back pressure with double pass-out
Many industries require process steam at more than one pressure,
and this can be done by use of a backpressure turbine supplying two
process pressures

Pass-out condensing turbines are the most common type for total generation schemes since, within limits, electrical
output can be adjusted by altering the proportion of steam passing to the condenser; steam demand in excess of
turbine pass-out capacity can be provided through a reducing valve and desuperheater bypassing the turbine. Inlet
steam conditions can be in the range 4.5 MPa, 400°C down to 1.75 MPa saturated; exhaust vacuum is generally 7
kPa absolute or greater. Thermal efficiencies in the range 50–70% can be obtained but may be much lower if more
than the minimum steam is passed to the condenser.
Extraction-condensing Turbines
Image: E The right-side image shows a typical extraction condensing turbine
Extraction-condensing turbines are employed when steady power generation and steam extraction at a fixed
pressure is required. Extraction pressure is controlled internally in the turbine, allowing a wide range of extraction
flow rates.

The extraction condensing turbine is able to change the electric power and the process steam flow independently
by adjusting inlet steam flow and process steam flow. Adjustment of process steam flow is implemented by the
extraction control valve. The turbine output is adjusted by the main control valve for inlet steam flow in conjunction
with the LP turbine flow affected by the extraction control valve. That is to say, the extraction condensing turbine
has both features of the condensing turbine and the back pressure turbine and has the capability to fulfilling both
the requirements of the electric power supply and the process steam flow.