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Introduction to Investigation and
Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9.a, 9.b, 9.c, 9.e, 9.f, 9.g

Unit 1
Motion and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42 1.a, 1.b, 1.c, 1.d, 1.e,
Chapter 1 Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44 1.f, 9.b, 9.d, 9.e, 9.f
2.a, 2.b, 2.c, 2.d, 2.e,
Chapter 2 Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 2.f, 9.a, 9.d, 9.g
Chapter 3 Density and Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . 126 8.a, 8.b, 8.c, 8.d, 9.f

Unit 2
Structure of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Chapter 4 Understanding the Atom . . . . . . . . . 170 3.a, 3.f, 7.b, 9.e

Chapter 5 Combining Atoms and Molecules . 214 3.a, 3.b, 3.c, 3.f, 7.c, 9.a, 9.e

Chapter 6 States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250 3.d, 3.e, 9.e, 9.g

Chapter 7 The Periodic Table and

Physical Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286 3.f, 5.d, 7.a, 7.b, 7.c, 9.a, 9.e

Unit 3
Chemical Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332
Chapter 8 Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334 3.b, 3.f, 5.a, 5.b, 5.c, 7.c, 9.a, 9.e

Chapter 9 Acids and Bases in Solution . . . . . . 376 5.e, 7.c, 9.a, 9.b, 9.e

Chapter 10 Chemistry of Living Systems . . . . . 418 3.c, 6.a, 6.b, 6.c, 9.c

Unit 4
Earth in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .456
Chapter 11 Our Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458 2.g, 4.c, 4.d, 4.e, 9.a, 9.e

Chapter 12 Stars and Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504 2.g, 4.a, 4.b, 4.c, 4.d, 9.d

iii
 The California Science Teacher Advisory Board provided valuable input in the
development of the 2007 edition of Focus On Physical Science. They helped create
the scope and sequence of the Student Edition, provided content and pedagogical
comments, and provided feedback for the Teacher Wraparound Edition.

Charles Beecroft Douglas Fisher Patricia Juárez

8th Grade Science Director of Professional Coordinator III
Teacher Development Sacramento City Unified
Columbia School District City Heights Educational School District
Redding, CA Collaborative Sacramento, CA
San Diego, CA

Tom Castro Mindi Fisher Kathy Molnar

Science Teacher Leadership Team Professional
Martinez JHS/ Administrator Development Mentor
Martinez USD Peninsula Union School Etiwanda School District
Martinez, CA District Etiwanda, CA
Samoa, CA

Lisa L. Cordes Frederick W. Freking Carol Orton

Science Department Faculty Advisor Teacher
Chair University of California, Bernardo Heights
Rivera Middle School/ Los Angeles Middle School
El Rancho USD Los Angeles, CA San Diego, CA
Pico Rivera, CA

Justin Cunningham Nancy Frey Joycalyn Peoples

EdD Associate Professor of Science Specialist
Coordinator, Small Literacy Riverside Unified School
School District Services San Diego State District
San Diego, County Office University Riverside, CA
of Education San Diego, CA
San Diego, CA

Richard Filson Maria C. Grant Wendi L. Rodriguez

Science Department Teacher Teacher
Chair Hoover High School/ Heritage/Snowline JUSD
Edison High School, San Diego City School Phelan, CA
Stockton Unified and San Diego State
School District University
Stockton, CA San Diego, CA

Bruce Fisher Patrick Horton Gladys Sorensen

Distinguished Teacher Science Teacher Science Department
in Residence Day Creek Intermediate Chair
Humboldt State School Patrick Henry Middle
University Etiwanda, CA School
Arcata, CA Grenada Hills, CA

Patty Horton Granger B. Ward

Professional California
Development Provider Superintendent and
Etiwanda School District Former Science Teacher
iv Etiwanda, CA San Diego, CA
Authors Science nline Learn more about the authors at ca8.msscience.com.

Laurel Dingrando, Jennifer Gonya, PhD Cindy Klevickis, PhD Dinah Zike, MEd
MAT Science Content Consultant Professor of Integrated Educational Consultant
Secondary Science The Ohio State University Science and Technology Dinah-Might Activities,
Coordinator Columbus, OH James Madison University Inc.
Garland Independent Harrisonburg, VA San Antonio, TX
School District David G. Haase, PhD
Garland, TX Professor of Physics and Isaac Turiel, PhD
Director of The Science Retired Staff Scientist
Douglas Fisher, PhD House Lawrence Berkeley
Director of Professional North Carolina State National Laboratory, National Geographic
Development and University Berkeley, CA Education Division
Professor Raleigh, NC Washington, D.C.
City Heights Educational Margaret K. Zorn, MS
Collaborative, San Science Writer
Diego State University Yorktown, VA
San Diego, CA

Series Consultants
Content consultants reviewed the chapters in their area of expertise and
provided suggestions for improving the effectiveness of the science instruction.

Science William B. N. Berry, Alan Gishlick, PhD Monika Kress, PhD

Consultants PhD National Center for San Jose State University
University of California, Science Education San Jose, CA
Richard Allen, PhD Berkeley Oakland, CA
University of California, Berkeley, CA Steve Lund, PhD
Berkeley Juno Hsu, PhD University of Southern
Berkeley, CA Diane Clayton, PhD University of California, California
NASA Irvine Los Angeles, CA
Karamjeet Arya, PhD Santa Barbara, CA Irvine, CA
San Jose State University Michael Manga, PhD
San Jose, CA Susan Crawford, PhD Martha Jagucki, MS University of California,
California State University Geologist Berkeley
Teaster Baird, PhD Sacramento, CA Columbus, OH Berkeley, CA
San Francisco State
University Stephen F. Cunha, PhD Lee Kats, PhD Kate Schafer, PhD
San Francisco, CA Humboldt State University Pepperdine University Aquamarine Research
Arcata, CA Malibu, CA Mountain View, CA
Natalie Batalha, PhD
San Jose State University Jennifer A. Dever, PhD Christopher Kim, PhD Julio G. Soto, PhD
San Jose, CA University of San Francisco Chapman University San Jose State University
San Francisco, CA Orange, CA San Jose, CA
Robin Bennett, MS
University of Washington Alejandro Garcia, PhD
Seattle, WA San Jose State University
San Jose, CA

v
 Dr. Edward Walton Math Reading Safety
California Polytechnical Consultant Consultant Consultant
Institute
Pomona, CA Grant Fraser, PhD ReLeah Cossett Lent Jeff Vogt, MEd
California State Author/Educational Federal Hocking Middle
VivianLee Ward University Consultant School
National Health Museum Los Angeles, CA Alford, FL Stewart, OH
Washington, DC

Series Teacher Reviewers

Each Teacher Reviewer reviewed at least two chapters, providing feedback and
suggestions for improving the effectiveness of the science instruction.

Joel Austin Bret Harrison Lori Poublon-Ramirez

Roosevelt Middle School Frank Ledesma Elementary Herman Intermediate School
San Francisco, CA Soledad, CA San Jose, CA

Nicole Belong Rick Hoffman Martha Romero

Coronado Middle School Kastner Intermediate School E. O. Green Junior High School
Coronado, CA Fresno, CA Oxnard, CA

Patrick Brickey Kimberly Klein Arlene Sackman

Lakeview Junior High School Barstow Intermediate School Earlimart Middle School
Santa Maria, CA Barstow, CA Earlimart, CA

Mary Pilles Bryant David Kulka Rex Scates

Henry J. Kaiser High School South Peninsula Hebrew Day Herman Intermediate School
Fontana, CA School San Jose, CA
Sunnyvale, CA
Edward Case Robert Sherriff
Washington Academic Middle Christina Lambie Winston Churchill Middle School
School Highland Elementary School Carmichael, CA
Sanger, CA Richmond, CA
Maria Mendez Simpson
Monaliza Chian Kathleen Magnani School Programs Coordinator/
E. O. Green Junior High School Center Junior High School Birch Aquarium
Oxnard, CA Antelope, CA La Jolla, CA

Valesca Lopez Dwyer Tara McGuigan Lorre Stange

Park View Middle School Monroe Clark Middle School Laytonville Elementary School
Yucaipa, CA San Diego, CA Laytonville, CA

Kathryn Froman Shelia Patterson Louann Talbert

North Davis Elementary School K–12 Alliance-California Laytonville Middle School
Davis, CA Oceano, CA Laytonville, CA

Brian Gary Sharon Pendola Gina Marie Turcketta

Margaret Landell Elementary St. Albans Country Day School St. Joan of Arc School
Cypress, CA Roseville, CA Los Angeles, CA

Jeanette George-Becker
Roosevelt Elementary School
San Gabriel, CA

vi
 Introduction to Investigation
and Experimentation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9.a, 9.b, 9.c, 9.e, 9.f, 9.g

What is science? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 9.b

Tools of the Physical Scientist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 9.a, 9.b, 9.c, 9.e, 9.f, 9.g

Case Study: Wind Turbines for the Birds . . . .34 9.a, 9.c, 9.f

Unit 1 Motion and Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42

Chapter 1 California Standards
Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
Lesson 1 Determining Position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48 1.a

Lesson 2 Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration . . . . . . . . 56 1.b, 1.c, 1.d, 1.e, 9.b, 9.f

Lesson 3 Graphing Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64 1.f, 9.d, 9.e

Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82–83

Chapter 2
Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
Lesson 1 Combining Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 2.a, 2.b, 2.c, 9.g

Lesson 2 Types of Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96 2.d

Lesson 3 Unbalanced Forces and Acceleration . . . . 106 2.d, 2.e, 2.f, 9.a, 9.d
Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124–125

Chapter 3
Density and Buoyancy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
Lesson 1 Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130 8.a, 8.b, 9.f

Lesson 2 Pressure and the Buoyant Force . . . . . . . . 140 8.c

Lesson 3 Sinking and Floating . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150 8.d, 9.f

Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164–165
Read on Your Own . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
Unit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167

Spiny box fish

vii
Unit 2 Structure of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .168
Chapter 4 California Standards
Understanding the Atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
Lesson 1 Atoms—Basic Units of Matter . . . . . . . . . 174 3.a

Lesson 2 Discovering Parts of the Atom . . . . . . . . . 182 3.a

Lesson 3 Elements, Isotopes, and Ions—How

Atoms Differ . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195 3.f, 7.b, 9.e
Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212–213

Chapter 5
Combining Atoms and Molecules . . . . . . . . .214
Lesson 1 How Atoms Form Compounds . . . . . . . . 218 3.a, 3.b, 3.f

Lesson 2 Forming Solids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230 3.b, 3.c, 7.c, 9.a, 9.e

Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248–249

Atomic force micrograph of yttrium oxide molecules

viii
Chapter 6 California Standards
States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Lesson 1 Solids, Liquids, and Gases . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254 3.d, 3.e

Lesson 2 Changes in States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . 261 3.d, 3.e, 9.e, 9.g

Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284–285

Chapter 7
The Periodic Table and Physical
Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Lesson 1 Organization of the Periodic Table . . . . . 290 3.f, 7.a
Lesson 2 Isotopes and Radioactivity . . . . . . . . . . . . 301 7.a, 7.b, 9.e

Lesson 3 Physical Properties and Changes . . . . . . . 313 5.d, 7.c, 9.a

Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328–329

Read on Your Own . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Unit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331

Unit 3 Chemical Interactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .332

Chapter 8
Chemical Reactions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
Lesson 1 Chemical Properties and Changes . . . . . . 338 3.f, 5.a, 7.c

Lesson 2 Chemical Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346 3.b, 3.f, 5.b

Lesson 3 Energy and Chemical Changes . . . . . . . . . 358 5.c, 9.a, 9.e

Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374–375

Dry ice
sublimating
Chapter 9 California Standards
Acids and Bases in Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
Lesson 1 Solutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380 7.c, 9.e
Lesson 2 Acidic, Basic, and Neutral Solutions . . . . 394 5.e, 9.a, 9.b, 9.e
Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416–417

Chapter 10
Chemistry of Living Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . .418
Lesson 1 Chemistry of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422 6.b, 6.c

Lesson 2 Carbon Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 428 3.c, 6.a, 6.b

Lesson 3 Compounds of Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438 6.c, 9.c

Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452–453
Read on Your Own . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
Unit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

Unit 4 Earth in Space . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456

Chapter 11
Our Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
Lesson 1 Structures of the Solar System . . . . . . . . . 462 2.g, 4.c, 4.d, 4.e

Lesson 2 The Sun-Earth-Moon System . . . . . . . . . . 472 4.d

Lesson 3 The Planets and Their Moons . . . . . . . . . 478 4.d, 4.e, 9.e

Lesson 4 Asteroids, Comets, and Meteoroids . . . . . 489 4.c, 4.e, 9.a

Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502–503

The Sun

x
Chapter 12 California Standards
Stars and Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
Lesson 1 Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 508 4.b, 4.c, 4.d

Lesson 2 How Stars Shine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519 2.g, 4.d

Lesson 3 Galaxies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 528 4.a, 4.b, 4.c, 9.d

Standards Assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544–545
Read on Your Own . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
Unit Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547

At-Home Standards Practice . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548

Galaxy NGC 3310 as viewed through the Hubble telescope.

xi
Student Resources. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570
Science Safety Skill Handbook . . . . 572 Understanding Scientific Terms . . . . . . . . . .595
Technology Skill Handbook . . . . . . . 575 Science Reference Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .597
Physical Science Reference Tables . . . . . . . .598
Math Skill Handbook
Math Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .579 Periodic Table of the Elements . . . . . . . . . . .600
Science Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .589 English/Spanish Glossary . . . . . . . . .602
Reference Handbook Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
Using a Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .594 Credits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .624

The Japanese bullet train can travel at speeds up to 260 km/h.

xii
To view BrainPOP Movies go to ca8.msscience.com. The features listed here
correlate to their respective chapter’s science content.

BrainPOP Movies
Title Chapter-Lesson

Acceleration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1-2

Newton’s Laws of Motion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-1

Atomic Model. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-2

Isotopes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4-3

Matter Changing State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-1

States of Matter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6-2

Property Changes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8-1

Acids and Bases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9-2

Tides . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-2

Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11-3

xiii
 The features listed here correlate to their respective chapter’s science content.

Chapter/ Science & Science & Science & Science &

Page Career Technology History Society

1 Automobile Designer GPS Shows the Way Galileo and Scientific Henry Ford and the
76–77 Theories Assembly Line

2 Rocket Scientist Hi-Tech Roller Isaac Newton: What keeps a bridge

118–119 Coasters Bestselling Author? from falling down?

3 Can ice cubes sink in Biodiesel Cannery Row Los Angeles Smog
158–159 water?

4 Chien-Shiung Wu Nuclear Power Three Mile Island Dropping the Atomic

206–207 Accident Bomb

5 CFCs and the Ozone Sweeter Than Sugar Discovering DNA’s The Human Genome
242–243 Layer Structure Project

6 New and Improved World Record Holder Statistical Matters A Cool Way To Go
278–279

7 The Chemistry of Superconductors Uses of Lead in Fluoridation of

322–323 Color History Drinking Water

8 Hazardous Materials Green Chemistry at Soft Drinks, Erasers, The Nose Knows
368–369 Specialist Work and More

9 Yuan T. Lee Acid Rain Prevention Gilbert N. Lewis Acetylsalicylic Acid

410–411

10 Something in the Now, Spit! What do you mean Labeling Trans Fat
446–447 Air... by that?

11 Designing the New The Search for Extra- Johannes Kepler’s Deadly Impact
496–497 Generation of Solar Planets Revolutionary Laws
Spacecraft

12 Stephen Hawking: An Adaptive Optics Kepler’s Supernova Watching the Heat

538–539 Extraordinary Mind

xiv
Labs California Standards

Chapter 3 A Homemade Hydrometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .156–157 8.d, 9.f

Chapter 5 Growing Crystals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .240–241 3.c, 9.a
Chapter 6 Does change of state take longer for
some liquids? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .276–277 9.e
Chapter 7 Investigating Physical Changes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .320–321 7.c, 9.a
Chapter 10 Polarity and Living Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444–445 6.c, 9.c
Chapter 11 Model the Solar System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494–495 4.c, 9.a

Design Your Own Labs

Chapter 1 Graphing Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .74–75 1.f, 9.e
Chapter 2 Comparing Mass and Weight . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116–117 2.d, 9.a, 9.d
Chapter 4 Build an Atom. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204–205 3.a
Chapter 8 Dirty Jewelry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366–367 5.a, 9.a
Chapter 9 Solubility and pH . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408–409 5.e, 9.a, 9.e
Chapter 12 A Star is Born . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536–537 4.b, 4.d

xv
 California Standards
Chapter 1 How do you get there from here? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45 1.a, 9.b
Chapter 2 Can you feel the force? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85 2.c
Chapter 3 Can you push the beach ball under water? . . . . . . . . . . . 127 8.c
Chapter 4 What’s in the box? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171 3.a
Chapter 5 What do structures made of atoms look like? . . . . . . . . 215 3.b
Chapter 6 Model for Particle Movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251 3.e
Chapter 7 Which element are you? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287 3.f
Chapter 8 Can you see a chemical reaction taking place? . . . . . . . 335 5.a
Chapter 9 Where’s that bubble?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377 5.e
Chapter 10 What is a life chemical? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419 6.b
Chapter 11 How do you measure distance? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459 9.b
Chapter 12 How far away are the stars and how many
are there? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505 2.g, 4.a, 4.b, 4.c

California Standards
Chapter 1 Negative Positions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49 1.a
Can you measure average speed? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63 1.b, 9.b
Chapter 2 Can you measure the force of friction? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105 2.a, 2.d
Does water exert a force? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110 2.e
Chapter 3 Can you feel the buoyant force? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149 8.c
Do cold things float? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155 8.d
Chapter 4 How big are the particles in an atom? . . . . . . . 181 3.a
How do electrons move? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186 3.a
Chapter 5 How can you model molecules? . . . . . . . . . . . . 229 3.b
Chapter 6 Observing Fluid Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255 3.e
Sensing Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268 3.e
Chapter 7 Can you guess the element? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300 3.f
Which parachute will drop first? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319 7.c, 9.a
Chapter 8 How can you tell a chemical change
from a physical change? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345 5.a
Can you model the burning of methane? . . . . . . . . . . . . 357 3.b, 5.b

xvi
 (continued) California Standards
Chapter 9 How can you determine pH? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406 5.e, 9.b
Chapter 10 How much water is in celery? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425 6.c
Modeling Organic Compounds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 434 6.a
Chapter 11 How do planets move? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464 4.d
How does the Moon change its shape
in the sky? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477 4.d
How do craters appear? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492 4.e

California Standards
Chapter 1 How can a graph show relative positions? . . . . 55 1.a
What can you learn from a graph? . . . . . . . . . . . 73 1.f, 9.d
Chapter 2 Can you add vertical forces? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95 2.c, 9.g
Chapter 3 Can you calculate the density? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139 8.b, 9.f
Chapter 4 How do atoms differ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203 3.a, 3.f, 9.e
Chapter 5 How are ionic radii and lattice energies of
salts related? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239 3.b, 9.e
Chapter 6 How are boiling point and atmospheric
pressure related? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274 3.d, 9.g
Chapter 7 How can you show a visual explanation of
half-life? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312 7.b, 9.e
Chapter 8 Where does the tablet go? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348 5.b
How does temperature change as
chemicals react? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364 5.c, 9.e
Chapter 9 How do solubilities differ? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393 7.c, 9.e
Chapter 10 Which fat is healthy for you? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443 6.c, 9.e
Chapter 11 How large are the planets? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485 4.e, 9.e
Chapter 12 Can you identify elements in a star? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517 4.d
How fast is the universe expanding?. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535 4.c

This lab might be performed at home.

xvii
 The California Science, Math and Language Arts correlations
for these features can be found on the referenced page.

Get Ready to Read Applying Math

Chapter 1 Preview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46 Chapter 1 Using the Speed Equation to Find
Chapter 2 Identify the Main Idea . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Distance and Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
Chapter 3 New Vocabulary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128 Chapter 2 Finding Force and Acceleration . . . . . . 115
Chapter 4 Monitor. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172 Chapter 3 Solve for Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
Chapter 5 Visualize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216 Using the Density Equation to Find
Mass and Volume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 138
Chapter 6 Questioning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Solve for Pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
Chapter 7 Make Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
Chapter 4 Mass of Subatomic Particles . . . . . . . . 180
Chapter 8 Identify Cause and Effect . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Chapter 5 Formula Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
Chapter 9 Make Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
Chapter 6 Packing Efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 275
Chapter 10 Summarize . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
Chapter 7 Isotope Half-Life Conversions . . . . . . . 311
Chapter 11 Compare and Contrast . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
Chapter 8 Calculate Change in Heat
Chapter 12 Make Inferences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506 of a Reaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
Chapter 9 Comparing pH Values . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
Target Your Reading
Chapter 10 Bond Angles in Organic Chemistry . . . 437
Chapter 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
Chapter 11 Parts of an Elliptical Orbit . . . . . . . . . . 471
Chapter 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Chapter 12 Brightness of Stars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 518
Chapter 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Chapter 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Chapter 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
Chapter 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Chapter 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 289
Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
Chapter 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
Chapter 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421
Chapter 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
Chapter 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507

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For Students and Their Families
What is the purpose of the California Content Standards?
Content standards were designed to encourage the highest achievement of every
student, by defining the knowledge, concepts, and skills that students should acquire
at each grade level.

This Guide Contains:

Science Content Standards, Grade 8 and Correlations . . . .xx
Math Content Standards, Grade 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . xxvi
English-Language Arts Content Standards, Grade 8 . . . xxviii

California State Capitol Building,

Sacramento

xix
 Grade 8 Focus On Physical Science
The science curriculum in grade eight emphasizes the study of physical sciences. Students in grade eight
study topics in physical sciences, such as motion, forces, and the structure of matter, by using a quantita-
tive, mathematically based approach similar to the procedures they will use in high school. Earth, the solar
system, chemical reactions, the chemistry of biological processes, the periodic table, and density and buoy-
ancy are additional topics that will be treated with increased mathematical rigor, again in anticipation of
high school courses. Students should begin to grasp four concepts that help to unify physical sciences: force
and energy; the laws of conservation; atoms, molecules, and the atomic theory; and kinetic theory. Those
concepts serve as important organizers that will be required as students continue to learn science. Although
much of the science called for in the standards is considered “classical” physics and chemistry, it should pro-
vide a powerful basis for understanding modern science and serve students as well as adults.
Mastery of the eighth-grade physical sciences content will greatly enhance the ability of students to
succeed in high school science classes. Modern molecular biology and earth sciences, as well as chemistry
and physics, require that students have a good understanding of the basics of physical sciences. Items
within the text that relate to a Science Content Standard will be represented like this: 2.b

California Science Content Standards

Correlated to Focus On Physical Science

Science Content Standards Page Numbers

Motion
1. The velocity of an object is the rate of change of its position. As a basis for understanding this concept:

1.a Students know position is defined in relation to some choice of a standard reference point 48–49, 51–52
and a set of reference directions.

1.b Students know that average speed is the total distance traveled divided by the total time 56–58, 63, 66, 68
elapsed and that the speed of an object along the path traveled can vary.

1.c Students know how to solve problems involving distance, time, and average speed. 56, 61, 62, 67, 80, 81

1.d Students know the velocity of an object must be described by specifying both the direc- 59, 89, 107, 108, 109
tion and the speed of the object.

1.e Students know changes in velocity may be due to changes in speed, direction, or both. 60, 92, 93, 107, 108, 109

1.f Students know how to interpret graphs of position versus time and graphs of speed versus 64–71
time for motion in a single direction.
Bold page numbers indicate in-depth coverage of standard.
xx
Science Content Standards Page Numbers
Forces
2. Unbalanced forces cause changes in velocity. As a basis for understanding this concept:

2.a Students know a force has both direction and magnitude. 88–89, 97, 98, 99, 100, 101,
102, 103

2.b Students know when an object is subject to two or more forces at once, the result is the 90–91, 99, 102, 103, 105,
cumulative effect of all the forces. 106–108

2.c Students know when the forces on an object are balanced, the motion of the object does 92–93, 95, 112, 113, 462,
not change. 468

2.d Students know how to identify separately the two or more forces that are acting on a 96–103, 105, 116
single static object, including gravity, elastic forces due to tension or compression in mat-
ter, and friction.

2.e Students know that when the forces on an object are unbalanced, the object will change 106–108, 110
its velocity (that is, it will speed up, slow down, or change direction).

2.f Students know the greater the mass of an object, the more force is needed to achieve the 109, 112, 113
same rate of change in motion.

2.g Students know the role of gravity in forming and maintaining the shapes of planets, stars, 96–98, 467–470, 519–527
and the solar system.

Structure of Matter
3. Each of the more than 100 elements of matter has distinct properties and a distinct atomic structure. All forms of
matter are composed of one or more of the elements. As a basis for understanding this concept:

3.a Students know the structure of the atom and know it is composed of protons, neutrons, 171, 175, 176–178, 180,
and electrons. 181, 182–193, 200–201,
203–205, 223–224

3.b Students know that compounds are formed by combining two or more different elements 215, 218–222, 225–227,
and that compounds have properties that are different from their constituent elements. 229, 233, 235–236, 239,
350, 354, 357

3.c Students know atoms and molecules form solids by building up repeating patterns, such as 230–236, 240–241, 434
the crystal structure of NaCl or long-chain polymers.
Bold page numbers indicate in-depth coverage of standard.

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 Science Content Standards Page Numbers
Structure of Matter (continued)
3.d Students know the states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) depend on molecular motion. 255–259, 263, 264–269,
274

3.e Students know that in solids the atoms are closely locked in position and can only vibrate; 255–259, 265, 266,
in liquids the atoms and molecules are more loosely connected and can collide with and 267–268, 269
move past one another; and in gases the atoms and molecules are free to move indepen-
dently, colliding frequently.

3.f Students know how to use the periodic table to identify elements in simple compounds. 195–196, 203, 221–222,
224, 287, 290–298, 300,
342, 350

Earth in the Solar System (Earth Sciences)

4. The structure and composition of the universe can be learned from studying stars and galaxies and their evolution.
As a basis for understanding this concept:

4.a Students know galaxies are clusters of billions of stars and may have different shapes. 528–537

4.b Students know that the Sun is one of many stars in the Milky Way galaxy and that stars 508–517, 519–527, 530
may differ in size, temperature, and color.

4.c Students know how to use astronomical units and light years as measures of distances 466, 479, 481, 491,
between the Sun, stars, and Earth. 494–495, 508, 513–514,
520, 531, 535

4.d Students know that stars are the source of light for all bright objects in outer space and 462, 471, 474–477,
that the Moon and planets shine by reflected sunlight, not by their own light. 480–483, 508–517,
519–527

4.e Students know the appearance, general composition, relative position and size, and motion 462–470, 471, 472–473,
of objects in the solar system, including planets, planetary satellites, comets, and asteroids. 474, 478–488, 489–493
Bold page numbers indicate in-depth coverage of standard.

xxii
Science Content Standards Page Numbers
Reactions
5. Chemical reactions are processes in which atoms are rearranged into different combinations of molecules. As a
basis for understanding this concept:

5.a Students know reactant atoms and molecules interact to form products with different 335, 339, 341–342, 345,
chemical properties. 349, 354–355, 366–367

5.b Students know the idea of atoms explains the conservation of matter: In chemical reac- 346–347, 348, 351–355,
tions the number of atoms stays the same no matter how they are arranged, so their total 357
mass stays the same.

5.c Students know chemical reactions usually liberate heat or absorb heat. 358–362, 364

5.d Students know physical processes include freezing and boiling, in which a material changes 264–266, 266–270, 272,
form with no chemical reaction. 314

5.e Students know how to determine whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral. 377, 394–404, 406,
408–409

Chemistry of Living Systems (Life Sciences)

6. Principles of chemistry underlie the functioning of biological systems. As a basis for understanding this concept:

6.a Students know that carbon, because of its ability to combine in many ways with itself and 428–435
other elements, has a central role in the chemistry of living organisms.

6.b Students know that living organisms are made of molecules consisting largely of carbon, 419, 422–424, 434
hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, phosphorus, and sulfur.

6.c Students know that living organisms have many different kinds of molecules, including 425–426, 438–441, 443,
small ones, such as water and salt, and very large ones, such as carbohydrates, fats, pro- 444–445
teins, and DNA.
Bold page numbers indicate in-depth coverage of standard.

xxiii
 Science Content Standards Page Numbers
Periodic Table
7. The organization of the periodic table is based on the properties of the elements and reflects the structure of
atoms. As a basis for understanding this concept:

7.a Students know how to identify regions corresponding to metals, nonmetals, and inert 290–298, 306–309
gases.

7.b Students know each element has a specific number of protons in the nucleus (the atomic 195–198, 200, 301–306,
number) and each isotope of the element has a different but specific number of neutrons 312
in the nucleus.

7.c Students know substances can be classified by their properties, including their melting 136, 231–232, 313–317,
temperature, density, hardness, and thermal and electrical conductivity. 319–321, 338–343,
380–385, 386, 387–391,
393

Density and Buoyancy

8. All objects experience a buoyant force when immersed in a fluid. As a basis for understanding this concept:

8.a Students know density is mass per unit volume. 130–133, 138

8.b Students know how to calculate the density of substances (regular and irregular solids and 134–136, 139
liquids) from measurements of mass and volume.

8.c Students know the buoyant force on an object in a fluid is an upward force equal to the 127, 146–147, 149, 151
weight of the fluid the object has displaced.

8.d Students know how to predict whether an object will float or sink. 150–151, 153, 155,
156–157
Bold page numbers indicate in-depth coverage of standard.

xxiv
Science Content Standards Page Numbers
Investigation and Experimentation
9. Scientific progress is made by asking meaningful questions and conducting careful investigations. As a basis for
understanding this concept and addressing the content in the other three strands, students should develop their
own questions and perform investigations. Students will:

9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. 7–33, 34–41, 105,
240–241, 319–321,
366–367, 408–409,
494–495

9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data. 5, 17, 20, 21, 63, 406

9.c Distinguish between variable and controlled parameters in a test. 29, 39–41, 444–445

9.d Recognize the slope of the linear graph as the constant in the relationship y ⫽ kx and 67, 73, 116
apply this principle in interpreting graphs constructed from data.

9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative statements about the 22–27, 74–75, 203, 239,
relationships between variables. 312, 364, 393, 408–409,
443, 485

9.f Apply simple mathematic relationships to determine a missing quantity in a mathematic 24, 37, 62, 115, 138
expression, given the two remaining terms (including speed ⫽ distance/time, density ⫽
mass/volume, force ⫽ pressure ⫻ area, volume ⫽ area ⫻ height).

9.g Distinguish between linear and nonlinear relationships on a graph of data. 23, 95, 274
Bold page numbers indicate in-depth coverage of standard.

xxv
 Items within the text that relate to a Math Content Standard will be represented like this: ALG: 1.1

ALG: 1.0 Students identify and use the arithmetic properties of subsets of integers and rational,
irrational, and real numbers, including closure properties for the four basic arithmetic operations
where applicable:
ALG: 1.1 Students use properties of numbers to demonstrate whether assertions are true or false.

ALG: 2.0 Students understand and use such operations as taking the opposite, finding the recipro-
cal, taking a root, and raising to a fractional power. They understand and use the rules of
exponents.
ALG: 3.0 Students solve equations and inequalities involving absolute values.
ALG: 4.0 Students simplify expressions before solving linear equations and inequalities in one vari-
able, such as 3(2x ⫺ 5) ⫹ 4(x ⫺ 2) ⫽ 12.
ALG: 5.0 Students solve multistep problems, including word problems, involving linear equations
and linear inequalities in one variable and provide justification for each step.
ALG: 6.0 Students graph a linear equation and compute the x- and y-intercepts (e.g., graph
2x ⫹ 6y ⫽ 4). They are also able to sketch the region defined by linear inequality
(e.g., they sketch the region defined by 2x ⫹ 6y ⬍ 4).
ALG: 7.0 Students verify that a point lies on a line, given an equation of the line. Students are able
to derive linear equations by using the point-slope formula.
ALG: 8.0 Students understand the concepts of parallel lines and perpendicular lines and how those
slopes are related. Students are able to find the equation of a line perpendicular to a given line
that passes through a given point.
ALG: 9.0 Students solve a system of two linear equations in two variables algebraically and are
able to interpret the answer graphically. Students are able to solve a system of two linear inequali-
ties in two variables and to sketch the solution sets.
ALG: 10.0 Students add, subtract, multiply, and divide monomials and polynomials. Students solve
multistep problems, including word problems, by using these techniques.
ALG: 11.0 Students apply basic factoring techniques to second- and simple third-degree polynomi-
als. These techniques include finding a common factor for all terms in a polynomial, recognizing
the difference of two squares, and recognizing perfect squares of binomials.
ALG: 12.0 Students simplify fractions with polynomials in the numerator and denominator by fac-
toring both and reducing them to the lowest terms.
ALG: 13.0 Students add, subtract, multiply, and divide rational expressions and functions. Students
solve both computationally and conceptually challenging problems by using these techniques.
ALG: 14.0 Students solve a quadratic equation by factoring or completing the square.
ALG: 15.0 Students apply algebraic techniques to solve rate problems, work problems, and percent
mixture problems.
ALG: 16.0 Students understand the concepts of a relation and a function, determine whether a
given relation defines a function, and give pertinent information about given relations and
functions.

xxvi
ALG: 17.0 Students determine the domain of independent variables and the range of dependent
variables defined by a graph, a set of ordered pairs, or a symbolic expression.
ALG: 18.0 Students determine whether a relation defined by a graph, a set of ordered pairs, or a
symbolic expression is a function and justify the conclusion.
ALG: 19.0 Students know the quadratic formula and are familiar with its proof by completing the
square.
ALG: 20.0 Students use the quadratic formula to find the roots of a second-degree polynomial and
to solve quadratic equations.
ALG: 21.0 Students graph quadratic functions and know that their roots are the x-intercepts.
ALG: 22.0 Students use the quadratic formula or factoring techniques or both to determine
whether the graph of a quadratic function will intersect the x-axis in zero, one, or two points.
ALG: 23.0 Students apply quadratic equations to physical problems, such as the motion of an object
under the force of gravity.
ALG: 24.0 Students use and know simple aspects of a logical argument:
ALG: 24.1 Students explain the difference between inductive and deductive reasoning and identify and
provide examples of each.
ALG: 24.2 Students identify the hypothesis and conclusion in logical deduction.
ALG: 24.3 Students use counterexamples to show that an assertion is false and recognize that a single
counterexample is sufficient to refute an assertion.

ALG: 25.0 Students use properties of the number system to judge the validity of results, to justify
each step of a procedure, and to prove or disprove statements:
ALG: 25.1 Students use properties of numbers to construct simple, valid arguments (direct and indirect)
for, or formulate counterexamples to, claimed assertions.
ALG: 25.2 Students judge the validity of an argument according to whether the properties of the real
number system and the order of operations have been applied correctly at each step.
ALG: 25.3 Given a specific algebraic statement involving linear, quadratic, or absolute value expressions
or equations or inequalities, students determine whether the statement is true sometimes,
always, or never.

xxvii
Items within the text that relate to an English-Language Arts Content Standard will be represented like this: ELA8: R 1.4

Reading ELA8: R 3.6 Identify significant literary devices (e.g., metaphor, sym-
bolism, dialect, irony) that define a writer’s style and use those elements
ELA8: R 1.0 Word Analysis, Fluency, and Systematic Vocab- to interpret the work.
ulary Development Literary Criticism
Vocabulary and Concept Development ELA8: R 3.7 Analyze a work of literature, showing how it reflects the
ELA8: R 1.1 Analyze idioms, analogies, metaphors, and similes to infer heritage, traditions, attitudes, and beliefs of its author. (Biographical
the literal and figurative meanings of phrases. approach)
ELA8: R 1.2 Understand the most important points in the history of
English language and use common word origins to determine the histori- Writing
cal influences on English word meanings.
ELA8: R 1.3 Use word meanings within the appropriate context and ELA8: W 1.0 Writing Strategies
show ability to verify those meanings by definition, restatement, exam- Organization and Focus
ple, comparison, or contrast. ELA8: W 1.1 Create compositions that establish a controlling impres-
ELA8: R 2.0 Reading Comprehension (Focus on Informa- sion, have a coherent thesis, and end with a clear and well-supported
tional Materials) conclusion.
ELA8: W 1.2 Establish coherence within and among paragraphs through
Structural Features of Informational Materials effective transitions, parallel structures, and similar writing techniques.
ELA8: R 2.1 Compare and contrast the features and elements of ELA8: W 1.3 Support theses or conclusions with analogies, paraphrases,
consumer materials to gain meaning from documents (e.g., warranties, quotations, opinions from authorities, comparisons, and similar devices.
contracts, product information, instruction manuals). Research and Technology
ELA8: R 2.2 Analyze text that uses proposition and support
patterns. ELA8: W 1.4 Plan and conduct multiple-step information searches by
using computer networks and modems.
Comprehension and Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text ELA8: W 1.5 Achieve an effective balance between researched infor-
ELA8: R 2.3 Find similarities and differences between texts in the mation and original ideas.
treatment, scope, or organization of ideas. Evaluation and Revision
ELA8: R 2.4 Compare the original text to a summary to determine
whether the summary accurately captures the main ideas, includes criti- ELA8: W 1.6 Revise writing for word choice; appropriate organization;
cal details, and conveys the underlying meaning. consistent point of view; and transitions between paragraphs, passages,
ELA8: R 2.5 Understand and explain the use of a complex mechanical and ideas.
device by following technical directions. ELA8: W 2.0 Writing Applications (Genres and Their Char-
ELA8: R 2.6 Use information from a variety of consumer, workplace, acteristics) Using the writing strategies of grade eight
and public documents to explain a situation or decision and to solve a
problem. outlined in Writing Standard 1.0, students:
ELA8: W 2.1 Write biographies, autobiographies, short stories, or
Expository Critique narratives:
ELA8: R 2.7 Evaluate the unity, coherence, logic, internal consistency, a. Relate a clear, coherent incident, event, or situation by using well-
and structural patterns of text. chosen details.
b. Reveal the significance of, or the writer’s attitude about, the
ELA8: R 3.0 Literary Response and Analysis subject.
Structural Features of Literature c. Employ narrative and descriptive strategies (e.g., relevant dialogue,
specific action, physical description, background description, com-
ELA8: R 3.1 Determine and articulate the relationship between the parison or contrast of characters).
purposes and characteristics of different forms of poetry (e.g., ballad, ELA8: W 2.2 Write responses to literature:
lyric, couplet, epic, elegy, ode, sonnet). a. Exhibit careful reading and insight in their interpretations.
Narrative Analysis of Grade-Level-Appropriate Text b. Connect the student’s own responses to the writer’s techniques
ELA8: R 3.2 Evaluate the structural elements of the plot (e.g., subplots, and to specific textual references.
parallel episodes, climax), the plot’s development, and the way in which c. Draw supported inferences about the effects of a literary work on
conflicts are (or are not) addressed and resolved. its audience.
ELA8: R 3.3 Compare and contrast motivations and reactions of liter- d. Support judgments through references to the text, other works,
ary characters from different historical eras confronting similar situa- other authors, or to personal knowledge.
tions or conflicts. ELA8: W 2.3 Write research reports:
ELA8: R 3.4 Analyze the relevance of the setting (e.g., place, time, cus- a. Define a thesis.
toms) to the mood, tone, and meaning of the text. b. Record important ideas, concepts, and direct quotations from
ELA8: R 3.5 Identify and analyze recurring themes (e.g., good versus significant information sources and paraphrase and summarize all
evil) across traditional and contemporary works. perspectives on the topic, as appropriate.
c. Use a variety of primary and secondary sources and distinguish the
nature and value of each.
d. Organize and display information on charts, maps, and graphs.

xxviii
ELA8: W 2.4 Write persuasive compositions: ELA8: LS 1.4 Prepare a speech outline based upon a chosen pattern
a. Include a well-defined thesis (i.e., one that makes a clear and of organization, which generally includes an introduction; transitions,
knowledgeable judgment). previews, and summaries; a logically developed body; and an effective
b. Present detailed evidence, examples, and reasoning to support conclusion.
arguments, differentiating between facts and opinion. ELA8: LS 1.5 Use precise language, action verbs, sensory details, appro-
c. Provide details, reasons, and examples, arranging them effec- priate and colorful modifiers, and the active rather than the passive
tively by anticipating and answering reader concerns and voice in ways that enliven oral presentations.
counterarguments. ELA8: LS 1.6 Use appropriate grammar, word choice, enunciation, and
ELA8: W 2.5 Write documents related to career development, includ- pace during formal presentations.
ing simple business letters and job applications: ELA8: LS 1.7 Use audience feedback (e.g., verbal and nonverbal cues):
a. Present information purposefully and succinctly and meet the a. Reconsider and modify the organizational structure or plan.
needs of the intended audience. b. Rearrange words and sentences to clarify the meaning.
b. Follow the conventional format for the type of document (e.g.,
letter of inquiry, memorandum). Analysis and Evaluation of Oral and Media Communications
ELA8: W 2.6 Write technical documents: ELA8: LS 1.8 Evaluate the credibility of a speaker (e.g., hidden agendas,
a. Identify the sequence of activities needed to design a system, slanted or biased material).
operate a tool, or explain the bylaws of an organization. ELA8: LS 1.9 Interpret and evaluate the various ways in which visual
b. Include all the factors and variables that need to be considered. image makers (e.g., graphic artists, illustrators, news photographers)
c. Use formatting techniques (e.g., headings, differing fonts) to aid communicate information and affect impressions and opinions.
comprehension. ELA8: LS 2.0 Speaking Applications (Genres and Their
Characteristics) Using the speaking strategies of grade
Written and Oral English Language Conventions eight outlined in Listening and Speaking Standard 1.0,
ELA8: WO 1.0 Written and Oral English Language students:
Conventions ELA8: LS 2.1 Deliver narrative presentations (e.g., biographical,
autobiographical):
Sentence Structure a. Relate a clear, coherent incident, event, or situation by using well-
ELA8: WO 1.1 Use correct and varied sentence types and sentence chosen details.
openings to present a lively and effective personal style. b. Reveal the significance of, and the subject’s attitude about, the
ELA8: WO 1.2 Identify and use parallelism, including similar grammati- incident, event, or situation.
cal forms, in all written discourse to present items in a series and items c. Employ narrative and descriptive strategies (e.g., relevant dialogue,
juxtaposed for emphasis. specific action, physical description, background description, com-
ELA8: WO 1.3 Use subordination, coordination, apposition, and other parison or contrast of characters).
devices to indicate clearly the relationship between ideas. ELA8: LS 2.2 Deliver oral responses to literature:
a. Interpret a reading and provide insight.
Grammar b. Connect the students’ own responses to the writer’s techniques
ELA8: WO 1.4 Edit written manuscripts to ensure that correct grammar and to specific textual references.
is used. c. Draw supported inferences about the effects of a literary work on
Punctuation and Capitalization its audience.
d. Support judgments through references to the text, other works,
ELA8: WO 1.5 Use correct punctuation and capitalization. other authors, or personal knowledge.
Spelling ELA8: LS 2.3 Deliver research presentations:
ELA8: WO 1.6 Use correct spelling conventions. a. Define a thesis.
b. Record important ideas, concepts, and direct quotations from
significant information sources and paraphrase and summarize all
Listening and Speaking relevant perspectives on the topic, as appropriate.
c. Use a variety of primary and secondary sources and distinguish the
ELA8: LS 1.0 Listening and Speaking Strategies nature and value of each.
Comprehension d. Organize and record information on charts, maps, and graphs.
ELA8: LS 1.1 Analyze oral interpretations of literature, including lan- ELA8: LS 2.4 Deliver persuasive presentations:
guage choice and delivery, and the effect of the interpretations on the a. Include a well-defined thesis (i.e., one that makes a clear and
listener. knowledgeable judgment).
ELA8: LS 1.2 Paraphrase a speaker’s purpose and point of view and b. Differentiate fact from opinion and support arguments with
ask relevant questions concerning the speaker’s content, delivery, and detailed evidence, examples, and reasoning.
purpose. c. Anticipate and answer listener concerns and counterarguments
effectively through the inclusion and arrangement of details, rea-
Organization and Delivery of Oral Communication sons, examples, and other elements.
ELA8: LS 1.3 Organize information to achieve particular purposes by d. Maintain a reasonable tone.
matching the message, vocabulary, voice modulation, expression, and ELA8: LS 2.5 Recite poems (of four to six stanzas), sections of
tone to the audience and purpose. speeches, or dramatic soliloquies, using voice modulation, tone, and
gestures expressively to enhance the meaning.

xxix
When you read Focus On Physical Science, you are reading for information. Science is nonfiction writing—it describes real-
life events, people, ideas, and technology. Here are some tools that Focus On Physical Science has to help you read.

Before You Read

By reading /…iÊ Ê`i> and Density and
>ˆ˜Ê`i> prior to reading the chap- Buoyancy
ter or lesson, you will get a preview of /…iÊ Ê`i>
the coming material. A fluid exerts an upward
force on an object that is
placed in the fluid.

LESSON 1 8.a, 8.b, 9.f

Density
>ˆ˜Ê`i> The density
On the first page of each chapter you will find of a material is a mea-
sure of how much mat-
ter is packed into a unit
/…iÊ Ê`i> . The Big Idea is a sentence volume of the material.

LESSON 2 8.c
that describes what you will learn about in the Pressure and the
Buoyant Force
chapter. >ˆ˜Ê`i> Objects in a
fluid experience a
buoyant force resulting
from the pressure
exerted by the fluid.

LESSON 3 8.d, 9.f

Sinking and Floating
>ˆ˜Ê`i> An object
will float in a fluid if the
density of the object is
less than the density of
LESSON 1 the fluid.

Floating on Air
Science Content
Standards
Density These hot-air balloons weigh hundreds of pounds,
but still are able to rise through the air. A hot-air balloon has three main
>ˆ˜Ê`i> The density of a material is a measure of how parts—the balloon envelope, the burner, and the basket. When the burner
8.a Students know density is mass per unit heats the air inside the envelope, the envelope expands and the balloon rises.
volume.
much matter is packed into a unit volume of the material.
What forces push the balloon upward?
8.b Students know how to calculate the Real-World Reading Connection Can you imagine trying to -Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM Compare and contrast three objects that float with
density of substances (regular and irregular lift a rock that is as big as a basketball? The rock and the basket-
solids and liquids) from measurements of three objects that sink.
ball are the same size, but the rock is much heavier because it
mass and volume. 126
9.f Apply simple mathematic relationships has more matter packed into the same volume of space.
to determine a missing quantity in a
mathematic expression, given the two What is density?
remaining terms (including speed ⫽
distance/time, density ⫽ mass/volume,
force ⫽ pressure ⫻ area, volume ⫽ area ⫻
Which would have more mass, the balloon filled with air or
the bottle of water shown in Figure 1? The mass of an object
Source: Chapter 3, p. 126
height). depends not only on the size of the object, but also on the mate-
rial the object contains. All materials, such as the air in the bal-
loon and the water in the bottle, have a property called density.
Reading Guide
What You’ll Learn
Density (DEN suh tee) is the amount of mass per unit volume
of a material. /…iÊ Ê`i> is divided into Main Ideas.
Matter is made of particles, such as atoms or molecules, that
Explain how the density of
▼

a material is independent
of the amount of the
have mass. The density of a material depends on the masses and
the number of particles packed into a given volume. Figure 1 Each lesson of the chapter has a
material. shows that the volume of air has fewer particles and less mass
Calculate the density of
than the same volume of water. As a result, the density of air is >ˆ˜Ê`i> that describes the
▼

an object given its mass less than the density of water.

and volume.
Describe how to measure
focus of the lesson.
▼

the density of a liquid and

Figure 1 The balloon has less mass because it contains fewer
particles of matter than the water in the bottle does.
a solid.
Compare the density of air to the density of water.
Why It’s Important
Density can be used to
determine the identity of
unknown materials.

Vocabulary
Other Ways to Preview
density
rectangular solid • Read the chapter title to find out what area of
Review Vocabulary
volume: the amount of science you will study.
space taken up by an object
(p. 10)
• Skim the photo, illustrations, captions, graphs,
and tables.
130 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy
• Look for key terms that are boldfaced and .
Source: Chapter 3, Lesson 1, p. 130 highlighted.

xxx
The Get Ready to Read section allows you to learn, practice, and apply a reading skill before
you start reading the chapter’s first lesson. Target Your Reading will help you keep the main
idea in focus as you read the chapter.

Get Ready to Read

contain-
ragraph
Read a pa word from
New Vocabulary ELA8: R 1.3
Target Your Reading ing a vo
begi nn
cabulary
ing to en Th
d. en, go
e the
determin d.
Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter. back to w or
of the
1 Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements meaning
below on your worksheet or on a numbered sheet of paper.
Learn It! What should you do if you find
• Write an A if you agree with the statement.
a word you don’t know or understand? Here are some
• Write a D if you disagree with the statement.
suggested strategies:
2 After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if
you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements.
1. Use context clues (from the sentence or the paragraph) to help you define it.
2. Look for prefixes, suffixes, or root words that you already know. • If any of your answers changed, explain why.
3. Write it down and ask for help with the meaning. • Change any false statements into true statements.
4. Guess at its meaning. • Use your revised statements as a study guide.
5. Look it up in the glossary or a dictionary.
Before You Read Statement After You Read
A or D A or D
Practice It! Look at the word vertical in 1 Density is calculated by dividing volume by mass.
the following passage. See how context clues can help you
understand its meaning. 2 Air pressure increases as you climb a mountain.

Context Clue 3 Things can float only in liquids such as water.

Use Figure 13 to see Think about the forces acting on the boat in
an example of verti- Figure 13. Gravity is pulling the boat down, yet the 4 All fluids are liquids.
cal forces. boat doesn’t accelerate downward. Because the boat is
not accelerating up or down, the vertical forces on the 5 You calculate the volume of all solids by multiplying
boat are balanced. There must be an upward force length times width times height.
balancing the downward force of gravity that keeps
Context Clue
the sailboat from sinking.
Up and down 6 Heavy things sink when placed in water.
—from page 146
describe vertical
forces. 7 Compared to liquids, particles in gases are very close
Print a worksheet of together.
this page at
Context Clue ca8.msscience.com. 8 Only solid objects can exert forces.
The upward and
downward forces 9 Hot-air balloons can fly because they are less dense
are balanced. than air.
Apply It! Make a vocabulary 10 Air pressure only pushes down on you.
bookmark with a strip of paper. As you read,
keep track of words you do not know or want
to learn more about.
Pressure in All Directions
128 129
If the pressure exerted by a fluid is a result of
the weight of the fluid, is the pressure in a fluid
exerted only downward? The illustration in
Figure 11 shows a small, solid cube in a fluid. The
Source: Chapter 3, pp. 128–129 fluid exerts pressure on each face of this cube,
not just on the top. The pressure is perpendicular
to the surface, and the amount of pressure
depends only on the depth in the fluid. As shown
EgZhhjgZ
in the photograph in Figure 11, this is true for
any object in a fluid, no matter how complicated
the shape. The pressure on the object is always

As You Read perpendicular to the surface of the object.

In which direction does pressure
exerted by a fluid push?
EgZhhjgZ
Atmospheric Pressure
Within each lesson you will find tools that will When you read about the pressure in fluids,
you might think only about liquids such as water.
However, remember that gases are fluids, too.
help you understand what you read. Like liquids, a gas exerts pressure on an object
depending on the height of the gas above the
object. Atmospheric (AT muh sfihr ik) pressure
Figure 11 The pressure on an object is the force exerted per unit area by air particles.
of any shape is exerted perpendicular If you start at the top of a mountain and walk
Phonetic spellings show you how to say difficult to the surfaces of the object.
Explain why the arrows showing the pres-
sure have different lengths.
down, the height of the column of air above you
increases. This means that atmospheric pressure
increases as your elevation decreases. Figure 12

words. They show the spelling for how to say each shows how pressure varies as you go from the
tallest mountains to deep under water in the
ocean.

syllable. Here is an example that you would find in You can sense the change in atmospheric pres-
sure when you fly in an airplane or take an eleva-
tor to the top of a tall building. The sudden
change in pressure can make your ears pop. You
the text: atmospheric (AT muh sfihr ik) pressure. sometimes can feel changes in pressure, but you
probably don’t notice the air pressing on you
right now. The column of air above you is more
than 10 km thick. The total force of the air push-
ing on the surface area of your skin is about the

questions help you check same as the weight of ten cars! You don’t feel this
pressure because there is an equal, internal pres-
sure pushing out from the inside of your body.
This internal pressure balances the external pres-
your reading understanding. sure exerted on you by the atmosphere.

144 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

Source: Chapter 3, Lesson 2, p. 144

xxxi
 Other Skills to Exercise as You Read
Question Compare and Contrast Sentences
• What is the >ˆ˜Ê`i> ? • Look for clue words and phrases that signal
comparison, such as similar to, just as, both, in
• What is /…iÊ Ê`i> ? common, also, and too.
• Look for clue words and phrases that signal
Connect contrast, such as on the other hand, in contrast
• As you read, think about people, places, and to, however, different, instead of, rather than,
situations you’ve encountered. Are there any but, and unlike.
similarities with those in Focus On Physical
Science?
Cause-and-Effect Sentences
• Can you relate the information in Focus On • Look for clue words and phrases such as
Physical Science to other areas of your life? because, as a result, therefore, that is why, since,
so, for this reason, and consequently.
Predict
• Predict events or outcomes by using clues and Sequential Sentences
information you already know. • Look for clue words and phrases such as after,
before, first, next, last, during, finally, earlier,
• Change your prediction as you read and gather
later, since, and then.
new information.

Visualize
• Create a picture in your mind about what you
are reading. Picture the setting—for example, a
laboratory, a roller coaster, or a mountain.
• A mental image can help you remember what
you read for a longer time.

After You Read

Follow up your reading with a summary and
an assessment of the material to evaluate if you
understood the text.

Summarize Assess
• Describe /…iÊ Ê`i> and how the details • What was /…iÊ Ê`i> ?
support it.
• What was the >ˆ˜Ê`i> ?
• Describe the >ˆ˜Ê`i> and how the details • Did you learn anything new from the material?
support it.
• Can you use this new information in other
• Use your own words to explain what you read. school subjects or at home?
• Complete the Summary Activity at the end of • What other sources could you use to find out
the lesson.
more information about the topic?

xxxii
 Follow the tour through the next few pages to learn about using your textbook,
Focus On Physical Science. This tour will help you understand what you will discover
as you read Focus On Physical Science. Before you begin reading, take the tour
so that you are familiar with how this textbook works.

Unit Preview
West-Coast Events Time Line See sig-
nificant events that occurred on the World Events Time Line See significant
West Coast of the United States and events that occurred around the world
compare them to events that occurred and compare them to events that
around the world. occurred on the West Coast.

Science Online A
Motion and Forces visual reminder
To learn more about physicists and
to explore online
their work, visit ca8.msscience.com .

tools to learn
The Speed of Sound Forces
of jet engines that can move planes
faster than speed of sound cause a
vapor cloud that occurs at near
speed of sound from changes
more about a
in pressure.
scientist’s career.

Interactive Time Line To learn more about

these events and others, visit ca8.msscience.com .
1579 1863 October 1947 1978 August 2005
Francis Drake anchors the Construction begins on the Central Chuck Yeager—at Speed boat sets record Commander Eileen Collins and pilot
Golden Hind at Point Reyes Pacific Railway; starts in Sacramento, Muroc Army Air Field speed of 511.10 km/h James Kelly guide Space Shuttle
just north of San Francisco, California, and joins the Union Pacific (now Edwards Air Force on Lake Washington at Discovery in its 27,357.58 km/h
California, during first Railway in Utah in 1869. Base, California)—is first Seattle, Washington. glide from space to landing strip
English voyage around to fly plane faster than at Edwards Air Force Base.
the world. speed of sound.

A.D. 1500 1600 1700 1800 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020
2,220 Years Ago c. 1660 1687 1877 1903 February 1962 1997
Archimedes, a Greek mathe- Robert Boyle of Eng- Isaac Newton Ernst Mach from Aus- Wright Brothers John Glenn is first At the Black Rock
matician, discovers that the land describes what of England tria uses bullets to fly first motor- American to orbit Earth. speedway in Utah,
buoyant force equals the causes the pressure describes three record the speed of ized airplane at June 1963 Richard Noble’s jet race
weight of the fluid displaced of gases to change. laws of motion. sound; Mach 1 Kitty Hawk, Valentina Tereshkova of the car is first to break the
by an object (called Archime- becomes the reference North Carolina. Soviet Union is the first sound barrier on land
des’ principle). for the speed of sound. woman to orbit Earth. (1227.93 km/h).

42 43
UNIT Unit Test

Source: Unit 1, pp. 42–43

Choose the word or phrase that best answers the Write your responses on a sheet of paper.
question.
6. The graph below shows how Paul’s position
changed as he walked to school.
Are you interested in learning more about motion, forces, buoyancy, and 1. Which of these is not a vector?
density? If so, check out these great books. A. force 9^hiVcXZIgVkZaaZYdkZgI^bZ

Unit Review
B. distance
C. position &'%%
D. velocity 1.d &%%%
Science Fiction
Edh^i^dcb

-%%
2. Which type of force causes a sliding box to slow
Project Pendulum, by Robert Silverberg, is the story of Earth’s first time travelers down and stop? +%%
in 2016. One brother is carried back 95 million years in time and the other forward A. buoyant
95 million years in time. The book records each brother’s observations in alternating )%%
B. compression

Reading on Your Own a chapters. The content of this book is related to Science Standard 8.1.
C. friction
D. gravity 2.e
'%%
%
% &%% '%% (%% )%% *%%
3. The forces applied to an object are 8 N to the left I^bZh

listing of books recom- Nonfiction and 5 N to the right. What is the net force on the
object?
A. 3 N to the right
Calculate Paul’s average speed over his entire
trip. 1.b
The Cartoon Guide to Physics, by Larry Gonick, provides concise explanations
mended by the California of physical principles with the help of amusing cartoons. Topics include
motion, Newton’s laws, momentum, energy, electricity, and magnetism.
The content of this book is related to Science Standard 8.1.
B. 3 N to the left
C. 13 N to the right
D. 13 N to the left 2.b
7. Predict A baseball is traveling 40 km/h east
toward a batter. After the batter hits the ball, the
ball is moving west at 40 km/h. Did the ball
accelerate? Support your reasoning. 1.e

State Board of Education 4. In which situation are the forces acting on a bicy-
cle balanced?
A. The bicycle speeds up as you pedal.
8. Describe A rocket coasting toward Earth fires
one of its rocket engines. The force exerted on
B. The speed of the bicycle is constant as it the ship is in the direction opposite to the rock-
Nonfiction turns. et’s velocity. How does the motion of the rocket
C. The bicycle slows down as it coasts. change? 2.e
Objects in Motion: Principles of Classical Mechanics, by Paul Fleisher, uses real-life D. The bicycle moves in a straight line with con- 9. Predict An object weighing 30 N is floating in
examples to make natural laws easy to understand. The topics covered in this book
stant speed as you pedal. 2.c water. What is the weight of the water displaced
include planetary motion, pendulums and falling objects, Newton’s three laws of
motion, the law of universal gravitation, and conservation of momentum. The con- by the object? Support your reasoning. 8.c
5. What is the density of a ring that has a mass of

Unit Test multiple-choice tent of this book is related to Science Standard 8.2.
11.5 g and a volume of 0.8 cm3?
A. 0.07 g/cm3
B. 9.2 g/cm3
10. Analyze why it is easier to lift an object that is
under water than it is to lift the object when it is
out of the water. 8.c

questions and written- C. 12.3 g/cm3 11. Evaluate how the gravitational force between
D. 14.4 g/cm3 8.a Earth and the space shuttle changes as the shuttle
Narrative Nonfiction moves farther from Earth. 2.g

Dive! My Adventures in the Deep Frontier, by Sylvia Earle, is the author’s story 12. Explain how a balloon filled with helium floats

response questions that of her investigation and exploration of the marine ecosystem. Her experiences
include tracking whales, living in an underwater laboratory, and helping design
a deep-water submarine. The content of this book is related to Science Stan-
in the air. 8.c

review the unit dard 8.8.

166 Unit 1 • Reading on Your Own Unit 1 • Test 167

Source: Unit 1, pp. 166–167

xxxiii
Chapters
/…iÊ Ê`i> The Big Idea is a >ˆ˜Ê`i> The Main Ideas sup-
sentence that describes what you will port the Big Idea. Each lesson of the
learn about in the chapter. chapter has a Main Idea that describes
the focus of the lesson.

Start-Up Activities

Understanding
the Atom What’s in the box?
Structure of an Atom
Make the following Foldable
to explain the structure of
an atom.
/…iÊ Ê`i> The early atomic scientists never saw atoms.
They came up with ideas about atoms by STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper into thirds
The current model of the using scientific methods other than direct lengthwise. Fold the top down about 4 cm.
atom includes protons, observation. In this lab, you will
neutrons, and electrons. study something you cannot see.
LESSON 1 3.a Procedure
Atoms—Basic Units 1. Complete a lab safety form.
of Matter 2. Use wooden skewers to poke holes in your
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Matter is sealed box. Predict what information you
made of tiny particles can find out by poking in the box.
called atoms. 3. Record your observations.
4. Predict what information you will learn STEP 2 Unfold and draw lines along all
LESSON 2 3.a
by shaking the box. folds. Label as shown.
Discovering Parts
5. Shake the box.
of the Atom 1ROTO
NS
&LECTRONS /EUTRON
S
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Scientists 6. Try to guess what each object is.
have put together a Think About This
detailed model of • Identify what types of information you
atoms and their parts. could guess by poking in the box.
LESSON 3 3.f, 7.b, 9.e • Explain how you could answer those
questions without opening the box.
Elements, Isotopes,
and Ions—How Atoms 3.a
Differ Visualizing
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Atoms of a As you read this chapter, organize
particular element information about the parts of an atom. Be
always have the same sure to include where the part is located
number of protons. within the atom and the type of charge.

Things are not as they seem. Visit ca8.msscience.com to:

This computer-generated image
of a helium atom shows what the inside of a balloon might look like. Helium’s ▶ view
electron is more likely to be found in the blue area than in the other areas
farther from the center. ▶ explore Virtual Labs
-Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM Write a paragraph on what you know about the atom. ▶ access content-related Web links
▶ take the Standards Check

170 171

Source: Chapter 4, pp. 170–171

Launch Lab a short FoldablesTM Study Organizer Reading Skill This is a

investigation that an easy way to take notes reading skill that you
introduces the chap- as you read the chapter and will practice through-
ter’s subject a valuable tool for review out the chapter.

xxxiv
Lessons
Science Content Standards a listing of the
>ˆ˜Ê`i> The Big Idea is sup- California Science Content Standards
ported by Main Ideas. Each lesson that are covered within the lesson
of the chapter has a Main Idea that
describes the focus of the lesson.
a ques-
LESSON 1 tion that tests your reading
Science Content Atoms—Basic Units comprehension
Standards
3.a Students know the structure of the
atom and know it is composed of protons,
of Matter
neutrons, and electrons.
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.
Real-World Reading Connection How can you figure out
Reading Guide what’s inside a wrapped box without opening it? Exploring the
atom is like exploring that box. Atoms can’t be observed directly
What You’ll Learn with your eyes, so how have scientists learned about what’s
Describe the structure of inside them? and Caption Questions
▼

the atom and where

What is the current atomic model?
protons, neutrons, and
electrons are located.
Would it surprise you to learn that the chair you are sitting
questions found throughout the
Compare the mass, size,
▼

on and the air you breathe are made up of the same thing? The
and charge of the three
basic particles of an atom.
world you live in is made of matter. Matter is anything that
has mass and takes up space. Things you can see, such as your
lesson about important graphs,
Describe two observations
photos, or illustrations
▼

chair, and things you can’t see, such as air, are matter. Matter is
that Dalton’s atomic theory different from light, heat, and sound. These are forms of energy.
supported.
Matter is made up of atoms. An atom is a very small particle
Why It’s Important that makes up all matter. Only recently have scientists been able
An understanding of the to see the surface of an atom.
nature of the atom is the
Inside the Atom
first step toward learning
what the world is made of.

Vocabulary
In the early 1980s, a powerful new instrument called the
atomic-force microscope was invented. The atomic-force micro-
scope can magnify an object up to one million times. This mag-
Lesson Review
matter nification is great enough for the surfaces of individual atoms to
atom be seen, as shown in Figure 1. If further magnification were pos-
nucleus
proton
sible, you might be able to see inside an atom. You probably Looking Back at the Lesson
would be surprised to find that most of the atom is empty space.
neutron The ancient Greeks taught that matter consists of tiny indivisi-
In this space, particles are moving. No one has ever seen inside
electron ble particles called atoms. However, the Greeks couldn’t prove the
an atom, so how do scientists know what atoms are made of?
existence of atoms. It wasn’t until the seventeenth century that sci-
Review Vocabulary
entists began to look for evidence of the atom. Their experiments
mass: a measure of the Figure 1 This atomic-force microscope image shows
amount of matter in an demonstrated the law of conservation of mass and the law of defi-
the surfaces of individual atoms.
object (p. 11) nite proportions. With these important ideas, Dalton described
his atomic model. Dalton’s model started the development of the
modern model of the atom. That model consists of even tinier par-
ticles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. You’ll read more
about these particles in Lesson 2.

LESSON 1 Review
174 Chapter 4
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson sum- Using Vocabulary 7. Show that the ratio of the
Source: Chapter 4, Lesson 1, p. 174 mary as you write a script for
1. Explain the difference between
number of atoms of hydro-
gen to the number of atoms
a television news report.
a neutron and a nucleus. 3.a of oxygen in the compound
1. Review the text after the
2. An atom contains equal num- water is 2 to 1. 5.b
red main headings and
write one sentence about bers of _______ and _______. 8. Compare Copy and fill in the
each. These are the head- 3.a graphic organizer below to

Summarize Use this exercise to lines of your broadcast.

2. Review the text and write
Understanding Main Ideas
compare the mass and the
volume of a proton with the
2–3 sentences about each 3. Which has no charge? 3.a mass and the volume of
help you create your own sum- blue subheading. These
sentences should tell who,
A. electrons
an electron. 3.a

what, when, where, and B. protons Mass Volume

mary of the lesson’s content. why information about
each red heading.
C.
D.
neutrons
nucleus
Proton
Neutron
3. Include descriptive details 4. Name the particles that make
in your report, such as up an atom and tell where
Applying Science
names of reporters and they are located. 3.a
local places and events. 9. Design an experiment that
5. Explain in your own words confirms the law of conserva-
4. Present your news report tion of mass. 5.b
to other classmates alone what is meant by the law of
or with a team. definite proportions. 5.b 10. Assess the reasons why
6. Describe how Lavoisier was Dalton, not Democritus, is
ELA8: LS 2.1 credited with being the
able to demonstrate the law of
conservation of mass. 5.b “Father of the Atom.” 3.a

Self Check A series of questions to

Science nline
check your understanding of the For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com .

lesson’s material. Lesson 1 • Atoms—Basic Units of Matter 179

Source: Chapter 4, Lesson 1, p. 179

xxxv
Hands-On Science
Table 2 Summary of Rutherford’s Conclusions

How do
Evidence
Most of the alpha particles passed right
Conclusion
An atom is mostly empty space.
MiniLab These investigations emphasize
electrons move? through the gold foil.

The charged particles that bounced back

could not have been knocked off course
Most of the mass of an atom is
concentrated in a small space
the lesson’s content. MiniLabs are located
Procedure

1. Complete a lab safety

unless they had hit a mass much larger
than their own.
A few of the alpha particles bounced
within the atom.

The positive charge is concentrated

in either a margin, like the one shown
form.
2. Draw a straight line
down the center of a
10-cm ⴛ 10-cm block
directly back. in a small space within an atom.
here, or on a full page. The California
Rutherford’s Atomic Model
of foam with a ruler.
3. Break 20 toothpicks in
half. Poke the halves
Using the observations of his students, Rutherford drew some
conclusions, which are summarized in Table 2. Most of the alpha Science Content Standards that
into the foam so they particles passed directly through the gold atoms. For this to hap-
are like the nucleus of
an atom.
4. Use round, dried peas
pen, the atoms must have contained mostly empty space. Because
some alpha particles were strongly deflected from their paths,
those particles must have come near a large positive charge. Very
correlate to the material are listed.
as electrons. Aim and
flick the peas down few alpha particles were bounced completely backward. Those par-
the center line on the ticles that did bounce back must have collided with a mass having
block. a large positive charge.
5. Make a diagram to Drawing on these conclusions, Rutherford revised Thomson’s
show where the elec- model of the atom. Figure 13 shows Rutherford’s new atomic
trons came out. Use a
protractor to measure model. Notice that most of the volume of an atom is empty space.
the angle the electrons At the center is the nucleus. An atom’s electrons move very fast in
made compared to the the empty space surrounding the nucleus.
center line, which is Thinking about Rutherford’s results, American poet Robert
the path they would
have followed if they Frost wrote a very short poem, The Secret Sits.
did not hit any atoms. “We dance round in a ring and suppose,
Analysis But the Secret sits in the middle and knows.”

How do atoms differ?

1. Describe how your
arrangement of tooth- What do you think sits in the middle? What dances round
picks was like the nuclei in a ring?
of atoms in a block of
metal. Why did the
toothpicks represent
Nucleus Each element is made up of atoms with a certain number of parti-
just the nuclei instead Figure 13 Rutherford’s atom cles. The periodic table tells you how many protons and electrons
of the whole atoms? included a positively charged are in atoms of each type.
2. Describe problems nucleus. Electrons moved in the
space around the nucleus.
you had with this
experiment.
Data Collection
1. Copy the table twice in your Science Journal. In your first copy,
3.a write the symbol for each element in the center of its square.
Use the periodic table.
2. Write the mass number at the top right corner.
Rutherford’s Model 3. Write the number of neutrons in the bottom right corner.
186 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom M646-04C-MSS02 4. In the second table, draw a diagram of each element. Write the
number of protons and neutrons inside a circle to show the
nucleus. Put the correct number of electrons for each element
Source: Chapter 4, p. 186 in rings in 1, 2, or 3 rings outside the nucleus.

1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

DataLab These investigations emphasize the lesson’s 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

content by using mathematical analysis. DataLabs Data Analysis

1. Graph the atomic mass versus atomic number for your

are located in either a margin or on a full page, as elements.

2. Explain how atomic mass varies as atomic number increases.

shown here. The California Science Content Stan- Science Content Standards
3.a Students know the structure of the atom and know it is composed of protons, neutrons, and

dards and the California Mathematics Content

electrons.
3.f Students know how to use the periodic table to identify elements in simple compounds.
9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative statements about the
relationships between variables.

Standards that correlate to the material are listed.

203

Source: Chapter 4, p. 203

Analyze and Conclude

1. Describe how you represented the nucleus in your model.
Do you think this worked well?
Lab Full-length investigations
Model and Invent: 2. Describe how you represented electrons in your model.

Build an Atom
Explain how your model mimics how electrons behave.
3. Write a paragraph describing two of your classmates’ mod-
els. What did you like about their models? What do you
emphasize the chapter’s con-
Problem think they could have done better?
Materials
dried peas
small balloons
You have learned about the people who developed a picture of
what atoms look like and you have learned the parts of an atom.
4. Explain how your model would work if you decided to
make a smaller atom. Would another model work better?
What if you tried to make a larger atom?
tent. Included are Labs or
Now, create an atom. Use craft materials to design and produce
medium balloons
large balloons
craft wire
small pompoms
your own model of an atom.

Collect Data and Make Observations

5. Infer How do the mass and distance ratios of
your model compare with reality?
6. Error Analysis What could have been better
Design Your Own Labs. The
Select Your Model about your model? Explain in detail how you
jelly beans
glue 1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Choose an element.
could improve it.

Communicate
California Science Content
3. Draw an atomic structure diagram for that element in your
Science Journal.
4. List everything you know about protons, neutrons, electrons,
and their behavior.
3CIENCE ELA8: LS 2.4
Peer Review With your classmates, compare and
contrast your models. Discuss the best features of
Standards that correlate to the
each model and ways that each might be
Plan Your Model
5. How will you model the atom? Decide what materials you will
improved. Vote on which model does the best job
representing:
• particles of the nucleus
material are listed.
Safety Precautions use for the atom. How will you arrange the electrons outside • electrons
the nucleus? Do you want to put electrons on wire or in bal- • size of the nucleus
loon clouds? What type of objects will you use to show pro- • distance of electrons from the nucleus
tons, electrons, and neutrons? • movement of electrons
6. Make sure your teacher has approved your model before you • electron levels
Science Content proceed. Be prepared to defend your vote for each category. Can you
Standards explain why you voted the way you did?
3.a Students know the structure of the Build Your Model
atom and know it is composed of protons, 7. Create your atomic model.
neutrons, and electrons.
8. Show and discuss your model with your classmates.

204 205

Source: Chapter 4, pp. 204–205

xxxvi
Special Features
6ae]VeVgi^XaZ
hdjgXZ
EVgi^XaZhWdjcXZY EVgi^XaZhl^i]a^iiaZ
Concepts in Motion interactive art
WVX`lVgY dgcdYZ[aZXi^dc To see animation of Rutherford’s experiment,

9ZiZXidghXgZZc
visit ca8.msscience.com.
or diagrams that can be accessed
:aZXigdc
through the Glencoe Web site to help
<daY[d^a
you build understanding of concepts
Hedihd[
a^\]i

Figure 11 Unexpected Result Some alpha particles

bounced off the gold foil in ways that were not pre-
dicted by the Thomson atomic model.

An Unexpected Result :bein CjXaZjh

heVXZ YZchZedh^i^kZ
What happened was another surprise. Notice in Figure 11 that X]Vg\Z
most of the alpha particles did pass directly through the foil with
no bending of their paths. But sometimes, particles were strongly EVi]d[Vae]VeVgi^XaZh
bounced off to the side. Astoundingly, one particle in about 8,000
Figure 12 Some alpha
bounced straight backward. Rutherford later described his amaze- # ! 
particles must have hit a
ment by saying, “It was quite the most incredible event that has massive particle inAN
the
ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if gold atom.
you had fired a fifteen-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it Explain how Rutherford
knew that Thomson’s model
came back and hit you.” Thomson’s model of the atom did not
of the atom was not correct.
work. How did Rutherford know this?

Interpreting the Evidence

Rutherford realized that if positive charges were spread evenly
in atoms, all the alpha particles would have passed through the foil
with only a small change in direction. He also recognized that a
positively charged particle could be bounced directly backward.
This would happen only if the alpha particle bumped into some-
thing with much greater mass and positive charge than the alpha
particle itself. Think about this similar situation. Imagine that you
Real-World Science Four connections with
are running very fast. If you bump into a dangling leaf, you won’t
even notice. You just keep running along a straight path. But if you science are made in this feature: Science
crash into a tree branch, you will very likely be knocked off your
course. A head-on collision with a tree trunk might even bounce
you straight backward. Figure 12 shows an artist’s view of how
and Career, Science and Technology,
Rutherford must have visualized charged particles bouncing off
the nucleus of a gold atom. Science and History, and Science and
Lesson 2 • Discovering Parts of the Atom 185
Society. These four connections will
Source: Chapter 4, Lesson 2, p. 185 help you practice written and oral
presentation skills.

Three Mile Island

Accident
A partial melt down occurred at the Three Mile Island
Chien-Shiung Wu power plant in Middletown, Pennsylvania, in 1979. Luckily,
no fatalities or injuries took place. The problem arose when
the cooling system failed, which ultimately caused a relief
Chien-Shiung Wu graduated with a PhD in physics valve to open. Water used in the cooling system was
from the University of California, Berkeley in 1940. contaminated with radioactive waste. It took 13 years to
She was one of a few female scientists involved in decontaminate the power plant.
the Manhattan Project, which developed the
atomic bomb. Her work on the project included How safe are nuclear power plants? Ask five people
separating the isotope uranium-235 from the their opinion of the safety of nuclear power. Tally
element uranium-238. In 1957, she won the Nobel everyone’s results and create a table and bar graph of
Prize in Physics. the data of the entire class.
Understanding the Periodic Table Create a
table of the atomic mass, mass number, number
of protons and number of neutrons of the
elements plutonium and uranium.

Dropping the Atomic Bomb

Shortly before the end of World War II,
the United States dropped two atomic
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
Japan in August 1945. In Nagasaki
Nuclear Power 39,000 people died instantly and
almost twice as many died from bomb-
When the nucleus of an isotope is split apart, it related complications, such as cancer.
creates energy. This process is called fission. The Nagasaki bomb contained 8 kg of
Nuclear power plants use uranium or plutonium the isotope plutonium-239.
isotopes to create energy this way. Seven grams of The Age of Nuclear Weapons
uranium can produce as much energy as 3.5 Write an editorial about the use of
barrels of oil or 809 kg of coal. nuclear weapons. Include your
The Energy Crisis Alternative energy is energy opinion about the use of nuclear
derived from sources other than fossil fuels. weapons in the past, present, future
Select one type of alternative energy. Research and the use of the atomic bomb
the benefits and drawbacks of your selected during World War II.
energy type and hold a class mock debate ELA8: W 2.4
to discuss each type. Visit Technology at
ca8.msscience.com to research information on
alternative energy.

206 207

Source: Chapter 4, pp. 206–207

xxxvii
 Standards Review Standards Review CHAPTER

Linking Vocabulary and Main Ideas

Linking Vocabulary and Main Ideas a con- Atoms

cept map to assist you in reviewing your

have have have

nuclei electrons isotopes

contain loss or have different

are located in

vocabulary
gain produces numbers of

4. 5. 1. 2. 7.

have
number
equals sum of
numbers equals energy
levels
atomic
number
6. which produce

3.

Visit ca8.msscience.com for:

▶ Vocabulary PuzzleMaker

Using Vocabulary a variety of questions

▶ Vocabulary eFlashcards
▶ Multilingual Glossary

Using Vocabulary
Fill in the blanks with the correct vocabulary terms. Then read the paragraph to a

that will check your understanding of

partner.
The atoms of an element have the same number of protons, but some atoms
called 8. can have different numbers of neutrons. Neutrons are packed into
the 9. of an atom along with the atom’s 10. . The electron is an-
other particle in an atom. When an atom loses an electron, a(n) 11. is
formed which has a positive charge. In the current model of the atom, electrons

vocabulary definitions
occupy a(n) 12. .

Chapter 4 • Standards Review 209

Source: Chapter 4, p. 209

Understanding Main Ideas multiple-choice

CHAPTER Standards Review Standards Review CHAPTER
questions
Understanding Main Ideas 6. How is the identity of an element determined? Applying Science 3CIENCE
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the A. the number of its protons 7.b
B. the number of its neutrons 10. List two ways in which Bohr’s atomic model was 18. Write a 500–700-word biography about Antoine
question. an improvement over Rutherford’s model of the
C. its mass number Lavoisier. Describe his background and schooling
1. Which part of an atom takes up the most space? D. the charge of the atom atom. 3.a
in science. Explain the experiments that led him
A. the electrons 3.a to demonstrate the law of conservation of mass.
B. the protons 11. Explain how a negative ion is formed. 7.b
ELA8: W 2.1
C. the neutrons 7. What does the electron energy level diagram 12. Determine how much larger the mass of a pro-
D. the nuclei show? ton is than the mass of an electron. Use the data
in the table below. Show your calculations. 3.a

Applying Science short-answer and

2. What did Democritus believe an atom was?
:cZg\n Applying Math
A. a tiny particle with a nucleus 3.a
VWhdgWZY Particle Charge Mass (amu)
a*
kZ

B. a tiny nucleus with electrons surrounding it

aZ
n

Use the table below to answer questions 19–23.

Za
Zg\

C. an electron cloud Proton ⫹1 1.007316

Zk
:c

(
na

Za

D. a solid, indivisible sphere

Zg\

Zk
:c

na

Neutron 0 1.008701 Particle Mass (g)

Zg\

'
Za
:c

extended-response questions to practice

Zk

3. An ion contains 10 electrons, 12 protons, and 13

1.6727 ⫻ 10᎐24
na

⫺1 Proton
Zg\

neutrons. What is the ion’s charge? Electron 0.000549

:c

A. 1– 7.b
:cZg\n Neutron 1.6750 ⫻ 10᎐24
B. 3+
\^kZcd[[
C. 2– 13. Suggest a possible reason why sulfur’s average Electron 9.110 ⫻ 10᎐28
&

D. 2+ atomic mass is very close to the whole number

Za
Zk

32, whereas magnesium’s average atomic mass is

na

higher-level thinking skills

Zg\

24.3, which is not a whole number. Use this 19. Find the mass of three protons. ALG: 2.0
:c

4. The illustration below shows the apparatus that

J. J. Thomson used. information: Sulfur has only one common iso-
tope. Magnesium has several isotopes. 7.b 20. Find the mass of five electrons. ALG: 2.0

· 14. Demonstrate how you can use Dalton’s atomic 21. Find the mass of four neutrons. ALG: 2.0
A. Energy is released as electrons move to upper
symbols to represent the substances water and
levels.
hydrogen perioxide. Water has two hydrogen 22. Find the mass of seven protons. ALG: 2.0
B. Energy must be absorbed for electrons to fall
atoms and one oxygen atom. Hydrogen peroxide
to lower levels.
has two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen 23. Find the mass of six electrons. ALG: 2.0
· C. The energy of an electron at each level is dif-
atoms. 3.a
ferent.
D. The energy difference between each level is
15. Explain why it is necessary to change models as
the same. 3.a
new information becomes available. 3.a
What did J. J. Thomson discover?
A. Matter contains neutrons. 3.a 16. Describe how you can use the periodic table to
B. Electrons have a negative charge. 9. How is Bohr’s atomic model different from determine the average number of neutrons an
C. Electrons have a positive charge. Rutherford’s model? element has, even though the number of neu-
D. Atoms can move in a stream. A. Bohr’s model has more electrons. 3.a trons is not listed. 3.f

5. What does the symbol Ca2+ represent?

A. an isotope of calcium
B. a calcium atom
C. a negative calcium ion
D. a positive calcium ion
7.b
B. Electrons in Bohr’s model are located farther
from the nucleus.
C. Electrons in Bohr’s model have different
energy levels.
D. Electrons in Bohr’s model surround the
nucleus but do not move.
17. Explain how it is possible for two atoms of the
same element to have different masses. 7.b
Cumulative Review short-answer questions
210 Chapter 4 • Standards Review Standards Review ca8.msscience.com Chapter 4 • Standards Review 211

covering material from earlier in the unit

Source: Chapter 4, pp. 210–211

Writing in Science an exercise to practice Applying Math a series of questions that

writing skills; the California English/ practice math skills related to the chapter;
Language Arts Content Standards that the California Mathematics Content
correlate to the material are listed Standards that correlate to the material
are listed

Standards Assessment
CHAPTER Standards Assessment Standards Assessment CHAPTER

Standards Assessment multiple-choice

1 Ruthenium has an atomic number of 44 and a 4 The atomic number of boron is 5. Boron-11 7 The table below shows properties of three 11 What did Thomson’s experiment show?
mass number of 101. How many protons does contains nitrogen isotopes.
ruthenium have? A The atom is like a uniform sphere.
A five electrons and six protons.
A 44 B Cathode rays are made up of electrons.
B five protons and six electrons. Isotopes of Nitrogen
B 57 Isotope Mass Number of C The atom cannot be divided.
C five protons and six neutrons.
Number Protons

questions to review the California Science

C 88 D The atom was a neutral sphere 3.a
D six protons and five neutrons. 7.b Nitrogen-12 12 7
D 101 7.b 12 Why did Rutherford infer the presence of a tiny
Nitrogen-13 13 7
5 Dalton’s model of the atom described atoms as Nitrogen-14 14 7 nucleus?
2 The diagram below shows a model of an atom spheres that are the same throughout. Why did
that was developed following Rutherford’s scientists develop a new model of the atom? Nitrogen-15 15 7 A The alpha particle went through the foil.

Content Standards covered in the chapter

experiment. B No alpha particles went through the foil.
A Philosophers thought that all matter is made
up of atoms. How many neutrons does nitrogen-15 have?
C The charges were uniform in the atom.
B Researchers proposed that all atoms of the A 7
D Some alpha particles bounced back from
same element are alike. B 8 the foil. 3.a
C Experiments showed that atoms contain C 15
smaller particles with different charges. 13 The table below describes three carbon atoms.
D 21 7.b
D Studies suggested that a large amount of
energy could be released from an atom. 3.a Carbon Atoms and Their Properties
8 Which scientist envisioned the atom as a ball of Carbon-12 Carbon-13 Carbon-14
positive charge with electrons embedded in it?
6 The illustrations below show three nuclei. Mass
A Bohr
12 13 14
Which component of the atom is not repre- number
sented in Rutherford’s atomic model? B Dalton Number of
1 Proton 1 Proton 1 Proton 6 6 6
0 Neutrons 1 Neutron 2 Neutrons protons
A the neutrons C Rutherford
Number of
B the nucleus 6 7 8
D Thomson 3.a neutrons
C the electrons Number of
9 Which particle is the smallest? 6 6 6
electrons
D the protons 3.a
A. electron Atomic
What is the mass number for each of the nuclei 6 6 6
number
3 Gloria is making a model of an atom. She is shown in the illustration above? B. nucleus
using three different colors to represent the
three basic particles that make up an atom. A 0, 1, 2 C. proton
How are these atoms different from one
Which particles should she display in the D. neutron 3.a another?
B 1, 1, 1
nucleus of the atom?
C 1, 2, 2 A Each one is a different isotope.
A neutrons only 10 The atomic number is equal to the number of
D 1, 2, 3 7.b B Each one is a different element.
B electrons only A protons.
C Each one is made up of different types
C protons and neutrons B neutrons. particles.
D electrons and protons 3.a C electrons. D Each one has different types of particles in
D quarks. 3.a the nucleus. 7.b
212 Chapter 4 • Standards Assessment Standards Assessment ca8.msscience.com Chapter 4 • Standards Assessment 213

Source: Chapter 4, pp. 212–213

xxxviii
Focus On Physical Science contains a wealth of information. The secret is to
know where to look to learn as much as you can.

As you complete this scavenger hunt, either on your own or with your teachers
or family, you will quickly learn how the textbook is organized and how to get
the most out of your reading and study time.

How many units are in the book? How many chapters?

On what page does the glossary begin? What glossary is online?

In which Student Resource at the back of your book can you find a
listing of Laboratory Safety Symbols?

Suppose you want to find a list of all the Launch Labs, MiniLabs,
DataLabs, and Labs, where in the front do you look?

How can you quickly find the pages that have information about
Ernest Rutherford?

What is the name of the table that summarizes the key concepts and
vocabulary of a chapter? On what page in Chapter 4 are these two
things located?

In which Student Resource at the back of your book can you find
information on unit conversion? What are the page numbers?

On what page can you find /…iÊ Ê`i> for Chapter 1? On what
page can you find the >ˆ˜Ê`i> for Chapter 1, Lesson 2?

What feature at the start of each unit provides insight into a

scientist’s work?

What study tool shown at the beginning of a chapter can you make
from notebook paper?

are interactive animations. Where do you go

to interact with the animation?

What activities at the beginning of each chapter will help improve

your reading?
Scavenger Hunt 1
Introduction to
Investigation and
Experimentation
What is science? Science is the process of studying nature at all
levels, from the farthest reaches of space to the smallest particle of matter, and the
collection of information that is learned through this process. Every day, scientists
ask questions about the natural world and propose explanations based on evidence
they gather. This evidence can then be used by other scientists to answer their own
questions about the natural world.

What is physical science?

Physical science is that study of what
things are made of—matter—and how
things change—energy. Physical science
is the combination of two sciences—
chemistry and physics. Chemists study
the structure and properties of mat-
ter and interactions of matter. Physics
focuses on the energy and its ability to
change matter. In this book you will in-
2 vestigate questions about motion, forces
and the structure of matter.
 Table of Contents
What is science? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
• The Branches of Science • Scientific Theories
• Scientific Methods • Scientific Laws
Tools of the Physical Scientist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
Lab and Field Study Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
• Science Journal • pH Hydrion Paper • Stopwatch
• Rulers and Metersticks • Graduated Cylinder • Telescope
• Thermometers • Triple-Beam Balance • Computers and
• Beakers • Spring Scale the Internet
• Test Tubes • Calculator

Tools of Scientific Thinking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

• The International System of • Significant Figures
Measurement • Hypotheses and Predictions
• Converting Between SI Units • Evaluating Evidence and Explanations
• Scientific Notation • Avoiding Bias in Investigations
• Precision and Accuracy • Multiple Trials
• Measurement and Uncertainty

Data Analysis Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22

• Making Data Tables • Making Line Graphs
• Understanding Linear Relationships • Making Bar Graphs
• Understanding Nonlinear Relationships • Making Circle Graphs
• Analyzing Central Tendency in Data

Designing a Controlled Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

• Asking Scientific Questions • Writing a Procedure
• Writing a Hypothesis and Prediction • Determining Materials
• Defining Variables and Constants • Recording Observations
• Experimental Group and • Analyzing Results
Control Group • Drawing Conclusions
• Measuring the Dependent • Analyzing Error
Variable

Case Study: Wind Turbines for the Birds . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

• Wind Farms—An Alternative to • Controlled Studies in the Laboratory
Fossil Fuels • Field Testing Painted Blades
• A Problem with Wind Power • A Final Note
• Field Experiments at APWRA

What is science? • 3
What is Science?:
The Branches of Science

The Branches of Science

There are an infinite number of questions to ask about the natural world. However,
these questions are often organized into different fields of study. The chart below lists
three areas of science that you will study in middle school.

Volcanologists are Earth scientists that study volcanoes. This

team of student volcanologists is studying patterns in cooled
volcanic lava. This team of volcanologists is studying a hot
Earth Science

volcano lava tube in Kilauea, Hawaii.

Earth scientists ask questions such as:
• What makes the ocean salty?
• What causes an earthquake?
• Why are there more earthquakes in California than
in Arizona?
• How are mountains formed?
• What causes a tsunami?
Microbiologists are life scientists that ask questions about
organisms that are too small to see with the naked eye. This
microbiologist is studying the growth of bacteria in order to
Life Science

find out which medicine can treat a disease.

Life scientists ask questions such as:
• What causes plants to grow?
• How do diseases spread in a population?
• Why do some whales beach themselves, but others
do not?

Electron microscopists are physical scientists that observe

objects at magnifications up to 800,000 times their actual
size. This electron microscopist is using a scanning elec-
Physical Science

tron microscope at the University of California, Berkeley to

observe the structure of an ant’s head.
Physical scientists ask questions such as:
• Why does the sunlight melt snow?
• Why are some buildings damaged more than others
during earthquakes?
• What makes up stars?
• What causes acid rain to form?

4 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 What is Science?:
Scientific Methods

Scientific Methods
You might think that science is only about facts and discoveries. But, science is
also about the skills and thought processes required to make discoveries. There is no
one scientific method used by scientists. Instead, scientific methods are based on
basic assumptions about the natural world and how humans understand it.

Assumptions of the Scientific Method

1. There are patterns in nature.
Science assumes that there are patterns in nature. Patterns are char-
acteristics or interactions between things that repeat over and over.
Patterns can be observed using the five human senses—sight, hear-
ing, touch, smell, and taste.
2. People can use logic to understand an observation.
Science assumes that an individual can make an observation and
then create a series of logical steps in order to find a valid explana-
tion for the observation. This series of steps can then be communi-
cated to others.
3. Scientific discoveries are replicable.
Something that is replicable in science means that it can be
repeated over and over again. If one scientist claims to have made
Dr. Paul Chu studies a magnet
levitating above a supercon-
a discovery using a certain set of steps in their investigation, then
ductive ceramic in his lab. another scientist should be able to repeat the same steps and get
the same result. This ensures that when people make scientific
claims they provide reliable evidence to support their claim.

Scientific methods cannot answer all questions.

Questions that deal with your feelings, values, beliefs, and personal opinions cannot be
answered using scientific methods. Although people sometimes use scientific evidence to form
arguments about these topics, there is no way to find answers for them using scientific methods.
Good science is based on carefully crafted questions and objectively collected data.

Questions Science Cannot Answer

The following are examples of questions that cannot be answered by science.
• Which band has the best songs?
• Why do bad things happen?
• What does it mean to be a good person?

What is Science? • 5
What is science?:
Scientific Theories

Scientific Theories
Using scientific methods to ask questions about the natural world has led to the
formation of scientific theories. A scientific theory is explanation of things or
events that is based on knowledge gained from many observations and
investigations. They are independently tested by many scientists and are objectively
verified. However, even the best scientific theory can be rejected if new scientific
discoveries reveal new information.

How is a scientific theory different from a common theory?

Scientific Theory Common Theory
• A scientific theory is an explanation for a • A common theory is a collection of related
observation supported by evidence from ideas that one supposes to be true.
many scientific investigations.
• Strength of a scientific theory lies solely in • Strength of a theory is based on the clarity of
the accuracy of its predictions. the explanation, not necessarily objectively
obtained evidence.
• A scientific theory is modified or rejected if • A common theory may or may not be modi-
new evidence makes the theories predictions fied or rejected when presented with new
no longer true. evidence.
• A scientific theory must be rejectable. • A common theory does not have to be
rejectable.

Scientific Laws
A rule that describes a pattern in nature is a scientific law. For an observation to
become a scientific law, it must be observed repeatedly. The law then stands until
someone makes observations that do not follow the law. A law helps you predict that
an apple dropped from arm’s length will always fall to Earth. A scientific law, unlike
a scientific theory, does not attempt to explain why something happens. It simply
describes a pattern.

6 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 Tools of the Physical Scientist:
9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Lab and Field Study Tools

Lab and Field Study Tools

Lab and field study tools are physical tools that help you make better observations
during scientific investigations. These tools enable you to measure the amounts of
liquids, measure how much material is in an object, and observe things that are
too small or too far away to be seen with the naked eye. Learning how to use them
properly will help you when designing your own investigations.
Science Journal Use a Science Journal to
record questions, procedures, observations, and
conclusions from your investigations.
0%, Your Science Journal can be a spiral-bound
binder, a loose-leaf notebook, or anything
that will help you record and save informa-
tion.
0%, It is important that you keep your Science
Journal organized. An organized journal
will enable you to find information that you
have collected in the past.
0%, Write down the date when you are record-
ing information in your Science Journal, and
leave extra space to go back to later.

Rulers and Metersticks Use metric rulers

and metersticks to measure an object’s length or the
distance between two points.

0%, The SI base unit for measuring length is the

meter (m).
0%, Metric units of measurement for length include
meters (m) centimeters (cm) millimeters (mm)
and kilometers (km).
0%, Meters (m) are a good unit of measurement to
measure short distances such as the length of your classroom.
0%, Measure small objects such as the length of a leaf in centimeters (cm).
0%, Measure very small objects such as the length of an insect in millimeters (mm).
0%, Measure long distances such the distance from your home to your school in
kilometers (km).
0%, Estimate 1 decimal place beyond the markings on the ruler. For a meterstick, measure
to the nearest 0.5 mm.

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 7

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Lab and Field Study Tools

Thermometers Use a thermometer to measure the

temperature of a substance.

0%, The physical property of temperature is related

to how hot or cold an object is. Temperature is
a measure of of the kinetic energy, or energy of
motion, of particles that make up matter.
0%, The SI unit of measurement for temperature is the
Kelvin (K) scale, which starts at 0. The Fahrenheit
and Celsius temperature scales are the two most
common scales used on thermometers and in
classroom laboratories.
0%, A 1 K difference in temperature is the same as a
1°C difference in temperature.
0%, On the Celsius scale, 0°C is the freezing point of
liquid water and 100°C is the boiling point of liquid water.
0%, When measuring the temperature of a liquid that is being heated from the bottom,
do not let the thermometer rest on the bottom of the container. This will result in an
inaccurate reading.
/"!05 Be careful when transporting a glass thermometer. Glass thermometers are very frag-
ile and are easily broken if dropped or bumped.

Beakers Use a beaker for holding and

pouring liquids.
0%, Use a graduated cylinder instead of a beaker
to measure the volume of a liquid. The lines
on the side of a beaker are not accurate.
/"!05 Use a beaker that holds about twice as much
liquid as you are measuring to avoid overflow.
0%, Use a hot plate to keep a substance
warmer than room temperature.
/"!05 Use goggles to protect your eyes when
working with liquids in the lab.
/"!05 Use gloves to protect your hands when
working with liquids in the lab.

8 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
Lab and Field Study Tools

Test Tubes Use a test tube to study small

samples of solids, liquids, and gases.
0%, Use a test-tube rack to keep your test tubes
upright and organized.
/"!05 Since liquids can spill or splash from test
tubes, use small amounts of liquids and
keep the mouth of the test tube pointed
away from you and other people.
/"!05 Use a test-tube holder if you are heating the
substance in a test tube or if the substance
in the test tube is dangerous to touch.
/"!05 Do not put a stopper in a test tube if you
are heating it.

pH Hydrion Paper Use pH hydrion paper to

indicate the acidity or alkalinity of a liquid substance.

Using pH Hydrion Paper

1. Place the edge of a 5-cm piece of pH Hydrion paper
into the substance.

2. Observe the color change of the pH paper.

3. Remove the paper from the substance. Try to match

the resulting color to the colors listed on the outside
of the pH hydrion paper package.

4. The color will correlate with a pH number. This number

is the pH value of the substance.

5. If the number is less than 7, the substance is acidic. If the

number is more than 7, the substance is basic.

/"!05 Be sure to wear gloves, goggles, and a lab apron

when testing the pH of a substance. Highly acidic
and highly basic substances can irritate eyes,
burn skin, and damage your clothing.

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 9

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Lab and Field Study Tools

Graduated Cylinder Use a graduated cylinder to measure a

liquid’s volume, or amount of space it occupies.

Using a Graduated Cylinder

1. Place the graduated cylinder on a
level surface so that your measure-
ment will be accurate.

2. To read the scale on a graduated cyl-

inder, make sure to have your eyes at
the level of the surface of the liquid.

3. The surface of the liquid in a gradu-

ated cylinder will be curved—this
curve is called a meniscus. Read the
graduate or line at the bottom of the
meniscus.

0%, A 10 mL graduated cylinder

will measure a small
volume of liquid more pre-
cisely than a 100 mL
graduated cylinder.
The meniscus of the liquid
0%, Estimate 1 decimal place in this 100-mL graduated
beyond the markings on the cylinder is between the
lines for 78 mL and 79 mL,
graduated cylinder. For a so the volume is 78.5 mL.
100 mL graduated cylinder,
estimate to the nearest
0.1 mL.
0%, You can use a graduated cylinder to find the volume of an irregularly shaped solid
object, such as a rock, by measuring the increase in a liquid’s level after you add the
object to the cylinder.
0%, To find the volume of a solid, rectangular object such as your textbook, measure its
length, width and height. Then, multiply them together.

10 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
Lab and Field Study Tools

Triple-Beam Balance Use a triple-beam balance to measure the mass, or amount

of material contained in an object.

Using a Triple-Beam Balance

1. When nothing is on the pan, make sure the pointer of the balance and the riders are at zero.

2. Place the object you want to measure on the pan. The pointer will rise above the zero mark.

3. Adjust the riders to bring the pointer back down to zero. To do this, start by moving the larg-
est rider (100 g) away from the pan one notch at a time. If moving the largest rider causes the
pointer to fall below zero, set the largest rider back at the previous notch. Then, move the
next smaller rider (10 g) in the same way.

4. Move the smallest rider (1 g) until the pointer rests at the zero mark. This means the object
on the pan and the riders are balanced.

5. Add the measurements from the three beams together to determine the mass of the object.

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 11

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Lab and Field Study Tools

Spring Scale Use a spring scale to measure the weight, or the

amount of force due to gravity, applied to an object.

The location of the

slider indicates the
weight of the object.

The load is
applied here.

0%, The SI unit for weight is the Newton (N).

0%, Gravitational force, or weight, is different on each planet in the solar system. For
example, if you were to weigh an object on Earth and then weigh the same object
on Mars, you would find that it weighs much less on Mars.

Calculator Use a calculator to quickly and easily perform

mathematical calculations with quantitative data you have
collected from scientific investigations.
0%, Graphing calculators allow display graphs of algebraic
formulas.
0%, Most computer operating systems are equipped with a
calculator program which will perform many of the same
functions as a standard calculator.

12 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
Lab and Field Study Tools

Stopwatch Use a stopwatch to measure the time it

take for an event to occur.

0%, The SI unit of measurement for time is the sec-

ond (s). However, for longer events, time is mea-
sured in hours (h).
0%, A rate is the amount of change of one measure-
ment in a given amount of time. One rate you are
probably familiar with is speed. Speed is the dis-
tance traveled in a given amount of time. Speeds
are often measured in kilometers per hour
(km/h).
0%, A rate can be a measure of anything that
changes with time. For example, you can mea-
sure the number of cars that pass through an
intersection per hour in cars/h.

Telescope Telescopes and spotting scopes allow you

to observe celestial objects such as the Moon, stars and
planets.

Using a Telescope
1. Set up your telescope. Make sure the tripod is stable and
the lens caps are off.

2. Identify the object you want to view with your naked eye,
then point the spotting scope in the general direction of
your object.

3. Look through the spotting scope and slowly move the tele-
scope until you find your object. Center it on the crosshairs
in the spotting scope and tighten the scope so it doesn’t
move any more.

4. Look through the eyepiece and center the object in the

field of view. Use the focus knob to bring the image into
focus.
0%, If you do not have access to a telescope, binoculars
are a good alternative. Binoculars can give you an
excellent view of the moon and better views of Jupi-
ter, Saturn and comets than you get with the naked
eye.

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 13

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Lab and Field Study Tools

Computers and the Internet

Use a computer to collect, organize and store information about a topic you are researching. That
information can be an article you found on the Internet or data from an experiment you performed.
Using Spreadsheet Programs
8ZaacjbWZg BZcj HiVcYVgY ;dgbVii^c\
Use a spreadsheet program to create data Wdm WVg iddaWVg iddaWVg
tables and graphs.
0%, Think about how to organize your
data before you begin entering
data.
8Zaa ;dgbjaVWdm
0%, Columns are assigned letters
and rows are assigned numbers. 8Zaa:* Gdl*
Each point where a row and col-
umn intersect is called a cell, and
is labeled according to where is 8dajbc:
located. For example: column A,
row 1 is A1.
0%, To edit text in a cell, activate the cell
Ldg`h]ZZiiVW Ldg`h]ZZiiVWh
by clicking on it.
0%, When using a spreadsheet program to create a graph,
use the type of graph that best represents the data.

Using Search Engines

Use a web browser to search for information resources on the Internet.
CVk^\Vi^dcWjiidch 6YYgZhhWVg AdVY^c\^cY^XVidg 0%, Enclose phrases in quotes to narrow
your search results. For example,
“global warming.”
0%, Use Boolean operators to further
modify a search.
• and—narrows a search by requiring all terms
to appear in document. For example, “global
warming” and oceans.
• or—broadens a search by at least one of the
terms joined by it to appear in the document.
For example, “global warming” or “climate
change.”
A^c`^cY^XVidg • and not—limits a search by excluding docu-
ments whether they meet the other criteria
of the search or not. For example, “global
warming” and oceans and not California.
14 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation
 Tools of the Physical Scientist:
Tools of Scientific Thinking

Tools of Scientific Thinking

Scientific thinking tools are techniques help you to refine your questions, make useful
observations, and think critically about scientific information. As you work in the lab,
refer to this guide to help you understand the nature of science.

The International System of Measurement

The International System of Units, or SI, is the internationally
accepted system for measurement. It was created to provide a
worldwide standard for measurement in science.

SI Base Units Table 1. SI Base Units

Whenever you make quantitative observa-
tions during an experiment, you measure the
Quantity Measured Unit Symbol
physical property of an object. The Interna- Length meter m
tional System of Units has a standard of mea- Mass kilogram kg
surement, called a base unit, that you can Time second s
use to measure that property. Electric current ampere A
Temperature kelvin K
Amount of substance mole mol
Intensity of light candela cd

SI Units Prefixes Table 2. Common SI Prefixes

The SI system is easy to use because it is
based on multiples of ten. Rather than having
Prefix Symbol Multiplying
to remember rules like there are 12 inches in
Factor
a foot and 5,280 feet in a mile, any SI unit is Kilo- k 1,000
related to another by multiplying by a power Deci- d 0.1
of 10. The prefix in front of the unit represents Centi- c 0.01
a factor of 10. For example the prefix kilo- Milli- m 0.001
means 1000. So, a kilogram means 1000 grams.
Micro- μ 0.000001
Nano- n 0.000000001

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 15

Tools of the Physical Scientist:
Tools of Scientific Thinking

Converting Between SI Units

To convert one unit of measurement to another, you must multiply
measurement by a conversation factor. A conversation factor is a
ratio that describes how much of one unit is in another.

EXAMPLE
The paper clip in the drawing measures 3.1 cm. Convert
that measurement to mm.
1. First, determine the appropriate conversion factor.
There are 10 mm in 1 cm. So, 10 mm/1 cm ⫽ 1.
2. Then multiply the measurement by the conversion
factor. 3.1 cm ⫻ 10 mm/1 cm ⫽ 31 mm.
3. Check your units. The unit cm cancels in the equa-
tion, so the answer is 31 mm.

Scientific Notation
Scientific notation is a convenient way to write very small or large
numbers. In scientific notation numbers are separated into two
parts, a number between 1 and 10 and a power of 10. For example,
the mass of Earth is 5,974,200,000,000,000,000,000,000 kg. Expressed
in scientific notation, Earth’s mass is 5.9742  1024.

Converting Standard Numbers to Scientific Notation

Numbers can be converted between standard form and scientific
notation by moving the number’s decimal point to the left or right
to make it a number between 1 and 10. The number of places the
decimal point is moved is expressed as a power of 10. When you
move the decimal to the left, the exponent is positive. When you
move the decimal to the right, the exponent is negative.

Standard Form Scientific Notation

610,000 6.1  105
Move decimal 5 places to the left. Exponent is 5.
0.000078 7.8  105
Move decimal 5 places to the right. Exponent is 5.

16 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
Tools of Scientific Thinking

Precision and Accuracy

Precision and accuracy are terms that can be used to evaluate quantitative observations, or mea-
surement. The tools you use to make measurements have different degrees of precision and
accuracy. It is important to describe how precise and accurate you think your measurements are
whenever you perform scientific investigations. These descriptions help others interpret the evi-
dence you present in your report.

Precision
Precision is a description of how similar or close measurements are to each other. For example,
imagine you and your friend each measured the distance from your house to your school three
times. Each time you measured 1.5 km. Your friend also measured the distance three times, but
got 1.6 km, 1.4 km and 1.5 km. Because your measurement was the same every time, it is more
precise than your friend’s measurement.

Accuracy
Accuracy is a description of how close a measurement is to an accepted value. Even a tool that
is very precise can be inaccurate. For example, a clock with a second hand is more precise than a
clock that only has hour and minute hands. However, if the clock with the second hand is running
an hour behind the correct time, even though it is precise, it is not accurate.

EXAMPLE
A way to visualize the difference between precision and accuracy is shown below. Imag-
ine that the targets below show one archer’s results in an archery competition. Look at
positions of the arrows and then read the descriptions below them.

Not Accurate, Precise, Not Accurate, Not Accurate and

Not Precise Accurate Precise Precise
This is a random pat- The arrows are clus- There is only one The arrows are tightly
tern. The arrows are tered together but arrow. Multiple arrows clustered and their
not clustered together they are not near the are needed to deter- average position is
and are not near the bull’s-eye. mine precision. the center of the
bull’s-eye. bull’s-eye.

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 17

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Tools of Scientific Thinking

Measurement and Uncertainty

No measuring tool can provide a perfect measurement. Therefore all measurements have some
degree of error, or uncertainty. Instruments with greater precision produce measurements with
less uncertainty than instruments with relatively less precision.

EXAMPLE
The paper clips below are being measured with two rulers. The bottom ruler has a cm
scale only. So you can say that the clip measures about 4.5 cm. By comparison, the top
ruler has a mm scale. This allows you to measure the clip with greater precision. Based on
the more precise scale, you can say that the clip measures 4.70 cm in length.

Significant Figures
One way of expressing measurement uncertainty is with significant figures. Significant figures
are the number of digits in a measurement that you know with a certain degree of reliability.
Significant figures are determined using the following rules:

• Digits other than zero are always significant. 1.234 g has 4 significant figures,
1.2 g has 2 significant figures.
• Zeroes to the right of a decimal point are 0.023 mL has 2 significant figures,
significant. 0.200 g has 3 significant figures.
• Zeroes between nonzero digits are significant. 1002 kg has 4 significant figures,
3.07 mL has 3 significant figures.
• Zeroes to the left of the first nonzero digits are 0.001°C has only 1 significant figure,
not significant; such zeroes merely indicate the 0.012 g has 2 significant figures.
position of the decimal point.
• When a number ends in zeroes that are not to 50,600 calories may be 3, 4, or 5 significant
the right of a decimal point, the zeroes are not figures.
necessarily significant. To avoid confusion with 5.06  104 calories (3 significant figures)
this rule, use scientific notation to indicate the
5.060  104 calories (4 significant figures),
correct number of significant figures.
5.0600  104 calories (5 significant figures).
18 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation
 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
Tools of Scientific Thinking

Hypotheses and Predictions

A hypothesis is a tentative explanation or an answer to a question
that can be tested with a scientific investigation to describe what will
happen and why it will happen.
A prediction is a forecast of what will happen next in a sequence of
events, but it does not explain why something happens.

EXAMPLE
Imagine you have two daisies in your classroom. One looks healthy while the other is
turning brown. You notice that the healthy-looking daisy receives a lot of sunlight, and
the unhealthy daisy receives less sunlight. You know both plants are given the same
amount of water every day.

What is one hypothesis that could be used to investigate why

one daisy is healthy and the other is not?

1. Start by asking a question. 1. Question: Why is one daisy healthy and

the other is not?

2. Document what you already know 2. Observations: The healthy-looking

from prior observations. daisy receives a lot of sunlight. The
unhealthy daisy receives little sunlight.

3. Write a hypothesis which tenta- 3. Hypothesis: The daisy is not healthy

tively explains your observation. because it is not receiving enough light
to grow.

4. Write a prediction that can be 4. Prediction: If I provide the unhealthy

used to test your hypothesis. daisy with the same amount of sunlight
as the healthy daisy, it will become
healthier.

0%, The results of an experiment do not prove that a hypothesis is correct. Instead, the
results of an experiment either support or do not support the hypothesis. This is
because scientific inquiry is uncertain. You cannot be sure that you are aware of
everything that could have affected the results of your experiment.
0%, An experiment is not a failure if the results do not support your hypothesis. In the
experiment above, if the unhealthy plant does not improve after providing it with
more light, you can eliminate that as the cause of the problem and revise your
hypothesis.

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 19

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data.
Tools of Scientific Thinking

Evaluating Evidence and Explanations

Whether you are reading science articles and lab reports or drawing conclusions from data you
have collected in a lab, it is essential to think critically about the data and the scientific explana-
tions presented to you. Critical thinking means comparing what you already know with the
explanation you are given in order to decide if you agree with it or not.

Evaluating Scientific Evidence

Start by evaluating the quality of the evidence presented to you. Valid scientific investigations
contain quantitative or qualitative evidence called data. Data can be descriptions, tables, graphs,
or labeled drawings. Data are used to support or refute the investigation’s hypothesis. When
evaluating data from an investigation ask the following questions:
• Does the journal article or lab report contain data? A proper scientific investigation always
contains data to support an explanation.
• Are the data precise? Data used to support an explanation should be exact. Quantitative
observations or detailed descriptions and drawings of events are much better than vague
descriptions of events. Imprecise phrases such as “a lot” and “a little” do not accurately describe
an event because it’s impossible to know to what that description is being compared. Vague
descriptions lead to incorrect explanations.
• Have the results of the experiment been repeated? If a friend told you he could hit a home
run, but he was unable to do it while you watched, would you believe him? Probably not. Like-
wise, scientific data are more reliable when the investigator has repeated an experiment several
times and consistently produced the same results. Scientific evidence is considered to be even
more reliable when multiple investigators try the same experiment and get the same results.

0CDIF
(DF@
<
/>D@IODNO
Why do you think scientific evidence is more reliable when different investigators try the same
experiment rather than the same investigator performing the experiment multiple times?

Evaluating Scientific Explanations

Having good data is the first step to providing a good explanation for the data. However, it’s easy
to make a mistake and accidentally arrive at the wrong conclusion. When evaluating an inference
or a conclusion, ask yourself the following questions:
• Does the explanation make sense? Be skeptical! There need to be logical connections
between the investigator’s question, hypothesis, predictions, data, and conclusions. Read the
information carefully. Can the investigator reasonably draw his or her conclusion from the
results of the experiment?
• Are there any other possible explanations? Since it is virtually impossible to control every
variable that could affect the outcome of an experiment, it’s important to think of other expla-
nations for the results of an experiment. This is particularly true when the data are unusual or
unexpected.

20 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data. Tools of Scientific Thinking
Avoiding Bias in Investigations
Science produces reliable data if investigations are conducted objectively. In a scientific investiga-
tion, bias is an intentional or unintentional preference for one outcome over another.

Random Sampling
Sampling is a method of data collection that involves studying small amounts of something in
order to learn something about the larger whole or group. Taking samples randomly prevents bias.

EXAMPLE
What percentage of jellybeans in this jar do you think are the following colors:
brown, green, yellow, orange, red and black?
1. Close your eyes and take out 10 jellybeans.
2. Count how many jellybeans are each color in your pile of 10.
3. Calculate what percentage of the sample is represented by each color. Do this
again for two more samples of 10.
4. Average results for each color and give an estimate of the percentages for
the jar.

Blinded Study
A blinded study is a procedure that reduces bias by making the subject, investigator, or both
unaware of which treatment they are testing.

EXAMPLE
In a taste test, people are blind-folded and asked to taste different brands of a
product to determine which they prefer. Because the subject doesn’t know which
brand they are tasting, he or she is more likely to provide an unbiased data to the
investigator.

Multiple Trials
It is easy to mislead yourself by basing your conclusions on too few data. Each trial of an experi-
ment is likely to give you slightly different data. To avoid drawing incorrect conclusions, repeat
your experiment.

EXAMPLE Toast Dropping Data

Imagine you decide to test the idea that if you drop a piece of Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3
toast it will always land butter side down. You conduct three tri- Drop 1 down down up
als using three different pieces of buttered toast dropped 4 times Drop 2 down up down
each. After the first trial you might conclude that toast always Drop 3 down up up
lands butter side down. However, the data from Trials 2 and 3
Drop 4 down down down
indicate that toast landed butter side down 50% of the time.

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 21

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative state-
Data Analysis Tools ments about the relationships between variables.

Data Analysis Tools

Use data analysis tools to help you organize your data and display patterns in your results.

Making Data Tables

Data tables help you organize and record the measurements you make.
A data table displays information in rows and columns so that it is eas-
ier to read and understand.

EXAMPLE
Suppose you were competing in a 50-km bicycle race. You planned to keep a pace of
10 km/h. In order to know if you stayed on pace or not, you had a friend record your time
at every 10 km.

Construct the Data Table

Step 1. Think about the variables you plan to investigate. Then, organize
the data table into columns and rows.
Step 2. Create headings that describe the variable and the correspond-
ing unit of measurement.
Step 3. Give the data table a title and a number.

Your data can be organized like this: Or like this:

Table 1 Bicycle Race Data Table 2 Bicycle Race Data
Distance (km) Time (h) Distance (km) 0 10 20 30 40 50
0 0 Time (h) 0 0.75 2 3.5 4 5
10 0.75
20 2
30 3.5
40 4
50 5

0CDIF
(DF@
<
/>D@IODNO
Study the types of graphs discussed in the pages
ahead. Which type of graph would be appropri-
ate for displaying the bicycle race data—a line
graph, bar graph or circle graph? Why?

22 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative
statements about the relationships between variables. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
Data Analysis Tools
9.g Distinguish between linear and nonlinear relationships on a graph of data.

Understanding Linear Relationships

A linear relationship between variables results in a straight line on a graph.

EXAMPLE
Imagine riding a street luge down a steady slope. You and the luge increase in speed
2 m/s every second. Plotted on a graph, these data make a line.

Street Luge Speed HigZZiAj\ZHeZZYk#I^bZ

Time Speed &%

HigZZiaj\ZheZZYb$h
(s) (m/s)
-
0 0
+ G^hZd[i]Z
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2 4 )
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HigZZiaj\Zi^bZh

Understanding Nonlinear Relationships

A nonlinear relationship between variables results in a curve on a graph.

EXAMPLE
Imagine riding down a hill that gets steeper and steeper. At the top, your speed increases
1 m/s each second. But after 4 s, your speed increases 8 m/s each second. Plotted on a
graph, these data make a curve.

Street Luge Speed HigZZiAj\ZHeZZYk#I^bZ

Time Speed &%
HigZZiaj\ZheZZYb$h

(s) (m/s)
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1 1 +
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4 8
5 16 %
% & ' ( ) *
HigZZiaj\Zi^bZh

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 23

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative state-
Data Analysis Tools ments about the relationships between variables.

Analyzing Central Tendency in Data

Investigations in physical science often involve collecting large amounts of quantitative data.
These data are likely to vary, making them hard to analyze at a glance. Measurements of central
tendency help you summarize your data with a single middle value so that it is easier to draw
conclusions about what occurred in the experiment.

Understanding Arithmetic Mean

The mean of a set of data is the sum of the numbers divided by the number of items in the set. It
is the most commonly used measure of central tendency and is often referred to as an “average.”

Table 1. Race Car Lap Times EXAMPLE

Lap Number Time (sec) Imagine you are at a car race and want to measure a typical lap time
1 101.1 for your favorite driver. So, you record the time it takes her to drive
2 103.7 five different laps. To find the mean, you use the following formula:
3 97.9 Mean ⫽ (sum of values)/(number of values)
4 100.8
⫽ (sum of lap times)/(number of laps timed)
⫽ (101.1 s ⫹ 103.7 s ⫹ 97.9 s ⫹ 100.8 s ⫹ 102.3 s )/(5)
5 102.3
⫽ 101.2 s

Understanding Median
The median is the middle number in a data set when the data are arranged in numerical order.
For example, the median of the number sequence {1,2,3,4,5} is 3. But consider the sequence,
{1,2,3,4,20}. In this case, the median is still 3, even though there is a much higher number than
the others in the sequence. For this reason, the median is a better choice than the mean when
one extreme value does not represent the group.

Table 2. Mountain Bike EXAMPLE

Prices Suppose you want to know the typical price for a mountain bike. You
Mountain Bike Price go to the shop and write down the model name and corresponding
Rockjumper $250 price for each mountain bike. All of the bikes are priced in the hun-
Trailhound $400 dreds of dollars, except for one. This bike is so expensive it doesn’t
Singletrack $500 represent the group. So, you calculate the median price. Since there
Hipercara $2,500 are an even number of bikes, you average the middle two values:
$400  $500
 2
 $450.

24 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative state- Tools of the Physical Scientist:
ments about the relationships between variables. Data Analysis Tools

Making Line Graphs

A line graph shows a relationship between two variables that change continuously.
• Line graphs are good for showing how an independent variable affects a dependent
variable or showing how a variable changes over time.
• Both variables in a line graph must be numbers.

EXAMPLE
Imagine three of your friends are running a 10-km foot race. You record their speed and
time at 10 minute intervals for 60 minutes. You organize the data in a data table and plot
each runner’s time and speed on line graph.

Speed of 3 Runners Construct the Graph

During 10 km Race Step 1. Use the x-axis for the independent vari-
Speed (km/h) able (time) and the y-axis for the depen-
Time dent variable (speed).
Amelia Sonja Hiroko
(min) Step 2. Draw the x-axis and the y-axis using a
0 6 10 12 scale that contains the smallest and largest
values for each variable. Label each axis.
10 6 10 12
Step 3. To plot the first data point, find the
20 8 10 14 x-value (0) on the x-axis. Imagine a line ris-
30 12 10 16 ing vertically from that place on the scale.
40 11 10 0 Then, find the corresponding y-value for
Amelia (6) on the y-axis. Imagine a line
50 11 10 3
moving horizontally from that place on
60 12 10 6 the scale. Make a data point where the
two imaginary lines intersect. Repeat this
process for all the data points.
Step 4. Choose a color for each runner and
connect the data points with lines.
Step 5. Title the graph.
Interpreting Line Graphs
• Sonja ran at a steady speed of 10 km/h for the
entire 10 km race. HeZZYd[(GjccZgh^c&%"`bGVXZ

• Amelia’s speed increased from 6 km/h to 12 km/h &-

in the first half of the race. Her speed decreased &+ =^gd`d
to 11 km/h for the next 20 minutes. She then &)
HeZZY`b$]

increased her speed to 12 km/h during the last 10 &'

&%
minutes she ran.
- Hdc_V
• Hiroko ran at a faster rate than her friends for the + 6bZa^V
first 30 minutes of the race, accelerating from )
12 km/h to 16 km/h. However, by minute 40 she '
had come to a complete stop. Hiroko then finished %
% Tools
&% of'%the (% )% Scientist
Physical *% +% • 25
the remainder of the race running at a speed that I^bZb^c
varied between 3 km/h and 6 km/h.
Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative state-
Data Analysis Tools ments about the relationships between variables.

Making Bar Graphs

A bar graph uses rectangular blocks, or bars, of varying sizes to represent and
compare quantitative data. The length of each bar is determined by the amount
of the variable you are measuring.

EXAMPLE
Suppose you want to know if there is a seasonal difference in the pH of the rainwater in
California. You look up the average pH measurements in several counties, record the data
in a data table, and then plot the data on a graph.

Table 2. Average pH of Constructing the Graph

Rainwater, Fall 2004 and Step 1. Use the x-axis for the category (county)
Spring 2005 and the y-axis for the measured vari-
County Spring pH Fall pH able (pH).
Los Angeles 4.7 5.2 Step 2. Draw the x-axis and the y-axis. Evenly
Mendocino 5.3 5.4 space the category names below the
x-axis. Use a scale that contains the
Nevada 5.3 5.4
smallest and largest values for the
San Benito 5.7 5.4
measured variable. Then, label each
San Bernardino 4.9 5.9 axis.
Montague 5.3 5.5 Step 3. Draw the bars above each category
Davis 6 5.6 name. Each bar should be as tall as the
Shasta 5 5.2 measured variable.
Step 4. Title the graph.
Interpreting Bar Graphs
• Which county had the greatest differ-
e=d[8Va^[dgc^VGV^clViZg
ence in average rainfall pH between Fall
2004 and Spring 2005? + Heg^c\e=
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26 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative state- Tools of the Physical Scientist:
ments about the relationships between variables. Data Analysis Tools

Making Circle Graphs

A circle graph, or pie graph, is used to show some fixed quantity is broken
down into parts. The circular pie represents the total. The slices represent the parts
and usually are presented as percentages.

EXAMPLE
Suppose your teacher told you how many students scored each grade on your last physi-
cal science test. You want to know how well you scored compared to other students in
the class. You record the test data in a data table and draw a circle graph.

Table 3. Test Scores for Constructing the Graph

Physical Science Class Step 1. Find the total of the measured variable
Number of (number of students):
Test Score
Students 3 ⫹ 7 ⫹ 6 ⫹ 3 ⫹ 1 ⫽ 20
A 3 Step 2. Calculate the size of the slice for the first cat-
B 7 egory’s value (3). Write a fraction comparing
C 6 the category’s value with the total for all cat-
egories (3/20). Multiply this fraction by 360°:
D 3
(3/20) ⫻ 360° ⫽ 54°. Repeat for the remain-
E 1
ing categories.
Step 3. Draw a circle. Use a protractor to draw the
angle (number of degrees) for each category.
Step 4. Color and label each section of the graph.
Step 5. Title the graph.

Interpreting Circle Graphs E]nh^XVaHX^ZcXZIZhiHXdgZh

• To calculate what percent of the class scored each
grade, write a fraction comparing the number of :
students that got each grade to the total number 6
of students. Then multiply by 100. 9
A: (3/20) ⫻ 100 ⫽ 15%
• 80% of the class scored a C or better on the test.
7
• Questions to ask: Is this range of test scores typical 8
for a middle school physical science class?

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 27

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Designing a Controlled Experiment

Designing a Controlled
Experiment
In this section you will apply your lab skills, scientific thinking skills, and data
analysis skills to the task of designing your own controlled experiment. A controlled
experiment is a type of scientific investigation that tests how one thing affects
another. Use this section to help you with Design Your Own Labs and science projects.

Asking Scientific Questions

Scientific investigations often begin when someone observes an event
in nature and wonders why or how it occurs. To begin designing an
experiment, questions need to be refined into specific questions that
can be answered with the time and resources available to you.

EXAMPLE
Some professional baseball
Question:
players have been known to
illegally modify their bats using
Does a “corked” bat hit a baseball a greater
a process called “corking.” When
distance than a normal bat? If so, what
a bat is corked, a hole is bored
causes it to do so?
into the wide end of the bat and Observations:
filled with cork. These baseball - Some baseball players claim that a
players claim that using a corked corked bat enables them to hit the ball a
bat makes it easier to hit the greater distance than a regulation bat.
ball a greater distance. Being
- The structure of the bat is changed
curious and skeptical, you decide
when a bat is corked: the inside of the
to investigate the issue using a
bat is hollowed out and wood is replaced
controlled experiment.
with cork.
- Cork is less massive per unit volume than
the ash-wood bats from which bats are
made, so a corked bat must have less
mass than a regulation bat.
- Library research indicates the more mass
an object has, the more momentum when
it is in motion.
Refined Question:
Does changing the mass of a regulation
wooden baseball bat affect the distance a
baseball is hit?

28 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
9.c Distinguish between variable and controlled parameters in a test. Designing a Controlled Experiment

Writing a Hypothesis
and Prediction Hypothesis:
A hypothesis is a tentative expla-
A regulation bat will hit a baseball a greater
nation that can be tested with a distance than a corked bat because the
scientific investigation. It uses your corked bat contains less mass than the regula-
prior knowledge and observations tion bat.
to predict what will happen and
why. A prediction is a statement Predictions:
of what will happen next in a (1) A regulation baseball bat that has been
sequence of events—in this case, filled with cork will hit a baseball a shorter
your experiment. If the results of distance than a comparable unmodified bat.
the experiment match the predic-
tion, the hypothesis is considered (2) A regulation baseball bat that has been
to be supported. filled with copper BBs will hit a baseball a
greater distance than a comparable unmodi-
fied bat.

Defining Variables and Constants

To test a prediction, you need to identify variables and constants you want to use in your experi-
ment. Variables and constants are factors you think could affect the outcome of your experiment.

Variables
A variable is any factor that can have more than one value. In a controlled experiment, there are two
types of variables—independent variables and dependent variables.
The independent variable is the factor you want to test. It is manipulated or changed by the investi-
gator to observe how it affects a dependent variable.
A dependent variable is the factor you measure or observe during an experiment.

Constants
To test how the independent vari- Independent Variable: baseball bat
able affects the dependent variable, modification
you need to keep all other factors
the same for each test. The factors Dependent Variable: distance baseball travels
that remain the same are called in the air after collision with bat
constants. Without constants,
two independent variables could Constants: same brand and model of baseball
change at the same time and you bat, same baseball, same batting tee, same
won’t know which variable affected batting device
the dependent variable.

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 29

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Designing a Controlled Experiment

Experimental Group and Control Group

A controlled experiment has at least two groups—a control group and an experimental group. The
experimental group is used to study the effect of a change in the independent variable on the
dependent variable. The control group contains the same factors as the experimental group, but the
independent variable is not changed. Without a control, it is impossible to know if your experimental
observations result from the variable you are testing or some other factor.

Experimental group:
Modified regulation baseball bats
Control group:
Unmodified regulation baseball bat

Measuring the Dependent Variable

Before you write a procedure, think about what kind of data you need to gather from the dependent
variable to know how it relates to the changes you make to the independent variable. Dependent
variables can be measured qualitatively or quantitatively.

Qualitative Measurement
Qualitative measurements of the dependent variable use words to describe what you observe in
your experiment. Qualitative measurements are easy to make. For some investigations, qualitative
data might be the only kind of data you can collect.

Qualitative Measurement of Baseball Distance in Air After Collision with Bat

Independent Variable
Type of modification made to bat
Dependent Variable
Distance defined as greater or lesser than control bat from starting
point at batting tee to contact with ground

Quantitative Measurement
Quantitative measurements of the dependent variable use numbers to describe what you observe
in your experiment. In most experiments, quantitative measurements will provide you with greater
precision in your data than qualitative measurements.

Quantitative Measurement of Baseball DIstance Traveled After Collision with Bat

Independent Variable
Type of modification made to bat
Dependent Variable
Distance defined as meters (m) from starting point at batting tee to
contact with ground
 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
Designing a Controlled Experiment

Writing a Procedure
A procedure is a set of instructions that you use to gather the data you need to answer your ques-
tion. Each step in the experiment’s procedure should be clear and easy to follow. Record your proce-
dure in your Science Journal so you can execute it with precision.

Bat Preparation Procedure:

Step 1 Cut off the top 2 cm of two bats.
Step 2 Using a drill, hollow out a vertical
chamber 2.5 cm in diameter and 20 cm deep.
Step 3 Fill bat 1 with cork. Fill bat 2 with BBs.
Using wood glue, replace ends of bats.
Step 4 Measure and record each bat’s mass.

Batting Device Construction Procedure:

Step 1 Anchor pine 2 × 4 column to plywood base.
Step 2 Attach torsion spring to top of column.
Step 3 Attach 2 × 4 swinging arm to top of torsion spring.
Step 4 Attach metal straps to arm to hold bat.
Step 5 Stack concrete blocks on plywood base for stability.

Bat Test Procedure

Step 1 Attach bat to be tested to batting device using metal straps.
Step 2 Adjust batting tee to align with bat’s swing. Place baseball on tee.
Step 3 Pull bat back 180° from its resting position and release.
Step 4 Measure the linear distance from the tee to the baseball’s landing
spot. Record data in data table. Repeat this procedure, 10 trials per bat.
Step 5 Calculate the average distance for the modified bats and control.

Determining Materials
Carefully examine each step in your procedures. Determine what materials and tools are required to
complete each step.

1. To modify bats: vise, saw, safety goggles, drill, cork, BBs, solid ash wood
bats (3), glue
2. To construct batting machine: Screws, torsion spring, metal straps, plywood
board, pine 2x4, concrete blocks
3. To test bats: Batting tee, baseball, triple-beam balance, tape measure

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 31

Tools of the Physical Scientist: 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Designing a Controlled Experiment 9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data.

Recording Observations
Once your procedure has been approved, follow the steps in your pro-
cedure and record your data. As you make observations, note anything
that differs from your intended procedure. If you change a material or
have to adjust the amount of time you observe something, write that
down in your Science Journal.

Figure 1 Distance (m) Ball Traveled After

Contact with Bat
Corked Bat BB Modified Bat Regular Bat
Trial 1 3.8 4.6 3.8
Trial 2 3.6 4.7 3.8
Trial 3 3.5 4.6 3.8
Trial 4 3.4 4.6 3.7
Trial 5 3.8 4.9 4.0
Trial 6 3.8 4.7 3.9
Trial 7 3.7 4.3 4.0
Trial 8 3.5 4.7 3.9
Trial 9 3.7 4.5 4.0
Trial 10 3.7 4.7 3.9
Average 3.7 4.6 3.9

Analyzing Results
To summarize your data, look at all of your observations together. Look for
meaningful ways to present your observations. Presenting your data in the
form of a graph is a powerful tool to communicate patterns in your data.

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32 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Tools of the Physical Scientist:
9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data. Designing a Controlled Experiment

Drawing Conclusions
To draw conclusions from your experiment, examine the data tables
and graphs you have created. Describe trends you see in the data.
Then, compare the results to your prediction and hypothesis. Deter-
mine if the results support or do not support your hypothesis. Use evi-
dence in your results to support your determination.

The results show that the corked bat consistently hit the baseball less dis-
tance than the unmodified bat used as a control. Also, the bat filled with
BBs consistently hit the baseball a greater distance than the control. Since
the corked bat is less massive than the control and the BB bat is more mas-
sive than the control, these results support the hypothesis that a bat with
greater mass should hit the ball a greater distance.
The results of this experiment cast doubt on the belief that a corked
bat would help a baseball player hit the ball a greater distance. However,
mass is not the only factor involved in hitting a ball a great distance in the
actual game of baseball. For example, a less massive bat may help a player
adjust his or her swing to hit the ball more effectively, resulting in consis-
tently greater distance for each hit. Further investigation is required to
gather data about this factor.

Analyzing Error
Error is a part of any scientific research. It’s important to document any-
thing that you changed in your procedure or could have caused uncer-
tainty in your measurements. Be sure to include unanticipated factors
or accidents that may have influenced your results and offer alternative
explanations for your results.

Error for this experiment results from the following:

- Bat in batting machine may have been pulled back to slightly more or
less than 180° for each trial.
- Judgment by eyesight of baseball landing spot may have been plus or
minus 1 cm.
- Measurement of distance with the tape measurement may have plus or
minus 1 cm.
Overall, variations in the data appear random. Multiple trials helped to
insure the reliability of the conclusions drawn from these data.

Tools of the Physical Scientist • 33

Physical Science Case Study:
Wind Turbines for the Birds

Case Study: Wind Turbines for the Birds

Professor William Hodos of the University of Maryland has spent his entire career trying to understand how birds see
the world. So when researchers at California’s largest wind energy farm found that thousands of birds were colliding
with wind turbines there, they asked Professor Hodos for advice.

34 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 Physical Science Case Study:
Wind Turbines for the Birds

Wind Farms—An Alternative to Fossil Fuels

Current interest in wind farms as a source of energy goes back thirty
years. In the 1970s, a major oil shortage forced Americans to look for
new energy sources. The United States had become overly depen-
dent on fossil fuels—natural gas, coal and oil, for its energy needs.
Obtaining energy from the wind was an attractive alternative. The
wind did not create pollution. Its cost was competitive with fossil fuel
energy. And it was inexhaustible.
Wind turbines convert wind energy into electricity. They dif-
fer from windmills, which use wind energy to pump water or grind
grain. In 1892, a Danish inventor constructed the first wind turbine
from a Dutch windmill. Wind turned the blades. The blades then
drove a shaft connected to an electrical generator, producing
electricity.
Wind turbines supplied electricity to rural areas in the United
States until the 1930s. But unlike fossil-fuel plants, they could not
operate around the clock. They could only produce electricity when
the wind was blowing. To overcome this problem, modern wind tur-
bines usually connect to utility power networks. When the wind is
not blowing, fossil fuels produce the electricity.

Wind Farms in California

California was one of the first states to develop
wind power. There are now 13,000 wind turbines
in the state, and wind produces about one percent
of the state’s electricity. A single wind turbine can
produce enough electricity for 150 to 400 homes.
That is equivalent to 1.5 to 4.0 million kilowatt-
hours of electricity each year. One kilowatt-hour is
the amount of energy required to keep a 100-watt
light bulb burning for 10 hours.

A single wind turbine can

produce enough electricity
for 150 to 400 homes.

Physical Science Case Study • 35

Physical Science Case Study:
Wind Turbines for the Birds
HVc ) K^cZ=^aa )
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EaZVhVci occupies 50,000 acres of land approxi-
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The Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area

The Altamont Pass Wind Resource Area (APWRA) is the largest wind
farm in California. Located about 50 miles east of San Francisco,
APWRA first began producing electricity from the wind in the 1970s.
There are now about 5,400 wind turbines at the site.
Because a wind turbine may require up to two acres of its own
land, wind farms tend to be quite large. APWRA, for example, occu-
pies 50,000 acres. The rolling, grass-covered hills at APWRA also pro-
vide land for farming and cattle grazing.

A Problem with Wind Power

Hawks, owls, eagles and other birds live in the hills at APWRA. In
the 1980s, studies showed that the wind turbine blades were killing
thousands of birds each year. The same winds that make APWRA an
excellent location for wind turbines carry the birds over Altamont
Pass each winter. The birds are in direct competition with the wind
turbines for air space.
Federal and state laws protect many of these birds. Although
APWRA has a permit to operate at a capacity of 800 megawatts
(1 megawatt  1,000,000 watts), local officials have limited APWRA’s
capacity to 580 megawatts until a way is found to reduce the bird
deaths.
California also has large wind farms at Pacheco Pass, San Gorgo-
nio Pass, and Tehachapi Pass, and in Solano County. Dead birds have
been found at these sites too. The operators of those wind farms are
closely monitoring developments at APWRA.

36 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 Physical Science Case Study:
Wind Turbines for the Birds

Field Experiments at APWRA

The first studies of bird deaths at APWRA looked at the older turbines on
the site. These turbines were smaller than the ones currently in use. They
had smaller blades than the newer designs, and shorter towers.

Make the blades larger?

Some investigators thought they could reduce the bird fatali-
ties by replacing the smaller blades with larger ones that
moved more slowly. They also thought the blades in the
taller designs would be out of the birds’ flight path. However,
researchers at another wind farm in California have found that
the newer turbines have killed more birds than the older ones.

Make the blades less likely to hit?

A few researchers have developed mathematical models to
study the collisions. They first try to calculate the probability
that a bird will collide with a spinning blade—rather like pre-
dicting whether a dart will hit a dartboard. They then propose
designs that will reduce that probability. Based on their cal-
culations, tall turbines with large blades should be safest for
birds. But the field data do not appear to support this conclu-
sion. The mathematical models do not consider how the birds
see the blades. The Altamont Pass Wind
Resource Area is a migration
Move the blades? path for birds of prey such
as the golden eagle. As a
Other investigators have studied the locations of the wind turbines in the result, thousands of such
hills. They believe that the way the birds see the turbines is more impor- birds are killed each year
tant than the probability of a collision. Ideally, one could place the wind when they collide into spin-
turbines out of the flight paths. But there is little scientific basis for decid- ning turbine blades.
ing how to do this.

Make the blades less attractive to birds?

Another approach has been to try to make the wind farm less attractive
to the birds. Researchers have designed new towers that are more diffi-
cult for birds to sit on. They have also poisoned the ground squirrels that
the birds feed on. But birds have been flying over Altamont Pass for thou-
sands of years, and their behavior has not changed very much.

Shut down the wind farm?

Still other investigators have proposed shutting down the wind farm dur-
ing part of the year. In the fall of 2005, local officials voted to shut down
half of the Altamont Pass wind turbines in the winter. Most of the bird
deaths occur at this time of year, and the wind turbines are least produc-
tive then. But critics doubt a partial shut down will solve the problem.

Physical Science Case Study • 37

 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Physical Science Case Study:
Wind Turbines for the Birds

Controlled Studies in the Laboratory

It has been very difficult to design controlled experiments
at APWRA. Many of the variables that could influence a
bird’s collision with a wind turbine—for example, wind
velocity, air density and flight behavior, are beyond human
control.
There are other problems as well. Although many birds
have died at APWRA, the chances that a bird will collide
with any particular wind turbine are small. The number of Professor Hodos performed
wind turbines included in a field study at APWRA would have to controlled experiments that mea-
sured the American kestrel’s abil-
be quite large. Under these conditions, it could take many years
ity to perceive moving objects.
to test a scientific hypothesis. And the cost of the experiment
could be very high.

Professor Hodos Tries a New Approach

Unlike field researchers at APWRA, Professor William Hodos has
attempted to identify the cause of the bird deaths in a laboratory.
There he can control the experimental variables. Hodos has been
looking at how the American kestrel (Falco sparverius), a small North
American falcon, perceives the spinning wind turbine blades. Many
kestrels have died at APWRA.
Professor Hodos is a psychophysicist. He studies the way the
senses—sight, sound, scent, taste and touch, get information from
the physical world. As a college student, one of his first experiments
looked at how rats experience bitter tastes. The experiment taught
him the usefulness of having training in several areas of science.
Later, while at the Walter Reed Army Institute of Research in
Washington, D.C., Dr. Hodos met another scientist who was inter-
ested in how birds process information. Hodos realized that an
understanding of bird vision would be important in these studies.
By the time the bird deaths were discovered at the California
wind farm, Professor Hodos had acquired a reputation as a lead-
ing expert on bird vision. At the request of the U.S. Department of
Energy, he began performing laboratory experiments to see if there
was a way to prevent further deaths. The wind farm is now testing
Professor Hodos’ laboratory findings.

38 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data. Physical Science Case Study:
Wind Turbines for the Birds

A First Hypothesis
Professor Hodos hoped to prevent the bird deaths
based on understanding how the birds saw the spin-
ning blades. But before he could perform any experi-
ments, he had to develop a testable hypothesis. His
first hypothesis was that the birds at APWRA were so
busy searching the ground that they did not notice
the turbines, and therefore flew into them. But he
already knew that birds, unlike humans, can focus
at the same time on objects that are far apart. So he
decided to reject this hypothesis.

A Second Hypothesis
He then considered a second hypothesis—that the
birds flew into the spinning blades because they
could not see them. Hodos knew that when he travels
in a car at high speeds, he can see objects that are
far away clearly. But objects that are closer appear
blurred. He decided to find out whether birds and
people see fast moving objects the same way.
Professor Hodos hypothesized that
Hodos designed an experiment to measure the response of the the kestrels were unable to see the
kestrel’s retina—the part of the eye where images form before they spinning turbine blades when the
are sent to the brain, to moving turbine blades. In the experiment, kestrels were close to them.
he would attach electrodes to the eyelids of 15 kestrels. The elec-
trodes would detect the electrical signals produced when light from
the moving blades struck a bird’s retina. The experiment called for
the birds to receive a light anesthesia, so that they would be com-
fortable during the experiment.

Experiment 1—Painting All Three Blades

In Professor Hodos’ first experiment, he tested the response of three
kestrels (in seven sessions, with three measurements per session) to
several blade patterns. These included blank blades, blades painted
with thin stripes, and blades painted with thick stripes. The patterns
on each blade were unique. For comparison, he also measured the
response when the birds eyes were covered.
This experiment allowed Hodos to measure how fast the blade’s
image moved across the bird’s retina, and how well the birds could
process that information. He found that, at slow rotations, the thin-
striped blades were up to four times as easy to see as the blank
blades. Under similar conditions, the thick-striped blades were nearly
twice as visible. But when the image was moving across the retina
more rapidly, differences in visibility became smaller. At still higher
velocities, all of the blades were invisible to the kestrels.

Physical Science Case Study • 39

Physical Science Case Study: 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
Wind Turbines for the Birds 9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data.

Bdk^c\ >bV\ZdcgZi^cV
dW_ZXi ^hhbVaal]Zc
dW_ZXi^h[VgVlVn#

Bdk^c\ >bV\ZdcgZi^cV
dW_ZXi ^cXgZVhZh^ch^oZVh
dW_ZXi\ZihXadhZg#

As birds move closer to an

object, the object takes up Bdk^c\ >bV\ZdcgZi^cV
more space on the eye’s retina. dW_ZXi ^haVg\Zl]Zc
At close range, a moving object dW_ZXi^hXadhZ#
such as a spinning turbine blade
is impossible for birds to see.

Experiment 2—Painting Only One Blade

Hodos then wanted to know whether he could reduce how fast the
birds’ eyes received information from the spinning blades. If this
information arrived slowly enough, he thought, the birds would be
able to see even fast moving blades. Hodos’ decided to paint only
one of the three spinning blades, so that the overall pattern would
be irregular.
In his second experiment, Hodos tested the kestrels’ ability to see
seven blade patterns. He again measured the electrical signals that
were produced when the birds’ eyes detected moving patterns. The
table on page 41 shows his results.
Hodos found that the single black blade paired with two blank
blades were most visible to the birds. However, even the painted
blades appeared blurred to the kestrels when spinning very rapidly.
Hodos next calculated the distances at which the birds could just
make out the rotating blades. He was surprised to discover that the
birds could see fast moving, smaller blades best. They were much
easier to see than slowly moving, larger blades. The kestrels could
see the small, fast moving blades as close as 20 m, but the larger,
slow moving blades became hard to see at 50 m.

In the lab, Professor Hodos tested

the ability of kestrels to perceive
different turbine blade patterns
while they were in motion.

40 • Introduction to Investigation and Experimentation

 9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis. Physical Science Case Study:
9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data. Wind Turbines for the Birds

Field Testing Painted Blades

Visibility Hodos’ laboratory experiments
Pattern (microVolts showed that the kestrels could
above noise)
see painted blades better than
1 Noise. Birds eyes covered 0.00 unpainted ones. He hoped that
2 Three blank blades 1.03 the kestrels would be able to avoid
3 Two blades blank, one blade with 1.71 the painted wind turbine blades at
thin stripes APWRA more easily than unpainted
4 Three blades with staggered thick 1.75 ones. But his laboratory experi-
and thin stripes ments only looked at the birds’
5 Three blades, thin non-staggered 1.77 visual response to moving turbine
stripes blades. They did not consider
6 Two blank blades, one blade with 1.77 the bird’s psychology. There was
thick and thin stripes no way of knowing, for example,
7 Three blades, staggered thin stripes 1.98 whether birds at APWRA would be
scared away by the painted blades,
8 Two blank blades, one solid black 2.37
whether they would be attracted to
blade
them, or whether they would pay
no attention to them.
In order to answer this question, Hodos designed a field test to be
conducted at APWRA. In the test, some of the wind turbines would have
unpainted blades. The others would have one solid black blade and
two blank blades. The turbines would be placed where large numbers
of birds had been killed in the past. In the first year, this field test would
measure the number of birds killed at the turbines.
Wind farm operators at APWRA are now testing Professor Hodos’
painted blades. If the number of birds killed by the turbines with painted
blades in the first year turns out to be lower than that at the other tur-
bines, the blade patterns will be switched. If the painted blades still show
fewer bird deaths, the field test will support the conclusion that the
painted blades are effective in preventing collisions with turbine blades.

A Final Note
Human beings have been trying to find better ways to harness the wind
for thousands of years. Five thousand years ago, the Egyptians found
they could sail down the Nile under wind power. The first windmills
appeared in Persia around 950 AD. About 100 years ago, the first wind
turbine was constructed. Each of these advances depended upon an
improved understanding of motion and forces.
Attempts to find a solution to the bird deaths at APWRA rest on
many of the same physical principles. As you will hopefully discover, the
research methods and fundamental principles described in this textbook
lend themselves to an extremely wide range of scientific investigations.

Physical Science Case Study • 41

 Motion and Forces

The Speed of Sound Forces

of jet engines that can move planes
faster than speed of sound cause a
vapor cloud that occurs at near
speed of sound from changes
in pressure.

1579 1863
Francis Drake anchors the Construction begins on the Central
Golden Hind at Point Reyes Pacific Railway; starts in Sacramento,
just north of San Francisco, California, and joins the Union Pacific
California, during first Railway in Utah in 1869.
English voyage around
the world.

A.D. 1500 1600 1700 1800

2,220 Years Ago c. 1660 1687 1877
Archimedes, a Greek mathe- Robert Boyle of Eng- Isaac Newton Ernst Mach from Aus-
matician, discovers that the land describes what of England tria uses bullets to
buoyant force equals the causes the pressure describes three record the speed of
weight of the fluid displaced of gases to change. laws of motion. sound; Mach 1
by an object (called Archime- becomes the reference
des’ principle). for the speed of sound.

42
 To learn more about physicists and
their work, visit ca8.msscience.com .

Interactive Time Line To learn more about

these events and others, visit ca8.msscience.com .
October 1947 1978 August 2005
Chuck Yeager—at Speed boat sets record Commander Eileen Collins and pilot
Muroc Army Air Field speed of 511.10 km/h James Kelly guide Space Shuttle
(now Edwards Air Force on Lake Washington at Discovery in its 27,357.58 km/h
Base, California)—is first Seattle, Washington. glide from space to landing strip
to fly plane faster than at Edwards Air Force Base.
speed of sound.

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020

1903 February 1962 1997
Wright Brothers John Glenn is first At the Black Rock
fly first motor- American to orbit Earth. speedway in Utah,
ized airplane at June 1963 Richard Noble’s jet race
Kitty Hawk, Valentina Tereshkova of the car is first to break the
North Carolina. Soviet Union is the first sound barrier on land
woman to orbit Earth. (1227.93 km/h).

43
 Motion
/…iÊ Ê`i>
Motion occurs when the
position of an object
changes.

LESSON 1 1.a
Determining Position
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Position is
defined relative to a
reference point and
reference directions.

LESSON 2
1.b, 1.c, 1.d, 1.e, 9.b, 9.f
Speed, Velocity, and
Acceleration
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Speed,
velocity, and accelera-
tion describe how an
object’s position and
motion change in time.

LESSON 3 1.f, 9.d, 9.e

Graphing Motion
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Graphs can
show how objects
change their position or
speed.

No Snow Required!
The road is just a blur to these street-luge
racers, who reach speeds over 88 km/h lying on specially-built boards made
out of aluminum. Street-luge courses are usually about 1 km long and are
downhill, although the course can have turns and parts that are uphill.
-Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM Write a short description of how the motion of the
racers might change from the start of the race to the finish line.

44
 Start-Up Activities

Motion Make the

following Foldable to
How do you get describe speed, velocity,
there from here? and acceleration and discuss
how they are related.
How would you give
directions to a friend STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper in half
trying to walk from one lengthwise. Make the back edge about 3 cm
place to another in your longer than the front edge.
classroom?
Procedure
1. Place a sheet of paper
labeled North, East, South, and West on
the floor. STEP 2 Fold into thirds.
2. Walk from the paper to one of the three
goals labeled in the classroom. Have a
partner record the number of steps and
the directions of movement.
3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 for the other goals.
STEP 3 Unfold and cut along the folds of
Think About This the top flap to make three flaps.
• Explain why having a common starting
point is important when giving direc-
tions.
• Suggest ways to improve the distance
measurements made during this lab.
1.a, 9.b
STEP 4 Label as shown.

ʜ̈œ˜

-«ii` 6iœVˆÌÞ
VViiÀ>̈œ˜

Interpreting
Visit ca8.msscience.com to: As you read this chapter, record infor-
mation about each of the types of motion.
υ view Be sure to include information about how
υ explore Virtual Labs the term is related to the other terms.
υ access content-related Web links
υ take the Standards Check

45
Get Ready to Read
Preview

Learn It! If you know what to expect

before reading, it will be easier to understand ideas and
relationships presented in the text. Follow these steps to
preview your reading assignments.

1. Look at the title and any illustrations that are included.

2. Read the headings, subheadings, and anything in bold letters.
3. Skim over the passage to see how it is organized. Is it divided into
many parts?
4. Look at the graphics—pictures, maps, or diagrams. Read their titles,
labels, and captions.
5. Set a purpose for your reading. Are you reading to learn something
new? Are you reading to find specific information?

Practice It! Take some time to

preview this chapter. Skim all the main headings and
subheadings. With a partner, discuss your answers
to these questions.
• Which part of this chapter looks most interesting
to you?
• Are there any words in the headings that are unfamiliar
to you?
• Choose one of the lesson review questions to discuss
with a partner.

Apply It! Now that you have

skimmed the chapter, write a short paragraph
describing one thing you want to learn from
this chapter.

46
 r,
ie w t h i s chapte
rev -
As you p can the illustra
Target Your Reading o s
be sure t s, and graphs.
ble
tions, ta aptions.
ec
Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter. Skim th
1 Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements
below on your worksheet or on a numbered sheet of paper.
• Write an A if you agree with the statement.
• Write a D if you disagree with the statement.
2 After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if
you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements.
• If any of your answers changed, explain why.
• Change any false statements into true statements.
• Use your revised statements as a study guide.

Before You Read Statement After You Read

A or D A or D
1 Giving a starting point isn’t important when giving
directions.

2 Some measurements have both size and direction.

3 If an object is not moving, all observers will give the

same directions to the object.

4 Speed and velocity mean the same thing.

5 An object is accelerating only if its speed is changing.

6 Average speed is total time divided by total distance.

Print a worksheet of 7 Speed always is measured in miles per hour.

this page at
ca8.msscience.com . 8 The slope of a line on a position-time graph is the
acceleration of an object.

9 If a line plotted on a graph is horizontal, the line’s

slope is zero.

10 A straight line on a position-time graph means the

speed of the object is not changing.

47
LESSON 1

Science Content
Standards
Determining Position
1.a Students know position is defined in >ˆ˜Ê`i> Position is defined relative to a reference point
relation to some choice of a standard and reference directions.
reference point and a set of reference Real-World Reading Connection How would you describe
directions.
where you are right now? Maybe your description would include
the name of a street or a building. Or maybe it would include
Reading Guide directions from a familiar landmark or road. How could you
describe your location so that anyone could find you?
What You’ll Learn
Explain how position
Position and Reference Points
▼

depends on the choice of a Suppose that Figure 1 is an aerial view of your neighborhood.
reference point and A classmate tells you that her house is two blocks west and one
reference direction. block south of your house. To reach your classmate’s house, you
Determine the position start at your house and walk two blocks west and one block
▼

of an object in two south. Your house is the starting place for you to find the loca-
dimensions. tion, or position, of your classmate’s house. A reference point is
Describe the difference a starting point used to describe the position of an object. A ref-
▼

between distance and erence point is sometimes called the origin.

displacement.
What is a reference point?
Why It’s Important
To know how to get where
you want to go, you first
must know where you are.

Vocabulary Ndjg]djhZ^hi]Z
gZ[ZgZcXZed^ciid
reference point [^cYndjg
vector XaVhhbViZ¼h]djhZ#
displacement

Review Vocabulary
distance: the length of a
path from one point to
another (p. 7) Ndjg
XaVhhbViZ¼h
]dbZ#

Figure 1 A reference point is needed in order to describe the

location of a house in the neighborhood.

48 Chapter 1 • Motion
Figure 2 The flagpole can be used as a reference
point for finding the bicycle.
Negative
Positions

*b
Procedure
1. Put a sticky note with
an arrow that points
directly to the 50-cm
mark on a meterstick.
Label the mark as the
reference point.
Reference Points and Reference Directions 2. Move your finger until
Your classmate told you where to start, which direction, and it is 15 cm right of the
reference point.
how far to walk to reach her house. You had to start at the grocery
3. Move your finger until
store, which was the reference point. The direction you had to it is 10 cm to the left
walk was east, for a distance of three blocks. To describe an of the reference point.
object’s position, you must include three things in your descrip- 4. Listen as your teacher
tion: a reference point, a direction from the reference point, and a calls out position val-
distance from the reference point. ues. Point to the posi-
tion indicated.
How would you describe the position of the bicycle in Figure 2?
First, choose a reference point: the flagpole. Next, choose a direc- Analysis
tion from the reference point: toward the front door of the school. 1. Identify the direction
and distance traveled if
Finally, give the distance from the reference point: 5 m. Notice that you moved from the
the distance is described in units of length, in this case, meters. reference point to the
75 cm mark.
Describing the Reference Direction 2. Imagine moving from
How can you indicate the direction from the reference point? –10 cm to –6 cm. Did
One way is to use a plus (+) or a minus () sign to indicate the you move in a positive
or a negative direction?
direction. The plus sign means the direction from the reference
3. Explain how you can
point is in the reference direction. A minus sign means the direc- move in a positive
tion is opposite to the reference direction. For instance,  might direction and still have
be used to indicate toward the school and  to indicate away from a negative position.
the school. Or,  could mean to the right of the flagpole, and 
could mean to the left of the flagpole. In this way, the position of 1.a
the bicycle can be described as a distance from the origin together
with a plus or minus sign that indicates the direction.
If you define toward the school as the reference direction, the
bicycle’s position in Figure 2 is 5 m. If away from the school is the
reference direction, then the bicycle’s position is 5 m. The
description of an object’s motion also depends on the reference
point chosen. Figure 3 shows how the description of Earth’s
motion through space changes as the reference point changes.

Lesson 1 • Determining Position 49

Visualizing Earth’s Motion
Figure 3
In the vastness of space, Earth’s motion can be
described only in relation to other objects such as A Imagine you are looking down
stars and galaxies. This figure shows how Earth on the Sun’s north pole. If the Sun
moves relative to the Sun and to the Milky Way is the reference point, Earth moves
galaxy. This galaxy is part of a cluster of galaxies in a nearly circular path counter-
called the local group. clockwise around the Sun.

B The Sun belongs to a group of several billion stars

that make up the Milky Way galaxy. Viewed from above
the galaxy, the Sun moves clockwise in a nearly circular
orbit around the galaxy’s center. If the center of the
Milky Way galaxy is the reference point, Earth’s motion
traces out a corkscrew path as it moves with the Sun.
*Earth’s corkscrew path not shown to scale.

C The Milky Way galaxy is moving relative to the

center of the Local Group cluster of galaxies. So you
can think of Earth’s motion this way: Earth orbits the
Sun, which moves around the Milky Way galaxy, which
is moving around the center of the Local Group.

50 Chapter 1 • Motion Contributed by National Geographic

Position as a Vector
To describe the position of an object, you GZ[ZgZcXZed^ci
must specify two things. One is the distance
from the reference point. The other is the
direction from the reference point. One way to
represent the position of an object is by an 'b (b
arrow. The arrow points in the direction of the
object from the reference point. The length of
the arrow represents the distance of the object
from the reference point. Figure 4 shows how
Figure 4 The position of each
the position of an object can be represented by football player can be
an arrow. represented by an arrow.
The position of an object is an example of a
vector. A vector (VEK tur) is a quantity that
has both a size and a direction. For example,
the size of a position vector is the distance of
an object from the reference point. The direc- WORD ORIGIN
tion of a position vector is the direction from vector
from Latin vehere; means
the reference point to the object. A vector can carry, convey
be represented by an arrow. The length of the
arrow represents the size of the vector. The
arrows in Figure 4 represent the position vec-
tors of the two football players.
What does the length of a posi-
tion vector represent?

Position in Two Figure 5 A car traveling from San Diego to

Sacramento goes both north and west.
Dimensions
A 100-m track sprinter runs in only one &%& *% :an
HVXgVbZcid .*
direction—toward the finish line. You could (.* +
DV`aVcY
describe the sprinter’s position by choosing the HVc *-% BdYZhid +
;gVcX^hXd .*
starting line as the reference point. You could HVc?dhZ + C:K696
.. .(
choose the reference direction to be the direc-
;gZhcd
tion from the starting line to the finish line. BdciZgZn *
86A>;DGC>6 .*
However, because the sprinter runs in a &%&
IjaVgZ (.* AVh &*
straight line, you need to choose only one KZ\Vh
reference direction. 7V`Zgh[^ZaY
HVcAj^hDW^hed .* .(
*- &*
A car driving from San Diego to Sacra- 7Vghidl
mento, as shown in Figure 5, wouldn’t move in HVciV7VgWVgV * )%
KZcijgV &%& CZZYaZh
a straight line. It moves north and south, as Adh6c\ZaZh
HVc7ZgcVgY^cd
.*
C
well as east and west. To describe the motion Adc\7ZVX] G^kZgh^YZ >cY^d
: * &%
of the car, you would need to choose two refer- L &*
DXZVch^YZ
ence directions. North and east are often cho- H
-
.*
sen as the positive reference directions. HVc9^Z\d

Lesson 1 • Determining Position 51

 n"Vm^h
7jhhiVi^dc
7jhhiVi^dc
*%%b!,*%b
*%%
6gibjhZjb 6gibjhZjb
·*%%!*%%b

&!%%% *%% *%% m"Vm^h

8^in=Vaa A^WgVgn 8^in=Vaa A^WgVgn
%b!%b *%%b!%b

*%%
C

L :
H &!%%%
7VhZWVaahiVY^jb *%%b 7VhZWVaahiVY^jb
·*%%b!·&!%%%b
Figure 6 A city map can be represented
as a two-dimensional graph.

Showing Positions with Two Directions

Visitors to a city find their way using maps such as the one
shown on the left in Figure 6. The map has two positive reference
directions: north and east. The map also has a scale to show the
distances in meters.
If a tourist arriving at the bus station wants to visit the art
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY museum, in which directions should she walk? She could walk two
dimension (duh MEN blocks west and one half block south. If each city block is 500 m
shun) long, then she would walk 1,000 m west and 250 m south. The bus
(noun) measure in one station is the reference point, and 1,000 m west and 250 m south
direction
To find the area of the rectangle, are distances and directions in two dimensions.
she measured both of its dimen-
sions: length and width. Locating a Position in Two Dimensions
The map that the visitor uses to find her way is similar to the
graphs you’ve studied in mathematics classes. A two-dimensional
map is a graph used to represent the location of an object with two
reference directions. To make this graph, you can name east as the
positive x direction. North is named the positive y direction. You
also have to choose a location that will be the origin of the graph.
To transfer the visitor’s city map into a two dimensional map,
you could choose City Hall to be the origin. Its position is x = 0 m
and y = 0 m. The x-axis goes east through City Hall. The y-axis
goes north through City Hall. Then mark the distance units on
the axes and place the locations of the buildings on the graph, as
in Figure 6. The bus station is 500 m east and 750 m north of City
Hall, so its location is x = 500 m and y = 750 m.
Figure 6 What is the location of the art museum?

52 Chapter 1 • Motion
Changing Position Figure 7 Distance depends on the
Suppose you walk to a friend’s home from path traveled. Displacement depends
your home, and then walk back. How has your on only the initial position and the
position changed? You might have walked a dis- final position.
tance of many meters, but your final position is
the same as your beginning position. So your
distance traveled and your change in position are
different.

Displacement
The change in your position is called the dis-
GZ[ZgZcXZ
placement. Displacement is the difference ed^ci
between the initial position and the final posi- )%b
tion of an object.
)%b
Just as position does, displacement includes a
size and a direction. As a result, displacement is
also a vector. The direction of a displacement 9^hiVcXZ/)%b
9^heaVXZbZci/)%bZVhi
vector is the direction from the initial position to
the final position. The size of a displacement vec-
tor is the distance from the initial position to the
final position.
What are the size and direction of
the displacement vector?
(%b
*%b
Distance and Displacement
What’s the difference between the distance you
travel and your displacement? Suppose you are
walking in a park, as shown in Figure 7. Your ini- )%b
tial position is the reference point. The positive
reference directions are north and east. 9^hiVcXZ/,%b
You first walk a distance of 40 m to the east. 9^heaVXZbZci/*%bcdgi]ZVhi
The difference between your initial and final
position is 40 m. The direction from your initial )%b
to your final position is east. This means your
displacement is 40 m east.
Suppose you then walk 30 m north. The total
distance you’ve traveled from the starting point is (%b (%b
40 m + 30 m, or 70 m. However, your final posi-
tion is not 70 m from your initial position.
Instead the distance between your final and ini-
tial position is 50 m. Your displacement is 50 m
)%b
northeast.
Suppose you continue walking and return to
your initial position. Figure 7 shows that the 9^hiVcXZ/&)%b
9^heaVXZbZci/%b
total distance you travel is 140 m, but your dis-
placement is 0 m.
Lesson 1 • Determining Position 53
 What have you learned?
You first read about how the choice of a reference point and a
reference direction determines an object’s position. In the Launch
Lab, for example, the number of steps you had to take to get from
the reference point to each goal depended on where you put the
reference point. In the DataLab on the next page, you will graph
the data you collected in the Launch Lab.
In this lesson, you also read about displacement and why dis-
placement is a vector. In addition to displacement, there are other
quantities that have both size and direction. You will study two
other vectors in Lesson 2.

LESSON 1 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 5. Explain the importance of
summary as you organize communicating the reference
1. Displacement is a(n) point when giving a position.
an outline.
because it has both magni- 1.a
1. Scan the lesson. Find and tude and direction. 1.a
list the first red main 6. Summarize Copy and fill in
heading. 2. Define reference point in your the graphic organizer below to
own words. 1.a identify the two parts of a dis-
2. Review the text after
the heading and list 2–3 placement vector. 1.a
Understanding Main Ideas
details about the heading.
3. Find and list each blue 3. Which of the following is a Displacement
subheading that follows true statement? 1.a Vector
the red main heading. A. Displacement always equals
4. List 2–3 details, key terms, distance traveled.
and definitions under B. Distance traveled is the
each blue subheading. magnitude of the displace-
ment vector. Applying Science
5. Review additional red
main headings and their C. Displacement and distance 7. Evaluate these descriptions of
supporting blue subhead- traveled are the same mea- the position of an object. Sug-
ings. List 2–3 details about surements. gest ways to improve each
each. D. Distance traveled some- description. a. The store is
times equals the magni- three blocks from my car.
ELA8: R 2.3
tude of the displacement b. My house is 200 m north of
vector. the freeway. c. The grocery is
100 m west of here. 1.a
4. State the relationship
between the plus (+) and
minus (–) sign when used with
a reference direction. 1.a Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

54 Chapter 1 • Motion
How can a graph show
relative positions?
In the Launch Lab, you moved
Position of Goals
around the classroom from a
reference point to three different Goal North-South East-West
positions. Now put your move- Direction Direction
ment on a graph to show your
1
directions.
2
Data Collection 3
1. Mark the x- and y-axis clearly
on your graph paper.
2. Label the intersecting point of the axes (0, 0). This is the ori-
gin, or reference point. Label north, south, east, and west.
3. Have each square on the graph represent one step.
4. Copy the Position of Goals table into your Science Journal.
5. Trace your path from the reference point to the three goals.
Use a different colored pencil for each goal.
6. Label each position as Goal 1, Goal 2, or Goal 3. Include each
position’s x- and y-coordinates (x-coordinate, y-coordinate).

Data Analysis
1. Compare your graph to your partner’s graph. Suggest a reason
for any differences.
2. Use your graph to state the position of one goal in relation
to another goal. For example, “Goal 2 is three steps south and
9 steps west of Goal 1.”
3. Compare your statements to the statements of a student
from another group. Explain the similarities and differences.
4. Develop a way to convert the scale of your graph from steps
to meters.

Science Content Standards

1.a Students know position is defined in relation to some choice of a standard reference point and
a set of reference directions.

ALG: 6.0 55
LESSON 2

Science Content
Standards
Speed, Velocity,
1.b Students know that average speed is
the total distance traveled divided by the
and Acceleration
total time elapsed and that the speed of an >ˆ˜Ê`i> Speed, velocity, and acceleration describe how an
object along the path traveled can vary. object’s position and motion change in time.
1.c Students know how to solve problems
involving distance, time, and average speed. Real-World Reading Connection Think about a train travel-
1.d Students know the velocity of an ing through the desert, a pizza delivery van on busy city streets,
object must be described by specifying both and a racecar going around a track. Do these vehicles travel at
the direction and the speed of the object. the same speed? Do they travel in straight lines? Do they change
1.e Students know changes in velocity the direction of their motion?
may be due to changes in speed, direction,
or both.
Also covers: 9.b, 9.f What is speed?
You are familiar with different rates. A rate measures the
change in something over a particular length of time. For exam-
Reading Guide ple, imagine a child who is 104 cm tall on her fifth birthday and
What You’ll Learn 112 cm tall on her sixth birthday. The rate of change of her
height is 8 cm for that year.
Explain how speed is a rate
▼

of change. Look at the runner in Figure 8. The runner’s position is

changing. To describe her position, you can use the first hurdle
Solve motion problems
▼

as the reference point and use to the right as the positive refer-
involving average speed.
ence direction. The distance between each hurdle is 10 m. It
Explain why velocity is a
▼

takes the runner 2 s to move from one hurdle to the next. This
vector. means that in one second, her position changes by 5 m. Her
Determine when speed, or rate of change of distance with time, is 5 m per sec-
▼

acceleration occurs. ond. For every 1 s that goes by, the runner moves an additional
5 m away from the first hurdle.
Why It’s Important
Knowing an object’s velocity Figure 8 What is the runner’s speed?
can help you predict where it
will be in the future.
Figure 8 The runner travels 5 m every second.
Vocabulary
speed
constant speed
instantaneous speed hZXdcYh hZXdcYh hZXdcYh hZXdcYh
average speed
velocity
acceleration

Review Vocabulary
rate: the change in
something that occurs in *b &*b '*b
%b &%b '%b (%b
a unit of time

56 Chapter 1 • Motion
Constant Speed
For the part of the race shown in Figure 8, the hurdler runs ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
at a constant rate. For every second that goes by, she moves an constant (KAHN stuhnt)
equal distance from the reference point. An object that moves at a (adjective) not changing
The freezer keeps the frozen
constant speed travels the same distance each second. Can you
food at a constant temperature
think of other things that travel at a constant speed? Imagine a car of –18°C.
on a freeway with cruise control on. Cruise control keeps the car
moving with a constant speed. If a car with a constant speed trav-
els 100 km in 1 h, then it will travel another 100 km in the next
hour. If its speed stays constant, in 5 h it will travel 500 km.

Changing Speed
Unlike a car with cruise control on, most objects speed up and
slow down as they move from place to place. The car shown in
Figure 9 slows down and stops at a stop sign, and then starts mov-
ing again. The car doesn’t travel the same distance in every two-
second interval. Its speed is not constant. Instead, it speeds up as it
moves away from the stop sign.
When the speed of an object isn’t constant, it is helpful to
determine its instantaneous speed (ihn stuhn TAY nee us), or
speed at a specific instant in time. A speedometer shows a car’s
instantaneous speed. As the car travels along the road in Figure 9,
the speedometer above each position shows how fast the car is
moving at each location and time.
Consider a car traveling on a highway at a constant speed of
80 km/h. What is the instantaneous speed of the car? For an object
moving at a constant speed, its instantaneous speed doesn’t change
from moment to moment. Therefore, the car’s instantaneous speed
is unchanging, so it is the same as its constant speed, 80 km/h.
Describe the reading on a speedometer of a car that
is moving at a constant speed.
To see an animation of the car’s
motion, visit ca8.msscience.com .
Figure 9 The car’s speed changes as it leaves the stop sign.

         
    
    
    
    
    
    
+MH +MH +MH +MH +MH

%h 'h )h +h -h

%b &%b '%b (%b )%b *%b +%b ,%b -%b .%b

Lesson 2 • Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration 57

 What is average speed?
How can you describe the speed of something when it is speed-
ing up or slowing down? One way is to calculate the average speed
of the object as it moves from one place to another.

Calculating Average Speed

The average speed is the total distance traveled divided by the
total time. You can calculate the average speed from this equation:

Average Speed Equation

total distance (in m)
average speed (in m/s) =
total time (in s)
v = dt

In this equation, the letter v stands for average speed. Because

speed equals distance divided by time, the unit for speed is a dis-
tance unit divided by a time unit. Suppose distance is measured in
meters and time is measured in seconds. Then the unit for speed is
m/s. Your average walking speed is about 1.5 m/s. In the United
States speed is usually measured in miles per hour (mph).

1.c, 9.f

ALG: 5.0
Solve for Average Speed It takes a swimmer 57.2 s to
swim a distance of 100 m. What is the swimmer’s average speed?

1 This is what you know: distance: d  100 m

time: t  57.2 s

2 This is what you need to find: average speed: v

3 Use this formula: v  dt

4 Substitute: v  100

57.2
is 1.75
the values for d and t
into the formula and divide.

5 Determine the units: units of v  units of d

  m/s
units of t
Answer: The swimmer’s average speed is 1.75 m/s.
For more equation practice,
Practice Problems visit ca8.msscience.com.
1. A bicycle coasting downhill travels 170.5 m in 21.0 s. What is the
bicycle’s average speed?
2. What is the average speed of a car that travels 870 km in 14.5 h?

58 Chapter 1 • Motion
Calculating Distance and Time
The average speed equation contains three variables: rate, dis-
tance, and time. If you know any two of the variables, you can use
the average speed equation to figure out the third, unknown quan-
tity. The math feature at the end of this lesson shows how to use
the average speed equation to calculate distance and time.

Velocity
When you describe a walk in the woods to a friend, do you tell
him in which direction you hiked? Does it matter whether you
walked north to the mountain or east to the lake? To describe the
motion of an object, you need to know more than its speed. You
also need to know in which direction the object travels. Velocity WORD ORIGIN
(vuh LAH suh tee) is the speed and direction of motion. velocity
from Latin velocitatem; means
Velocity as a Vector swiftness, speed
To describe the velocity of an object, you have to specify both
the object’s speed and its direction of motion. This means that
velocity is a vector. The size of the velocity vector is the speed. A
velocity vector can be represented by an arrow that points in the
direction of motion. The length of the arrow represents the speed.
The length of the arrow increases as the speed increases. Figure 10
shows how the velocity vector of a bouncing ball changes.

What is the size of a velocity vector?

Velocity and Speed

Sometimes in everyday language the words velocity and speed
are used to mean the same thing. However, speed tells only how
fast something is going. Velocity tells how fast something is going
and in what direction.

KZadX^in

Figure 10 The velocity

vector of a ball changes when
the direction and speed of the
ball change.
Determine where the ball’s speed
is increasing.

Lesson 2 • Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration 59

 Figure 11 Acceleration occurs when an
Acceleration
object speeds up, slows down, or changes its When you watch the first few seconds of a
direction of motion. rocket liftoff, the rocket barely seems to move.
With each passing second, however, you can
see it moving faster. Because velocity includes
6XXZaZgVi^dc both speed and direction, the velocity of the
rocket changes as it speeds up. The rocket’s
velocity also changes as its direction of motion
>c^i^VakZadX^in ;^cVakZadX^in
changes. An object is accelerating when its
velocity changes. Acceleration (ak sel uh RAY
shun) is the rate at which velocity changes with
time. Just like velocity, acceleration is a vector.
To specify an object’s acceleration, both a size
Speeding Up and a direction must be given.

Acceleration and Change in Speed

The velocity of an object changes when it
6XXZaZgVi^dc speeds up or slows down. As a result, the
object is accelerating. A sprinter taking off
>c^i^VakZadX^in ;^cVakZadX^in
from the starting blocks and a car slowing
down at an intersection are both accelerating.
Figure 11 shows how the direction of the
acceleration depends on whether an object is
speeding up or slowing down. If an object is
speeding up, the direction of its acceleration
Slowing Down is in the same direction that it is moving. If
an object is slowing down, the acceleration is
KZadX^in in the opposite direction that the object is
moving.

Acceleration and Change

in Direction of Motion
The velocity of an object can change even if
its speed doesn’t change. The horses on the
carousel in Figure 11 are moving with constant
speed. However, as the carousel turns, their
direction of motion is constantly changing. As
a result, the velocity of each horse is changing
and the horses are accelerating.
Have you ever been in a car that has
changed speed or direction quickly? You might
Changing Direction have felt the seat push against you as the car
sped up. Or maybe you felt the door push
against your side when going around a sharp
curve. In Chapter 2 you will read about the
connection between acceleration and forces.
60 Chapter 1 • Motion
 What have you learned? WORD ORIGIN
acceleration
You first read about speed, or the rate of change of position with from Latin acceleratus; means
time. You saw an example of calculating average speed by dividing quicken
the distance traveled by the time taken to travel the distance.
In Lesson 1, you read that a vector is a quantity with both size
and direction. In this Lesson, you learned about two vector quan-
tities—velocity and acceleration. Velocity is the speed and direc-
tion of an object’s motion. Acceleration is the rate of change of
velocity over time. Acceleration occurs when an object’s speed or
direction of motion changes.

LESSON 2 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 5. State the ways velocity can
summary as you write a change. 1.e
1. Distinguish between velocity
newsletter. 6. Calculate how far an airplane
and acceleration. 1.e
1. Write this lesson title, would fly in 3 h if its average
number, and page num- 2. is the rate of change speed is 800 km/h. 1.c
bers at the top of a sheet of velocity. 1.e
of paper. 7. Give an example of an
Understanding Main Ideas object that is accelerating
2. Review the text after but is traveling at a constant
the red main headings 3. Identify Copy and fill in the speed. 1.e
and write one sentence graphic organizer below to
about each. These will be identify three vectors. 1.d 8. Relate speed, velocity, and
the headlines of your acceleration. 1.d
newsletter.
Vectors
3. Review the text and write Applying Math
2–3 sentences about each 9. Calculate the average speed
blue subheading. These of a spacecraft orbiting Mars
sentences should tell who, if the spacecraft takes 2.2 h
what, when, where, and
4. Which of the following is not to complete an orbit that is
why information about
accelerating? 1.e 26,500 km long. 1.b
each headline.
4. Illustrate your newsletter A. a car coming to a stop at a 10. Calculate the average speed
with diagrams of impor- traffic light of an airplane flying between
tant structures and pro- B. a sprinter starting from rest San Francisco and Los Ange-
cesses next to each and running 100 m in 9.8 s les. The flight lasts 1.2 h, and
headline. C. a racecar traveling the flight path is 650 km. 1.b
175 km/hr on a straight
ELA8: W 2.1 track
D. an airplane traveling at
500 km/hr and turning to
Science nline
the north For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

Acceleration ca8.msscience.com Lesson 2 • Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration 61

 Using the Speed Equation to Find 1.c, 9.f
Distance and Time
You can use the speed equation to find distance and time, as well
ALG: 15.0
as speed.

Using the Speed Equation to Find Distance

If the average speed, v, and travel time, t, are known, you can find the
distance, d, the object traveled. First multiply both sides of the speed
equation by t:
v  t  dt  t
The variable t cancels on the right side of the above equation:
v  t  d/t  /t
So the equation for the distance traveled by an object if its average
speed and travel time are known is:
dvt
You can find the distance by multiplying the average speed and the
travel time.

Using the Speed Equation to Find Time

If the average speed, v, and distance traveled, d, are known, you can
find the travel time, t. Use the equation above, and divide both sides
by v:
d vt
v   v
The variable v cancels on the right side of the above equation:
d vt
v   v
/
So the equation for the travel time if the distance traveled and
average speed are known is:
t  dv
You can find the travel time by dividing the distance by the
average speed.

Practice Problems
1. Find the distance traveled by a car that travels with an average Science nline
speed of 110 km/h for 3.5 h. For more math practice,
visit Math Practice at
2. How long does it take a baseball moving with an average
ca8.msscience.com.
speed of 35 m/s to travel 18 m?

62 Chapter 1 • Motion
Can you measure
average speed?
Using a stopwatch you can time a ball rolling
down a ramp and across the floor. You also can
measure the distance the ball rolls from one
point to another. If you perform more than
one trial, how similar are your results?

Procedure
1. Complete a lab safety form.
2. Use a piece of plastic track to make a ramp from a chair seat
to the floor.
3. Lay a piece of masking tape 15 cm from the bottom of the
ramp. Lay another piece of masking tape 5 m farther along the
ball’s path.
4. Hold a tennis ball at the top of the ramp.
5. Release the ball to allow it to roll down the ramp.
6. Students who are observing will start their stopwatches when
the ball reaches the first tape and stop them when the ball
reaches the second tape.
7. Repeat steps 4–6 three more times.

Analysis
1. Calculate the average speed of the rolling ball for each trial.
2. Compare the average speed of the ball in each trial. Are the
results accurate and reproducible? Explain.
3. Evaluate the timing process by comparing your time measure-
ments with the measurements of other group members. Sug-
gest reasons for any differences and ways to improve the
timing process.

Science Content Standards

1.b Students know that average speed is the total distance traveled divided by the total time
elapsed and that the speed of an object along the path traveled can vary.
9.b Evaluate the accuracy and reproducibility of data.

ALG: 6.0 63
LESSON 3

Science Content
Standards
Graphing Motion
1.f Students know how to interpret >ˆ˜Ê`i> Graphs can show how objects change their posi-
graphs of position versus time and graphs of tion or speed.
speed versus time for motion in a single Real-World Reading Connection Have you ever used a
direction.
hammer to drive a nail into a piece of wood? Would you use a
9.d Recognize the slope of the linear graph
as the constant in the relationship y = kx screwdriver to pound a nail into wood? Although you probably
and apply this principle in interpreting could hit the nail with a screwdriver, using the right tool makes
graphs constructed from data. the job easier. Graphs often are the most useful tool for summa-
9.e Construct appropriate graphs from rizing many kinds of information.
data and develop quantitative statements
about the relationships between variables.
Position-Time Graphs
Graphs often are used to show how something changes with
Reading Guide time. For example, the graph in Figure 12 shows temperature
versus time for a summer day in Santa Barbara, California.
What You’ll Learn From this graph, you can determine the maximum and mini-
Construct a position-time mum temperatures. You also can tell when those temperatures
▼

graph. occurred. What other information can you read from the graph?
Calculate speed from a A graph of temperature versus time shows how the tempera-
▼

position-time graph. ture of something is changing. A graph of position versus time

Describe how motion can show how an object’s position is changing. In other words, a
▼

with constant speed and position-time graph can show how an object is moving.
changing speed appears on Figure 12 When did the temperature reach its
a speed-time graph.
minimum value?
Why It’s Important
Graphs display a great deal Figure 12 This graph shows temperature versus
of information in a compact time for a summer day in Santa Barbara, California.
space.
IZbeZgVijgZViHVciV7VgWVgV!86!?jan(%!'%%*

Vocabulary '+
slope
rise
')
run
IZbeZgVijgZ8

Review Vocabulary ''

linear: relating to or
resembling a straight line '%
(p. 23)

&-

&+
b^Y ' ) + - &% cddc ' ) + - &% b^Y
I^bZ
64 Chapter 1 • Motion
 Figure 13 The time and position of the turtle are
measured and recorded to determine the turtle’s speed.

'%%Xb
&%%Xb
*%Xb
&%Xb

Making a Position-Time Graph Table 1 Turtle’s

As an example of graphing position, look at the turtle as it Position and Time
crawls straight across the sidewalk in Figure 13. You can measure
Elapsed Position
the position of the turtle with a meterstick and the elapsed time Time (s) (cm)
with a digital watch. Every 20 seconds, you write down the posi-
tion and time in a table, such as Table 1. 0 0
Figure 14 shows the graph of the turtle’s position and time data. 20 40
The position of the turtle is plotted on the y-axis, and the elapsed
time is plotted on the x-axis. The points appear to lie on a line, so 40 81
a ruler was used to draw the best-fit line through the data points.
60 123
The line that is drawn can be used to estimate the position of the
turtle for times you did not measure. 80 158

What is plotted on the x-axis on a position-time 100 202

graph?

IjgiaZ¼hEdh^i^dck#I^bZ
'*%
Figure 14 The data
'%% points for the turtle’s
position versus time
Edh^i^dcXb

&*% are linear.

Estimate the position of
the turtle after 50 s.
&%%

*%

%
'% )% +% -% &%% &'%
I^bZh
Lesson 3 • Graphing Motion 65
 IjgiaZGVXZ
*%%

)%%

Edh^i^dcXb
(%%

'%%

&%%
Figure 15 By comparing the positions
of two turtles on the same graph, you %
can determine which crawled faster. )% -% &'% &+% '%%
I^bZh

Units on Position-Time Graphs

The values plotted on a position-time graph have units. Each
plotted point is the position at a certain instant of time. Position
always has units of length, such as centimeters, meters, or kilome-
ters. However, all positions must be measured in the same unit.
For example, in Figure 14, all positions are measured in the same
unit—centimeters. All values for time also must have the same
unit. In Figure 14, the unit for time is seconds.

Using Position-Time Graphs

A position-time graph can be used to compare the motion of
two objects. For example, the graph in Figure 15 shows how the
position of two turtles changes in a 400-cm race. The positions of
the turtles were measured every 20 seconds. The position-time
data for each turtle was then plotted on the same graph. The
winning turtle is the one who reaches 400 cm first.
Figure 15 What was the position of the losing turtle
when the winning turtle crossed the finish line?

SCIENCE USE V. COMMON USE The Slope of a Position-Time Graph

slope Recall that average speed equals the distance traveled divided by
Science Use the steepness of a the time needed to travel the distance. The winning turtle travels
line. The slope of the line on
the position-time graph equals
400 cm in 200 s. So its average speed is (400 cm)/(200 s), which
the object’s speed. equals 2 cm/s. The losing turtle travels 200 cm in 200 s, so its
Common Use a hill or average speed is 1 cm/s.
mountain. Many slopes in The graph in Figure 15 shows that the plotted line for the win-
California are used as ski areas.
ning turtle is steeper than the plotted line for the losing turtle. The
steepness of a line is the slope of the line. On a position-time
graph, a steeper line means a greater average speed. This means
that the slope of the line is greater for objects that move faster.

66 Chapter 1 • Motion
 8VgBdk^c\Vi8dchiVciHeZZY

&'% I]ZhadeZd[i]Za^cZZfjVah
i]Zg^hZY^k^YZYWni]Zgjc/
HadeZ 2g^hZ$gjc
&%%  2+%b$(h
 2'%b$h
-%
I]ZY^[[ZgZcXZWZilZZc
Edh^i^dcb

I]Zm"kVajZd[i]^h
i]Zm"kVajZd[i]Zed^ci ed^ci^h(hVcYi]Z
+% VcYi]Zm"kVajZd[i]Z n"kVajZ^h+%b#
dg^\^c^hi]Zgjc# Figure 16 To find
gjc2(h·%h2(h the slope of a line, the
)% I]ZY^[[ZgZcXZWZilZZc origin and another
i]Zn"kVajZd[i]Zed^ci point are used to
G^hZ VcYi]Zn"kVajZd[i]Z
'% calculate the rise and
Gjc dg^\^c^hi]Zg^hZ# the run.
g^hZ2+%b·%b2+%b
%
% & ' ( ) * +
I^bZh

Calculating the Slope of a Position-Time Graph

Two points must be used to calculate the slope of a line plotted Figure 17 The slope of a
line can be calculated by
on a position-time graph. One point can be the origin of the following these steps.
graph, as shown in Figure 16. The other point can be any other
point on the plotted line. To calculate the slope, first calculate the 8VaXjaVi^c\HadeZ
change in units in the vertical direction from the origin to the
chosen point. This change in the vertical direction sometimes is [Figure
* &
17] Spec to come
called the rise. It is the number of units the line rises in the verti-
)
cal direction from the origin.
( )
Next, calculate the change in units in the horizontal direction G^hZ '
'
from the origin to the chosen point. This change in the horizontal
direction is sometimes called the run. The slope is calculated by &
Gjc (
dividing the rise by the run. Figure 17 summarizes how to calcu- %
% & ' ( ) *
late the slope of a line on a graph.
& 8]ddhZVed^cidci]Za^cZ#
How is the slope of a line calculated? ' I]Zg^hZZfjVahi]Z
n"kVajZd[i]Zed^ci#
Slope and Average Speed ( I]ZgjcZfjVahi]Z
Recall that the average speed of an object is equal to the dis- m"kVajZd[i]Zed^ci#
tance traveled divided by the time taken to travel that distance. On ) 8VaXjaViZi]ZhadeZWn
a position-time graph, the slope equals the rise over the run. How- Y^k^Y^c\i]Zg^hZWni]Zgjc#
ever, the rise is the same as the distance traveled. The run equals
the time needed to travel that distance. As a result, the slope of
a line on a position-time graph equals the average speed. In
Figure 16, the rise is equal to 60 m and the run is equal to 3 s.
Then the average speed is 20 m/s.

Lesson 3 • Graphing Motion 67

 IgV^c¼hEdh^i^dck#I^bZ
&'

&%

-
Edh^i^dc`b

:cY^c\ed^ci
+

'

%
* &% Figure 18 Even though
I^bZb^c the train’s speed isn’t con-
HiVgi^c\ed^ci stant, you can calculate the
train’s average speed from a
position-time graph.

Average Speed When Speed is Changing

Even when the speed of an object isn’t constant, you can calcu-
late its average speed from a position-time graph. Figure 18 is a
position-time graph for a train that slows down and stops at a sta-
tion for two minutes, and then starts moving again. Notice that
the graph is not a straight line. Only objects that move at a con-
stant speed will have position-time graphs that are straight lines.
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY Because the speed of the train isn’t constant, the graph of its
similar (SIH muh luhr) motion on a position-time graph isn’t a straight line. However, you
(adjective) having character- can find its average speed by following a procedure similar to the
istics in common
one used in the constant speed case. To find the average speed of
The twins are so similar
only their parents can tell the entire trip, use the starting and ending data points. Then
them apart. calculate the slope of the line that would connect those two points
as shown in Figure 18.
What is the average speed of the train for the trip
shown in Figure 18?

Position-Time Graphs for Changing Speed

When an object is changing speed, its position-time graph is a
curved line. The way the line curves depends on whether the
object is speeding up or slowing down, For example, between
0 min and 3 min, the train is slowing down as it pulls into the
station. As Figure 18 shows, the position-time graph for an object
that slows down is a line that curves downward. Between 5 min
and 10 min the train is speeding up after it leaves the station. The
position-time graph for an object that speeds up is a line that
curves upward.
68 Chapter 1 • Motion
Speed-Time Graphs
Figure 19 A speed-time graph shows if an
Another way of graphing motion is to graph object is speeding up, slowing down, or mov-
the instantaneous speed of the object on the y- ing with a constant speed.
axis and the time on the x-axis. This graph does
not show where the object is, but how the speed 8dchiVciHeZZY
of the object changes with time.

Constant Speed on a Speed-Time

Graph ;VhiZg
Suppose a car is moving with a constant speed.

HeZZY
Then at every instant of time its speed is the
same. If the speed of this car is plotted on a HadlZg
speed-time graph, the graph looks like the one
shown at the top of Figure 19. Because the speed
is constant, the plotted line is horizontal. A hori-
zontal line on a speed-time graph tells you that I^bZ
the object moved at a constant speed. However,
the faster the speed of the object, the greater the
distance of the line from the x-axis. HeZZY^c\Je
Figure 19 How does the position
of the line in the top figure change
if the car is moving at a faster
constant speed?
6XXZaZgVi^dc
HeZZY

Increasing Speed ^haVg\Zg#

If the car speeds up, its speed becomes larger
as time increases. Then the change in the car’s
6XXZaZgVi^dc
speed on a speed-time graph looks like the graph ^hhbVaaZg#
shown in the middle of Figure 19. The plotted
line slants upward toward the right. This is true I^bZ
for any object whose speed is increasing. What’s
the difference if one object speeds up more
Hadl^c\9dlc
quickly than another object? Then its plotted line
on a speed-time graph slants upward more
steeply and has a steeper slope.
6XXZaZgVi^dc
^hhbVaaZg#
Decreasing Speed
If a car slows down, its speed becomes smaller
HeZZY

as time increases. Then the change in the car’s

speed looks like the graph shown in the bottom
of Figure 19. The plotted line slants downward 6XXZaZgVi^dc
^haVg\Zg#
toward the right. If the car slows down more
quickly, then the line slants downward more
steeply. Table 2 on the next page summarizes I^bZ
position-time graphs and speed-time graphs for
different types of motion.
Lesson 3 • Graphing Motion 69
 Interactive Table Organize information
about position-time graphs and speed-time
Table 2 Position-Time and Speed-Time Graphs graphs at ca8.msscience.com .

Description of Motion Position-Time Graph Speed-Time Graph

Object is at rest.

Edh^i^dc

HeZZY
I^bZ I^bZ

If an object is at rest, the position For an object at rest, the speed is

of the object doesn’t change. The zero and doesn’t change. The
graph is a horizontal line on a graph is a horizontal line on a
position-time graph. speed-time graph.

Object is moving at a constant speed in the positive reference direction.

Edh^i^dc

HeZZY

I^bZ I^bZ

For an object with constant speed, If the speed is constant, the speed
the position increases linearly with doesn’t change. The y-value of the
time. The slope of the line equals horizontal line equals the speed.
the speed.

70 Chapter 1 • Motion
Table 2 Position-Time and Speed-Time Graphs
Description of Motion Position-Time Graph Speed-Time Graph
Object is speeding up.

Edh^i^dc

HeZZY
I^bZ I^bZ

When the object is speeding up, If the speed is increasing with time,
the position increases nonlinearly the line on a speed-time graph
with time. The line on a position- slopes upward as time increases.
time graph curves upward.

Object is slowing down.

Edh^i^dc

HeZZY

I^bZ I^bZ

When the object is slowing If speed is decreasing with time,

upward, the position increases the line on a speed-time graph
nonlinearly with time. The line on a slopes downward as time
position-time graph curves increases.
downward.

Lesson 3 • Graphing Motion 71

 What have you learned?
In this lesson you read about how to represent the motion of an
object using position-time and speed-time graphs. A position-time
graph shows how the position of an object changes with time. The
slope of a line on a position-time graph is the speed of the object.
To calculate the slope, first choose a point on the line. Then divide
the rise by the run. If the speed of the object isn’t constant, the
plotted position-time graph is not a straight line.
A speed-time graph shows how the speed of an object changes
with time. A horizontal line means the speed is constant. A line
that slopes upward means the object is speeding up. A line that
slopes downward means the object is slowing down.

LESSON 3 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 6. Describe the motion of the
summary as you design a object whose position-time
1. describes the steep- graph is shown below. 1.f
visual aid.
ness of a line on a graph. 1.f
1. Write the lesson title,
number, and page num- 2. Define rise and run in your
bers at the top of your own words. 1.f
poster.
Understanding Main Ideas
Edh^i^dc

2. Scan the lesson to find

the red main headings. 3. State appropriate units for the
Organize these headings x-axis and y-axis on a position-
on your poster, leaving time graph for a turtle, a walk-
space between each. ing person, and an automobile
3. Design an information on the highway. 1.f I^bZ
box beneath each red
4. Describe the speed-time
heading. In the box, list
graph of an object that is not Applying Math
2–3 details, key terms,
moving. 1.f
and definitions from each
7. Calculate the slope of the line
blue subheading. 5. Sequence Draw a graphic on a position-time graph for a
4. Illustrate your poster with organizer like the one below car that starts at the origin at
diagrams of important to show the sequence of steps 0 s and moves at a constant
structures or processes in calculating the slope of a velocity for 15 s to a position
next to each information line. 1.f 300 m from the origin. 9.d
box.

ELA8: R 2.3
Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

72 Chapter 1 • Motion
What can you learn
from a graph?
The graph below represents a student’s 200-m sprint on a bicycle.

Data
9^hiVcXZk#I^bZ
'%%

&*%
9^hiVcXZb

&%%

*%

%
&% '% (%
I^bZh

Data Analysis
1. Construct a data table for the points plotted on the position-
time graph.
2. Calculate the average speed for the following three time
intervals: 0–9 s, 9–18 s, and 21–30 s. Also, calculate the average
speed for the entire ride.
3. Compose a short paragraph explaining the shape of the posi-
tion-time graph. Suggest reasons why the velocity changed
over time.

Science Content Standards

1.f Students know how to interpret graphs of position versus time and graphs of speed versus
time for motion in a single direction.
9.d Recognize the slope of the linear graph as the constant in the relationship y = kx and apply
this principle in interpreting graphs constructed from data.

73
 Graphing Motion
Materials
Problem
You have read that describing motion involves a point of refer-
masking tape
ence and that you can move in a positive or negative direction
stopwatch from that point. You know how to determine average speed using
graph paper the distance traveled and the time it takes to reach a given point.
You can make graphs representing how objects’ positions and
speeds change over time. Use this knowledge to collect data and
produce graphs of a student’s motion.

Form a Hypothesis
Review the results from this chapter’s laboratory investigations.
Safety Precautions Make a prediction about the shape of the motion’s position-
time graph. Make a sketch of your prediction and explain why
you think it will have that shape.

Collect Data and Make Observations

Science Content 1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
Standards 2. Write a plan for collecting data that includes a description of
1.f Students know how to interpret the motion you will graph. The movement should include at
graphs of position versus time and graphs least three different speeds. Include in your plan approximate
of speed versus time for motion in a single distances students will move, how many students will record
direction. times with stopwatches, and the distance between the timers.
9.e Construct appropriate graphs from
data and develop quantitative statements 3. Record your observations in a table similar to the one shown
about the relationships between variables. below.

Position-Time Data
Time (s) Position (m)

74
 Edh^i^dck#I^bZ
Edh^i^dcb

I^bZh

Analyze and Conclude

1. Explain how putting measurements in a table helped you
organize the data.
2. Construct a position-time graph of the movement. Put
position on the y-axis and time on the x-axis.
3. Calculate the average speed of the student over the entire
movement.
4. Calculate the speed of the student during each portion of
the motion.
5. Compare the graphed data with your predicted graph.
Explain any differences in shape.
6. Describe what the slope of the graph indicates about the
student’s motion.
7. Evaluate your procedure for timing the motion. Explain how
having more timers would make your graph a more accurate
representation of the motion. If you had more timers, where
would you put them to be most useful?

Communicate
3CIENCE ELA8: W 2.3
Write a Report Describe the procedure you
followed in a written report. Include in your
report why you chose the procedure you used.
Also include a discussion of the sources of error in
your data and how these errors could be reduced.

75
 Automobile Designer
All the parts of a car that you see, including the
headlights, grill, door handles, seats, and steering
wheel, are designed by automobile designers. They
also design the shape of the overall vehicle. To
become an automobile designer, you must com-
bine artistic creativity with technical knowledge of
automobiles. Your background should include
courses in art and design, as well as courses in the
physical sciences.
Visit Careers at ca8.msscience.com for more
information on automobile designers. Present a
news broadcast describing how the design of
cars might change over the next ten years.

GPS Shows the Way

One way to determine your position anywhere on
Earth is to use a GPS receiver. GPS stands for Global
Positioning System, which is a system of 24 opera-
tional satellites, five tracking stations, and GPS
receivers. By receiving signals from four satellites at
the same time, a GPS receiver can determine its
position on Earth’s surface with an accuracy of
about 10 m. GPS receivers are used in airplanes,
ships, and even in cars. Some receivers are small
enough to fit in the palm of your hand.
Visit Technology at ca8.msscience.com for
more information about GPS. Write a paragraph
describing several different ways that GPS is
used.

76
 Galileo and Scientific
Theories
Galileo Galilei was an Italian scientist who lived from 1564
to 1642. He was one of the first to realize that scientific
theories had to be tested by carrying out experiments.
During Galileo’s time, people believed that heavier objects
would fall faster than lighter ones. Galileo carried out
experiments that showed that all objects had the same
acceleration as they fell. Galileo also made astronomical
observations using a small telescope that he made. These
observations helped prove that Earth and the planets
moved around the Sun.
Visit History at ca8.msscience.com for more informa-
tion about Galileo’s life. Write a newspaper article
describing Galileo’s astronomical discoveries.
ELA8: W 2.1

Henry Ford and the Assembly Line

Millions of cars are built and sold each year by
automobile manufacturers. The methods needed
to build cars and other products in large numbers
were pioneered by Henry Ford during the early
1900s. Ford developed the assembly line, where a
car was assembled step by step as it moved along
a conveyor belt. Ford’s assembly line helped lower
the cost of his cars so that millions of people
could buy them. Today, robots, such as those in
the photo, perform some jobs on automobile
assembly lines.
Visit Society at ca8.msscience.com for more
information on Henry Ford and the assembly
line. Make a graph showing the number of
cars registered in California by year from 1970
to 2003.

77
 CHAPTER Standards Study Guide

/…iÊ Ê`i> Motion occurs when the position of an object changes.

Lesson 1 Determining Position 1.a

• displacement (p. 53)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Position is defined relative to a reference point and
• reference point (p. 48)
reference directions.
• vector (p. 51)
• The position of an object includes the distance and direction from the
reference point.
• The description of an object’s position in two dimensions requires a reference
point, called the origin, and two directions perpendicular to each other.
• A vector is quantity that has both size and direction.
• Displacement is a vector that gives the distance and direction for a change in
position.

Lesson 2 Speed, Velocity, and Acceleration 1.b, 1.c, 1.d, 1.e, 9.b, 9.f

• acceleration (p. 60)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Speed, velocity, and acceleration describe how an
• average speed (p. 58)
object’s position and motion change in time.
• constant speed (p. 57)
• Speed is the rate of change of distance. • instantaneous speed (p. 57)
• The average speed of an object is the total distance traveled divided by the • speed (p. 56)
total time that it traveled. • velocity (p. 59)
• The velocity of an object is a vector that includes the speed of the object and
the direction of the object’s motion.
• A velocity vector can be described by an arrow. The length of the arrow
represents the speed. The direction of the arrow represents the direction of
motion.
• An object accelerates when it changes the speed or direction of its motion.

Lesson 3 Graphing Motion 1.f, 9.d, 9.e

• rise (p. 67)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Graphs can show how objects change their position
• run (p. 67)
or speed.
• slope (p. 66)
• The slope of the graph of position-time data shows the speed of the
moving object.
• If the graph of an object’s position versus time is a horizontal line, the
object’s speed is zero.
• If the graph of an object’s speed versus time is a horizontal line, the object’s
speed is constant.
Download quizzes, key
• If the graph of speed versus time is not horizontal, the object is speeding up terms, and flash cards from
or slowing down. ca8.msscience.com.

78 Chapter 1 • Standards Study Guide Interactive Tutor ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Linking Vocabulary and Main Ideas

Use vocabulary terms from page 78 to complete this concept map.

Position

measured rate of change

from

1. 2.

size of position-time
graph’s

3. 6.

is a
rate of change
calculated by
dividing
4.
5.
7.
has both

size direction
by
Visit ca8.msscience.com for:
υ Vocabulary PuzzleMaker
8. υ Vocabulary eFlashcards
υ Multilingual Glossary

Using Vocabulary
Match a vocabulary term to each definition below.
9. total distance traveled divided by total time taken 14. the change in the value of the vertical coordinate
between two points on a graph
10. a number describing how steep a plotted line on a
graph is; equal to the rise divided by the run 15. a starting point used to describe the position of
an object
11. speed at a specific instant in time
16. a vector that represents the distance and direc-
12. a quantity with both size and direction
tion of an object’s change in position
13. rate of change of velocity with time
17. rate of change of position with time

Chapter 1 • Standards Review 79

 CHAPTER Standards Review
Understanding Main Ideas 5. Which of the following equals average speed?
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the A. acceleration/time
question. B. (change in velocity)/time
C. distance/time
1. Which units could you use for the y-axis of a D. displacement/time 1.b
graph of speed-time to display the motion of an
automobile? 6. Which of the following is the rate of change of
A. h/s velocity with time?
B. cm/km A. acceleration
C. km/m B. displacement
D. km/h 1.b C. speed
D. vector 1.e
Use the figure below to answer questions 2, 3, and 4.
Use the table below to answer questions 7 and 8.
Edh^i^dck#I^bZ
Distance and Time Data

Runner Distance Time

'%
Edh^i^dcb

Covered (km) (min)

Andrés 11 42
&%
Keshia 7.8 38

Matt 10.5 32
%
&% '% (% Sandra 8.9 30
I^bZh

2. Which best describes the motion of the object 7. What is Andrés’s average speed?
from 10 s to 15 s? A. 0.26 km/min
A. It is not moving. B. 3.8 km/min
B. It is moving at a constant speed. C. 53 km/min
C. Its speed is increasing D. 462 km/min 1.c
D. Its speed is decreasing. 1.f
8. Which runner has the fastest average speed?
3. What is the average speed of the object for the A. Andrés
30 s shown in this graph? B. Keshia
A. 0.5 m/s C. Matt
B. 2 m/s D. Sandra 1.c
C. 10 m/s
D. 100 m/s 1.c 9. Which describes an object with constant
velocity?
4. What is the position of the object at 15 s? A. It is changing direction.
A. 0 m B. Its acceleration is increasing.
B. 7.5 m C. Its acceleration is zero.
C. 15 m D. Its acceleration is negative. 1.e
D. can’t be determined from this graph 1.f

80 Chapter 1 • Standards Review Standards Review ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Applying Science 3CIENCE

10. Propose three different reference points you 18. Write a short story that illustrates the differences
could use to describe where you are right now. between speed, velocity, and acceleration. Your
1.a
story should be a few paragraphs long and
11. Relate displacement and distance traveled. When should use speed, velocity, and acceleration in
does distance traveled equal the magnitude of ways that demonstrate the relationships between
the displacement vector? 1.a the terms. ELA8: W 2.1

12. Construct a two-dimensional graph showing the

following locations: school is at the origin; a
restaurant is 500 m north and 200 m east of the Applying Math
school; a bookstore is 300 m south and 300 m
west of the restaurant. What is the location of the
bookstore in relation to the school? 1.a 19. On a vacation, Linda’s family traveled 790 km
at an average speed of 95 km/h. How long did
Use the graph below to answer questions 13 and 14. the trip take? ALG: 15.0

HeZZYk#I^bZ 20. If you rode your bike for 2 h and traveled

40 km, what was your average speed?
* ALG: 15.0
)
HeZZYb$h

21. If you rode your bike at an average speed of

(
15 km/h for 4 h, how many kilometers did
' you travel? ALG: 15.0
&
22. The table below shows the distance traveled
by a car at different times.
% & ' ( ) *
I^bZh
Distance Traveled by Car

13. Determine the speed of the object at 4 s. 1.f Distance (km) Time (h)

14. Compare the acceleration of the object between

55 1
0 s and 3 s and the acceleration between 3 s
and 5 s. 1.f 120 2

15. Describe three ways to change the velocity of

180 3
a car. 1.e
16. Calculate the average speed of a car that travels
What is the car’s average speed over the time
120 km in 2 h. 1.b
period 1 h to 3 h? ALG: 15.0
17. Compare the information that can be learned
from a position-time graph and from a speed-
time graph. 1.f

Chapter 1 • Standards Review 81

 CHAPTER Standards Assessment
Use the table below to answer questions 4 and 5.
1 What is the distance traveled divided by the
time taken to travel that distance?
Distance v. Time
A acceleration 1.b
Distance Time
B velocity
0 0
C speed 4 2
D inertia 8 4
14 6
Use the figure below to answer questions 2 and 3. 20 8
26 10
32 12

%b &b 'b (b

4 What is the average speed of the object over the
time interval 6 s to 12 s?

%h &h 'h (h )h A 2.0 m/s 1.b

B 2.7 m/s
2 The illustration above shows the position of a
ball at one-second time intervals. Over which C 3.0 m/s
time period is the ball’s average speed largest? D 5.3 m/s
A 0 s to 1 s 1.b
5 Over which time interval did the object
B 1 s to 2 s accelerate?
C 2 s to 3 s A 2 s to 4 s 1.e
D 3 s to 4 s B 4 s to 6 s

3 What is the average speed of the ball over the C 6 s to 8 s

3-m distance in the illustration above? D 8 s to 10 s
A 0.75 m/s 1.c
6 What does a car’s speedometer measure?
B 1.0 m/s
A average speed 1.d
C 1.25 m/s
B instantaneous speed
D 1.5 m/s
C acceleration

D velocity

82 Chapter 1 • Standards Assessment Standards Assessment ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Assessment CHAPTER

7 Which can occur when an object is accelerating? 10 The graph below shows the motion of two
students.
A It speeds up. 1.e

B It slows down. 9^hiVcXZk#I^bZ

C It changes direction.

D all of the above '#%

9^hiVcXZb
HijYZci6
&#*
8 Sound travels at a speed of 330 m/s. How long
does it take for the sound of thunder to travel &#%
1,485 m? HijYZci7
%#*
A 45 s 1.c

B 4.5 s % %#* &#% &#* '#% '#*

C 4,900 s I^bZh

D 0.22 s
How does the speed of student A compare to the
speed of student B?
9 The graph below shows a speed-time graph.
A It is half as large. 1.f
HeZZYk#I^bZ B It is the same.
&' C It is twice as large.
7
&% D It is three times as large.

-
HeZZYb$h

11 A car travels for 5.5 h at an average speed of

8
+ 75 km/h. How far did the car travel?
6 A 0.073 km 1.c
)
B 13.6 km
'
C 80.5 km
%
& ' ( ) * + D 412.5 km
I^bZh
12 Which of the following is a vector?
Over what time interval is the speed of the
object constant in the graph above? A distance 1.d

A 0 s to 1 s 1.f B mass

B 1 s to 2 s C speed

C 2 s to 3 s D velocity

D 4 s to 5 s

Chapter 1 • Standards Assessment 83

 Forces
/…iÊ Ê`i>
An object’s motion
changes if the forces
acting on the object are
unbalanced.

LESSON 1 2.a, 2.b, 2.c, 9.g

Combining Forces
>ˆ˜Ê`i> When more
than one force acts on
an object, the combined
effect is caused by the
sum of all applied forces.

LESSON 2 2.d, 2.g

Types of Forces
>ˆ˜Ê`i> There are
different types of forces
that act on objects.

LESSON 3
2.e, 2.f, 9.a, 9.d
Unbalanced Forces
and Acceleration
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Unbal-
anced forces cause
accelerations.

A Long Way Down

Step by step, this climber slowly creeps up the
side of a 1,000-m-tall rock face. The secret to clinging like a fly on a wall is a
force called friction. This force is exerted on the climber at each place where
he touches the rock. Friction balances gravity’s downward pull on the climber
and keeps him from sliding down the wall.
-Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM Describe three examples of pushing or pulling on an
object. In each case, how did the object move?

84
 Start-Up Activities

Forces Make the following

Foldable to organize
Can you feel the force? information about the
different kinds of forces.
Imagine pushing a chair
that has wheels on its STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper into thirds
legs. Now imagine push- lengthwise. Fold the top down about 3 cm.
ing the chair with a friend
sitting in it. Is there a
difference in how hard
you would have to push?
Procedure
1. Set your textbook on the table in front of
you and push it so that it moves at a
constant velocity.
2. Put at least one more book on top of your STEP 2 Unfold and draw lines along all
textbook and push the stack of books at a folds. Label as shown.
constant speed.
Think About This À>
>
ۈÌÞ ÀˆV̈œ˜ œÀVÃ̈V
iÃ
Imagine performing the experiment on ice
instead of on the table. Do you think the
pushes needed to keep the books moving
across ice would be different than the pushes
needed to move them across the table?
Explain your answer.
2.c

Determining the Main Idea

As you read this chapter, identify and
record the main ideas about the different
kinds of forces that are discussed.

Visit ca8.msscience.com to:

υ view
υ explore Virtual Labs
υ access content-related Web links
υ take the Standards Check

85
Get Ready to Read
Identify the Main Idea

Learn It! Main ideas are the most

important ideas in a paragraph, a lesson, or a chapter.
Supporting details are facts or examples that explain the
main idea. Understanding the main idea allows you to
grasp the whole picture.

Practice It! Read the following para-

graph. Draw a graphic organizer like the one below to
show the main idea and supporting details.

The unit for the size of a force is the newton (N). A

force with a size of 1 N is a small force. The force
needed to lift a half-stick of butter or a fast-food
hamburger is about 1 N. To lift a 2-L bottle of water
requires a force of about 20 N.

—from page 89

Main Idea

Apply It! Pick a paragraph

from another section of this chapter and
diagram the main idea as you did above.

86
 en the
a i n id ea is oft
The m ara-
ce i n a p
Target Your Reading f irst
g rap
s
h
e
,
n
b
te
u
n
t not alwa
ys .

Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter.
1 Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements
below on your worksheet or on a numbered sheet of paper.
• Write an A if you agree with the statement.
• Write a D if you disagree with the statement.
2 After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if
you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements.
• If any of your answers changed, explain why.
• Change any false statements into true statements.
• Use your revised statements as a study guide.

Before You Read Statement After You Read

A or D A or D
1 A force is a push or a pull.

2 Things must be touching each other to apply forces.

3 Only one force at a time can act on an object.

4 If the total force acting on an object is zero, the

object will not move.

5 Gravity pulls on all objects that have mass.

6 If objects of different sizes apply forces on each

other, the larger object applies a greater force on the
smaller object.
Print a worksheet of
this page at 7 A moving object comes to a stop because no force is
ca8.msscience.com. acting on it.

8 An object at rest can have forces acting on it.

9 Forces cause objects to speed up.

10 An object moving in a circle must have forces acting

on it.

87
LESSON 1
Science Content
Standards
Combining Forces
2.a Students know a force has both >ˆ˜Ê`i> When more than one force acts on an object, the
direction and magnitude. combined effect is caused by the sum of all applied forces.
2.b Students know when an object is
subject to two or more forces at once,
Real-World Reading Connection Think about all the things
the result is the cumulative effect of all you push or pull every day. You might push on computer keys,
the forces. pull open a door, push a shopping cart, or pull a heavy backpack
2.c Students know when the forces on an from the floor onto your shoulders. What happens when more
object are balanced, the motion of the object than one push or pull acts on an object?
does not change.
9.g Distinguish between linear and
nonlinear relationships on a graph of data. What is a force?
A push or a pull is called a force. Forces are always exerted by
one object on another object. In Figure 1, a hand exerts a force
Reading Guide on the boards and on the bow string. The hand pushes on the
What You’ll Learn boards and pulls on the bow string. What other pushes or pulls
do you observe around you?
Define force.
▼

Explain how forces Contact Forces

▼

combine. When you press the keys on a computer keyboard, your fin-
gers exert a force on the keys. This force can be exerted only
Describe how balanced
▼

and unbalanced forces when your fingers are touching the keys. A force that is exerted
affect motion. only when two objects are touching is a contact force. A contact
force can be small, such as the force you exert to push a pencil
Why It’s Important across a sheet of paper, or large, such as the force exerted by a
Usually, more than one force tow truck as it pulls a car along a street. Both of the forces
acts on you and on the shown in Figure 1 are contact forces.
objects around you.

Vocabulary Figure 1 The hand exerts a force on the wood

and on the bow string.
force
Explain why both of these forces are contact forces.
contact force
noncontact force [
net force
unbalanced force
balanced force
Newton’s first law of motion

Review Vocabulary
vector: a quantity with both
size and direction (p. 51)

88 Chapter 2 • Forces
Noncontact Forces
When you jump up in the air, you are pulled back to the
ground, even though nothing seems to be touching you. The sky-
diver in Figure 2 is also being pulled downward, even though there
seems to be nothing touching him. Forces can be exerted by one
object on another even though they aren’t touching each other.
The force pulling you and the skydiver down to Earth is the gravi-
tational force exerted by Earth. This force is a noncontact force. A
noncontact force is a force that one object exerts on another when
they are not touching. The magnetic force that two magnets exert
on each other is also an example of a noncontact force. Noncon-
tact forces include the gravitational force, the electric force, and Figure 2 The skydiver
is pulled downward by a
the magnetic force. noncontact gravitational
force.
Force is a Vector
Recall from the previous chapter that the velocity of an object is
a vector. A vector has a size and a direction. A velocity vector is
represented by an arrow that points in the direction of motion.
The length of the arrow represents the object’s speed. A force also
is a vector that can be represented by an arrow. The direction of
the arrow is the direction of the push or the pull. The length of the
arrow represents the size, or strength, of the force. The arrow
becomes longer as the size of the force increases.
The unit for the size of a force is the newton (N). A force with a
size of 1 N is a small force. The force needed to lift a half-stick of
butter or a fast-food hamburger is about 1 N. To lift a 2-L bottle of
water requires a force of about 20 N. Figure 3 shows some exam-
ples of force vectors.
What does the length of a force vector arrow
represent?

;dgXZZmZgiZYWn
gVXfjZidcWVaa Figure 3 A force is a
;dgXZZmZgiZYWn vector that has a size
[ddidcWVaa and a direction.

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(%%C

Lesson 1 • Combining Forces 89

 Combining Forces
Suppose you are trying to move a heavy piece of furniture, such
as the dresser shown in Figure 4. You don’t have to push as hard if
a friend helps and you both push together in the same direction.
When more than one force acts on an object, the forces combine.
The combination of all the forces acting on an object is called the
net force. How forces combine depends on the direction of the
forces applied to an object.

What is the net force acting on an object?

Combining Forces in the Same Direction

If you and a friend both push on the same side of the dresser,
the forces that you both exert are in the same direction. When the
forces acting on an object are in the same direction, they add
together, as shown in Figure 4, to form the net force. When you
both push on the dresser in the same direction, the net force is in
the same direction in which both of you push.
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY Because forces are vectors, it is necessary to specify a reference
specify direction to be able to combine forces. For example, you could
(verb) to name or state in
choose “to the right” as the positive reference direction in Figure 4.
detail
The store clerk asked the cus- Then, both forces would be positive. For example, suppose you
tomer to specify the size and push with a force of 200 N to the right and your friend pushes
color of the shirt he wanted. with a force of 100 N to the right. Then the net force is 200 N 
100 N  300 N. Because the net force is a positive number, its
direction is to the right. The dresser will slide as if it were being
pushed by one person exerting a force of 300 N to the right.

Figure 4 Describe the net force acting on the dresser.

Figure 4 When
forces in the same
direction combine,
the net force is
also in the same
direction. The size
of the net force is
the sum of the two
forces.

  C:I;DG8:
'%%C  &%%C  (%%C

90 Chapter 2 • Forces
 Figure 5 When
two forces in oppo-
site directions com-
bine, the net force is
in the same direc-
tion as the larger
force. The size of the
net force is the dif-
ference in the sizes
of the two forces.

  C:I;DG8:
'%%C  &%%C  &%%C

Combining Forces in Opposite Directions

Suppose you and a friend push on the dresser, as shown in
Figure 5. Then the two forces are in opposite directions. If “to the
right” is the positive reference direction, then one force is positive
and the other is negative. For example, a force of 200 N is exerted
to the right and a force of 100 N is exerted to the left. Then the
force exerted to the left is a negative number. The net force equals
200 N  100 N  100 N. Because the net force is a positive num-
ber, it is being exerted to the right.

Unbalanced and Balanced Forces

In the two examples just discussed, the net force on the dresser
was not zero. When the net force on an object is not zero, the
forces are unbalanced forces. Figure 6 shows an example in which
the net force on the dresser is zero. When the net force on an
object is zero, the forces on the object are called balanced forces.

Figure 6 The
net force on the
dresser is zero, so
the two forces on
the dresser are
balanced forces.

  %C:I;DG8:
'%%C  '%%C  %C
 How do forces
affect motion?
What happens when you push or pull on an
object? When you pull your backpack upward,
CZi its motion changes as it moves upward. How-
[dgXZ ever, when you push against a brick wall, the
wall doesn’t move. The motion of an object
changes when it changes speed or changes
direction. Whether the motion of an object
changes depends on whether the forces acting
on it are balanced or unbalanced.

Unbalanced Forces and Motion

If you kick a soccer ball, you apply a contact
force to the ball. You exert a force when your
Figure 7 The net force on the ball is unbalanced, foot is in contact with the ball. The force you
causing the velocity of the ball to change. exert causes the ball to change speed and
direction. When you kick the ball, the force
exerted by your foot combines with other
forces on the ball to form the net force on the
ball. Figure 7 shows the net force on the soccer
ball as you kick it. Because the net force on
the ball is not zero, the forces on the ball are
unbalanced. The unbalanced forces on the ball
caused its velocity to change. This is true for
Figure 8 The forces on the skydiver are any object. The velocity of an object changes if
balanced, so the velocity of the skydiver
doesn’t change.
the forces acting on it are unbalanced.
Infer the net force on the skydiver.
Balanced Forces and Motion
Imagine two people push on a dresser in
opposite directions with forces of the same
;dgXZd[V^ggZh^hiVcXZ
size. You probably know what happens—the
dresser doesn’t move. In this case the net force
is zero and the forces on the dresser are bal-
anced. When the forces on an object are bal-
anced, the motion of the object doesn’t change.
Even when the forces acting on an object are
balanced, the object can be moving. Figure 8
shows the forces acting on a skydiver after the
parachute opens. The downward force of grav-
ity on the skydiver is balanced by the upward
;dgXZd[\gVk^in force exerted by the parachute. Because the
forces are balanced, the velocity of the skydiver
doesn’t change. The skydiver floats downward
at a constant speed.

92 Chapter 2 • Forces
 Figure 8 2 photos of crash test dummies

Figure 9 Because of iner-

Newton’s First Law of Motion tia, the crash-test dummies
without seat belts keep mov-
Isaac Newton, a scientist who lived from 1642 to 1727, explained ing forward after the car has
how forces cause motion to change. He developed three rules that stopped.
are now called Newton’s laws of motion. Newton’s first law of
motion describes how an object moves when the forces acting on it
are balanced. According to Newton’s first law of motion, if the net
force on an object is zero, an object at rest remains at rest, or, if the
object is moving, it continues to move in a straight line with con-
stant speed. In other words, if the net force on an object is zero,
the velocity of the object doesn’t change.

What is Newton’s first law of motion?

Inertia
According to the first law of motion, the motion of an object
changes only when unbalanced forces act on it. The tendency of an
object to resist a change in its motion is called inertia. Inertia
explains the motion of the crash-test dummies in Figure 9. When
the car hits the barrier, the barrier exerts an unbalanced force on
the car. This unbalanced force changes the motion of the car and
makes it stop. However, without a safety belt that exerts an unbal-
anced force on the dummies, their motion doesn’t change. Each
dummy keeps moving until it hits the steering wheel, the dash-
board, or the windshield.

Mass and Change in Motion

The size of the net force needed to cause a certain change in
motion depends on the object’s mass. Imagine trying to stop a
bicycle or a car both traveling at the same speed. You wouldn’t
have to push very hard to stop the bicycle. However, the car might
have 100 times more mass than the bicycle. A much larger net
force is needed to cause the same change in motion as the bicycle.

Lesson 1 • Combining Forces 93

 What have you learned?
In this lesson you read that forces acting on an object can be
added together to determine the net force acting the object. Since
forces are vectors, it is important to include the size and direction
of the force when adding them together. If the forces add to a zero
net force, the forces are balanced and the motion of the object
does not change. Newton’s first law of motion states that the
motion of an object will not change if the net force is zero. If the
net force is not zero, the motion of the object will change.

LESSON 1 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 6. Which statement is true?
summary as you design a A. An object in motion always
1. is the combination
study web. has an unbalanced force
of all the forces acting on an
1. Write the lesson title, object. 2.a acting on it.
number, and page num- B. An object in motion cannot
bers at the top of a sheet 2. Restate Newton’s first law of be acted on by more than
of paper. motion in your own words. 2.c one force.
2. Scan the lesson to find C. An object at rest will
Understanding Main Ideas
the red main headings. remain at rest unless an
3. State what you know about unbalanced force acts on it.
3. Organize these headings
clockwise on branches the forces acting on an object D. The net force on an object
around the lesson title. that is moving at a constant in motion can’t be zero. 2.c
velocity. Are the forces bal-
4. Review the information Applying Science
anced or unbalanced? 2.c
under each red heading
to design a branch for 4. Describe how a 300-N force 7. Imagine a car being acted on
each blue subheading. can combine with a 100-N by unbalanced forces. What do
force to produce a net force of you know about the motion of
5. List 2–3 details, key terms,
200 N on a sled. 2.b the car? 2.c
and definitions from each
blue subheading on 5. Take Notes Copy the graphic 8. Assess the differences
branches extending organizer below, and describe between an object that has
from the main heading no force acting on it and an
the effect balanced and unbal-
branches. object that has a zero net force
anced forces have on objects’
motion. 2.c acting on it. Can you deter-
ELA8: R 2.3
mine which is which? 2.c
Effect on
Objects’ Motion

Balanced forces
Science nline
Unbalanced forces
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com .

94 Chapter 2 • Forces Newton’s Laws of Motion ca8.msscience.com

Can you add vertical forces?
How do forces add in the vertical direction? How can you
tell when vertical forces are balanced?

Data Collection
1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Set up a ring stand and clamp an extension rod near
the top. Attach a spring scale to the extension. Hook a
rubber band and a large paper clip on the other end
of the scale.
3. Add mass to the rubber band by hooking it onto the
paper clip. Record the measurement of the force on
the spring scale and the length of the rubber band.
4. Continue to add mass until you have five data points. Record
the force and length of rubber band.

Force and Length of Rubber Band

Trial Number Force (N) Length of rubber

band (cm)

Data Analysis
1. Explain how you know the forces acting on the mass are bal-
anced. Draw a diagram of the forces acting on the mass.
2. Create a graph of force versus length with force on the y-axis
and length on the x-axis. Is the relationship between the two
variables linear or nonlinear? How do you know?
3. Use the graph to estimate the length of the rubber band when
a 1.5-N force acts on the rubber band.

Science Content Standards ALG: 6.0

2.c Students know when the forces on an object are balanced, the motion of the object
does not change.
9.g Distinguish between linear and nonlinear relationships on a graph of data.
95
LESSON 2
Science Content
Standards Types of Forces
2.d Students know how to identify >ˆ˜Ê`i> There are different types of forces that act on
separately the two or more forces that are objects.
acting on a single static object, including
gravity, elastic forces due to tension or Real-World Reading Connection Have you ever kicked a
compression in matter, and friction. soccer ball up into the air? You apply an unbalanced force to the
2.g Students know the role of gravity in ball with your foot, and it lifts off the ground into the air. It
forming and maintaining the shapes of eventually falls back to the ground and rolls to a stop. What
planets, stars, and the solar system.
forces act on the ball as it follows this path?

Reading Guide What is gravity?

In Figure 10, the basketball is at rest until the player applies
What You’ll Learn an unbalanced force. After the ball is shot into the air, the player
Explain how the force due no longer applies a force to the ball. According to Newton’s first
▼

to gravity depends on mass law of motion, the ball should travel in a straight line at a con-
and distance. stant speed unless an unbalanced force acts on it. The basketball
Analyze static and sliding does not travel at a constant speed or in a straight line, so there
▼

frictional forces. must be an unbalanced force acting on it. The unbalanced force
Describe elastic forces due that acts on the ball while it’s in the air is gravity. Gravity is an
▼

to tension and compression attractive force that exists between all objects that have mass.
in matter. Earth exerts the gravitational force that causes the ball to follow
Identify forces acting on the path shown in Figure 10.
▼

common objects.

Why It’s Important Figure 10 The basketball follows a curved path through
Identifying the forces acting the air.
on objects helps explain why Identify the force that causes the ball’s path to be curved.
things move as they do.

EVi]d[WVaa
Vocabulary l^i]dji\gVk^in
EVi]
gravity d[WVaa
law of universal gravitation
weight
friction
elastic force
tension force ;dgXZd[
\gVk^in
compression force
normal force

Review Vocabulary
velocity: the speed and
direction in which an object
is traveling (p. 59)

96 Chapter 2 • Forces
The Law of Universal Gravitation
In the seventeenth century, Isaac Newton
was thinking about gravity. He wondered if the
motion of falling objects and the motion of the
Moon around Earth are caused by the same
type of force. Newton found that it was gravity
that pulled objects downward and caused the
Moon to orbit Earth. In 1687, he published the
I]Z\gVk^iVi^dcVa[dgXZ^cXgZVhZh^[i]Z
law of universal gravitation (yew nuh VER sul • bVhhd[dcZd[i]ZdW_ZXih\ZihaVg\Zg#
gra vuh TAY shun) that showed how to calcu-
late this force. According to the law of universal
gravitation, all objects are attracted to each
other with a force that depends on the masses
of the objects and the distance between them.

Gravity, Mass, and Distance I]Z\gVk^iVi^dcVa[dgXZYZXgZVhZhVh

Figure 11 shows how the size of the force of i]ZdW_ZXihbdkZ[Vgi]ZgVeVgi#
gravity depends on the mass of the objects and Figure 11 Gravitational force depends
the distance between them. The gravitational on the masses of the objects and the
force becomes stronger as the mass of one or distance between them.
both of the objects increases. The force
becomes weaker as the distance between the
objects increases.
How does the force of gravity
between two objects change as
they move closer together?
Table 1 compares the force of gravity
exerted on a 70-kg person by a textbook, the
Sun, and Earth. The force exerted by the text-
book is extremely small because its mass is
small. The force exerted by the Sun is also
small because it is so far away. Table 1 shows
that only Earth is close enough and massive
enough to exert a noticeable gravitational force
on the person.

Table 1 Gravitational Forces on 70-kg Person

Object Mass of Object Distance to Size of Force
(kg) Object (m) (N)

Book 2.0 1.0 9.3  10–9

Sun 1.99  1030 1.5  1011 0.41

Earth 5.98  1024 6.4  106 690

Lesson 2 • Types of Forces 97

 Weight and Mass
When you stand on a bathroom scale, what are you measuring?
You are measuring the pull of Earth’s gravity—a force. The weight
of an object is the gravitational force exerted on an object. Recall
that mass is the amount of matter in an object and does not
change with location. Mass is not a vector because there is no
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY direction involved. Weight, however, is a force vector; it has a size
involve and direction. Your weight is a force that always points toward the
(verb) to have within or as center of Earth.
part of itself
The test involves multiple-
Relationship Between Weight and Mass The size of an object’s
choice and essay questions.
weight at the surface of Earth is proportional to the object’s mass.
For example, if the mass of an object doubles, the weight of the
object doubles. If the mass is reduced by half, the object’s weight is
reduced by half.

What is the relationship between mass and weight?

Weight and Mass High Above Earth In addition to mass, the

distance between objects also affects weight. Figure 12 shows how
weight changes with height above Earth. An astronaut on the
surface of Earth may have a mass of 55 kg and a weight of 540 N
directed toward the center of Earth. While in orbit, the astronaut’s
mass doesn’t change. However, the gravitational force on her
would be smaller because she is farther from Earth. As a result,
her weight would be reduced to about 500 N.

Figure 12 The astronaut’s mass does not change as she travels from Earth to
the Space Station.
Compare the astronaut’s weight at the two locations. Why are they different?

BVhh/**`\
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BVhh/**`\
LZ^\]i/*)%C

(*%`b

98 Chapter 2 • Forces
Friction
Imagine pushing a book away from you across a table. As the WORD ORIGIN
book slides, it slows down and then stops. The force causing the friction
from Latin fricare; means
book to slow down is a type of friction. Friction (FRIHK shun) is
to rub
a force that opposes the movement between two surfaces in con-
tact. The size of the friction force depends on the types of surfaces
in contact. The frictional force usually becomes smaller as the sur-
faces become smoother.

Static Friction
Suppose you push on a heavy box, as in Figure 13, and the box
doesn’t move. Then the forces on the box are balanced. The force
you exert on the box is balanced by a force acting on the box in
the opposite direction. This force is called static friction. Static SCIENCE USE V. COMMON USE
friction is the force between two surfaces in contact that keeps static
them from sliding when a force is applied. The static friction force Science Use at rest or having
no motion. The fluid in the
is exerted on the bottom of the box where it touches the floor. pipe was static.
As you push harder, the box still doesn’t move. This means that Common Use noise produced
the force of static friction has increased to balance the force you in a radio or a television. After
apply, as shown in Figure 13. The force due to static friction the radio was dropped, all we
could hear was static.
increases as you increase the force you apply. However, there is a
limit to the size of the static friction force between two surfaces. If
you push hard enough, your applied force will be greater than the
maximum static friction force. Then the forces on the box are no
longer balanced and the box begins to move.

Figure 13 Static friction keeps the box from moving.

6eea^ZY[dgXZ 6eea^ZY[dgXZ

HiVi^X[g^Xi^dc HiVi^X[g^Xi^dc

  %   %
6eea^ZY[dgXZ HiVi^X[g^Xi^dc CZi[dgXZ 6eea^ZY[dgXZ HiVi^X[g^Xi^dc CZi[dgXZ
&%%C  &%%C  %C &*%C  &*%C  %C

Static friction balances the force applied to Static friction increases to balance the larger
the box. force applied to the box.

Lesson 2 • Types of Forces 99

 Sliding Friction
When the force pushing on the box is larger
than the maximum static friction force, the
box begins to slide. When the box is sliding, a
different frictional force acts on the box. This
6eea^ZY[dgXZ force is sliding friction. The size of sliding fric-
tion is usually smaller than static friction. The
direction of sliding friction is always opposite
to the velocity of the sliding object, as shown
in Figure 14.
Ha^Y^c\[g^Xi^dc Figure 14 Compare the size of the
applied force and sliding friction.
  Unlike static friction, the size of sliding fric-
6eea^ZY[dgXZ Ha^Y^c\[g^Xi^dc CZi[dgXZ tion does not change if you push on the box
'%%C  ,%C  &(%C
harder. As long as the object is sliding, the
force of sliding friction is the same. If the force
Figure 14 The force of sliding friction is you apply is greater than sliding friction, the
always opposite to the motion of the
sliding box. box speeds up as it slides. If the force you apply
is equal to sliding friction, the box slides with
a constant velocity.
How would the velocity of the
book change if the applied force
were equal to the sliding friction
force?

Motion Without Friction

At one time, people thought that forces
caused motion. In other words, a object would
move only if there were unbalanced forces act-
ing on it. For example, once you stop pushing
on a skateboard, it slows down and stops. You
might think that the skateboard stops because
there are no forces acting on it. However, it
stops because friction acts on it. On Earth,
friction is present whenever something moves.
Without friction, the skateboard would con-
tinue to move in a straight line with constant
speed. According to the first law of motion,
instead of causing motion, unbalanced forces
cause changes in motion. When friction is
greatly reduced, as in Figure 15, objects move
with a nearly constant velocity.

Figure 15 In an air-hockey game, the puck floats on a layer of

air so that friction is almost eliminated. As a result, the puck moves
in a straight line with nearly constant speed after it’s been hit.
100 Chapter 2 • Forces
Elastic Forces
In Figure 16, a diver standing on the end of the diving board
bends the board downward. Because he is not moving, the forces
acting on him must be balanced. One of the forces acting on him
is the downward pull of Earth’s gravity. This means there must be
an upward force acting on him that balances the downward force
of gravity. This force is exerted on the diver by the diving board
and is called an elastic (ih LAS tik) force. An elastic force is the
force exerted by a material when it is stretched or compressed. The
diving board exerts an upward elastic force on the diver when it is
bent downward.

Tension Figure 16 The diving

Think about stretching a rubber band, as shown in Figure 17. board exerts an upward
You apply a force to the rubber band, and you can feel the rubber elastic force on the diver.
band pulling back as it is stretched. The force exerted by the rub-
ber band is an elastic force caused by the stretching of the rubber
band. The force you apply to the rubber band that stretches it is a
tension (TEN shun) force. A tension force is a pulling force
applied to an object that can make the object stretch. A tension
force applied to an object causes the object to exert an elastic force WORD ORIGIN
that pulls back in the opposite direction. The size of this elastic tension
from Latin tensionem; means
force equals the size of the tension force.
stretching
Compression
When you squeeze a rubber ball, the ball changes shape. You
can feel the ball push back on your hand as you squeeze. The rub-
ber ball exerts an elastic force on your hand when you squeeze it.
The force you exert on the ball is a compression force. A compres-
sion force is a squeezing force applied to an object that can make
an object shrink. The elastic force exerted by the ball is equal to
the compression force you exert on the ball.

Figure 17 The force

IZch^dc[dgXZ applied to the rubber
band by the fingers is a
tension force that
causes the rubber band
to exert an elastic force.

:aVhi^X[dgXZ

Lesson 2 • Types of Forces 101

 Figure 18
The forces on
Elastic the glass are
Force balanced
because the
table exerts an
upward normal
force on the
LZ^\]id[\aVhh glass.

Procedure CdgbVa[dgXZ

1. Read and complete a

lab safety form. Normal Forces
2. Place a meterstick The glass sitting on the table in Figure 18 is not moving, so the
between two desks.
forces acting on it are balanced. The table exerts an upward force
3. Place a small book on
the center of the on the glass, called the normal force, that balances the downward
meterstick. pull of gravity. A normal force is a force exerted by an object that
4. Draw a diagram that is perpendicular to the surface of the object. The upward normal
shows the forces acting force exerted by the table balances the downward force of gravity
on the book. on the glass.
5. Place a large, soft The normal force exerted by the table is an elastic force. The
sponge on the table.
Put the book on top of weight of the glass pushing down on the table is a compression
the sponge. force. This causes the material in the table to be squeezed together.
6. Write your observa- As a result, the table pushes back upward on the glass. Table 2
tions of the sponge in summarizes the forces discussed in this lesson.
your Science Journal.
Analysis Table 2 Types of Forces
1. Use the diagram of the
forces to identify the Force Properties Direction
forces acting on the
book. Gravity • noncontact force force on one
2. Relate your observa- • strength increases as masses get mass is toward
tions of the sponge to closer together the other mass
Figure 16 on the • strength increases if one or both
previous page. masses increase
2.d Static • contact force opposite to
friction • force prevents the surfaces from force applied
sliding past each other to object

Sliding • contact force opposite to

friction • force exists when surfaces are motion of
sliding past each other object

Tension • contact force that causes an direction of

force object to be stretched stretching

Compression • contact force that causes an direction of

force object to be squeezed squeezing
102 Chapter 2 • Forces
Identifying Forces
on an Object
More than one force can act on an object at
the same time. These forces can also be acting
in different directions. For example, the force
of gravity acting on a box sliding on a floor is 6eea^ZY
[dgXZ KZadX^in
downward. The sliding friction force is hori-
zontal, parallel to the floor. The forces acting
in the vertical direction can cause an object’s
Ha^Y^c\[g^Xi^dc
vertical motion. Horizontal forces can change
an object’s horizontal motion.

Forces in the Horizontal Direction

Suppose you push a book at a constant speed
across a flat table, as shown in Figure 19. The
book is moving in a horizontal direction with a
constant velocity as you push it. According to CdgbVa
the first law of motion, this means that the [dgXZ KZadX^in
forces on the book must be balanced.
You apply a force on the book in the hori-
zontal direction. Because the book is sliding, LZ^\]i
a sliding friction force is acting on the book.
The direction of this force is horizontal, in the Figure 19 Horizontal and vertical forces act
opposite direction to the force you apply. The on the notebook at the same time.
size of this force must be equal to the size of Identify the horizontal and vertical forces acting on
your push. Then the horizontal forces on the the notebook.
book are balanced. As a result, the horizontal
motion of the book doesn’t change. The book
moves in a straight line with constant speed.
Why are the horizontal forces
acting on the book balanced?

Forces in the Vertical Direction

As the book slides across the table, it doesn’t
move up or down. This means that the forces
in the vertical direction must be balanced, as
shown in Figure 19. The force of gravity pulls
the book downward. The table exerts an
upward normal force on the book. For these
forces to be balanced, the upward normal force
must have the same size as the downward force
of gravity. Because the vertical forces are bal-
anced, the vertical motion of the book doesn’t
change. In this case, the book doesn’t move in
the vertical direction.

Lesson 2 • Types of Forces 103

 What have you learned?
There are different types of forces. Gravity is an attractive force
between two objects. The size of the gravitational force depends on
the masses of the objects and the distance between them. Friction
is a force that always opposes the sliding motion of two surfaces in
contact. An elastic force results when an object is stretched or
compressed. These forces can act on an object at the same time. It
is often useful to further group the forces into horizontal and ver-
tical forces so you can predict how the motion of the object will
change in the horizontal and vertical directions.

LESSON 2 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson sum- Using Vocabulary 7. Why do you notice the pull of
mary as you write a script for Earth’s gravity but not the pull
1. Define normal force in your of the Sun’s gravity?
a television news report.
own words. 2.d
1. Review the text after the A. Gravity only pulls on
red main headings and 2. is the gravitational objects that are touching
write one sentence about force acting on an object. 2.g each other. 2.g
each. These are the head- B. Earth is much heavier than
lines of your broadcast. Understanding Main Ideas the Sun.
2. Review the text and write 3. Identify all of the types of C. The Sun is very far away.
2–3 sentences about each forces acting on you as you sit D. The Sun’s gravity only pulls
blue subheading. These in your chair. 2.d on you during the day.
sentences should tell who,
what, when, where, and 4. State the universal law of Applying Science
why information about gravitation. 2.g
each red heading. 8. Evaluate the following state-
5. Organize Information Copy
ment: “An object is acted on
3. Include descriptive details the graphic organizer below
in your report, such as
by either horizontal or vertical
and list forces and brief
names of reporters and forces.” Give an example not
descriptions of forces men-
local places and events. discussed in the text that
tioned in this lesson. 2.d
shows this statement is false.
4. Present your news report 2.d
to other classmates alone Force Description
or with a team. 9. Construct a diagram of a mass
hanging from a spring scale.
ELA8: LS 2.1 What are the forces acting on
the mass? 2.d

6. Give an example of a moving

object that has balanced hori-
zontal forces and balanced
vertical forces acting on it. 2.d Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com .

104 Chapter 2 • Forces

Can you measure
the force of friction?
When two surfaces slide against each other, friction
acts to oppose the sliding motion. How can you mea-
sure this force of sliding friction?

Procedure
1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Divide a large piece of poster board into three sec-
tions lengthwise. Tape rough sandpaper on the first
section and fine sandpaper on the middle section.
3. Attach a spring scale to a block of wood. Pull the
block across the first section with constant speed.
Record the reading on the spring scale. Repeat two
more times and average your results.
4. Repeat Step 3 for the other two sections.

Force of Friction
Force (N)
Trial 1 Trial 2 Trial 3 Average
Rough sandpaper

Fine sandpaper

Posterboard

Analysis
1. Draw a diagram of the horizontal forces acting on the block.
2. Infer whether the forces acting on the block are balanced or
unbalanced.
3. Rank the surfaces in order of increasing force of friction.

Science Content Standards ALG: 6.0

2.a Students know a force has both direction and magnitude.

2.d Students know how to identify separately the two or more forces that are acting on a single
static object, including gravity, elastic forces due to tension or compression in matter, and friction.
105
LESSON 3
Science Content
Standards Unbalanced Forces
2.e Students know that when the forces
on an object are unbalanced, the object will and Acceleration
change its velocity (that is, it will speed
up, slow down, or change direction).
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Unbalanced forces cause accelerations.
2.f Students know the greater the mass of Real-World Reading Connection When a tennis player hits
an object, the more force is needed to a ball, the racket exerts an unbalanced force on the ball. The
achieve the same rate of change in motion.
ball’s speed and direction of motion changes. What other exam-
9.d Recognize the slope of the linear graph
as the constant in the relationship y  kx ples of changes in objects’ velocities do you observe every day?
and apply this principle in interpreting
graphs constructed from data. Unbalanced Forces and Velocity
Also covers: 9.a
When an object’s speed or direction of motion changes, you
know that there is an unbalanced force acting on the object.
Reading Guide How do unbalanced forces affect objects at rest and in motion?

What You’ll Learn Unbalanced Forces on an Object at Rest

Describe how unbalanced The ball on the left side of Figure 20 is at rest. What two
▼

forces cause velocity to forces act on the ball to result in a zero net force? The down-
change. ward force resulting from gravity is balanced by the upward
Explain how the
normal force exerted by the hand. However, when the normal
▼

acceleration of an object force is removed, the forces on the ball are unbalanced. Then
depends on the net force the velocity of the ball increases in the downward direction as it
acting on the object. falls. In other words, the ball accelerates in the downward direc-
Explain how the tion. This is the same direction as the unbalanced force on the
▼

acceleration of an object ball. When an unbalanced force acts on an object at rest, the
depends on the object’s object accelerates in the direction of the unbalanced force.
mass.
Figure 20 Identify the unbalanced force acting on
Why It’s Important the ball.
If an object’s velocity
changes, an unbalanced force
is acting on it. Figure 20 The ball accelerates in the direction of the
unbalanced force acting on it.

Vocabulary ;dgXZZmZgiZY
centripetal force Wn]VcY
Newton’s second law of
motion
Newton’s third law of
motion

Review Vocabulary
acceleration: the rate of ;dgXZYjZ
change of velocity with time id\gVk^in
(p. 60) ;dgXZYjZ
id\gVk^in

106 Chapter 2 • Forces

 Figure 21 An unbalanced force can cause an object in motion to speed up
or slow down.

CZi
[dgXZ

CZi[
dgXZ
KZadX^in KZadX
^in

Speeding Up Slowing Down

Unbalanced Forces on an Object in Motion

Unbalanced forces can also change the motion of objects that
are already moving. Whether the unbalanced force causes the
object to speed up or slow down depends on the direction of the
unbalanced force in relation to the direction of motion.

Speeding Up When does an unbalanced force cause an object to

speed up? If an object is moving, a net force applied in the same
direction the object is moving causes the object to speed up. For
example, in Figure 21, the net force is in the same direction as the
sled’s velocity. This makes the sled speed up and its velocity
increase.
The net force on a ball falling to the ground is downward. This
force is in the same direction the ball is moving. Because the net
force on the ball is in the same direction as the ball’s velocity, the
ball speeds up as it falls.

Slowing Down If the net force on an object is in the direction

opposite to the object’s velocity, the object slows down. In
Figure 21, the force of sliding friction becomes larger when the
boy puts his feet in the snow. The net force on the sled is the com-
bination of gravity and sliding friction. When the sliding friction
force becomes large enough, the net force is opposite to the sled’s
velocity. This causes the sled to slow down.
If an object is slowing down, what is the relationship
between the object’s velocity and the net force act-
ing on the object?
Lesson 3 • Unbalanced Forces and Acceleration 107
 [Figure 22] Photo showing pool ball bouncing off rail.
;dgXZVeea^ZY
WngV^a

KZadX^in

Figure 22 The rail exerts

an unbalanced force on the
ball, changing the ball’s Unbalanced Forces and Direction
motion. of Motion
The direction of motion can also change when
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY the forces on an object are unbalanced. The ball in
affect Figure 22 is moving in a straight line before it hits
(verb) to cause a change in the rail. The rail then exerts an unbalanced force
The injury to Maria’s knee
affected her ability to play on the ball, causing its direction of motion to
basketball. change. The rail affects the ball’s motion only
when it is in contact with the ball.
WORD ORIGIN Figure 23 shows a ball that is tied to a string
centripetal and swung in a horizontal circle. This type of
from Latin centripetus; means motion is called circular motion. The velocity of
toward the center
the ball is changing as it moves because the direc-
tion of its motion is changing. The unbalanced
force acting on the ball is the tension force exerted
by the string. This force is called the centripetal
(sen TRIH put ul) force. In circular motion, the
KZadX^in centripetal force is the force that is perpendicular
to the velocity and toward the center of the circle.
;dgXZZmZgiZYWnhig^c\ The force exerted by the string is the centripetal
force that keeps the ball moving in a circle.
6XXZaZgVi^dc
In what direction is the
centripetal force?
KZadX^in
KZadX^in

Figure 23 The force exerted by the string is

always perpendicular to the ball’s velocity. It also
always points to the center of the circle.
Describe how the ball’s velocity is changing.

108 Chapter 2 • Forces

Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Unbalanced forces can cause an object to speed up, slow down,
or change direction. When an object changes speed or direction,
its velocity changes and the object is accelerating. In other words,
unbalanced forces cause an object to accelerate. According to
Newton’s second law of motion, the acceleration of an object
equals the net force divided by the object’s mass. The acceleration
is in the same direction as the net force. Newton’s second law of
motion can be written as this equation:

Newton’s Second Law Equation

net force (in N)
acceleration (in m/s2)  
mass (in kg)
F
a
m

In this equation, force is measured in newtons and mass is mea-

sured in kilograms. When force is measured in newtons and mass
in kilograms, the unit for acceleration is meter/second2. This unit
is the same as meter/(seconds × seconds).

2.e, 2.f

Solve for Acceleration You throw a 0.5-kg basketball with

a force of 10 N. What is the ball’s acceleration?

1 This is what you know: mass: m  0.5 kg

force: F  10 N

2 This is what you need to find: acceleration: a

3 Use this formula: a  F/m
10 N
4 Substitute: a is 20 m/s2
0.5 kg
the values for F and m
into the formula and divide.
units of F N
5 Determine the units: units of a    m
2  m/s2
units of m kg s
Answer: The ball’s acceleration is 20 m/s2.
For more equation practice,
Practice Problems visit ca8.msscience.com.
1. You push a 20-kg crate with a force of 10 N. What is the crate’s
acceleration?
2. Calculate the acceleration of an 80-kg sprinter if the force on the
sprinter is 80 N.

Lesson 3 • Unbalanced Forces and Acceleration 109

 Newton’s Second Law and the Net Force
Newton’s second law of motion explains how balanced and
unbalanced forces affect an object’s motion. When the forces are
Does water
balanced, the net force is zero. According to the second law of
exert a motion, this means that the object’s acceleration is zero. Then
force? the velocity is constant and the object’s motion doesn’t change.
If the forces on the object are unbalanced, then the net force is
not zero. According to the second law of motion, the acceleration
is not zero, and the velocity of the object changes. In other words,
only unbalanced forces cause the motion of objects to change.
If the acceleration is not zero, are the forces on the
object balanced or unbalanced?

Newton’s Second Law and Planetary Motion

The planets, including Earth, move around the Sun in nearly
Procedure circular paths. This means that the planets are accelerating
because their direction of motion is always changing. According to
the second law of motion, there must be an unbalanced force act-
1. Complete a lab safety
form. ing on Earth and the other planets. Isaac Newton realized that this
2. Obtain several plastic force was the gravitational force exerted by the Sun. Figure 24
pushpins and a large shows how the gravitational force exerted by the Sun keeps Earth
glass of water. moving in a circular path.
3. Hold two pins at the Recall that a centripetal force keeps an object moving in a circle.
same height, one over
The gravitational force exerted by the Sun is the centripetal force
the glass and one over
the table. that keeps the planets moving around the Sun. You will read more
4. Drop the two pins at about gravity and the motion of the planets in Chapter 11.
the same time.
5. Repeat steps 2 and 3
with two other pins. Figure 24 The Sun’s gravity is the centripetal force that keeps Earth
moving in a circular path around the Sun.
Analysis
1. Explain Which pins fell
faster? KZadX^in
2. Determine In what
direction is the force ;dgXZYjZ
exerted on a pin by the id\gVk^in
water? Explain.
Hjc
2.e
:Vgi]

;dgXZYjZid
\gVk^inValVnh
ed^cihidHjc#

9^gZXi^dcd[bdi^dc
^hValVnhX]Vc\^c\#

110 Chapter 2 • Forces

Newton’s Third Law
of Motion
How high can you jump? Think about the forces
acting on you when you jump. Because you are
accelerating, there must be an unbalanced force
acting on you. What causes this force? You might
think it’s your legs and feet that push you upward.
You’re partly right.
According to the Newton’s third law of motion,
when one object exerts a force on a second object,
the second object exerts an equal force in the
opposite direction on the first object. In the case
;dgXZZmZgiZY
of jumping, as in Figure 25, the feet exert a force Wn\^gadc
on the ground. The ground then pushes upward \gdjcY
on the feet, causing the jumper to accelerate
upward. ;dgXZZmZgiZY
dc\gdjcYWn\^ga
Wn\gdjcYdc\^ga
Force Pairs
The forces two objects exert on each other are Figure 25 According to the third law
called force pairs. The forces in a force pair act in of motion, the ground exerts the
upward force that pushes the jumper
opposite directions and are always equal in size.
into the air.
If force pairs are equal in size and act in opposite
directions, why don’t they cancel each other out?
Remember that the forces in force pairs act on
different objects. When you jump, you exert a force
on Earth, and Earth exerts a force on you. One
force in the force pair acts on Earth, and the other
force acts on you. These forces do not result in a
zero net force because they act on different objects.
Equal and opposite forces cancel out only if they
act on the same object. Figure 26 shows an example
of a force pair. One force acts on the boat and the
other force acts on the person.
Figure 26 Explain why the force pair
does not result in a zero net force.

Action and Reaction

In force pairs, one force of the force pair is ;dgXZZmZgiZY ;dgXZZmZgiZY
WnWdVi WneZghdc
sometimes called the action force, and the other dceZghdc dcWdVi
force is the reaction force. When you push on a
wall, the action force is the force you exert on the
wall. The reaction force is the force exerted by the Figure 26 The force pair is the force
exerted by the person on the boat
wall on you. For every action force, there is a and the force the boat exerts on the
reaction force that is equal in size, but opposite in person.
direction.

Lesson 3 • Unbalanced Forces and Acceleration 111

 Applying Newton’s Laws
Newton’s laws of motion describe how forces
affect the motion of any object. For example, the
motion of the jumping basketball player in
Figure 27 can be explained by the laws of motion.
When you push down on the ground, the third
law of motion says that the ground pushes up on
you. This force combines with the downward force
of gravity to form the net force acting on you. If
you push down hard enough, the direction of the
net force becomes upward. According to the second
law of motion, you accelerate upward.
When you are in the air, the downward force due
to gravity is in the direction opposite to your
motion. This causes you to slow down until you
reach the top of your jump. Then as you start mov-
ing downward, gravity is in the same direction as
you are moving, so you speed up as you fall.
Why do you speed up when
you fall?
Figure 27 Newton’s laws of motion When you hit the ground, the upward force
describe how the forces acting on this
basketball player affect his motion. exerted on you by the ground brings you to a stop.
Then the forces on you are balanced, and you
remain at rest. Table 3 and Figure 28 provide more
examples of how Newton’s laws of motion explain
objects’ motion.

Table 3 Newton’s Laws of Motion

Law Statement of Law Example
Newton’s first An object at rest will remain at rest unless The forces acting on a book at rest on a
law of motion acted on by an unbalanced force. An object table are balanced, so the book’s motion
in motion will continue moving at a does not change.
constant velocity unless acted on by an The forces acting on a skydiver with an
unbalanced force. open parachute are balanced, so the
skydiver falls in a straight line at a constant
speed.

Newton’s The size of the acceleration of an object is A skydiver jumping out of a plane
second law of equal to the net force on the object divided accelerates toward the ground as gravity
motion by its mass. The acceleration is in the same pulls her down.
direction as the net force.
Newton’s third When one object exerts a force on another When you push on a wall with a force of
law of motion object, the second object exerts a force on 100 N, the wall pushes back on you with a
the first object that is equal in size but force of 100 N.
opposite in direction.

Interactive Table Organize information about

112 Chapter 2 • Forces Newton’s laws of motion at ca8.msscience.com.
Newton’s Laws in Sports
Figure 28
The motion of people, balls, and other objects during sports activities can be
explained by Newton’s laws of motion. According to the first law, an object in
motion moves with a constant speed in a straight line unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force. If an object is at rest, it stays at rest unless acted upon by an
unbalanced force. According to the second law, an object accelerates in the direction
of the net force. The third law can be stated this way—for every action force, there
is an equal and opposite reaction force.

▲
NEWTON’S
SECOND LAW As
Michelle Wie hits a
golf ball, she applies
a force that causes
the ball to move in
the direction of that
force—an example
of the second law.

▲ NEWTON’S FIRST
LAW The diver doesn’t
move with a constant
velocity because the
force of gravity on the
diver is unbalanced.
▲

NEWTON’S THIRD LAW

Newton’s third law applies whenever
objects exert forces on each other.
Here a gymnast pushes downward on
the bars. The bars push back on the
gymnast with an equal force.

Contributed by National Geographic Lesson 3 • Unbalanced Forces and Acceleration 113

 What have you learned?
In Lesson 1 you read that unbalanced forces cause the motion of
an object to change. In this lesson you read about how forces cause
motion to change. An object accelerates when it changes speed or
direction. According to Newton’s second law of motion, the accel-
eration of an object equals the net force divided by the object’s
mass. The acceleration is in the same direction as the net force.
The third law of motion says that forces are always exerted in
pairs. This means that when you push on a door, the door pushes
on you with a force of the same size in the opposite direction.

LESSON 3 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 6. How does the velocity of an
summary as you organize object traveling in a straight
1. states that an line change if a nonzero
an outline.
object’s acceleration is the net force acts in the same
1. Scan the lesson. Find and ratio of net force to the direction as the object’s
list the first red main object’s mass. 2.f velocity?
heading.
2. Define centripetal force in your A. It will not change. 2.e
2. Review the text after
own words. 2.e B. The speed increases.
the heading and list 2–3
details about the heading. C. The direction of motion
Understanding Main Ideas
3. Find and list each blue changes.
subheading that follows 3. Explain how you know the D. The speed decreases.
the red main heading. forces acting on an object at
rest are balanced. 2.e Applying Math
4. List 2–3 details, key terms,
and definitions under 4. Determine Cause and Effect 7. Calculate The net force on a
each blue subheading. Copy and fill in the graphic rock with a mass of 2.0 kg is
5. Review additional red organizer below to describe 19.6 N. What is the accelera-
main headings and their two ways to increase the tion of the rock? 2.f
supporting blue subhead- magnitude of an object’s
8. Calculate At the start of a
ings. List 2–3 details about acceleration. 2.f
race, the net force on a
each.
Increase sprinter is 640 N. If the mass of
ELA8: R 2.3 Acceleration the sprinter is 80.0 kg, find the
sprinter’s acceleration. 2.f

5. Compare how your weight,

mass, and the normal force
exerted by the floor change
when you are in an elevator
that starts from rest and Science nline
accelerates upward. 2.e For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

114 Chapter 2 • Forces

Finding Force and Acceleration 2.a, 2.f
Newton’s second law of motion can be used to find an unknown
force or acceleration if the other two variables are known.
MA8: ALG: 5.0
Example 1
Solve for Force A car has a mass of 1,500 kg and an acceleration of
2.0 m/s2. What is the net force acting on the car?
1 This is what you know: mass: m ⴝ 1,500 kg
acceleration: a ⴝ 2.0 m/s2
2 This is what you need to find: force: F
3 Use this formula: F ⴝ ma
4 Substitute: F ⴝ (1,500 kg)(2.0 m/s2) ⴝ 3,000 N
the values for m and a
into the formula and multiply.

Answer: The net force is 3,000 N.

Example 2
Solve for Mass A softball hit by a bat has an acceleration of
1,500 m/s2. If the net force on the softball is 300 N, what is the
softball’s mass?
1 This is what you know: Force: F ⴝ 300 N
acceleration: a ⴝ 1,500 m/s2
2 This is what you need to find: mass: m
3 Use this formula: m ⴝ aF
(300 N)
4 Substitute: m ⴝ 2 ⴝ 0.2 kg
(1,500 m/s )
the values for F and a
into the formula and divide.

Answer: The mass is 0.2 kg.

Practice Problems
1. What is the net force on a backpack with a mass of 12.0 kg Science nline
and an acceleration of 0.5 m/s2? For more math practice,
visit Math Practice at
2. Find the mass of a dragster if the net force is 27,000 N and
ca8.msscience.com.
the acceleration is 30.0 m/s2.

Lesson 3 • Unbalanced Forces and Acceleration 115

 Comparing Mass
and Weight
Materials Problem
What is the difference between mass and weight? Weight is a
objects with various
measure of the gravitational force on an object. Earth’s gravita-
masses
tional pull on an object decreases as the object gets farther from
string
Earth. When astronauts orbit Earth, their weight is less than when
balance
they are standing on the ground. However, the mass of an astro-
2,000-g spring scale
naut doesn’t change when the astronaut gets farther from Earth.
graph paper The mass of an object is the amount of matter that makes up the
object. Unlike weight, the mass of an object does not depend on
where the object is located.

Form a Hypothesis
Review the results from this chapter’s laboratory
investigations.
Form a hypothesis about the relationship between the mass
Safety Precautions and the weight of an object. As mass increases or decreases,
how does the weight of an object change?

Collect Data and Make Observations

Make a Plan
Science Content 1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
Standards 2. As a group, decide upon the materials you will need to test
2.d Students know how to identify your hypothesis. Include any safety equipment you need to
separately the two or more forces that are
acting on a single static object, including
collect or safety procedures you need follow to ensure the
gravity, elastic forces due to tension or safety of your group members.
compression in matter, and friction. 3. Devise an experiment to test your hypothesis. Be specific. List
9.a Plan and conduct a scientific the steps of your experiment in logical order. State exactly
investigation to test a hypothesis.
9.d Recognize the slope of the linear
how you will use your equipment and what you will do during
graph as the constant in the relationship each step.
y  kx and apply this principle in 4. Copy the data table on the next page into your Science Jour-
interpreting graphs constructed from nal. Be certain your table contains enough rows to record the
data.
results of all your planned trials.
5. Have one group member read your entire experiment aloud to
the group to make certain you have all the necessary materials
and that your experimental steps are in logical order and can
be easily followed.
116
 Mass and Weight Data
Object Mass (kg) Weight (N)

Follow Your Plan

1. Show your materials list, experiment steps, and data table to
your teacher. Include any changes in your plan that your
teacher suggests.
2. Carry out your experiment as approved, taking all the neces-
sary safety precautions.
3. Record your results in your data table as you complete each
measurement.

Analyze and Conclude

1. Graph your data. Plot the measured weight on the y-axis
and the mass on the x-axis. Draw a straight line on your
graph that comes closest to all the data points. The line
should include the zero point on both axes.
2. Determine the slope of your line.
3. Use your graph to determine the weights of objects with
0.10 kg, 0.20 kg, and 0.30 kg. Calculate the ratio of weight to
mass for each of these objects.
4. Infer how the ratio of weight to mass depends on the mass.
5. Explain how the weight of any mass can be calculated using
the slope of your line.

Communicate
3CIENCE ELA8: W 1.2
Write a newspaper article describing the results of your
experiment. The article should be at least three paragraphs long
and should include information about who performed the
experiment, how the experiment was performed, and what was
learned about the relationship between mass and weight.

117
 Rocket Scientist
At NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Pasadena,
California, aerospace engineers are responsible for
propelling spacecraft into outer space. They also
help develop the computer systems on board these
spacecraft that will guide them millions of miles
and then slow them down as they near their desti-
nation. Besides designing spacecraft and their
systems, aerospace engineers also design aircraft
and their related systems.
Visit Career at ca8.msscience.com to learn
more about what aerospace engineers do and
what they are required to know. Then write a
fictitious want ad for a aerospace engineer at
NASA.

Hi-Tech Roller Coasters

Modern roller coaster rides can reach heights of
over 450 feet. These rides use launch systems that
enable the roller-coaster cars to climb to these
dizzying heights. New technologies can accelerate
roller coaster cars to speeds over 190 km/h in just
3–4 seconds. The fastest rides use specially designed
hydraulic systems to power a cable that propels the
cars down the first part of the track. Other designs
use special motors called linear induction motors to
accelerate the cars to high speeds.
Visit Technology at ca8.msscience.com to
learn more at roller coasters. Make a table
showing the five fastest roller coaster rides and
the five highest roller coasters.

118
 Isaac Newton:
Bestselling Author?
Newton’s three laws of motion were first published in 1687
in a book called The Mathematical Principals of Natural
Philosophy. Originally the book was in Latin and today it is
known as the Principia, the shortened form of its Latin title.
It is one of the most influential scientific books ever pub-
lished. The Principia also included Newton’s discussion of
the law of universal gravitation and how gravity caused the
observed motions of the planets and their moons.
Visit History at ca8.msscience.com to learn more
about the life of Isaac Newton. Hold a mock interview
with Newton. Imagine that the Principia has just been
published and Newton is on a book-promotion tour.

What keeps a bridge from falling down?

Without tension and compression, traveling
in and out of San Francisco would be a lot
harder. Tension and compression are the
forces that keep suspension bridges like the
Golden Gate Bridge standing. The thick,
horizontal cables strung over the tops of the
orange towers are under tension because they
are anchored into the ground. The towers are
put under compression because most of the
weight is transferred to the towers through
the vertical suspender cables.
Visit Society at ca8.msscience.com to
learn more about suspension bridges.
Draw a picture of the Golden Gate Bridge,
labeling the main elements and drawing
arrows showing the direction of tension
and compression forces.

119
 CHAPTER Standards Study Guide

/…iÊ Ê`i> An object’s motion changes if the forces acting on the object are unbalanced.

Lesson 1 Combining Forces 2.a, 2.b, 2.c, 9.g

• balanced force (p. 91)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> When more than one force acts on an
• contact force (p. 88)
object, the combined effect is caused by the sum of all
applied forces. • force (p. 88)
• net force (p. 90)
• A force is a push or a pull. Forces are described by vectors that
• Newton’s first law of motion (p. 93)
show the force’s magnitude and direction.
• noncontact force (p. 89)
• The net force is the sum of all forces acting on an object. • unbalanced force (p. 91)
• If the net force is zero, the forces are balanced. If the net force is
not zero, the forces are unbalanced.
• If the forces on an object are balanced, the motion of the object
does not change.
• Unbalanced forces change the object’s speed or direction of
motion.
• Newton’s first law of motion states that if the net force on an
object is zero, the motion of the object will not change.
Lesson 2 Types of Forces 2.d, 2.g

• compression force (p. 101)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> There are different types of forces that act
• elastic force (p. 101)
on objects.
• friction (p. 99)
• Gravity is an attractive force between all objects that have mass. • gravity (p. 96)
• Friction forces push parallel to sliding surfaces, opposing the • law of universal gravitation (p. 97)
motion of the surfaces. • normal force (p. 102)
• Compression and tension forces cause an object to be • tension force (p. 101)
compressed or stretched. • weight (p. 98)
Lesson 3 Unbalanced Forces and Acceleration 2.e, 2.f, 9.a, 9.d

• centripetal force (p. 108)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Unbalanced forces cause accelerations.
• Newton’s second law of motion (p. 109)
• Unbalanced forces cause objects to accelerate. • Newton’s third law of motion (p. 111)
• An unbalanced force will cause an object to speed up, slow
down, or change direction.
• Newton’s second law states that the acceleration of an object
equals the net force on the object divided by the object’s mass.
The acceleration is in the direction of the net force.
• Newton’s third law of motion states that all forces come in pairs.
When an object exerts a force on a second object, the second Download quizzes, key
object exerts a force equal in size but opposite in direction on terms, and flash cards from
ca8.msscience.com.
the first object.

120 Chapter 2 • Standards Study Guide Interactive Tutor ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Linking Vocabulary and Main Ideas

Use vocabulary terms from page 120 to complete this concept map.

motion of
surfaces 6.

opposes according
to force
depends on
1. 4.
5. mass of distance
Produced objects between
when Produced objects
stretched when
by compressed types
by
3.
Forces
2.

laws of motion

8. 11.
9.
states
states
7.
10.
do not
change do
motion Visit ca8.msscience.com for:
change υ Vocabulary PuzzleMaker
motion υ Vocabulary eFlashcards
υ Multilingual Glossary
Using Vocabulary
Fill in each blank with the correct vocabulary term.
12. The astronaut’s decreased as her 16. Gravity is the that pulls the Moon in
rocket took her farther away from Earth. its orbit around Earth.
13. Gravity is a(n) because it is exerted on 17. A(n) is a push or a pull.
objects even when they are not touching each
other. 18. Friction is a(n) because the objects
exerting the force are touching each other.
14. If the acting on an object is not zero,
the object accelerates.
15. The weight of a book at rest on a horizontal table
is balanced by the exerted by the table
on the book.

Chapter 2 • Standards Review 121

 CHAPTER Standards Review
Understanding Main Ideas 5. What would cause an object to have a smaller
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the acceleration?
question. A. increasing the net force on the object
B. decreasing the mass of the object, keeping the
1. What changes when unbalanced forces act on an net force constant
object? C. increasing the mass of the object, keeping the
A. mass net force constant
B. motion D. decreasing the mass of the object and increas-
C. inertia ing the net force on the object 2.f
D. weight 2.e
6. The graph shows the speed of a car moving in a
2. The figure below shows the gravitational forces straight line.
between two objects.
Y
(%
X Z
HeZZYb$h
W
'%

V
&%

What would be the effect of decreasing the dis-

% &% '% (% )%
tance between the objects?
A. The force would remain the same. I^bZh
B. The force would increase because the objects
are closer together. Over which segments are the forces on the car
C. The force would decrease because the objects balanced?
are closer together. A. a and c
D. The force only changes if the masses of the B. b and d
objects change. 2.g C. c and e
D. d only 2.c
3. What force slows a book sliding on a table?
A. inertia 7. A car is driving at a constant velocity. Which is
B. gravity not true?
C. reaction force A. All the forces acting on the car are balanced.
D. sliding friction 2.d B. A net force keeps it moving.
C. The car is moving in a straight line at a con-
4. What does the length of a force vector stant speed.
represent? D. The car is not accelerating. 2.c
A. the object’s velocity
B. the force’s direction 8. If a student pushes a book across a table with a
C. the force’s magnitude force of 6 N and the force of friction is 4 N, what
D. the direction of acceleration 2.a is the net force on the book?
A. 0 N
B. 2 N
C. 10 N
D. 24 N 2.b

122 Chapter 2 • Standards Review Standards Review ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Applying Science 3CIENCE

9. Compare the motion of an object acted on by 18. Write an essay describing an example of how
balanced forces with the motion of an object one of Newton’s laws of motion is demonstrated
acted on by unbalanced forces. 2.c
in your favorite sport or activity.
10. Explain how the gravitational force between ELA8: W 1.1
Earth and the Moon would change if the distance
between them increased. 2.g Cumulative Review
11. Create a diagram showing the following forces 19. Determine your displacement and distance
acting on an object. What is the net force acting traveled if you walked 20 m, took a book from a
on the object? 2.d table, turned around and walked straight back to
your seat. 1.d
Forces on an Object 20. Calculate the average speed of a train that
travels 160 km in 2.5 h. 1.c
Direction Magnitude(N)

Up 4
Applying Math
Down 4
21. If the net force on a 2-kg object is 8.0 N, what
Left 2 is the object’s acceleration? MA8: ALG: 5.0
Right 6 22. The net force on an object is 10.0 N and its
acceleration is 2.0 m/s2. What is its mass?
12. Compare an astronaut’s weight in orbit with the MA8: ALG: 5.0
astronaut’s weight on Earth, assuming the mass
of the astronaut does not change. 2.g 23. Find the net force on an object that has a
13. Imagine a book moving to the right across a mass of 20.0 kg if its acceleration is 2.3 m/s2.
table. As it slides across the table, it slows down MA8: ALG: 5.0
and comes to a stop. In what direction is the net
force acting on the book as it slows down? 2.f 24. The figure shows the forces on a box.
14. Determine whether the forces acting on a car are
balanced or unbalanced if the car is turning (C
while moving at a constant speed. Explain your
answer. 2.e
15. Infer the net force acting on a rope in a tug-of-
war if the rope is moving with a constant speed
*C 'C
in a straight line. 2.c
16. Give an example in which gravity speeds up a
moving object and example in which gravity (C
slows down a moving object. 2.f
If the mass of the box is 10 kg, what is the size
17. Explain how an arrow is used to represent a
and direction of the acceleration of the box?
force vector. 2.a
MA8: ALG: 5.0

Chapter 2 • Standards Review 123

 CHAPTER Standards Assessment
1 Which indicates that the forces acting on an Use the figure below to answer question 4 and 5.
object are balanced?

A The object speeds up.

B The object slows down.

C The velocity of the object doesn’t change. ;&2&'C ;'2&#'C

bVhh2'#*`\
D The mass of the object doesn’t change. 2.c

2 The figure shows the path of a ball tossed into

the air.

4 If the vertical forces acting on the box are bal-

anced, what is the net force on the box?

A 13.2 N to the left

B 13.2 N to the right

C 10.8 N to the left

D 10.8 N to the right 2.b

5 What is the acceleration of the box?

A 5.3 m/s2 to the left

Which causes the velocity of the ball to change?
B 5.3 m/s2 to the right
A compression force
C 4.3 m/s2 to the left
B gravity
D 4.3 m/s2 to the right 2.f
C inertia

D tension force 2.d 6 Which is a true statement?

A Your mass increases as you get closer to Earth.

3 Which is not a vector?
B Your mass decreases as you get closer to Earth.
A acceleration
C The weight of an object is the frictional force
B force on the object.
C mass D The weight of an object is the gravitational
D velocity 2.a force on the object. 2.d

124 Chapter 2 • Standards Assessment Standards Assessment ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Assessment CHAPTER

7 Which would cause the gravitational force 10 The graph below shows how the speed of a book
between object A and object B to increase? changes as it slides across a table.

A The mass of object A decreases.

HeZZYd[Ha^Y^c\7dd`
B The mass of object B decreases.
&#*
C The objects move closer together.

HeZZYb$h
D The objects move farther apart. 2.g &#%

8 A ball is moving in a circular horizontal path. %#*

The net force on the ball is in which direction?
%
A downward %#* &#% &#* '#% '#*
I^bZh
B upward
C parallel to the ball’s path Over what time interval is the net force on the
book in the same direction as the book’s
D perpendicular to the ball’s path 2.e velocity?
A 0 s to 0.5 s
9 A box is sitting on a floor. Maria and Sam push
on the box as shown in the figure below. B 0.5 s to 1.0 s
C 0 s to 1.5 s
;dgXZ2.*C
D 1.0 s to 2.0 s 2.e

11 The speed of a soccer ball is decreasing as it

;dgXZ2&%%C rolls along the ground. Which best describes
the net force on the soccer ball?
A The net force is zero.
B The net force is at a right angle to the ball’s
motion.
If the box doesn’t move, what is the force of
static friction exerted on the box? C The net force is in the same direction as the
ball’s motion.
A 5 N to the left
D The net force is the direction opposite to the
B 5 N to the right ball’s motion. 2.e

C 195 N to the left

12 You stretch a spring by pulling one end of it to
D 195 N to the right 2.c the right. Which best describes the force exerted
on the spring?
A compressional force to the left
B compressional force to the right
C tension force to the left
D tension force to the right 2.d
Chapter 2 • Standards Assessment 125
 Density and
Buoyancy
/…iÊ Ê`i>
A fluid exerts an upward
force on an object that is
placed in the fluid.

LESSON 1 8.a, 8.b, 9.f

Density
>ˆ˜Ê`i> The density
of a material is a mea-
sure of how much mat-
ter is packed into a unit
volume of the material.

LESSON 2 8.c
Pressure and the
Buoyant Force
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Objects in a
fluid experience a
buoyant force resulting
from the pressure
exerted by the fluid.

LESSON 3 8.d, 9.f

Sinking and Floating
>ˆ˜Ê`i> An object
will float in a fluid if the
density of the object is
less than the density of
the fluid.

Floating on Air
These hot-air balloons weigh hundreds of pounds,
but still are able to rise through the air. A hot-air balloon has three main
parts—the balloon envelope, the burner, and the basket. When the burner
heats the air inside the envelope, the envelope expands and the balloon rises.
What forces push the balloon upward?
-Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM Compare and contrast three objects that float with
three objects that sink.
126
 Start-Up Activities

Floating and Sinking

Make the following
Can you push the beach Foldable to increase your
ball under water? understanding of what
causes floating and sinking.
A beach ball is made of
lightweight material and STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper into thirds
is filled with air. It is easy lengthwise and fold the top down about
to lift and throw into the 3 cm from the top.
air. Is it difficult to hold
the ball under water?
Procedure
1. Complete a lab safety form.
2. Put the beach ball into a large bucket
filled with tap water.
3. Slowly push the ball downward.
4. Draw a diagram of the forces acting on STEP 2 Unfold and draw lines along the
the ball. folds. Label as shown.
Think About This
7>˜ÌÊ̜
Ž˜œÜ i>À˜
• Name other objects you have observed ˜œ
Ü
i`

floating. How are they similar to the ball?

How are they different?
• Propose a reason why the ball does not
stay underwater when you push it down
into the water.

8.c

Using What You Know

In the first column, list everything you
already know about floating and sinking.
In the second column, write the things that
you would like to know more about. As
you read this chapter, check your Foldable
Visit ca8.msscience.com to: to make sure that your understanding of
floating and sinking is correct. Record
υ view explanations and new information in the
υ explore Virtual Labs last column.
υ access content-related Web links
υ take the Standards Check

127
Get Ready to Read
New Vocabulary ELA8: R 1.3

Learn It! What should you do if you find

a word you don’t know or understand? Here are some
suggested strategies:

1. Use context clues (from the sentence or the paragraph) to help you define it.
2. Look for prefixes, suffixes, or root words that you already know.
3. Write it down and ask for help with the meaning.
4. Guess at its meaning.
5. Look it up in the glossary or a dictionary.

Practice It! Look at the word vertical in

the following passage. See how context clues can help you
understand its meaning.

Context Clue
Use Figure 13 to see Think about the forces acting on the boat in
an example of verti- Figure 13. Gravity is pulling the boat down, yet the
cal forces. boat doesn’t accelerate downward. Because the boat is
not accelerating up or down, the vertical forces on the
boat are balanced. There must be an upward force
balancing the downward force of gravity that keeps
Context Clue
the sailboat from sinking.
Up and down —from page 146
describe vertical
forces.

Context Clue
The upward and
downward forces
are balanced.

Apply It! Make a vocabulary

bookmark with a strip of paper. As you read,
keep track of words you do not know or want
to learn more about.

128
 tain-
pa r a g r aph con m
Read a r y word fro
Target Your Reading ing a vo
beginni
ca
n
d
b
g
e
u
t
t
l
o
e
a

r
en d. Then,
mine th
e
go

Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter. back t o .
n i ng o f the word
1 Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements mea
below on your worksheet or on a numbered sheet of paper.
• Write an A if you agree with the statement.
• Write a D if you disagree with the statement.
2 After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if
you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements.
• If any of your answers changed, explain why.
• Change any false statements into true statements.
• Use your revised statements as a study guide.

Before You Read Statement After You Read

A or D A or D
1 Density is calculated by dividing volume by mass.

2 Air pressure increases as you climb a mountain.

3 Things can float only in liquids such as water.

4 All fluids are liquids.

5 You calculate the volume of all solids by multiplying

length times width times height.

6 Heavy things sink when placed in water.

7 Compared to liquids, particles in gases are very close

Print a worksheet of together.
this page at
ca8.msscience.com. 8 Only solid objects can exert forces.

9 Hot-air balloons can fly because they are less dense

than air.

10 Air pressure only pushes down on you.

129
LESSON 1

Science Content
Standards
Density
8.a Students know density is mass per unit
>ˆ˜Ê`i> The density of a material is a measure of how
volume.
much matter is packed into a unit volume of the material.
8.b Students know how to calculate the Real-World Reading Connection Can you imagine trying to
density of substances (regular and irregular lift a rock that is as big as a basketball? The rock and the basket-
solids and liquids) from measurements of
ball are the same size, but the rock is much heavier because it
mass and volume.
9.f Apply simple mathematic relationships has more matter packed into the same volume of space.
to determine a missing quantity in a
mathematic expression, given the two What is density?
remaining terms (including speed 
distance/time, density  mass/volume, Which would have more mass, the balloon filled with air or
force  pressure  area, volume  area  the bottle of water shown in Figure 1? The mass of an object
height). depends not only on the size of the object, but also on the mate-
rial the object contains. All materials, such as the air in the bal-
loon and the water in the bottle, have a property called density.
Reading Guide Density (DEN suh tee) is the amount of mass per unit volume
What You’ll Learn of a material.
Matter is made of particles, such as atoms or molecules, that
Explain how the density of
▼

a material is independent have mass. The density of a material depends on the masses and
of the amount of the the number of particles packed into a given volume. Figure 1
material. shows that the volume of air has fewer particles and less mass
Calculate the density of
than the same volume of water. As a result, the density of air is
▼

an object given its mass less than the density of water.

and volume.
Describe how to measure
▼

the density of a liquid and

Figure 1 The balloon has less mass because it contains fewer
particles of matter than the water in the bottle does.
a solid.
Compare the density of air to the density of water.
Why It’s Important
Density can be used to
determine the identity of
unknown materials.

Vocabulary
density
rectangular solid

Review Vocabulary
volume: the amount of
space taken up by an object
(p. 10)

130 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

Calculating Density WORD ORIGIN
The density of an object is the mass of an object divided by its density
volume. Density can be calculated using the following equation: from Latin densus; means
thick, crowded

Density Equation
mass (in g)
density (in g/cm3)   3
volume (in cm )
m
D
V

In this equation, D is density, m is the mass of the material, and

V is the volume of the material. Because density equals mass
divided by volume, the units for density always are a mass unit
divided by a volume unit. If mass is measured in grams (g) and
volume is measured in cubic centimeters (cm3), density has units
of g/cm3. Density is the mass in grams of 1 cubic centimeter of the
material. For example, silver has a density of 10.5 g/cm3. This
means that 1 cm3 of silver has a mass of 10.5 g.

What are the units of density?

8.a, 8.b

ALG: 5.0
Solve for Density A piece of metal has a mass of 90.51 g and
3
its volume is 11.5 cm . What is the density of the metal?

1 This is what you know: mass: m  90.51 g

volume: V  11.5 cm3

2 This is what you need to find: density: D

3 Use this formula: Dm

V
4 Substitute: D  90.51
11.5
 7.87
the values for m and V
into the formula and divide.
g
5 Determine the units: units of D  units

of m
 3  g/cm3
units of V cm
Answer: The density is 7.87 g/cm3.
For more equation practice,
Practice Problems visit ca8.msscience.com.
1. Find the density of a gold bar that has a mass of 1,930 g and a volume
of 100 cm3.
2. What is the density of a bar of soap that has a volume of 80 cm3 and a
mass of 90 g?

Lesson 1 • Density 131

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY Calculating Mass and Volume
preceding (pree SEE ding) The density equation on the preceding page is the relationship
(adjective) coming just before
among the mass, volume, and density of an object. You can use the
Good test-takers often look for
clues in preceding questions. density equation to calculate either the mass or the volume of an
object. For example, if you know the volume and the density of the
object, you can use the density equation to find the object’s mass.
If you know the mass and the density, the density equation can be
solved for the volume. The math feature at the end of this lesson
shows how to use the density equation to solve for the mass and
the volume.

Density and Materials

Imagine you have a chocolate bar, such as the one shown in
Figure 2, that has a density of 1.2 g/cm3. Suppose you break the
bar into two pieces. The two pieces of chocolate now are smaller
than the whole chocolate bar. Does the density of the chocolate
change when the pieces become smaller?
However, as Figure 2 shows, the density of each of the two
pieces is the same as the whole bar. The density of an object, such
as a piece of chocolate, depends only on the material the object is
made from. It does not depend on the object’s size. If you break
the chocolate bar into smaller pieces, each piece will have the same
density. The density of each piece will be 1.2 g/cm3, the same as
the density of the whole bar. The density of each piece is the same
because each piece is made from the same material—chocolate.

Figure 2 The density of a piece of chocolate does not depend of the size of the piece.
Identify the variables of the density equation that do change as the chocolate bar is broken into smaller pieces.

mass of chocolate bar  226 g, volume  190 cm3 m  113 g, V  95 cm3 m  113 g, V  95 cm3
density  mass/volume D  m/V D  m/V
 (226 g)/(190 cm3 )  (113 g)/(95 cm3 )  (113 g)/(95 cm3 )
 1.2 g/ cm3  1.2 g/cm3  1.2 g/cm3

132 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

 Interactive Table Organize information
about density at ca8.msscience.com .
Table 1 Densities of Some Common Materials
Solids Liquids Gases

Material Density Material Density Material Density

(g/cm3) (g/cm3) (g/cm3)

Butter 0.86 Gasoline 0.74 Hydrogen 0.00009

Ice 0.92 Sunflower oil 0.92 Helium 0.00018

Aluminum 2.70 Water 1.00 Air 0.00129

Copper 8.96 Milk 1.03 Oxygen 0.00143

Gold 19.28 Mercury 13.55 Carbon dioxide 0.00198

What does density depend on?

The densities of some solids, liquids, and gases are listed in
Table 1. The table shows that the density of gold, for example, is
more than 19 times greater than the density of water. Also, the
density of some solids and liquids, such as mercury, can be more
than 10,000 times greater than the density of some gases, such as
helium. Why do different materials have different densities?

Mass of Particles The density of a material depends on the mass

of the particles, such as atoms or molecules, that make up the
material. The more mass these particles have, the greater the den-
sity of the material. For example, the mass of a gold atom is more
than seven times the mass of an aluminum atom. As a result, the
density of gold is much greater than the density of aluminum.

Distance Between Particles The density of a material also

depends on the distance between the particles in the material. The
greater the distance between the atoms or molecules, the smaller
the density. Table 1 shows that in gases, particles are much farther
apart than in solids or liquids. As a result, the density of a gas is
usually much less than the density of a solid or a liquid.

Table 1 Which solids listed are less dense than water?

Lesson 1 • Density 133

 Figure 3 Two measurements are
needed to measure the mass of a
liquid.

Mass of beaker = 144 g

Mass of beaker and liquid = 331 g
Mass of liquid = (Mass of beaker
and liquid)
– (Mass of beaker)
Mass of liquid = 331 g – 144 g
Mass of beaker and = 187 g
Mass of beaker  144 g. liquid  331 g.

1 Measure the mass of 2 Measure the total 3 Subtract the mass of the con-
the empty container. mass of the container and tainer from the total mass to find the
the liquid. mass of the liquid.

Measuring Density
To measure the density of a material or an object, you first need
to measure both its mass and its volume. The volume of a liquid is
usually measured using a graduated cylinder. The method for
measuring the volume of a solid depends on whether it has a rec-
tangular or an irregular shape.

Measuring Mass
A balance can be used to determine the mass of an object or a
material. You can place most solids directly on the pan of the bal-
ance and read the result. If the solid is a powder, or if you want to
find the mass of a liquid, you use a container and follow the steps
shown in Figure 3. First, measure the mass of the empty container.
Figure 4 A graduated Then, find the total mass of the container and sample. Finally, sub-
cylinder can be used
tract the mass of the container from the total mass.
to find the volume of a
liquid. Figure 3 What are the three steps in measuring the
mass of a sample?

Measuring the Volume of a Liquid

The method for measuring volume is different for liquids and
solids. For a liquid, you can use a graduated cylinder to measure
volume, as shown in Figure 4. Then, the volume will be measured
in units of milliliters. The density of a liquid can be determined by
using a balance to measure the mass of the liquid and a graduated
cylinder to measure its volume. Then, these values for mass and
volume are substituted into the density equation to calculate the
liquid’s density. Suppose that you measure a volume of 73 mL for a
liquid. If the mass of the liquid is 80.3 g, then its density is 80.3 g
divided by 73 mL, or 1.1 g/mL. Because 1 mL is equal to 1 cm3,
this density value can also be written as 1.1 g/cm3.

134 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

Measuring the Volume of a Rectangular Solid
You can use a graduated cylinder to measure a liquid’s volume.
How can you measure the volume of a solid? The method for mea- =Z^\]i
suring a solid’s volume depends on the solid’s shape. A rectangu-
lar (rehk TAN gyoo lar) solid is a six-sided block in which all sides AZc\i]
L^Yi]
are rectangles, as shown in Figure 5. To determine the volume of a
rectangular solid, first measure its length, width, and height, and Figure 5 The volume
then use the following equation to find the volume: of a rectangular solid
depends on its length,
width, and height.
Volume of a Rectangular Solid
volume (cm3)  length (cm)  width (cm)  height (cm)
Vlwh

Can the formula shown above be used to find the

volume of any solid object? Explain.

8.b

ALG: 5.0
Solve for Volume A rectangular block of stone has a length
of 12.3 cm, a width of 7.6 cm, and a height of 4.7 cm. What is the volume
of the stone block?

1 This is what you know: length: l  12.3 cm

width: w  7.6 cm
height h  4.7 cm

2 This is what you need to find: volume: V

3 Use this formula: Vlwh

4 Substitute: V  (12.3)  (7.6)  (4.7)  439.4

the values for l, w, and h
into the formula and multiply.

5 Determine the units: units of V  (units of l) 

(units of w)  (units of h)
 cm  cm  cm  cm3

Answer: The volume is 439.4 cm3.

For more equation practice,

Practice Problems visit ca8.msscience.com.
1. What is the volume of a brick that is 20.3 cm long, 8.9 cm wide,
and 5.7 cm high?
2. Find the volume of a box with a height of 15 cm, a width of 18 cm,
and a length of 30 cm.
 Measuring the Volume of an
Figure 6 The volume of an irregular solid Irregular Solid
can be measured using the displacement
method. There isn’t a simple formula to find the vol-
ume of a solid if the object has an irregular
1 2 shape. For example, how would you measure the
volume of a football or a fork? Figure 6 shows
how to find the volume of a solid with an irregu-
lar shape using the displacement method. Dis-
placement occurs when an object is placed in a
liquid. The object pushes aside, or displaces,
some of the liquid.

Using the Displacement Method

When you place an object in the graduated
cylinder shown in Figure 6, the level of the liquid
moves upward. However, the volume of the liq-
uid hasn’t changed. Instead, the liquid level
moves upward because the solid has displaced
some of the liquid. The volume at the new level
of liquid is the combined volume of the liquid
and the object. You can find the volume of the
1 Record the volume of the water: object by subtracting the liquid volume from the
volume of water = 78 mL combined volume of the liquid and the object, as
shown in Figure 6. After you find the volume,
2 Place the object in the water and you can calculate the density of the object by
record the combined volume of the
object and water: dividing its mass by its volume.
volume of water and bolt = 96 mL Figure 6 What are the three steps
3
used to measure volume with the
Calculate the volume of the object by
subtracting the volume of the water displacement method?
from the combined volume of the
object and water: Density as a Physical Property
volume of bolt = 96 mL – 78 mL A physical property is a property of a material
= 18 mL that you can measure without changing the com-
= 18 cm3
position of the material. The composition of a
material changes when the material changes into
a different substance. When you measure the
density of a material, you measure the material’s
mass and volume. However, measuring the mass
or the volume doesn’t cause the material to
change into a different substance. This means
that density is a physical property of a material.
You will read more about density and physical
properties of materials in Chapter 7.

What is a physical property?

136 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

 What have you learned?
In this lesson you read that the density of a material depends on
the kinds of particles that make up the material as well as the
spacing of the particles in the material. You also read that density
does not change as the size of the sample changes. Finally, you read
about how to measure an object’s mass and volume to be able to
calculate the density of the object. You will use your knowledge of
density in the next lessons as you study sinking and floating.

LESSON 1 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 6. Compare the densities of
summary as you write a two objects that have the
1. is the mass per unit same volume, but one feels
newsletter.
volume of a material. 8.a heavier than the other. 8.a
1. Write this lesson title,
number, and page num- 2. Write a sentence using the 7. Identify a situation in which
bers at the top of a sheet term rectangular solid. 8.b it is important to use density
of paper. instead of mass when com-
Understanding Main Ideas paring how heavy two mate-
2. Review the text after
the red main headings 3. State the density of a 25-g rials are. 8.a
and write one sentence sample of silver if a 5-g sample 8. Calculate the volume of the
about each. These will be of silver has a density of rectangular solid shown
the headlines of your 10.5 g/cm3. How do you know? below. 8.b
newsletter. 8.a
3. Review the text and write 4. Organize Information Copy
2–3 sentences about each (Xb
and fill in the graphic organizer
blue subheading. These
below to show the three steps 'Xb *Xb
sentences should tell who,
of measuring volume using the
what, when, where, and
why information about
displacement method. 8.b Applying Math
each headline. 9. Calculate the density of a
4. Illustrate your newsletter limestone rock that has a
with diagrams of impor- mass of 175 g and a volume
tant structures and pro- of 65 cm3. 8.b
cesses next to each
10. Calculate the volume of a
headline.
diamond that has a density
ELA8: W 2.1 of 3.5 g/cm3 and a mass
of 9.1 g. 8.b
5. Convert 1.3 g/mL to g/cm3.
8.b

Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

Lesson 1 • Density 137

 Using the Density Equation to Find 8.a, 9.f
Mass and Volume
The density equation is a relationship between the mass of an object,
MA8: ALG 5.0
its volume, and the density of the object. If you know any two of the
variables in the density equation, you can calculate the unknown
variable.

Using the Density Equation to Find Mass

If the density, D, and volume, V, of an object are known, you can find
the mass, m, of the object.

First multiply both sides of the density equation by V:

VDVm 
V
The variable V cancels on the right side of the above equation:
VD/ V m
V/
m

So the equation for the mass of an object if its density and volume are known is:
mVD
You can find the mass by multiplying the volume and the density.

Using the Density Equation to Find Volume

If the density, D, and mass, m, of an object are known, you can find
the volume, V, of the object.

Use the equation above, and divide both sides by D:

mVD

D D
The variable D cancels on the right side of the above equation:
mVD /V

D  D
/
So the equation for the volume of an object if its density and mass are known is:
Vm 
D
You can find the volume by dividing the mass by the density.

Practice Problems
1. Lead has a density of 11.3 g/cm3. If a piece of lead has a Science nline
volume of 4 cm3, what is its mass? For more math practice,
visit Math Practice at
2. A stainless steel rod has a mass of 59.2 g and a density of
ca8.msscience.com.
7.9 g/cm3. What is the volume of the rod?

138 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

 MA8: ALG 4.0

Can you calculate

the density?
Regardless of a sample’s form, it has mass, volume, and density. If
you can measure the mass and volume, you can calculate the
sample’s density.

Data Collection
1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Make a data table as shown below.

Density
Sample Description Mass (g) Volume (cm3) Density (g/cm3)

3. Write a brief description of the sample in the table.

4. Use a balance to measure the mass of the material. For a liq-
uid, follow the steps shown in Figure 3.
5. Find the volume of the sample. Use a graduated cylinder to
find the volume of a liquid or an irregular solid. For an irregular
solid, follow the steps in Figure 6.
6. Repeat steps 3, 4, and 5 for the remaining sample.

Data Analysis
1. Calculate the density for each sample.
2. Explain how the density you calculated would change if the
size of the sample doubled.
3. Compare your results to those of other groups.

Science Content Standards

8.b Students know how to calculate the density of substances (regular and irregular solids and
liquids) from measurements of mass and volume.
9.f Apply simple mathematic relationships to determine a missing quantity in a mathematic
expression, given the two remaining terms (including speed  distance/time, density  mass/
volume, force  pressure  area, volume  area  height).
139
LESSON 2

Science Content
Standards
Pressure and the
8.c Students know the buoyant force on
an object in a fluid is an upward force equal
Buoyant Force
to the weight of the fluid the object has >ˆ˜Ê`i> Objects in a fluid experience a buoyant force
displaced. resulting from the pressure exerted by the fluid.
Real-World Reading Connection A beach ball filled with air
Reading Guide floats on the surface of a swimming pool. Pushing the beach ball
under water can be hard to do. If you hold the ball under water,
What You’ll Learn why does the ball pop out of the water when you let go?
Describe how a fluid
▼

exerts pressure on objects

Pressure in a Fluid
submerged in the fluid. You probably can think of many examples in which the force
Compare the pressure on exerted by an object pushes or pulls on another object. A bat
▼

an object at different exerts a force on a baseball. Your hand pulls on a handle to

depths in a fluid. open a door. It might seem that only solid objects can exert
forces on each other. However, liquids and gases also can exert
Explain Archimedes’
▼

principle. forces. Think about the waves crashing against you at the sea-
shore or the air pushing against you on a windy day. Liquids
Why It’s Important and gases are fluids, which are materials that can flow and have
The buoyant force explains no definite shape. Like solid objects, fluids can exert forces.
how huge ships made of For example, when the swimmer in Figure 7 tries to push the
metal are able to float.
beach ball under the water, the water exerts an upward force on
the ball. This force becomes greater as more of the ball is pushed
Vocabulary into the water. When the swimmer lets go, the upward force
fluid exerted by the water can cause the ball to pop up.
pressure
atmospheric pressure
buoyant force Figure 7 Pushing an inflated ball
Archimedes’ principle under water is hard because of the
upward force that the water exerts on
Review Vocabulary the ball.
force: a push or a pull (p. 88)
9dlclVgY
[dgXZdcWVaa

JelVgY[dgXZ
dcWVaa

140 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

 Figure 8 When
the same force is
applied over a
larger area, the
pressure on the
sand decreases.
Identify the photo in
which the pressure
exerted on the sand is
greater.

Weight Weight

What is pressure?
What happens when you walk in deep, soft snow or dry sand?
Your feet sink into the snow or sand, and walking can be difficult.
If you ride a bicycle with narrow tires over the sand or the snow,
the tires would sink even deeper than your feet.
How deep you sink depends on two things. One is the force you
apply to the surface of the sand or the snow. This force is equal to
your weight. How deep you sink also depends on the area over
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
which the force is applied. Like the person in Figure 8, when you area (AIR ee uh)
stand on two feet, the force you exert is spread out over the area (noun) the number of unit
covered by your two feet. However, suppose you stand on a large squares that fit onto a surface
board, as in Figure 8. Then the force you exert on the sand is The area of an average adult
human’s skin is about 2.0 m2.
spread out over the area covered by the board. Because this area is
larger than the area covered by your feet, the force you apply is
more spread out when you stand on the board.
What happens when the area over which a force is
applied increases?
Why don’t you sink as deep when you stand on the board? In WORD ORIGIN
both cases, you exerted a downward force on the sand. What fluid
from Latin fluere; means to
changed was the area over which the force was exerted on the flow
sand. By changing this area, you changed the pressure you exerted
on the sand. Pressure is the force per unit of area applied on the
surface of an object. Pressure decreases when a force is spread out
over a larger area. When you stood on the board, the pressure you
exerted on the sand decreased. As a result, you didn’t sink as deep.

Lesson 2 • Pressure and the Buoyant Force 141

SCIENCE USE V. COMMON USE Calculating Pressure
pressure Pressure depends on the force applied and the area of contact
Science Use amount of force over which the force is applied. Pressure can be calculated from
exerted per unit of area. The
can was crushed by the large the following equation:
pressure acting on it.
Common Use physical or Pressure Equation
mental stress. David felt great force (in newtons)
pressure (in pascals)  
pressure when called on in class area (in meters squared)
to answer a question.
F
P=
A

The unit of pressure is the pascal, abbreviated Pa. Recall from

Chapter 2 that the unit for force is the newton (N). A pressure of
1 Pa is equal to a force of 1 N applied over an area of 1 m2, or
WORD ORIGIN
pressure 1 Pa = 1 N/m2. The weight of a dollar bill resting completely flat
from Latin premere; means to on a table exerts a pressure of about 1 Pa on the table. Because
press 1 Pa is a small pressure, larger pressures are often expressed in
units of a kilopascal (kPa), which is 1,000 Pa.

8.c

ALG: 5.0
Solve for Pressure A box exerts a force of 420 N on a floor.
The bottom of the box has an area of 0.7 m2. What is the pressure exerted
by the box on the floor?

1 This is what you know: force: F  420 N

area: A  0.7 m2

2 This is what you need to find: pressure: P

F
3 Use this formula: P
A
420
4 Substitute: P
0.7
 600
the values for F and A
into the formula and divide.
units of F N
5 Determine the units: units of P   2  N/m  Pa
2
units of A m
Answer: The pressure is 600 Pa.

Practice Problems
For more equation practice,
1. A person lying on a floor exerts a force of 750 N over a floor area visit ca8.msscience.com.
of 1.1 m2. Find the pressure exerted by the person on the floor.
2. A car makes contact with the ground over an area of 0.85 m2. What is the pressure exerted
by the car on the ground if the car exerts a force of 9,350 N on the ground?

142 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

Pressure and Fluid Height
Suppose you pour the same amount of water
into wide and narrow graduated cylinders, as
shown in the left photo of Figure 9. Notice that
the height of the water in the narrow cylinder is
greater than in the wide cylinder. Is the pressure
caused by the weight of the water the same at the
bottom of each cylinder? The weight of the water
in each cylinder is the same, but the contact area
at the bottom of the narrow cylinder is smaller.
Therefore, the pressure is greater at the bottom of
the small cylinder.
Why is the pressure greater at the Figure 9 The pressure exerted by a col-
bottom of the narrow cylinder than umn of fluid depends only on the height of
at the bottom of the wide cylinder? the fluid column.
How could you increase the pressure at the
bottom of the wide cylinder? If you added water
to the cylinder, the weight of the water would
increase. This would increase the force on the
bottom of the cylinder, thereby increasing the
pressure. In the right photo, the pressure at the
bottom of both cylinders is the same. What do
you notice about the height of the column of
water in each cylinder? It is the same, too! This
is not just a coincidence resulting from the
shapes of the containers. It is true for any fluid:
the pressure depends only on the height of the
column of fluid above the surface where you
measure the pressure. The greater the height of
the column of fluid above a surface, the greater
the pressure exerted by the fluid on the surface.

Pressure and Depth

Figure 10 shows how pressure changes with Figure 10 The
pressure exerted by a
depth. At the top of the glass, the water pressure fluid increases as the
is zero because there is no column of water above depth in the fluid
that level. Pressure in the middle of the glass increases.
depends on the column of water from the top of >cXgZVh^c\
EgZhhjgZ
the glass to the middle of the glass. Pressure at
the bottom depends on the entire height of the
water. Pressure increases with depth because the
column of water pushing down becomes taller
and heavier. You can feel how pressure changes
with depth if you dive under water. As you swim
deeper, the water pressure on you increases.

Lesson 2 • Pressure and the Buoyant Force 143

 Pressure in All Directions
If the pressure exerted by a fluid is a result of
the weight of the fluid, is the pressure in a fluid
exerted only downward? The illustration in
Figure 11 shows a small, solid cube in a fluid. The
fluid exerts pressure on each face of this cube,
not just on the top. The pressure is perpendicular
to the surface, and the amount of pressure
depends only on the depth in the fluid. As shown
EgZhhjgZ
in the photograph in Figure 11, this is true for
any object in a fluid, no matter how complicated
the shape. The pressure on the object is always
perpendicular to the surface of the object.
In which direction does pressure
exerted by a fluid push?
EgZhhjgZ
Atmospheric Pressure
When you read about the pressure in fluids,
you might think only about liquids such as water.
However, remember that gases are fluids, too.
Like liquids, a gas exerts pressure on an object
depending on the height of the gas above the
object. Atmospheric (AT muh sfihr ik) pressure
Figure 11 The pressure on an object is the force exerted per unit area by air particles.
of any shape is exerted perpendicular If you start at the top of a mountain and walk
to the surfaces of the object. down, the height of the column of air above you
Explain why the arrows showing the pres- increases. This means that atmospheric pressure
sure have different lengths.
increases as your elevation decreases. Figure 12
shows how pressure varies as you go from the
tallest mountains to deep under water in the
ocean.
You can sense the change in atmospheric pres-
sure when you fly in an airplane or take an eleva-
tor to the top of a tall building. The sudden
change in pressure can make your ears pop. You
sometimes can feel changes in pressure, but you
probably don’t notice the air pressing on you
right now. The column of air above you is more
than 10 km thick. The total force of the air push-
ing on the surface area of your skin is about the
same as the weight of ten cars! You don’t feel this
pressure because there is an equal, internal pres-
sure pushing out from the inside of your body.
This internal pressure balances the external pres-
sure exerted on you by the atmosphere.

144 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

Visualizing Pressure at Varying Elevations
Figure 12 No matter where you are on
Earth, you’re under pressure. Air and water are
fluids that exert pressure on your body. The
pressure exerted on you depends on your
elevation in Earth’s atmosphere. If you are
underwater, the pressure on you also depends
on your depth below the water surface.

▲ High Elevation With increasing eleva-

tion, the amount of air above you decreases,
and so does the air pressure. At the 8,850-m
summit of Mt. Everest, air pressure is a mere
33 kPa—about one third of the pressure at
sea level.

Reef Level When

▲

you descend below the

sea surface, pressure
increases by about 1 atm
▲ Sea Level Air pressure is the every 10 m. At 20 m
pressure exerted by the weight of depth, you’d experience
the atmosphere above you. At sea 2 atm of water pressure
level the atmosphere exerts a force and 1 atm of air pres-
of about 100,000 N on every square sure, a total of 3 atm
meter of area. This pressure is also of pressure on your
called one atmosphere (atm) and is body.
equal to 100 kPa.

Deep in the Ocean The

▲

deeper you dive, the greater the

pressure. The water pressure on
a submersible at a depth of
2,200 m is about 220 times
greater than the atmospheric
pressure at sea level.

Contributed by National Geographic

Lesson 2 • Pressure and the Buoyant Force 145

 What causes the buoyant force?
Think about the forces acting on the boat in Figure 13. Gravity
is pulling the boat down, yet the boat doesn’t accelerate downward.
Because the boat is not accelerating up or down, the vertical forces
on the boat are balanced. There must be an upward force balanc-
ing the downward force of gravity that keeps the sailboat from
sinking.

Buoyant Force and Pressure

Recall that the pressure exerted by a fluid has two properties.
LZ^\]i JelVgY One is that the direction of the pressure on a surface is always per-
;dgXZ pendicular to the surface of the object. The other is that the pres-
sure exerted by a fluid increases as you go deeper into the fluid.
Figure 14 shows these two properties of pressure exerted by a fluid.
Figure 13 A boat floats The forces acting in the horizontal direction cancel because there
because of a buoyant are equal forces pushing to the left and to the right. For objects of
force pushing up on it. any shape submerged in a liquid, there is no net horizontal force
caused by water pressure.
However, water pressure at the top surface of the fish is less than
water pressure at the bottom surface. The force pushing up on the
fish is therefore greater than the force pushing down on the fish.
The vertical forces do not balance each other. There is an upward
WORD ORIGIN force on the fish resulting from differences in water pressure. The
buoyant buoyant (BOY unt) force is the upward force on an object in a
from Spanish boyante; means fluid exerted by the surrounding fluid. The buoyant force is a
to float
result of increasing pressure at increasing depth.

Figure 14 The boxfish

experiences a buoyant
force resulting from
CZi[dgXZZmZgiZY increasing pressure at
WnlViZgdcide increasing depth.

CZi[dgXZZmZgiZY CZi[dgXZZmZgiZY
WnlViZgdc WnlViZgdc
aZ[ih^YZ g^\]ih^YZ

CZi[dgXZZmZgiZY
WnlViZgdc
Wdiidb

146 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

Buoyant Force and Depth
The pressure exerted by a fluid increases with depth. However,
the buoyant force on the fish in Figure 14 doesn’t change as the
fish swims deeper. The reason is that the buoyant force is the dif-
ference in the forces exerted on the upper and lower surfaces of the
fish. As the fish swims deeper, the pressure on these surfaces
increases by the same amount. The difference in the forces doesn’t
change and the buoyant force on the fish stays the same.
How does the buoyant force change as the depth of
the object changes?

Archimedes’ Principle
A beach ball floating in water displaces some of the water. The
volume of the water displaced by the ball is equal to the volume of
the ball that is in the water. Archimedes, a Greek mathematician
who lived more than 2,200 years ago, found that the buoyant
force on an object depends on the displaced fluid. According to
Archimedes’ principle, the buoyant force on an object is equal to
the weight of the fluid the object displaces. The weight of the fluid
displaced depends only on the density and the volume of the fluid
displaced. As Figure 15 shows, the buoyant force on an object does
not depend on the object’s density or its weight.
Archimedes’ principle explains why the upward buoyant force
on a beach ball increases as the ball is pushed underwater. The
volume of the water displaced by the ball is much greater when it
is underwater than when it is floating. So the weight of the water
displaced, and the buoyant force, also is much greater when the
ball is underwater than when it is floating.

Figure 15 The
buoyant force on
each cube is the
same, because each
9Zch^in2 9Zch^in2 9Zch^in2 cube has the same
%#.'\$Xb( '#,\$Xb( ,#-\$Xb( volume and dis-
places the same
amount of water.
>XZ 6ajb^cjb HiZZa Determine which cube
has the greatest weight.

7jdnVci 7jdnVci 7jdnVci

[dgXZ [dgXZ [dgXZ

Lesson 2 • Pressure and the Buoyant Force 147

 What have you learned?
A fluid exerts an upward buoyant force on an object in the
fluid. The buoyant force acting on an object submerged in a fluid
is caused by the difference in pressure on the top and bottom of
the object. This difference in pressure does not change as the
object moves deeper into the fluid. This means that the buoyant
force does not change as the depth of the object changes. Accord-
ing to Archimedes’ principle, this buoyant force also equals the
weight of the fluid displaced by the object. This means that the
buoyant force on an object does not depend on the weight of the
object. Instead, it depends on the volume and the density of the
displaced fluid.

LESSON 2 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 5. Identify the vertical forces
summary as you design a acting on the boat in the fig-
1. ____ is force per unit area. 8.c ure below. 8.c
visual aid.
1. Write the lesson title, 2. Restate Archimedes’ principle
number, and page num- in your own words. 8.c
bers at the top of your
poster. Understanding Main Ideas
2. Scan the lesson to find the 3. Determine Cause and Effect
red main headings. Orga- Copy and fill in the graphic 6. Explain why you feel that you
nize these headings on organizer below to describe weigh less than normal when
your poster, leaving space two ways to increase the pres- you are in a swimming pool.
between each. sure exerted on an object. 8.c 8.c
3. Design an information
box beneath each red Increase Applying Science
heading. In the box, list pressure
7. Evaluate the statement,
2–3 details, key terms,
and definitions from each
“Heavy things sink and light
blue subheading. things float.” Is the statement
true or false? If false, rewrite a
4. Illustrate your poster with true statement about floating
diagrams of important 4. Compare the pressure at a and sinking objects. 8.c
structures or processes depth of 10 m to a depth of
next to each information 2,000 m below the surface of
box. the ocean. Explain the cause of
ELA8: R 2.3
the difference in pressure. 8.c
Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

148 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

Can you feel the
buoyant force?
A fluid exerts an upward buoyant force on all
objects placed in the fluid. Can you detect the
buoyant force that acts on a heavy rock?

Procedure
1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Station A: Fill a clear plastic bowl or pitcher
with clean tap water. Put a sandwich bag
under water and fill it so no air gets into the
bag. Seal the bag while it is underwater.
Remove the bag from the water. Place the
bag into the bowl of water and observe how
far it sinks. Write your observations in your
Science Journal.
3. Station B: Observe the heavy rock with the rope tied around
it at the bottom of the large plastic storage container filled
with clear tap water. Lift the rock halfway up in the container,
but keep it under the water. Think about how difficult or easy
it was to lift. Lift the rock all the way out of the water and
hold it above the water. Think about how difficult or easy it
was to lift and to hold in this position. Write your observations
in your Science Journal.

Analysis
1. Compare the behavior of the bag of water and the rock to the
beach ball you studied in the Launch Lab. How do the densities
of the bag of water, the rock, and the ball compare to the den-
sity of water?
2. Diagram the forces acting on the rock when it is sitting at the
bottom of the container, when you held it above the bottom
but still underwater, and when you held it out of the water.

Science Content Standards

8.c Students know the buoyant force on an object in a fluid is an upward force equal to the
weight of the fluid the object has displaced.

149
LESSON 3

Science Content
Standards
Sinking and Floating
8.d Students know how to predict
>ˆ˜Ê`i> An object will float in a fluid if the density of the
whether an object will float or sink. object is less than the density of the fluid.
9.f Apply simple mathematic relationships Real-World Reading Connection If you’ve visited a lake or
to determine a missing quantity in a an ocean, you’ve probably seen boats of all sizes and shapes. A
mathematic expression, given the two
remaining terms (including speed 
small fishing boat might be just big enough for two or three
distance/time, density  mass/volume, people. A larger group of people can fit on a large sailing boat. A
force  pressure  area, volume  area cruise ship can carry thousands of people! Think about the
 height). weight of all the people and equipment on a cruise ship. What
keeps this heavy ship from sinking?
Reading Guide Why do objects sink or float?
What You’ll Learn A fluid exerts pressure on any object that is in the fluid. This
pressure exerts an upward buoyant force on the object. However,
Explain how the buoyant
▼

force is related to floating the buoyant force isn’t the only force acting on the object. The
and sinking. force due to Earth’s gravity pulls down on an object. This down-
ward force is the object’s weight. Whether an object sinks or
Describe how to use
▼

densities to predict floats depends on the sizes of the upward buoyant force on the
whether an object will object and object’s weight. Why do some objects sink and some
float. objects float?
Explain how a hydrometer
▼

measures the density of a

Sinking and Buoyant Force
fluid. If the upward buoyant force on an object is less than the
object’s weight, then the net force on the object is downward.
Why It’s Important The object accelerates downward because the unbalanced force
Knowing the density of a is downward. The stone in Figure 16 moves downward, or sinks,
material can help predict if because its weight is greater than the buoyant force acting on it.
the material will sink or float.

Vocabulary
hydrometer

Review Vocabulary
Figure 16 The
gravity: an attractive force stone sinks because
between all objects that have the net force on the
mass (p. 96) stone is downward.
CZi
[dgXZ
7jdnVci
[dgXZ LZ^\]i

150 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

 7jdnVci
[dgXZ

<gVk^in
Figure 17 The woman floats because the
forces acting on her are balanced.

Floating and Buoyant Force

The woman floating on the water in Figure 17 isn’t accelerating
in the vertical direction. When an object isn’t accelerating, the
forces acting on the object are balanced. The downward weight of
the woman is balanced by the buoyant force pushing upward on
the woman. If an object is floating, the buoyant force equals the Figure 18 The boat
and the cube have the
object’s weight. same weight. The boat
If an object is floating, what are the relative sizes of floats because its large
the weight and the buoyant force? volume causes its over-
all density to be less
than the density of
The Buoyant Force and Density water.
According to Archimedes’ principle, the buoyant force equals
the weight of the displaced fluid. Therefore, if an object is floating,
the weight of the displaced fluid equals the weight of the object.
7jdnVci
For example, the weight of the water displaced by the woman in [dgXZ
Figure 17 equals the weight of the woman.

How can metal boats float? LZ^\]i

Almost all metals have a density greater than the density of
water. According to Archimedes’ principle, you might predict that
a piece of metal will sink in water. Why, then, do metal boats such
as the ship in Figure 18 float? Remember that the mass of an object
doesn’t determine whether or not it floats. For an object to float,
7jdnVci
the overall density of the object must be less than the density of [dgXZ
the fluid it is in. The overall density of a metal boat is made
smaller by making the volume of the boat larger. The ship in LZ^\]i
Figure 18 has a large volume that is filled with air. By making the
air-filled volume large enough, the overall density of the boat can be
made smaller than the density of water. As a result, the boat floats,
even though it is made from metal.
Figure 18 How does changing the shape of the metal
affect the density of the boat?

Lesson 3 • Sinking and Floating 151

 Measuring Density with a Hydrometer
There is another way to measure the density of liquid besides
WORD ORIGIN first measuring its mass and volume. A hydrometer (hi DRA mih
hydrometer ter) is an instrument that measures the density of a liquid.
hydro– from Greek hydro; When the hydrometer is placed in a liquid, it sinks to a certain
means water
–meter from Latin metreum; depth. The depth to which it sinks depends on the density of the
means measure liquid, as shown in Figure 19. The lower the density of the liquid,
the deeper the hydrometer sinks. The length of the hydrometer
tube below the liquid, or submerged, is related to the density of the
liquid. The lower the density of the liquid, the longer the length of
the hydrometer tube submerged below the liquid.
To measure the density of a liquid, the hydrometer is first placed
in water. Then the length of the hydrometer below the surface of
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY the water is measured. Next, the hydrometer is placed in the liquid
ratio (RAY she oh) and the length of the hydrometer below the surface of the liquid is
(noun) the relation between measured. The ratio of the submerged lengths of the hydrometer
two numbers expressed by
dividing one by the other
in the water and in the liquid is related to the ratio of the densities
The ratio of 19 to 11 is equal of the water and the liquid. For example, suppose the ratio of the
to 19/11. length submerged in water divided by the length submerged in the
liquid is 2.0. Then the density of the unknown liquid is 2.0 times
the density of water. Water has a density of 1.0 g/cm3, so the den-
sity of the liquid is 2.0 g/cm3.

Figure 19 A hydrometer measures the density of a liquid.

Compare the weight of liquid displaced by the hydrometer in each illustration.

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152 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

Floating and Sinking in
the Atmosphere 7jdnVci[dgXZ
Objects float in all fluids, including gases. Air
is a fluid made of gases. Objects can float or
rise in air because of the buoyant force produced
by air pressure.

Helium Balloons
The balloons in Figure 20 can float in air
because they contain helium gas. Air is made of LZ^\]i
mostly nitrogen gas and oxygen gas, which are
much denser than helium. When a balloon is
filled with helium, its density is less than the
density of the surrounding air. The balloon rises
if the buoyant force on the balloon is greater Figure 20 This helium balloon
rises in air because its weight is
than the weight of the balloon. less than the buoyant force
Why does a helium balloon float exerted by the air.
in air?
If you’ve ever had a helium balloon, you know
that it eventually stops floating. The helium
atoms are so small that they can seep out
through tiny holes in the rubber balloon. This
causes the balloon to shrink. As a result, the den-
sity of the balloon increases. When the density of
the balloon becomes greater than the density of
the surrounding air, the balloon sinks.

Hot-Air Balloons
7jdnVci
A hot-air balloon, such as the one shown in [dgXZ
Figure 21, floats because its density is less than
the density of the surrounding air. The overall
density of the hot-air balloon is controlled by
changing the temperature of the air inside the
balloon. A pilot controls the air temperature LZ^\]i
using burners below the opening of the balloon.
When the flame of the burner heats the air in
the balloon, the air particles move farther apart.
The density of the balloon decreases and becomes
less dense than the air outside the balloon. This
causes the balloon to rise. When the burner is Figure 21 A hot-air balloon rises when
turned off, the air in the balloon cools and its den- the air in the balloon is heated. This makes
the balloon’s overall density less than the
sity increases. If the air in the balloon cools density of the surrounding air.
enough, the balloon will sink. The rising and Explain how heating the air in the balloon affects
sinking of the balloon is determined by the densi- the density of the balloon.
ties of the air inside and outside the balloon.

Lesson 3 • Sinking and Floating 153

 What have you learned?
In this lesson you read about sinking and floating. You used the
things you learned about forces in the previous chapter to explain
why things sink or float. When placed in a fluid, an object sinks if
the buoyant force and the object’s weight are unbalanced. If the
object floats, the forces are balanced.
You also combined your understanding of forces with facts you
learned about density to explain how even heavy metal boats can
float. You read that boats that weigh thousands of tons can float
because the overall density of the boat is less than the density of
water.

LESSON 3 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 5. More of a ship is underwater
summary as you design a when it is in a river than when
1. Define hydrometer in your it is in the ocean. What can
study web.
own words. 8.d you infer about the density of
1. Write the lesson title,
the ocean water compared to
number, and page num- Understanding Main Ideas the density of the river water?
bers at the top of a sheet
of paper. 2. Explain how it is possible for A. The river water is colder
an object to sink even though than the ocean water. 8.d
2. Scan the lesson to find
a buoyant force is pushing B. The ocean water is warmer
the red main headings.
up on it. 8.d than the river water.
3. Organize these headings
clockwise on branches 3. Describe how you could make C. The ocean water is denser
around the lesson title. modeling clay float in water than the river water.
even though it has a density D. The ocean water is less
4. Review the information
greater than the density of dense than the river water.
under each red heading
water. 8.d
to design a branch for Applying Science
each blue subheading. 4. Compare and Contrast Copy
and fill in the graphic orga- 6. Evaluate the usefulness of a
5. List 2–3 details, key terms,
and definitions from each nizer below to compare and hydrometer, and explain why
blue subheading on contrast how helium balloons determining density is better
branches extending and hot air balloons float in done in different situations
from the main heading the atmosphere. 8.d with a hydrometer or by mea-
branches. suring mass and volume. 8.d
Floating Similarities Differences
ELA8: R 2.3 in the
Atmosphere

Helium
balloon

Hot-air
balloon
Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

154 Chapter 3 • Density and Buoyancy

Do cold things float?
On a hot day, you might put a few ice cubes
into a glass of water to cool off. The ice cubes
float near the top of the liquid. Do ice cubes
float because they are cold? What does tem-
perature have to do with sinking and floating?

Procedure
1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Get a container of room-temperature
water from your teacher.
3. Fill a sandwich bag with some hot water and
seal the bag. Be sure to remove any air bubbles from the bag.
4. Write a prediction in your Science Journal. Will the bag filled
with hot water sink or float in the room-temperature water?
Observe the bag in the water and record the observation.
5. Get another container of room-temperature water from your
teacher and another sandwich bag. Fill the bag with cold tap
water and place several ice cubes into the bag before sealing
it. Let the bag sit for a few minutes while the ice cools the
water.
6. Write a prediction. Do you think the cold water will sink or
float? Place the bag in the room-temperature water and
observe. Record the observation.

Analysis
1. Describe what happened when you put the hot water into the
room-temperature water. What happened when you put the
cold water into the room temperature water?
2. Compare the behavior of the hot and cold bags of water to
the bag of water you observed in the MiniLab at the end of
Lesson 2.
3. Explain what effect temperature has on the density of the
water. How did this affect the floating of the bags?

Science Content Standards

8.d Students know how to predict whether an object will float or sink.
155
 Investigation Lab:
A Homemade Hydrometer
Materials Problem
A hydrometer is a device used to compare the densities of liquids.
pencil with an eraser
You can make a hydrometer by using a pencil with a thumbtack in
thumbtack
the eraser. With your pencil hydrometer, you can compare the
permanent marker
densities of several liquids to the density of water. You can even
graduated cylinder
make a scale on your pencil to have a quantitative comparison for
two liquids in addition the liquids that you test.
to water
paper towels Form a Hypothesis
Review the results from this chapter’s laboratory
investigations.
Make a prediction about the densities of the unknown liq-
uids. Are they more or less dense than water? Why do you
think so?

Collect Data and Make Observations

Safety Precautions 1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Make a data table like the one on the next page.
3. Add clean tap water to the graduated cylinder until it is
WARNING: Keep surfaces three-fourths full.
and equipment dry so
4. Measuring from the tip of the eraser, mark on the pencil in
they do not become
slippery.
half-centimeter steps.
5. Push the thumbtack into the eraser of the pencil. Drop the
pencil into the graduated cylinder so that the pencil floats
Science Content upright with the eraser end down.
Standards 6. Measure the length of the part of the pencil that was
8.d Students know how to predict submerged in the water. This length represents a density of
whether an object will float or sink. 1.0 g/cm3. Record this value in your data table.
9.f Apply simple mathematic 7. Wipe the pencil dry and then place it in one of the unknown
relationships to determine a missing
quantity in a mathematic expression, liquids. Measure the length of the pencil that was submerged
given the two remaining terms (including in the liquid. Record this value in your data table.
speed = distance/time, density = mass/ 8. Repeat step 7 for the other unknown liquid.
volume, force = pressure × area, volume
= area × height).

156
Analyze and Conclude
1. Explain why it was important to clean the hydrometer
before each test of a new liquid.
2. Calculate the ratio, W/U, of the submerged length of the
pencil in water (W) to the submerged length of the pencil in
the first unknown liquid (U). Record this ratio in your data
table.
3. Infer from your calculation whether the density of the first
liquid is greater or less than the density of water. Explain.
4. Calculate the ratio, W/U, of the submerged length of the
pencil in water (W) to the submerged length of the pencil in
the second unknown liquid (U). Record this ratio in your
data table.
5. Infer from your calculation whether the density of the sec-
ond liquid is greater or less than the density of water.
Explain.
6. Calculate the density of each unknown liquid by multiply-
ing the ratio W/U for each liquid by the density of water,
1.0 g/cm3. Record the calculated values in your data table.
7. Compare the weight of the displaced fluid when the pencil
is placed in each of the three liquids.

Comparison of Density of Water to Unknown Liquids

W U Ratio Density of
Submerged Submerged W/U Unknown
Length of Length of Liquid
Hydrometer in Hydrometer in (g/cm3)
Water (cm) Unknown Liquid
(cm)

Communicate
3CIENCE ELA8: W 2.3
Research how hydrometers are used in different industries,
such as the food industry, and how they are used by auto
mechanics. Write a one-page report on one application for
hydrometers. Explain why the measurement of density is
important.

157
 Can ice cubes sink in water?
You are probably familiar with the ice that is in your freezer or
ice that forms outside on cold days. However, there are over
a dozen different kinds of ice that can form depending on
temperature and pressure. Some even sink in water instead of
floating. Physicists and chemists research properties such as
density of water and ice. To prepare for this type of research,
take chemistry, physics, and math classes in high school and
college.
Visit Careers at ca8.msscience.com to find out more
about scientific reasearch. List five questions you have
about ice. Suggest two things you could do to answer
these questions.

Biodiesel
Density is very important in separations of liquids
and gases. Biodiesel, a vegetable-based fuel, is
made by mixing methanol and cooking oil. The
reaction forms glycerin, an ingredient used to
make soap, and biodiesel. Because biodiesel is
less dense than glycerin, it rises to the top of the
reaction chamber. The glycerin is drained and the
biodeisel that remains is used as a fuel.
Create a layered sugar solution. Make the water
green, the low-sugar solution colorless, and the
high-sugar solution red. Carefully layer the less
dense fluid on the denser fluid using a plastic
syringe.

158
 Cannery Row
Cold water from the bottom of the Pacific Ocean rises
upward off the California coast. This nutrient-rich water
nourishes an enormous number of fish. At one time, large
numbers of these fish were caught by the California sardine
industry. But a failure to impose sustainable limits on the
catch and natural cycles led to the end of the trade.
Visit History at ca8.msscience.com to read more
about the California sardine industry. Imagine you are a
fisherman in 1933. Write a journal entry discussing your
business and your outlook for each year until 1943.
ELA8: W 1.1

Los Angeles Smog

The San Fernando Valley traps the
pollution created in Los Angeles. A
warm layer of air is trapped between
dense, cooler layers above and below,
and between the sea and the moun-
tains. It holds chemicals that sunlight
turns to smog, which can irritate the
lungs and eyes.
Visit Society at ca8.msscience.com
to find out more about the history
and future of air pollution control.
List five things you can do now to
reduce air pollution, and list five
things you will be able to do when
you are 25 years old.

159
 CHAPTER Standards Study Guide

/…iÊ Ê`i> A fluid exerts an upward force on an object that is placed in the fluid.

Lesson 1 Density 8.a, 8.b, 9.f

• density (p. 130)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> The density of a material is a measure of how much
• rectangular solid (p. 135)
matter is packed into a unit volume of the material.
• Density is the mass of a material divided by its volume.
• Mass can be measured with a balance.
• The volume of a liquid is measured with a graduated cylinder.
• The volume of a solid can be found by using the displacement method.

Lesson 2 Pressure and the Buoyant Force 8.c

• Archimedes’ principle (p. 147)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Objects in a fluid experience a buoyant force
• atmospheric pressure (p. 144)
resulting from the pressure exerted by the fluid.
• buoyant force (p. 146)
• Pressure is force divided by unit area. • fluid (p. 140)
• The pressure in a fluid increases with depth. • pressure (p. 141)
• Fluid pressure causes a buoyant force on an object in the fluid.
• Pressure is exerted on all surfaces of an object in a fluid.
• Forces due to fluid pressure act perpendicular to any surface in a fluid.
• The buoyant force on an object is equal to the weight of the fluid the
object displaces.

Lesson 3 Sinking and Floating 8.d, 9.f

• hydrometer (p. 152)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> An object will float in a fluid if the density of the
object is less than the density of the fluid.
• An object sinks if the buoyant force is less than the weight of the object.
• An object floats if the buoyant force equals the weight of the object.
• An object will float if the density of the object is less than the density of
the fluid.
• A hydrometer measures the density of a fluid. Download quizzes, key
terms, and flash cards from
ca8.msscience.com.

160 Chapter 3 • Standards Study Guide Interactive Tutor ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Linking Vocabulary and Main Ideas

Use vocabulary terms from page 160 to complete this concept map.

Object

has physical experiences

property

2.
1.
according to due to
differences in
calculated by dividing
3.
7.
mass
is equal to mass of
displaced
by

4.
volume
whose

5.

can be Visit ca8.msscience.com for:

measured by υ Vocabulary PuzzleMaker
υ Vocabulary eFlashcards
υ Multilingual Glossary
6.

Using Vocabulary
Match a vocabulary term to each definition below.
8. the force per unit area exerted by air particles 12. the mass per unit volume of a material
9. any material that can flow, including liquids and 13. an instrument that measures the density of a
gases fluid
10. force per unit area 14. the buoyant force exerted by a fluid on an object
equals the weight of the fluid displaced by the
11. upward force on an object submerged in a fluid
object

Chapter 3 • Standards Review 161

 CHAPTER Standards Review
Understanding Main Ideas 4. Which is true about an inflatable beach ball as it
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the is pushed under water?
question.
1. Gold has a density of 19.3 g/cm3. Silver has a
density of 10.5 g/cm3. Which is a true statement?
A. A 2-cm3 block of gold has less mass than a
2-cm3 block of silver. 8.a
B. 50 g of gold has a lower volume than 50 g of
silver.
C. The weight of a 10.5-g block of gold equals
the weight of a 19.3-g block of silver. A. When the ball is under water, the pressure on
D. The volume of a 15-g block of gold is greater the ball is the same at all places on the surface
than the volume of a 35-g block of silver. of the ball. 8.c
B. The buoyant force on the ball increases the
farther below the surface of the water you
2. A student measured the densities of four differ-
push the ball.
ent materials. The table below shows the results
C. The buoyant force on the ball increases until
of the measurements.
the entire ball is underwater.
D. The ball experiences pressure from the water
Material Density
only in the vertical direction.
(g/cm3)

1 0.93 5. What does the buoyant force on an object sub-

merged in a fluid equal?
2 1.05 A. weight of the object that the buoyant force
acts on 8.c
3 1.13
B. weight of the fluid displaced by the object
4 0.87 C. weight of the column of fluid above the
object
D. weight of the object minus the weight of the
Which of the materials would you expect to float displaced fluid
if they were placed in water?
A. materials 2 and 3 8.b
6. Which of the four objects listed below would you
B. materials 1 and 4
expect to float? 8.d
C. materials 2 and 4
D. materials 1 and 3
Object Weight Buoyant
(N) Force (N)
3. If you toss a rock into a lake, what happens to
the rock as it sinks? A 17 12
A. Pressure increases; buoyant force changes
very little. 8.c B 116 86
B. Buoyant force increases; pressure changes C 325 325
very little.
C. Pressure decreases; buoyant force changes D 53 35
very little.
D. Buoyant force decreases; pressure changes
very little.

162 Chapter 3 • Standards Review Standards Review ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Applying Science Cumulative Review

7. Suggest a way that you could determine whether 17. Imagine a rock at rest on the bottom of a lake.
a silver spoon is made of pure silver or a mixture What three vertical forces are acting on the rock?
of metals. 8.b Are the forces acting on the rock balanced?
Explain how you know. 2.d
8. Give an example of how you know an object in a
liquid experiences a buoyant force. 8.c 18. Suppose a rock that weighs 57 N experiences a
buoyant force of 35 N when it is submerged in
9. Compare the buoyant force on a fish as it swims
water. What is the sum of these two forces acting
from the water’s surface into deep water. 8.c
on the rock as it sinks through the water? 2.b
10. Suggest two ways to determine the volume of a
baseball. 8.b
11. Imagine you attach a lead block to a spring scale Applying Math
and observe its weight. You then lower the lead
block, still attached to the spring scale, into 19. What is the density of a metal bolt that has a
water. Explain how the weight measured by the volume of 5.2 cm3 and a mass of 41.0 g?
scale will change as you lower the block into the ALG: 1.0
water. 8.c
20. Platinum has a density of 21.45 g/cm3. If a
12. Predict what you would observe if you mixed piece of platinum has a volume of 1.2 cm3,
the liquids shown in the table below. 8.d what is its mass? ALG: 1.0
21. The density of sodium is 0.97 g/cm3. Find the
Liquid Density
(g/mL) volume of a sample that has a mass of 6.7 g.
ALG: 1.0
Olive oil 0.918
22. The palm of Sheila’s hand has an area of
Corn oil 0.922 0.0017 m2. If the atmospheric pressure on the
palm is 100,000 Pa, what force is being
Water 1.00 exerted on Sheila’s palm by the atmosphere?
ALG: 1.0
13. Suggest why it is important to use a strong mate-
rial when making an air tank used by scuba divers 23. The table shows the pressure in a pond at
for swimming deep below the ocean surface. 8.c different depths.

14. Infer the relative densities of ice and water if you Pressure in a Pond
see ice floating in water. 8.d
15. Compare the buoyant force on two objects Depth (m) Pressure (Pa)
submerged in water that have the same volume 0.1 980
but different densities. 8.d
0.5 4,900
3CIENCE 1.0 9,800
16. Write a news article about the sinking of a fic- What would be the pressure in the pond at a
tional ship. The article should be at least two depth of 1.5 m? ALG: 1.0
paragraphs long. It should explain to the reader
why the ship was unable to float. ELA8: W 1.1

Chapter 3 • Standards Review 163

 CHAPTER Standards Assessment
Use the figure below to answer questions 1 and 2. 3 A force of 25 N is exerted on a surface with an
area of 0.1 m2. What is the pressure exerted on
the surface?

A 0.04 Pa 9.f

B 2.5 Pa
C 25 Pa

D 250 Pa

4 Use the figure below to answer question 4.

1 The figure on the left shows the dancer’s foot-

prints while standing with her feet flat on the
floor. The figure on the right shows her foot-
prints when standing on her toes. How does the
pressure exerted on the floor in the left figure
compare with the pressure exerted in the right
figure?

A The pressure is greater in the left figure. 9.f Which statement is true about the volume of the
water displaced by the golf ball?
B The pressure is greater in the right figure.
A It is equal to the volume of the golf ball. 8.c
C The pressure is the same in both figures.
B It is greater than the volume of the golf ball.
D The pressure is smaller in the right figure.
C It is less than the volume of the golf ball.
2 The area of the floor in contact with the danc- D The volume depends on the density of the golf
er’s feet is 300 cm2 in the left photo and 30 cm2 ball.
in the right photo. How does the force exerted
on the floor change from the left photo to the
right photo? 5 A 15-g block of aluminum has a volume of
5.5 cm3. What is the block’s density?
A The force decreases by 270 N. 9.f
A 0.37 g/cm3 8.b
B The force becomes 10 times larger.
B 2.7 g/cm3
C The force becomes 10 times smaller.
C 20.5 g/cm3
D The force acting on the floor does not change.
D 82.5 g/cm3

164 Chapter 3 • Standards Assessment Standards Assessment ca8.msscience.com

Mark Burnett
 Standards Assessment CHAPTER

Use the figure below to answer questions 8, 9, and 10.

10 The density of gold is 19.3 g/cm3. What is the
volume of a 100-g gold necklace?

A 0.193 cm3 8.b

7jdnVci[dgXZ B 5.18 cm3

C 119.3 cm3
LZ^\]i
D 1930 cm3
7jdnVci[dgXZ
11 As you drive down a high mountain, what hap-
pens to the atmospheric pressure?
LZ^\]i
A It decreases. 8.d

B It increases.
8 The boat and the cube have the same mass. C It increases, then decreases.
Which statement is correct?
D It stays the same.
A The boat displaces less water than the cube.

B The densities of the boat and the cube are 12 The photograph below shows a large boat float-
equal. ing in the ocean.

C The density of the boat is less than the density

of the cube.

D The density of the boat is greater than the den-

sity of the water. 8.d

9 A student measures the density of an unknown

liquid. She finds the density is 1.42 g/cm3.
She then pours half of the liquid into another
container and measures the density again.
What should be the result of her second
measurement?

A 0.71 g/cm3 8.a

B 1.42 g/cm3 How does the buoyant force acting on the boat
change if the boat is loaded so that more of the
C 2.00 g/cm3 boat is below the water?
D 2.84 g/cm3 A The buoyant force increases. 8.c

B The buoyant force decreases.

C The buoyant force stays the same.

D The buoyant force decreases, then returns to

the original value.

Chapter 3 • Standards Assessment 165

Vince Streano/Getty Images
 Are you interested in learning more about motion, forces, buoyancy, and
density? If so, check out these great books.

Science Fiction
Project Pendulum, by Robert Silverberg, is the story of Earth’s first time travelers
in 2016. One brother is carried back 95 million years in time and the other forward
95 million years in time. The book records each brother’s observations in alternating
chapters. The content of this book is related to Science Standard 8.1.

Nonfiction
The Cartoon Guide to Physics, by Larry Gonick, provides concise explanations
of physical principles with the help of amusing cartoons. Topics include
motion, Newton’s laws, momentum, energy, electricity, and magnetism.
The content of this book is related to Science Standard 8.1.

Nonfiction
Objects in Motion: Principles of Classical Mechanics, by Paul Fleisher, uses real-life
examples to make natural laws easy to understand. The topics covered in this book
include planetary motion, pendulums and falling objects, Newton’s three laws of
motion, the law of universal gravitation, and conservation of momentum. The con-
tent of this book is related to Science Standard 8.2.

Narrative Nonfiction
Dive! My Adventures in the Deep Frontier, by Sylvia Earle, is the author’s story
of her investigation and exploration of the marine ecosystem. Her experiences
include tracking whales, living in an underwater laboratory, and helping design
a deep-water submarine. The content of this book is related to Science Stan-
dard 8.8.

166 Unit 1 • Reading on Your Own

(tl bl)StudiOhio, (tr)Eclipse Studios, (br)Doug Martin
 UNIT Unit Test
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the Write your responses on a sheet of paper.
question.
6. The graph below shows how Paul’s position
changed as he walked to school.
1. Which of these is not a vector?
A. force 9^hiVcXZIgVkZaaZYdkZgI^bZ
B. distance
C. position &'%%
D. velocity 1.d &%%%

Edh^i^dcb
-%%
2. Which type of force causes a sliding box to slow
down and stop? +%%
A. buoyant )%%
B. compression
C. friction '%%
D. gravity 2.e %
% &%% '%% (%% )%% *%%
3. The forces applied to an object are 8 N to the left I^bZh
and 5 N to the right. What is the net force on the
object? Calculate Paul’s average speed over his entire
A. 3 N to the right trip. 1.b
B. 3 N to the left 7. Predict A baseball is traveling 40 km/h east
C. 13 N to the right toward a batter. After the batter hits the ball, the
D. 13 N to the left 2.b ball is moving west at 40 km/h. Did the ball
accelerate? Support your reasoning. 1.e
4. In which situation are the forces acting on a bicy-
cle balanced? 8. Describe A rocket coasting toward Earth fires
A. The bicycle speeds up as you pedal. one of its rocket engines. The force exerted on
B. The speed of the bicycle is constant as it the ship is in the direction opposite to the rock-
turns. et’s velocity. How does the motion of the rocket
C. The bicycle slows down as it coasts. change? 2.e
D. The bicycle moves in a straight line with con- 9. Predict An object weighing 30 N is floating in
stant speed as you pedal. 2.c water. What is the weight of the water displaced
by the object? Support your reasoning. 8.c
5. What is the density of a ring that has a mass of
10. Analyze why it is easier to lift an object that is
11.5 g and a volume of 0.8 cm3?
under water than it is to lift the object when it is
A. 0.07 g/cm3
out of the water. 8.c
B. 9.2 g/cm3
C. 12.3 g/cm3 11. Evaluate how the gravitational force between
D. 14.4 g/cm3 8.a Earth and the space shuttle changes as the shuttle
moves farther from Earth. 2.g
12. Explain how a balloon filled with helium floats
in the air. 8.c

Unit 1 • Test 167

 Structure of
Matter
Paying Honor with Gold
The innermost coffin of King Tut-
ankhamen is made of solid gold.

January 1848 1848–1852

James Marshall discovers People come from around the
gold at John Sutter’s world to find gold; California’s
sawmill near Sacramento, population grows from 14,000
California; a rush for gold to 223,000.
begins.

A.D. 1800 1820 1840 1860 1880

3,500 Years Ago 1800s 1869
Gold from Nubia John Dalton from Eng- Dmitri Mendeleev of Russia
makes Egypt a wealthy land offers proof that discovers a pattern in proper-
nation because many atoms exist and changes ties of elements and arranges
cultures prize it and views held since Aristotle; that information in a periodic
exchange goods for it. his model shows atom as table; he left room for ele-
a small solid sphere. ments not yet discovered.

168
(bkgd)Ian M Butterfield/Alamy Images, Bettmann/CORBIS
 To learn more about chemists and
their work, visit ca8.msscience.com .

Interactive Time Line To learn more about

these events and others, visit ca8.msscience.com.
1941 1950 2004
Glenn T. Seaborg and Stanley G. Thompson and Scientists in Russia and Lawrence
other scientists at UC other scientists at UC Berke- Livermore National Laboratory in
Berkeley prepare the ele- ley prepare the element California prepare the elements
ment plutonium (94) in californium (98). ununtrium (113) and ununpen-
the laboratory. tium (115).

1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 2020

1911 1926 1939 1998
Ernest Rutherford Scientists develop Lise Meitner of Scientists in Dubna,
proposes model of electron cloud Austria is first to Russia, are first to pre-
atom with a positive model used today. explain how pare element unun-
nucleus surrounded nuclear fission quadium (114).
by orbiting negative occurs.
electrons.

169
 Understanding
the Atom
/…iÊ Ê`i>
The current model of the
atom includes protons,
neutrons, and electrons.

LESSON 1 3.a
Atoms—Basic Units
of Matter
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Matter is
made of tiny particles
called atoms.

LESSON 2 3.a
Discovering Parts
of the Atom
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Scientists
have put together a
detailed model of
atoms and their parts.

LESSON 3 3.f, 7.b, 9.e

Elements, Isotopes,
and Ions—How Atoms
Differ
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Atoms of a
particular element
always have the same
number of protons.

Things are not as they seem.

This computer-generated image
of a helium atom shows what the inside of a balloon might look like. Helium’s
electron is more likely to be found in the blue area than in the other areas
farther from the center.
-Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM Write a paragraph on what you know about the atom.

170
 Start-Up Activities

Structure of an Atom
Make the following Foldable
What’s in the box? to explain the structure of
an atom.
The early atomic scientists never saw atoms.
They came up with ideas about atoms by STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper into thirds
using scientific methods other than direct lengthwise. Fold the top down about 4 cm.
observation. In this lab, you will
study something you cannot see.
Procedure
1. Complete a lab safety form.
2. Use wooden skewers to poke holes in your
sealed box. Predict what information you
can find out by poking in the box.
3. Record your observations.
4. Predict what information you will learn STEP 2 Unfold and draw lines along all
by shaking the box. folds. Label as shown.
5. Shake the box. &LECTRONS
ONS /EUTR
1ROT ONS
6. Try to guess what each object is.
Think About This
• Identify what types of information you
could guess by poking in the box.
• Explain how you could answer those
questions without opening the box.
3.a
Visualizing
As you read this chapter, organize
information about the parts of an atom. Be
sure to include where the part is located
within the atom and the type of charge.

Visit ca8.msscience.com to:

υ view
υ explore Virtual Labs
υ access content-related Web links
υ take the Standards Check

171
Get Ready to Read
Monitor

Learn It! An important strategy to help

you improve your reading is monitoring, or finding your
reading strengths and weaknesses. As you read, monitor
yourself to make sure the text makes sense. Discover dif-
ferent monitoring techniques you can use at different
times, depending on the type of test and situation.

Practice It! The paragraph below

appears in Lesson 2. Read the passage and answer the
questions that follow. Discuss your answers with other
students to see how they monitor their reading.

In Bohr’s model of the atom, each energy level can

hold a given number of electrons. The way the
electrons are placed in energy levels is similar to the
way students might fill the rows of seats in an
auditorium.

—from page 191

• What questions do you still have after reading?

• Do you understand all of the words in the passage?
• Did you have to stop reading often? Is the reading level
appropriate for you?

Apply It! Identify one para-

graph that is difficult to understand. Discuss it
with a partner to improve your understanding.

172
 by
r y o u r reading g
Monito speed i n
o r
Target Your Reading slowing
up d e p e
d
n
o

a
w

n d
n
ding on
i n
your
g of the
text.
Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter. under s t
1 Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements
below on your worksheet or on a numbered sheet of paper.
• Write an A if you agree with the statement.
• Write a D if you disagree with the statement.
2 After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if
you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements.
• If any of your answers changed, explain why.
• Change any false statements into true statements.
• Use your revised statements as a study guide.

Before You Read Statement After You Read

A or D A or D
1 An atom is the smallest particle of matter.

2 The idea of an atom was already being discussed by

the Greeks in 400 Bb.c.
.C.

3 Dalton’s atom is a uniform sphere of matter.

4 Thomson discovered a positively charged particle

called an electron.

5 Rutherford demonstrated that the atom was mostly

empty space.

6 In the current model of the atom, the nucleus of the

Print a worksheet of atom is at the center of an electron cloud.
this page at
ca8.msscience.com . 7 A filled outer energy level means that an atom will
combine with other atoms.

8 You can determine the number of protons, neutrons,

and electrons from the mass number.

9 Isotopes of the same element have the same number

of protons but different numbers of electrons.

173
LESSON 1
Science Content
Standards
Atoms—Basic Units
3.a Students know the structure of the
atom and know it is composed of protons,
of Matter
neutrons, and electrons.
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.
Real-World Reading Connection How can you figure out
Reading Guide what’s inside a wrapped box without opening it? Exploring the
atom is like exploring that box. Atoms can’t be observed directly
What You’ll Learn with your eyes, so how have scientists learned about what’s
Describe the structure of inside them?
▼

the atom and where

protons, neutrons, and What is the current atomic model?
electrons are located.
Would it surprise you to learn that the chair you are sitting
Compare the mass, size,
▼

on and the air you breathe are made up of the same thing? The
and charge of the three world you live in is made of matter. Matter is anything that
basic particles of an atom.
has mass and takes up space. Things you can see, such as your
Describe two observations
▼

chair, and things you can’t see, such as air, are matter. Matter is
that Dalton’s atomic theory different from light, heat, and sound. These are forms of energy.
supported.
Matter is made up of atoms. An atom is a very small particle
Why It’s Important that makes up all matter. Only recently have scientists been able
An understanding of the to see the surface of an atom.
nature of the atom is the
first step toward learning Inside the Atom
what the world is made of. In the early 1980s, a powerful new instrument called the
atomic-force microscope was invented. The atomic-force micro-
Vocabulary scope can magnify an object up to one million times. This mag-
matter nification is great enough for the surfaces of individual atoms to
atom be seen, as shown in Figure 1. If further magnification were pos-
nucleus sible, you might be able to see inside an atom. You probably
proton would be surprised to find that most of the atom is empty space.
neutron
In this space, particles are moving. No one has ever seen inside
electron
an atom, so how do scientists know what atoms are made of?
Review Vocabulary
mass: a measure of the Figure 1 This atomic-force microscope image shows
amount of matter in an the surfaces of individual atoms.
object (p. 11)

174 Chapter 4
 :aZXigdc Z
Figure 2 An atom of lithium has
CZjigdc three electrons, three protons, and
Z
four neutrons.

 Describe the locations of the protons, the

neutrons, and the electrons.

Egdidc
CjXaZjh Z

A^i]^jbVidb

Parts of Atoms—Protons, Neutrons, and Electrons WORD ORIGIN

Many experiments performed by scientists during the last 200 nucleus
years have established what is inside an atom. An atom is mostly from Latin nucula; means
little nut
empty space surrounding a tiny nucleus. The nucleus is a region
that is located at the center of an atom and contains most of the
atom’s mass. Figure 2 shows that the nucleus contains positively
charged particles and neutral particles. A positively charged
particle located in the nucleus is a proton. A neutral particle,
which has no charge, located in the nucleus is a neutron. Atoms
also contain particles called electrons. An electron is a negatively
charged particle that moves in the space surrounding the nucleus.

The Size of Atoms

As tiny as atoms are, electrons, protons, and neutrons are even
smaller. The data in Table 1 show that protons and neutrons have
about the same mass. Electrons have only about 1/2,000 the mass
of a proton or a neutron. If you held a textbook and placed a paper
clip on it, you wouldn’t notice the added mass because the mass of
a paper clip is small compared to the mass of the book. In a simi-
lar way, the masses of an atom’s electrons are negligible compared
to an atom’s mass. An atom’s protons and neutrons are packed
tightly into a tiny nucleus. Visualize the nucleus as the size of an
ant. How large would the atom be? Amazingly, the atom would be
the size of a football stadium.

Table 1 Properities of Atomic Particles

Particle Charge Mass (g) Mass (amu)
Proton +1 1.6727 ⫻ 10⫺24 1.007316

Neutron 0 1.6750 ⫻ 10⫺24 1.008701

Electron –1 9.110 ⫻ 10⫺28 0.000549

Lesson 1 • Atoms—Basic Units of Matter 175

 Is there historical evidence of atoms?
The idea that matter is made of tiny indivisible particles was
proposed as early as 400 B.C. But experimental evidence to support
the idea of atoms was not available until the seventeenth and
eigthteenth centuries. Actually, the current understanding of
atomic structure has developed over the last several hundred years.
Each time new evidence becomes available, the model of atomic
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY structure becomes clearer and more accurate.
accurate
(adjective) free from error Democritus and the Atom
or mistake Greek philosopher Democritus (c. 460–370 B.C.) was the first
The scale at the doctor’s office is
accurate. person to use the word atom. Atom comes from the Greek word
atoma, which means “indivisible.” Indivisible describes something
that cannot be divided into smaller pieces. Democritus provided a
much more detailed idea of the atom than any that ever had been
proposed. He thought that atoms were very small, solid spheres
with no holes and no empty space inside.
Democritus argued that atoms were indivisible. He imagined
cutting a piece of matter into smaller and smaller pieces. He
hypothesized that eventually he would come to a point at which
he could not cut any more pieces. He would have come to a piece
consisting of one atom that could not be divided.
The student in Figure 3 is illustrating Democritus’s experiment.
She is cutting a piece of aluminum in half, and again in half, over
and over again. The pieces become smaller and smaller, but each
is still aluminum. Suppose she could continue to cut beyond the
point where the pieces are too small to see. She would eventually
reach a point where the final piece is just one indivisible alumi-
num atom. An atom is the smallest piece that still is aluminum.

What was Democritus’s idea of the atom?

Figure 3 Democritus’s ideas

were based on reasoning rather
than experiments. This picture
is recreating Democritus’s con-
cept of the indivisible atom.

176 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

The Law of Conservation of Mass
What happens to the atoms in substances during a chemical
reaction? A chemical reaction is a process in which the atoms in
the starting materials rearrange to form products with different
properties. French scientist Antoine Lavoisier (AN twan • luh
VWAH see ay) (1743–1797) conducted experiments that helped
answer this question. Lavoisier placed a carefully measured mass
of solid mercury(II) oxide into a sealed container. When he heated
the container, he saw something different. The red powder of
mercury(II) oxide had changed into a silvery liquid and a gas. The
silvery liquid was mercury. Lavoisier established that the gas pro-
duced was a component of air. This component is oxygen. In his
experiments, Lavoisier recorded the masses of the starting materi-
als and of the products. He found that the total mass of the start-
ing materials was always the same as the total mass of the
products. Experiments such as this led to the recognition of the
law of conservation of mass. This law states that the mass of the
products always is the same as the mass of the starting materials.

What data did Lavoisier record in his experiments?

The Law of Definite Proportions ACADEMIC VOCABULARY

By 1799, J. L. Proust had completed a different series of experi- proportion
ments. Proust analyzed a variety of pure compounds to determine (noun) the relation of one
part to another or to the whole
their compositions. He found that any pure compound always A large proportion of the
contains the same elements in the same proportion by mass. This people present were students.
principle is called the law of definite proportions. The law applies
to any compound no matter where the sample comes from or how
large or small it might be. Figure 4 illustrates that water’s composi-
tion is the same whether the sample comes from your kitchen sink
or from an ice cap on Mars. Water always contains two hydrogen
atoms and one oxygen atom. The law of definite proportions pro-
vided evidence to support the work of John Dalton as he developed
his atomic model.

Figure 4 The law of defi-

nite proportions could be Dmn\Zc
illustrated in a similar way D
for every pure substance. =nYgd\Zc =nYgd\Zc
= =
LViZg='D
 9Vaidc¼h6idb^XHnbWdah BdYZgc6idb^XHnbWdah

= C 8 D E
=nYgd\Zc 6odiZ 8VgWdc Dmn\Zc E]dhe]dgjh =nYgd\Zc C^igd\Zc 8VgWdc Dmn\Zc E]dhe]dgjh

H B\ 8V CV @
Hjae]jg BV\cZh^V A^bZ HdYV EdiVh] Hja[jg BV\cZh^jb 8VaX^jb HdY^jb EdiVhh^jb

Hg 7V ;Z Oc 8j
Higdci^Vc 7VgniZh >gdc O^cX 8deeZg Higdci^jb 7Vg^jb >gdc O^cX 8deeZg

Figure 5 Dalton cre-

ated pictures for each of
the elements. These were Dalton’s Atomic Model
helpful for writing down English schoolteacher and scientist John Dalton (1766–1844)
his results, just as our was interested in the physical properties of gases. Like Lavoisier
modern symbols are.
and Proust, Dalton made careful measurements of starting materi-
als and products in a number of chemical reactions. To record his
results accurately, he invented symbols for the known elements.
As Figure 5 shows, these are more complex than modern symbols,
but they helped scientists communicate better.
Dalton gathered information from his own observations and
from the findings of other scientists. He put these results together.
Dalton then proposed a new atomic theory. His atomic theory
consists of five principles. Notice that the second principle is
another way of stating the law of conservation of mass.
1. All matter is made up of atoms.
2. Atoms are neither created nor destroyed in chemical
reactions.
3. Atoms of different elements combine in whole-number ratios.
4. Each element is made of a different kind of atom.
5. The atoms of different elements have different masses and
properties.
Which principle states the law of conservation
of mass?
Dalton brought all that was known about the atom into a reason-
able theory. Other scientists then could continue his work. They
could improve Dalton’s theory or prove that it was wrong. Over
time, Dalton’s theory was modified as new evidence became avail-
able. Scientists now know that nuclear reactions can convert atoms
of one element into atoms of a different element. We also know
that atoms are made of smaller particles.

178 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

 Looking Back at the Lesson
The ancient Greeks taught that matter consists of tiny indivisi-
ble particles called atoms. However, the Greeks couldn’t prove the
existence of atoms. It wasn’t until the seventeenth century that sci-
entists began to look for evidence of the atom. Their experiments
demonstrated the law of conservation of mass and the law of defi-
nite proportions. With these important ideas, Dalton described
his atomic model. Dalton’s model started the development of the
modern model of the atom. That model consists of even tinier par-
ticles called protons, neutrons, and electrons. You’ll read more
about these particles in Lesson 2.

LESSON 1 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson sum- Using Vocabulary 7. Show that the ratio of the
mary as you write a script for number of atoms of hydro-
1. Explain the difference between gen to the number of atoms
a television news report.
a neutron and a nucleus. 3.a of oxygen in the compound
1. Review the text after the
2. An atom contains equal num- water is 2 to 1. 5.b
red main headings and
write one sentence about bers of _______ and _______. 8. Compare Copy and fill in the
each. These are the head- 3.a graphic organizer below to
lines of your broadcast. compare the mass and the
Understanding Main Ideas volume of a proton with the
2. Review the text and write
2–3 sentences about each 3. Which has no charge? 3.a mass and the volume of
blue subheading. These an electron. 3.a
A. electrons
sentences should tell who,
what, when, where, and B. protons Mass Volume
why information about C. neutrons Proton
each red heading. D. nucleus Electron
3. Include descriptive details 4. Name the particles that make
in your report, such as up an atom and tell where
Applying Science
names of reporters and they are located. 3.a
local places and events. 9. Design an experiment that
5. Explain in your own words confirms the law of conserva-
4. Present your news report tion of mass. 5.b
to other classmates alone what is meant by the law of
or with a team. definite proportions. 5.b 10. Assess the reasons why
6. Describe how Lavoisier was Dalton, not Democritus, is
ELA8: LS 2.1 credited with being the
able to demonstrate the law of
conservation of mass. 5.b “Father of the Atom.” 3.a

Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com .

Lesson 1 • Atoms—Basic Units of Matter 179

 Mass of Subatomic Particles 3.a
The subatomic particles of protons, neutrons, and electrons have
very small masses, as shown in the table. ALG: 2.0

Example Particle Mass (g)

Find the mass of nine protons.
Proton 1.6727 ⫻ 10⫺24
Neutron 1.6750 ⫻ 10⫺24
Electron 9.110 ⫻ 10⫺28

What you know: mass of one proton: 1.6727 ⫻ 10⫺24g

What you want to know: mass of 9 protons

Use this equation: mass of 9 protons ⫽ 9 ⫻ mass of one proton

mass of 9 protons ⫽ 9 ⫻ (1.6727 ⫻ 10⫺24g)
which can be written as (9 ⫻ 1.6727 g) ⫻ 10⫺24

1 Multiply the base numbers: (9 ⫻ 1.6727 g) ⫻ 10⫺24 ⫽ 15.0543 ⫻ 10⫺24 g

2 Write the solution in scientific notation: Write 15.0543 in scientific notation, with one num-
ber to the left of the decimal point. So, 15.0543 is written as 1.50543 ⫻ 101. The product is
1.50543 ⫻ 101 ⫻ 10⫺24g

3 Find the exponent of the product: To multiply powers of ten, add their exponents.
1 ⫹ (⫺24) ⫽ ⫺23. The new exponent is ⫺23. So, 1.50543 ⫻ 101 ⫻ 10⫺24g ⫽ 1.50543 ⫻ 10⫺23g

Answer: The mass of 9 protons is 1.50543 ⫻ 10⫺23 g.

Practice Problems
1. Find the mass of eight neutrons. Science nline
2. Find the mass of two electrons. For more math practice,
visit Math Practice at
ca8.msscience.com.

180 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

How big are the
particles in an atom?
Protons and neutrons are about 1,836
times heavier than an electron. How
can you model the proportions?

Procedure
1. Read and complete a lab safety
form.
2. To represent a proton, measure
1,836 mL of water into a large
container. Label the container
proton.
3. To represent a neutron, label
another large container neutron.
Fill it with 1,836 mL of water.
4. Measure 1 mL of water into a tea-
spoon. This represents the electron.
5. Record what you see in your Science Journal.

Analysis
1. Assess whether this model is a good comparison of protons
and neutrons. What is good about it? What is negative about
it? How would you improve it?
2. Calculate the mass of water that should be used for an atom
of lithium. Lithium has 3 protons, 4 neutrons, and 3 electrons.
Show your work.

Science Content Standards

3.a Students know the structure of the atom and know it is composed of protons, neutrons,
and electrons.

181
LESSON 2
Science Content
Standards
Discovering Parts of
3.a Students know the structure of the
atom and know it is composed of protons,
the Atom
neutrons, and electrons. >ˆ˜Ê`i> Scientists have put together a detailed model of
atoms and their parts.

Reading Guide Real-World Reading Connection Imagine you are a

detective. You go to a crime scene. You can only make observa-
What You’ll Learn tions and analyze clues because there are no witnesses to the
crime. Similarly, scientists make observations and gather clues
Describe the arrangement
▼

of electrons, protons, and that help them build a model of the atom even though they
neutrons within an atom. cannot see inside one.
Explain how Rutherford
▼

developed his model of How were electrons discovered?

the atom. Since the time of the ancient Greeks, around 400 B.C.,
List the evidence that scientists thought atoms were the smallest units of matter. But
▼

showed the existence of more than 2,000 years later, in the late 1800s, a series of experi-
electrons, protons, and ments led scientists to a better understanding of atoms. They
neutrons. learned that atoms are made of even smaller particles. Many of
Compare Thomson’s, these experiments used a cathode-ray tube similar to the one in
▼

Rutherford’s, and Bohr’s Figure 6. Cathode rays are given off at the cathode, which is a
models of the atom. negatively charged disk. A cathode ray is a stream of particles
that can be seen when an electric current is passed through a
Why It’s Important vacuum tube. The cathode rays travel to the positively charged
The structure of the atom is
the key to understanding disk at the other end of the tube.
chemistry.
Figure 6 What is the positively charged disk called?

Vocabulary
spectral line Figure 6 The electron was discovered using a cathode-ray
energy level tube similar to the one in the photo.
electron cloud 8Vi]dYZgVn
AdlegZhhjgZ\Vh
Review Vocabulary  
electromagnetic
spectrum: the entire range 8Vi]dYZ 6cdYZ
of electromagnetic waves
of different wavelengths
 
(p. 428) DeZc^c\XdccZXiZY
idVkVXjjbejbe

7ViiZgn

182 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

 Edh^i^kZan Figure 7 Using this experimental setup, J. J.
X]Vg\ZYeaViZ Thomson found that cathode rays were attracted
· to the positively charged plate above the tube.
Infer What must be the charge on the cathode rays?

CZ\Vi^kZan
X]Vg\ZYeaViZ SCIENCE USE V. COMMON USE
charge
Science Use a definite
quantity of electricity
The electron has a negative
Thomson’s Experiments charge.
In 1897, English scientist J. J. Thomson wanted to find out how Common Use an expense,
cost, or fee
electric currents affect cathode rays. He changed the cathode-ray
What is the charge for
tube by putting charged metal plates above and below the tube, as admission?
shown in Figure 7. One plate was positively charged. The other
plate was negatively charged. Thomson found that the cathode rays
did not follow a straight path down the tube. Instead, they bent in
the direction of the positive plate. Recall that opposite charges
attract one another and like charges repel one another. Thomson
concluded that the particles in a cathode ray must have a negative
charge. He named the newly discovered particles electrons.
Thomson also was able to use the cathode-ray tube to measure
the mass of the charged particles. To his surprise, he found that
Figure 8 Thomson
suggested that elec-
the mass of an electron is much smaller than the mass of an atom. trons mixed evenly into
He concluded that atoms are not indivisible, as Dalton had pro- the positively charged
posed. Thomson also realized that atoms must contain positive spherical atom.
charges to balance the negative charges of the electrons. His find- Edh^i^kZan
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What did Thomson learn from his experiment about

the mass of electrons?

Thomson’s Atomic Model

With this new information, Thomson proposed a new model
for the atom. Instead of a solid, neutral sphere that had the same
matter all the way through, Thomson’s model of the atom con-
tained both positive and negative charges. He proposed that an
CZ\Vi^kZan
atom was a positively charged sphere. The electrons were mixed X]Vg\ZYZaZXigdch
evenly through the sphere, similar to how raisins are mixed in
cookie dough. Figure 8 shows a cutaway view of an atom in which Thomson’s Model
the small spheres represent the electrons.

Lesson 2 • Discovering Parts of the Atom 183

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY Rutherford—Discovering the Nucleus
research
(noun) the collecting of infor- The discovery of electrons stunned scientists and made them
mation about a particular want to find out more about the atom. Ernest Rutherford was a
subject research student of J. J. Thomson at the Cavendish Laboratory in
She did research on atoms at the England. Rutherford was interested in understanding the structure
library.
of Thomson’s model of the atom. By 1911, Rutherford had a labo-
ratory and students of his own. Rutherford expected his students
to find that electrons and positive charges were mixed together in
an atom. But as you will read in the next section, what they found
was another surprise.

The Gold Foil Experiment

Two of Rutherford’s students set up a series of experiments to
see if Thomson’s model was correct. Particles with a positive
charge, called alpha particles, were shot through a sheet of thin
gold foil. The apparatus is shown in Figure 9. A detector beyond
the gold foil glowed with a spot of light wherever the particles hit.
Rutherford thought the positive charge of the gold atom was
spread evenly throughout the atom. At no place would the speed-
ing alpha particles come upon a charge large enough to strongly
repel them. Figure 10 shows a close-up view of what Rutherford
might have expected. The alpha particles would speed through the
foil with only slight changes in their paths. This was the result pre-
:aZXigdc dicted by the Thomson model.
Why did Rutherford think the alpha particles would
move straight through the gold foil?

Figure 9 Predicted Outcome The path of an alpha

particle is shown by a burst of light where the particle hits.

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184 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

 6ae]VeVgi^XaZ
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visit ca8.msscience.com.

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bounced off the gold foil in ways that were not pre-
dicted by the Thomson atomic model.

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most of the alpha particles did pass directly through the foil with
no bending of their paths. But sometimes, particles were strongly EVi]d[Vae]VeVgi^XaZh
bounced off to the side. Astoundingly, one particle in about 8,000
Figure 12 Some alpha
bounced straight backward. Rutherford later described his amaze- # ! 
particles must have hit a
ment by saying, “It was quite the most incredible event that has massive particle inAN
the
ever happened to me in my life. It was almost as incredible as if gold atom.
you had fired a fifteen-inch shell at a piece of tissue paper and it Explain how Rutherford
knew that Thomson’s model
came back and hit you.” Thomson’s model of the atom did not
of the atom was not correct.
work. How did Rutherford know this?

Interpreting the Evidence

Rutherford realized that if positive charges were spread evenly
in atoms, all the alpha particles would have passed through the foil
with only a small change in direction. He also recognized that a
positively charged particle could be bounced directly backward.
This would happen only if the alpha particle bumped into some-
thing with much greater mass and positive charge than the alpha
particle itself. Think about this similar situation. Imagine that you
are running very fast. If you bump into a dangling leaf, you won’t
even notice. You just keep running along a straight path. But if you
crash into a tree branch, you will very likely be knocked off your
course. A head-on collision with a tree trunk might even bounce
you straight backward. Figure 12 shows an artist’s view of how
Rutherford must have visualized charged particles bouncing off
the nucleus of a gold atom.

Lesson 2 • Discovering Parts of the Atom 185

 Table 2 Summary of Rutherford’s Conclusions
Evidence Conclusion
How do
Most of the alpha particles passed right An atom is mostly empty space.
electrons move? through the gold foil.

The charged particles that bounced back Most of the mass of an atom is
could not have been knocked off course concentrated in a small space
Procedure unless they had hit a mass much larger within the atom.
than their own.
1. Complete a lab safety A few of the alpha particles bounced The positive charge is concentrated
form. directly back. in a small space within an atom.
2. Draw a straight line
down the center of a
10-cm ⴛ 10-cm block Rutherford’s Atomic Model
of foam with a ruler.
Using the observations of his students, Rutherford drew some
3. Break 20 toothpicks in
half. Poke the halves conclusions, which are summarized in Table 2. Most of the alpha
into the foam so they particles passed directly through the gold atoms. For this to hap-
are like the nucleus of pen, the atoms must have contained mostly empty space. Because
an atom. some alpha particles were strongly deflected from their paths,
4. Use round, dried peas those particles must have come near a large positive charge. Very
as electrons. Aim and
flick the peas down few alpha particles were bounced completely backward. Those par-
the center line on the ticles that did bounce back must have collided with a mass having
block. a large positive charge.
5. Make a diagram to Drawing on these conclusions, Rutherford revised Thomson’s
show where the elec- model of the atom. Figure 13 shows Rutherford’s new atomic
trons came out. Use a
protractor to measure model. Notice that most of the volume of an atom is empty space.
the angle the electrons At the center is the nucleus. An atom’s electrons move very fast in
made compared to the the empty space surrounding the nucleus.
center line, which is Thinking about Rutherford’s results, American poet Robert
the path they would
have followed if they Frost wrote a very short poem, The Secret Sits.
did not hit any atoms. “We dance round in a ring and suppose,
Analysis But the Secret sits in the middle and knows.”
1. Describe how your
arrangement of tooth- What do you think sits in the middle? What dances round
picks was like the nuclei in a ring?
of atoms in a block of
metal. Why did the
Nucleus
toothpicks represent
just the nuclei instead Figure 13 Rutherford’s atom
of the whole atoms? included a positively charged
2. Describe problems nucleus. Electrons moved in the
you had with this space around the nucleus.
experiment.
3.a

Rutherford’s Model
186 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom M646-04C-MSS02
Completing Rutherford’s Model
Rutherford used cathode-ray tubes for other experiments. He
wanted to find out about the positive charge in an atom’s nucleus.
The result of these experiments was the discovery of another
WORD ORIGIN
particle, called the proton. A proton is an atomic particle with proton
a ⫹1 charge. Rutherford and his students knew the approximate from Greek protos; means first
mass of a proton. They could determine how many protons were
in atoms. However, they couldn’t account for all of the mass of an
atom. Rutherford predicted that an atom contains another undis-
covered particle. But, it wasn’t until 1932 that the existence of the
neutron was proved by English physicist James Chadwick. A neu-
tron is a neutral atomic particle with a mass similar to a proton
but has no charge. An atom’s neutrons occupy the nucleus along
with its protons. Neutrons were difficult to find because they have
no charge, unlike protons and electrons. Both protons and elec-
trons are deflected by a magnetic field.

Compare and contrast protons and neutrons.

Weakness in the Rutherford Model

Rutherford’s model explained much of the experimental evi-
dence, but it also brought up new questions. How are electrons
arranged in atoms? How can differences in the chemical behavior
of different elements be explained? For example, why does oxygen
react easily with metals? Why is argon not very reactive? One clue
came from the observation that elements give off colored light
when heated in a flame. Figure 14 shows the bright colors of the Figure 14 Scientists
elements barium, sodium, strontium, and potassium when they wanted to know what
are placed in a flame. Each element creates its own flame color. causes the colored light
Some elements are used in fireworks to produce the brilliant colors when elements are
heated.
of a display. Rutherford’s model could not explain where this light
Identify the color produced
comes from. when barium is placed in a
flame.

Barium Sodium Strontium Potassium

Lesson 2 • Discovering Parts of the Atom 187

Figure 15 By gradually letting out more
Bohr and the
string and twirling faster, the ball will travel in Hydrogen Atom
increasingly large circles.
In 1918, Danish scientist Niels Bohr began to
answer some of the questions about Rutherford’s
model. Rutherford had proposed that electrons
could move around the nucleus at any distance
from the nucleus. He thought electrons might
move like the ball on a string, shown in the top
illustration of Figure 15. In the figure, a boy has
tied a soft sponge ball to a long string and is
slowly twirling it above his head. The ball doesn’t
have much energy and moves in a small circle.
Suppose the boy releases more string and twirls
more energetically. The bottom illustration of
Figure 15 shows that the ball moves in a larger
circle farther from his head. Depending on the
energy the boy provides and the length of the
string he releases, the ball could circle his head at
any distance up to the length of the string. Bohr
showed that Rutherford’s idea that electrons
could circle the nucleus at any distance was
Short String and Low Energy incorrect. His experiments convinced him that
electrons did not behave like a twirling ball that
could travel in circles of any diameter. Electrons
could only move in circles with certain diame-
ters, like the planets that circle the Sun. Like the
planets, an electron’s path around the nucleus
had a definite radius.
What did Bohr compare the path of
an electron to?
Bohr came to this conclusion by studying the
hydrogen atom. He chose hydrogen because it is
the simplest element, with only one electron.
Bohr was interested in the light given off by
hydrogen gas when it is excited. Atoms become
excited when they absorb energy by being heated
in a flame or by electricity. Figure 16 shows the
element neon in an advertising sign. The red light
is produced when neon is excited by electricity.
Bohr wanted to know what was happening
inside an atom to cause it to release energy in the
form of colored light. Was there a connection
Longer String and Greater Energy between the light and the structure of the
atom?

188 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

 Figure 16 Neon gas is excited
by electricity and glows red.

The Spectrum of Hydrogen

To understand the light given off by excited atoms, think about
the rainbow of colors you see when ordinary light moves through
a prism. The colors red, orange, yellow, green, blue, and violet
blend into each other in a continuous spectrum of colors. Recall
that colors at the red end of the spectrum have longer wavelengths
and lower energies. Colors at the violet end have shorter wave-
lengths and higher energies. Visible light is just a small section of ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
all the possible wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum. visible
(adjective) capable of being
Ultraviolet rays have shorter wavelengths and higher energies than
seen with the eye
does visible light. Infrared rays have longer wavelengths and lower On a clear night, the stars are
energies than does visible light. You cannot see ultraviolet rays or visible in the night sky.
infrared rays. The electromagnetic spectrum is the whole range of
electromagnetic waves with different energies and wavelengths.
Arrange visible light, infrared rays, and ultraviolet rays
in order of their energies, from lowest to highest.
How is the energy of electrons related to the electromagnetic
spectrum? The light given off by excited hydrogen atoms doesn’t
have a continuous spectrum of colors. Instead, hydrogen gives off
light of specific colors, as shown in Figure 17. The narrow bands of
red, green, blue, and violet light given off by an excited hydrogen
atom are called its spectral lines.

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duced by white light. Each element
has its own specific spectral lines
with specific energies.
CZdc

Lesson 2 • Discovering Parts of the Atom 189

 Spectral Lines and Energy Levels
A spectral line is a single wavelength of light that can be seen
when the light from an excited element is passed through a prism.
If you compare the spectrum of hydrogen to the spectrum of light
in Figure 17, you’ll notice that hydrogen has a red line and then a
green line. Between those lines, all the colors you see in the spec-
trum of sunlight are missing. The same is true for the colors
between hydrogen’s green line and its blue line. Each color is a dif-
ferent wavelength and energy. Bohr knew that if the electrons in
an excited atom could have every possible energy, they would give
off light just like the spectrum of sunlight. But hydrogen gives off
only specific wavelengths of light. That means that an excited
hydrogen atom releases only certain amounts of energy. Because
electrons only can have certain amounts of energy, they can move
around the nucleus only at distances that correspond to those
amounts of energy. These regions of space in which electrons can
move about the nucleus of an atom are called energy levels.
What is the difference between the spectrum of
Figure 18 A person can hydrogen and the spectrum of sunlight?
move on a ladder only by Energy levels can be compared to the ladder shown in Figure 18.
standing on the steps. An
electron can move in an
You can stand on the ladder only at the level of each step, not
atom only by jumping between levels. Similarly, electrons can be only at certain energy
from energy level to levels, not between levels. If an electron absorbs energy from a
energy level. flame or from an electric current, it can jump from a lower energy
level to a higher energy level. When the electron falls back down
from a higher energy level to a lower one, it releases energy. In
Figure 19, energy levels are compared to a staircase in which the
steps are not evenly spaced.

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190 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

Bohr’s Atomic Model
Bohr proposed that what he had learned from studying the Figure 20 In Bohr’s
atom, electrons orbit the
hydrogen atom applied to all atoms. Like Rutherford’s model, nucleus at set distances.
Bohr’s atomic model contains a nucleus. Electrons move in circles
around the nucleus. But, as shown in Figure 20, the electrons can
move only in circles with certain diameters. Each of these circles,
called energy levels, has its own energy. The energy levels are at set
distances from the nucleus and have specific energies.

Electrons in the Bohr Atom

In Bohr’s model of the atom, each energy level can hold a given
number of electrons. The way that electrons are placed in energy
levels is similar to the way students might fill the rows of seats in
an auditorium. Students fill the front row closest to the stage first.
Bohr’s Model
Then they fill the second row. When the second row is filled, they
continue to the third row and beyond until all students are seated.
Maybe the last occupied row is full of students. Or, maybe it is
only partly filled.
Similarly, electrons fill the lowest energy level first. The lowest
energy level is closest to the nucleus and can hold two electrons.
When this first energy level is full, electrons begin to fill the sec-
ond level. The second energy level can hold eight electrons. When
the second energy level is filled, electrons go to the next higher
level. The last occupied energy level may or may not be completely
filled. Figure 21 shows how electrons are placed in the elements
with atomic numbers 1–10.
Figure 21 Which two atoms have filled energy levels?
Which atom has four electons in its outer energy level?

Figure 21 As the number of electrons increases from

one to ten, two electrons fill the lowest energy level.
Then, eight electrons fill the second energy level.

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Lesson 2 • Discovering Parts of the Atom 191

 =Z CZ A^ CV

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Figure 22 Helium and

neon, with filled outer
energy levels, are unreac-
Bohr’s Model and Chemical Properties
tive. Lithium and sodium, Why do elements have different chemical properties? Bohr’s
with one electron each in model provided an answer. The clue to the chemical properties of
their outer energy levels, an element is in the number of electrons in its outer energy level.
are very reactive.
Elements with the exact number of electrons to fill their outermost
energy level are unreactive. Figure 22 shows that helium and neon
have filled outer energy levels. This means these elements do not
combine with other atoms to form compounds, or new substances.
As you might guess, elements with partially filled outer energy lev-
els are likely to form compounds. Figure 22 shows that lithium
and sodium have one electron in their outermost energy levels.
Both are very reactive metals.

Figure 23 An electron Limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Model

can be anywhere, even Bohr’s model explained much about chemical behavior. He pro-
outside the edges of this posed that energy levels were like circular orbits. That idea seemed
illustration. The electron to work for the simple hydrogen atom, but it did not work for
cloud shows only where
the electrons are most more complex elements. If electrons don’t travel in circular orbits,
likely to be found. how do they move in the space around the nucleus?

CjXaZjh
The Electron Cloud
Today, scientists think of an electron in an atom as being in an
electron cloud. An electron cloud is a region surrounding an
atomic nucleus where an electron is most likely to be found. Elec-
trons move rapidly from one place to another. They can be any-
where. But they are more likely to be closer to the nucleus than
farther away because of the attraction of the negatively charged
electrons for the positively charged nucleus. Figure 23 shows a dia-
gram of an electron cloud. The electron cloud is much larger than
the diameter of the nucleus. If the nucleus were the size of a
Electron Cloud period, the atom would have a diameter of about 5 m. Figure 24
Model summarizes how knowledge about the atom has increased through
experiments.

192 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

 Figure 24 Development of Atomic Models The history of the development of the
current model of the atom is an example for how science works. Models are proposed
and tested. As more is learned, models are revised to fit the new observations.

Dalton Thomson
John Dalton’s picture of the atom was a sim- J. J. Thomson’s amazing discovery of the elec-
ple, neutral sphere of indivisible matter that tron showed that atoms were not indivisible.
was the same throughout. Atoms of different They contained negative electrons and positive
elements, however, were different from one charges to make them neutral.
another.

Rutherford Bohr
Ernest Rutherford’s experiments showed that Neils Bohr used information from line spectra
most of an atom’s mass is squeezed into a tiny to define the orbits of electrons as having cer-
nucleus. In the remaining space, electrons tain definite diameters.
move in orbits of all possible diameters.

Electron Cloud
In the current model, electrons occupy a
space around the nucleus, but it is impossible
to tell where an electron is at any particular
time.

Lesson 2 • Discovering Parts of the Atom 193

 How has the atomic model changed?
For Dalton, atoms were simple spheres of matter. Now the
model of the atom is an electron cloud. How did this change take
place? J. J. Thomson showed that the atom contains even smaller
particles, called electrons. Rutherford proved that the atom has a
nucleus packed with protons. Chadwick found out that neutrons
also share space in the nucleus. Neils Bohr hypothesized that elec-
trons move in energy levels. Today, scientists know that the
motions of electrons can’t be known. The electron cloud model
shows only where electrons are most likely to be. Nevertheless, this
model has been useful to chemists.

LESSON 2 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 7. Compare Copy and fill in the
summary as you organize graphic organizer below. Com-
1. Define electron cloud in your pare Thomson’s, Rutherford’s,
an outline.
own words. 3.a and Bohr’s atomic models to
1. Scan the lesson. Find and
2. Use the phrase energy level in a identify principles that are
list the first red main
sentence. 3.a common to all. 3.a
heading.
2. Review the text after Understanding Main Ideas
the heading and list 2–3
details about the heading. 3. What did the gold-foil
3. Find and list each blue experiment show? 3.a
subheading that follows A. Electrons exist. Applying Science
the red main heading. B. Protons exist. 8. Construct diagrams to illus-
4. List 2–3 details, key terms, C. An atom has a nucleus. trate Thomson’s, Rutherford’s
and definitions under D. Electrons move in circles. and Bohr’s models of the
each blue subheading.
atom. 3.a
4. List the experimental evidence
5. Review additional red
main headings and their
that led to the development 9. Decide whether research on
supporting blue subhead- of these atomic models: particles such as quarks is
ings. List 2–3 details about Thomson’s, Rutherford’s, likely to have an important
each. and Bohr’s. 3.a effect on the principles of
5. Explain why Rutherford’s chemistry. 3.a
ELA8: R 2.3
model is sometimes called the
nuclear atom. 3.a
6. Describe the way electrons,
protons, and neutrons are
arranged in an atom. 3.a
Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com .

194 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom Atomic Model ca8.msscience.com

 LESSON 3
Science Content
Standards
Elements, Isotopes, and
3.f Students know how to use the periodic
table to identify elements in simple
Ions—How Atoms Differ
compounds. >ˆ˜Ê`i> Atoms of a particular element always have the
7.b Students know each element has a
specific number of protons in the nucleus
same number of protons.
(the atomic number) and each isotope of the Real-World Reading Connection You touch a doorknob
element has a different but specific number and get a shock. Electrons are moving between the doorknob
of neutrons in the nucleus.
and your hand. Electrons can move from one atom to another
9.e Construct appropriate graphs from
data and develop quantitative statements atom. Why does this happen?
about the relationship between variables.
Different Elements—Different
Reading Guide Numbers of Protons
Early Greek philosophers thought of matter as combinations
What You’ll Learn of four basic elements. These elements were earth, water, fire,
Explain how elements and air. Today, an element is defined differently. An element is
▼

differ. a pure substance made from atoms that all have the same num-
Identify elements and ber of protons. All atoms of the same element have the same
▼

atomic masses on the number of protons. For example, all aluminum atoms have
periodic table. 13 protons. That means that all atoms that have 13 protons are
Explain how two isotopes aluminum atoms. The number of protons in the atom of an
▼

differ. element is the element’s atomic number. Figure 25 shows some

elements with their atomic numbers.
Explain how two ions
▼

differ.
Figure 25 Atoms of each of these elements have
Why It’s Important their own identifying atomic numbers.
To understand their chemical
behavior, it’s important to
know how the atoms of an
element can differ.

Vocabulary
element
atomic number Gold–79 Copper–29
mass number
isotope
average atomic mass
ion

Review Vocabulary
periodic table: table of the
elements arranged according Mercury–80 Sulfur–16
to repeated changes in
properties (Grade 5)

Lesson 3 • Elements, Isotopes, and Ions—How Atoms Differ 195

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I] EV J Ce Ej 6b 8b 7` 8[ :h ;b BY Cd Ag

Atomic Number and the

Periodic Table
How can you find out how many protons an element has if you
don’t know its atomic number? You can use the periodic table of
elements, shown in Figure 26. Elements in the periodic table are
arranged horizontally in order of increasing atomic numbers. The
elements are also arranged vertically in groups with similar chemi-
cal properties. In almost all periodic tables, the block for each ele-
ment gives the element’s atomic number, name, and symbol.
Often, the atomic mass also is included.
Figure 26 How many elements are in the first row of
the periodic table? How many are in the second and
third rows?
In the periodic table shown in Figure 26, the blocks for most of
the elements are colored light blue. These elements are metals.
Notice that most of the elements are classified as metals. The
blocks for nonmetals are yellow. These blocks are located at the
right side of the table. Between the metals and nonmetals are
the semimetals. These elements are represented by the green
blocks. Semimetals are elements that have properties similar to
those of both metals and nonmetals.

196 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

Isotopes—Different Numbers
of Neutrons
In Lesson 2, you read that an atom’s nucleus contains neutrons
in addition to protons. Unlike protons, neutrons have no charge.
Atoms of the same element always have the same number of pro-
tons. However, atoms of the same element sometimes have differ-
ent numbers of neutrons.

Protons, Neutrons, and Mass Number

The atomic number of an element tells you the number of pro-
tons in its atoms. But, how can you know the number of neutrons
an atom has? To find out, you need to know the atom’s mass num-
ber. An atom’s mass number is the sum of the number of protons
and neutrons the atom has. Subtract the number of protons (the
atomic number) from the mass number to calculate the number of
neutrons.

Number of neutrons ⫽ mass number ⫺ number of protons

Figure 27 shows the nuclei of two different atoms of neon.
The atomic number of both atoms is 10, so each atom should
have 10 protons (+). But one atom has a mass number of 20. The
other’s mass number is 22. A third type of neon atom also occurs
naturally, but in very small amounts.
Figure 27 Count the number of neutrons in each
model. Check your results using the equation above.
You may have read previously that an element is a substance
composed of one kind of atom. Now you are learning that atoms
of an element can have different numbers of neutrons in their
nuclei. But, as you will read in Chapters 7 and 8, the chemical
behavior of an element doesn’t depend on the contents of its
nucleus. All atoms of the same element act the same chemically
because they have the same number of electrons.

 
   
   
 
     

 
Figure 27 Count the protons and
   neutrons in each nucleus. Show
    
    that the mass number equals the
    number of protons plus the num-
 
 ber of neutrons.
 

CZdc"'%cjXaZjh CZdc"''cjXaZjh

Lesson 3 • Elements, Isotopes, and Ions—How Atoms Differ 197

 Table 3 Comparison of Three Carbon Isotopes
Isotope Symbol Atomic Number Mass Radioactive?
Number of Number
Neutrons
Carbon-12 C-12 6 6 12 No

Carbon-13 C-13 6 7 13 No

Carbon-14 C-14 6 8 14 Yes

Isotopes
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY Recall that all the atoms of a particular element have the same
contrast (kahn TRAST) atomic number. Having the same atomic number means that these
(verb) to show differences atoms contain the same number of protons. In contrast, you have
when compared The student read that not all atoms of an element have the same mass number.
wrote a poem that contrasted
winter and summer.
This means that atoms of the same element can have different
numbers of neutrons. Neon was the example shown in Figure 27.
Atoms of the same element that contain different numbers of neu-
WORD ORIGIN trons are called isotopes.
isotope Because most elements have more than one isotope, each ele-
from Greek isos (means equal)
and topos (means place)
ment has an average atomic mass. The average atomic mass of an
element is the weighted average mass of the mixture of an ele-
ment’s isotopes. The most common of carbon’s isotopes has six
protons and six neutrons. If you add the number of protons and
neutrons (6 + 6), you find that this isotope has a mass number of
12. Another of carbon’s isotopes has seven neutrons. Add to the
number its 6 protons and you have its mass number of 13. Can you
see why carbon’s third isotope has a mass number of 14? The sym-
bols for these three isotopes are C-12, C-13, and C-14. What other
property, shown in Table 3, is different for one of the three carbon
isotopes besides the number of neutrons?
What are the atomic number and mass number of
the most common isotope of carbon?

Using Isotopes
Carbon-14 is radioactive. Radioactive isotopes have unstable
nuclei that break down and release particles, radiation, and energy.
This property makes an isotope useful for a variety of purposes.
Carbon-14 is useful for dating bones, wood, and charcoal up to
50,000 years old. Geologists use uranium-238 to determine the age
of rocks. In hospitals and clinics, radioactive isotopes help diag-
nose and treat many medical conditions. In Figure 28, you can
find out what a tracer element is and how tracers are used in a
variety of ways.

198 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

Visualizing Tracer Elements
Figure 28
Radiation from radioactive isotopes, often called
radioisotopes, can penetrate matter and harm living
cells. But many radioisotopes with short half-lives can
be used in tiny amounts without harming people.
Radioisotopes are called tracers because when a small
amount of the isotope is introduced into a system, its
flow through the system can be followed by a device
that detects radiation. A variety of radioactive tracers,
such as iodine-131, gadolinium-153 (atomic number 64),
and technetium-99 have many uses in industry,
medicine, and research.

▲ Californium-252 (atomic
number 98) is used to inspect
airline luggage for hidden
explosives and weapons.

▲ Nuclear medicine is a growing field of medicine for both

diagnosis and treatment of disease. Tumors often are treated
with radiation by implanting a tiny capsule or “seed” contain-
ing a radioisotope directly at the site of the cancer. Radiation
from a cobalt-60 source can also be focused on the cancer.
▲

Scans of brain
activity help
scientists under-
stand what parts
of the brain are
involved in different
mental activity.
These photos show
▲ Because of its short half-
the brain’s response
life, technetium-99 is pro-
to different
duced as needed in small
stimulation.
generators at the hospital
where it is to be used.

Contributed by National Geographic Lesson 3 • Elements, Isotopes, and Ions—How Atoms Differ 199
 Interactive Table Organize information about
Table 4 Isotopes of Hydrogen the hydrogen isotopes at ca8.msscience.com.

Name Protium Deuterium Tritium

Symbol H–1 H–2 H–3

Atomic number 1 1 1

Mass number 1 2 3

Radioactive? No No Yes

Atomic structure
&Egdidc &Egdidc &Egdidc
%CZjigdch &CZjigdc 'CZjigdch

Isotopes of Hydrogen
The atomic number of hydrogen is l. This element is in the first
block of the periodic table. All hydrogen atoms have one proton.
The most common isotope of hydrogen sometimes is called pro-
tium. Protium (PROH tee um) has no neutrons. Its mass number
is the same as its atomic number—one. Two other hydrogen iso-
topes are called deuterium (doo TEER ee um) and tritium (TRIH
tee um). These isotopes do have neutrons. Deuterium has one pro-
ton and one neutron. Its mass number is 2. Tritium has one proton
and two neutrons. Its mass number is 3. Table 4 illustrates how
the three isotopes differ. How many electrons are in the atoms of
each of the hydrogen isotopes?
Protium, deuterium, and tritium are the only isotopes of any
element that have special names. They have the same chemical
properties. However, they have different physical properties. Of the
three isotopes, tritium is the only one that is radioactive. Tritium is
useful in scientific research because its radioactivity makes it easy
to detect. Scientists also use deuterium to study chemical reactions.
Table 4 What is the name of the isotope of hydrogen
that has two neutrons?

Ions—Gaining or Losing Electrons

Because the number of protons and the number of electrons are
equal, an atom is neutral. The positive and negative charges of the
two types of particles balance. However, atoms can lose or gain
electrons. An atom that has lost or gained electrons doesn’t have
the same number of electrons as protons. This means the atom
is no longer neutral. It has become an ion. An ion is an atom that
is no longer neutral because it has gained or lost electrons. Ions
form substances called ionic compounds.

200 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom

  Figure 29 The sodium
atom has eleven protons and
eleven electrons. The sodium
CV CV  ion has eleven protons and
only ten electrons.
Determine what neutral atom
has ten electrons.

HdY^jbVidb HdY^jb^dc DcZZaZXigdc

Positive Ions—Losing Electrons

When an atom loses an electron, it has more protons than elec-
trons. As a result, it has a positive charge. An atom with a positive
charge is called a positive ion. A positive ion is represented by the
element’s symbol with a superscript plus sign (⫹). A positively
charged hydrogen ion is written H⫹. If an atom loses two electrons,
the symbol for the ion has the superscript 2⫹. For example, calcium
loses two electrons and forms the positive ion Ca2⫹. Figure 29
shows a diagram of sodium becoming an ion. When you look at
the figure, remember that electrons do not move in circular orbits.
Diagrams are drawn in this way for ease of use.
As you read, refer to the periodic table in Figure 26. Note the
positions of the elements being discussed. Elements on the left side
of the periodic table are most likely to lose electrons to form posi-
tive ions. For example, elements in Group 1, such as lithium and
potassium, easily lose one electron to form ions. These ions have
⫹1 charge, Li⫹, and K⫹. Elements in Group 2, such as magnesium
and calcium, easily lose two electrons. These elements form ions
with ⫹2 charges, Mg2⫹ and Ca2⫹. Some members of Group 13 can
lose three electrons and form ions with ⫹3 charges. Aluminum,
for example, forms the ion Al3⫹.

Negative Ions—Gaining Electrons

When an atom gains an electron, it forms an ion with a negative
charge. A negative ion has more electrons than protons. Elements
on the right side of the periodic table are most likely to form nega-
tive ions. Elements in Group 17 easily gain one electron. For exam-
ple, fluorine and chlorine can form ions with a ⫺1 charge. A single
negative charge is shown as a superscript minus sign. The ions of
fluorine and chlorine are represented as F– and Cl–. Oxygen and
sulfur are in Group 16. These atoms can gain two electrons to
form ions with ⫺2 charges, O2– and S2–. Positive and negative ions
attract each other because of their opposite charges. In this way,
compounds are formed.

Lesson 3 • Elements, Isotopes, and Ions—How Atoms Differ 201

 Reviewing Elements,
Isotopes, and Ions
You have read that all the atoms of an element have the same
number of protons. The number of protons in an element is its
atomic number. Elements are arranged in the periodic table
according to their atomic numbers. Some atoms of the same ele-
ment may have different numbers of neutrons in their nuclei.
These different types of atoms are called isotopes. The total num-
ber of protons and neutrons in an atom is its mass number. Some
atoms can lose electrons to become positive ions. Other atoms can
gain electrons to become negative ions. In the next chapter, you
will see how ions can combine to form ionic compounds.

LESSON 3 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 6. Determine the number of neu-
summary as you write a trons in an isotope of argon
1. Distinguish between atomic that has a mass number of 40
newsletter.
number and mass number. and an atomic number of 18.
1. Write this lesson title, 7.b 7.b
number, and page num-
bers at the top of a sheet 2. Define average atomic mass in 7. Compare Copy and fill in the
of paper. your own words. 7.b graphic organizer below to
2. Review the text after compare the two isotopes of
Understanding Main Ideas lithium that have three and
the red main headings
and write one sentence 3. What is the number of neu- four neutrons. Use the periodic
about each. These will be trons in an atom called? 7.b table. 7.b
the headlines of your
A. mass number
newsletter.
B. atomic number
3. Review the text and write
C. the mass number plus the
2–3 sentences about each
blue subheading. These
atomic number Applying Science
sentences should tell who, D. the mass number minus the
8. Draw a conclusion about
what, when, where, and atomic number
whether the periodic table
why information about 4. Explain the difference could be arranged according
each headline. to atomic mass rather than
between oxygen-16 and
4. Illustrate your newsletter oxygen-17. 7.b atomic number. 3.f
with diagrams of impor-
tant structures and pro- 5. Describe the way in which a
cesses next to each neutral atom becomes a
headline. positive ion of the same
element. 7.b
ELA8: W 2.1 Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com .

202 Chapter 4 • Understanding the Atom Isotopes ca8.msscience.com

How do atoms differ?
Each element is made up of atoms with a certain number of parti-
cles. The periodic table tells you how many protons and electrons
are in atoms of each type.

Data Collection
1. Copy the table twice in your Science Journal. In your first copy,
write the symbol for each element in the center of its square.
Use the periodic table.
2. Write the mass number at the top right corner.
3. Write the number of neutrons in the bottom right corner.
4. In the second table, draw a diagram of each element. Write the
number of protons and neutrons inside a circle to show the
nucleus. Put the correct number of electrons for each element
in rings in 1, 2, or 3 rings outside the nucleus.

1 2

3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18

Data Analysis
1. Graph the atomic mass versus atomic number for your
elements.
2. Explain how atomic mass varies as atomic number increases.

Science Content Standards

3.a Students know the structure of the atom and know it is composed of protons, neutrons, and
electrons.
3.f Students know how to use the periodic table to identify elements in simple compounds.
9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative statements about the
relationships between variables.

203
 Model and Invent:
Build an Atom
Materials Problem
You have learned about the people who developed a picture of
dried peas
what atoms look like and you have learned the parts of an atom.
small balloons
Now, create an atom. Use craft materials to design and produce
medium balloons
your own model of an atom.
large balloons
craft wire Collect Data and Make Observations
small pompoms
jelly beans
Select Your Model
glue 1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Choose an element.
3. Draw an atomic structure diagram for that element in your
Science Journal.
4. List everything you know about protons, neutrons, electrons,
and their behavior.

Plan Your Model

5. How will you model the atom? Decide what materials you will
Safety Precautions use for the atom. How will you arrange the electrons outside
the nucleus? Do you want to put electrons on wire or in bal-
loon clouds? What type of objects will you use to show pro-
tons, electrons, and neutrons?
6. Make sure your teacher has approved your model before you
Science Content proceed.
Standards
3.a Students know the structure of the Build Your Model
atom and know it is composed of protons, 7. Create your atomic model.
neutrons, and electrons.
8. Show and discuss your model with your classmates.

204
Analyze and Conclude
1. Describe how you represented the nucleus in your model.
Do you think this worked well?
2. Describe how you represented electrons in your model.
Explain how your model mimics how electrons behave.
3. Write a paragraph describing two of your classmates’ mod-
els. What did you like about their models? What do you
think they could have done better?
4. Explain how your model would work if you decided to
make a smaller atom. Would another model work better?
What if you tried to make a larger atom?
5. Infer How do the mass and distance ratios of
your model compare with reality?
6. Error Analysis What could have been better
about your model? Explain in detail how you
could improve it.

Communicate
3CIENCE ELA8: LS 2.4
Peer Review With your classmates, compare and
contrast your models. Discuss the best features of
each model and ways that each might be
improved. Vote on which model does the best job
representing:
• particles of the nucleus
• electrons
• size of the nucleus
• distance of electrons from the nucleus
• movement of electrons
• electron levels
Be prepared to defend your vote for each category. Can you
explain why you voted the way you did?

205
 Chien-Shiung Wu
Chien-Shiung Wu graduated with a PhD in physics
from the University of California, Berkeley in 1940.
She was one of a few female scientists involved in
the Manhattan Project, which developed the
atomic bomb. Her work on the project included
separating the isotope uranium-235 from the
element uranium-238. In 1957, she won the Nobel
Prize in Physics.
Understanding the Periodic Table Create a
table of the atomic mass, mass number, number
of protons and number of neutrons of the
elements plutonium and uranium.

Nuclear Power
When the nucleus of an isotope is split apart, it
creates energy. This process is called fission.
Nuclear power plants use uranium or plutonium
isotopes to create energy this way. Seven grams of
uranium can produce as much energy as 3.5
barrels of oil or 809 kg of coal.
The Energy Crisis Alternative energy is energy
derived from sources other than fossil fuels.
Select one type of alternative energy. Research
the benefits and drawbacks of your selected
energy type and hold a class mock debate
to discuss each type. Visit Technology at
ca8.msscience.com to research information on
alternative energy.

206
 Three Mile Island
Accident
A partial melt down occurred at the Three Mile Island
power plant in Middletown, Pennsylvania, in 1979. Luckily,
no fatalities or injuries took place. The problem arose when
the cooling system failed, which ultimately caused a relief
valve to open. Water used in the cooling system was
contaminated with radioactive waste. It took 13 years to
decontaminate the power plant.
How safe are nuclear power plants? Ask five people
their opinion of the safety of nuclear power. Tally
everyone’s results and create a table and bar graph of
the data of the entire class.

Dropping the Atomic Bomb

Shortly before the end of World War II,
the United States dropped two atomic
bombs on Hiroshima and Nagasaki,
Japan in August 1945. In Nagasaki
39,000 people died instantly and
almost twice as many died from bomb-
related complications, such as cancer.
The Nagasaki bomb contained 8 kg of
the isotope plutonium-239.
The Age of Nuclear Weapons
Write an editorial about the use of
nuclear weapons. Include your
opinion about the use of nuclear
weapons in the past, present, future
and the use of the atomic bomb
during World War II.
ELA8: W 2.4

207
 CHAPTER Standards Study Guide

/…iÊ Ê`i> The current model of the atom includes protons, neutrons, and electrons.

Lesson 1 Atoms—Basic Units of Matter 3.a

• atom (p. 174)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Matter is made of tiny particles called atoms.
• electron (p. 175)
• All matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms. • matter (p. 174)
• Atoms contain electrons, protons, and neutrons. • neutron (p. 175)
• Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus of an atom and make up • nucleus (p. 175)
most of the mass of an atom. • proton (p. 175)
• Electrons move around the outside of the nucleus and take up most of the
space in an atom.

Lesson 2 Discovering Parts of the Atoms 3.a

• electron cloud (p. 190)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Scientists have put together a detailed model of
• energy level (p. 190)
atoms and their parts.
• spectral line (p. 191)
• Rutherford showed that an atom has a tiny nucleus surrounded by a large
space in which electrons move.
• Rutherford’s atomic model was an improvement over Thomson’s model but
could not describe the motion of the electrons.
• Bohr’s model included different energy levels for the atom’s electrons.
• Bohr’s model explained the spectrum of hydrogen and why elements have
different chemical properties.
• In today’s atomic model, electrons move in electron clouds at different
energy levels.

Lesson 3 Elements, Isotopes, and Ions—How Atoms Differ 3.f, 7.b, 9.e

• atomic number (p. 195)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Atoms of a particular element always have the same
• average atomic mass (p. 198)
number of protons.
• element (p. 195)
• The number of protons in the atoms of an element is called the atomic • ion (p. 200)
number.
• isotope (p. 198)
• The atomic number is the same for all atoms of the same element. • mass number (p. 197)
• Elements are arranged on the periodic table according to their atomic
numbers.
• Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons
are called isotopes.
• Atoms can lose or gain electrons to form positive or negative ions.
Download quizzes, key
• Elements in the same group of the periodic table form ions with the same terms, and flash cards from
ca8.msscience.com.
charge.

208 Chapter 4 • Standards Study Guide Interactive Tutor ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Linking Vocabulary and Main Ideas

Use vocabulary terms from page 208 to complete this map.

Atoms

have have have

nuclei electrons isotopes

contain loss or have different

are located in
gain produces numbers of

4. 5. 1. 2. 7.

have
number
equals sum of
numbers equals energy
levels
atomic
number
6. which produce

3.
Visit ca8.msscience.com for:
υ Vocabulary PuzzleMaker
υ Vocabulary eFlashcards
υ Multilingual Glossary

Using Vocabulary
Fill in the blanks with the correct vocabulary terms. Then read the paragraph to a
partner.
The atoms of an element have the same number of protons, but some atoms
called 8. can have different numbers of neutrons. Neutrons are packed into
the 9. of an atom along with the atom’s 10. . The electron is an-
other particle in an atom. When an atom loses an electron, a(n) 11. is
formed which has a positive charge. In the current model of the atom, electrons
occupy a(n) 12. .

Chapter 4 • Standards Review 209

 CHAPTER Standards Review
Understanding Main Ideas 6. How is the identity of an element determined?
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the A. the number of its protons 7.b
question. B. the number of its neutrons
C. its mass number
1. Which part of an atom takes up the most space? D. the charge of the atom
A. the electrons 3.a
B. the protons
C. the neutrons 7. What does the electron energy level diagram
D. the nuclei show?

2. What did Democritus believe an atom was?

A. a tiny particle with a nucleus 3.a :cZg\n
VWhdgWZY

a*
kZ
B. a tiny nucleus with electrons surrounding it

aZ

a)
\n
C. an electron cloud

kZ
Zg
:c

aZ

a(
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D. a solid, indivisible sphere

kZ
Zg

aZ
:c


\n
Zg

a'
:c

kZ
3. An ion contains 10 electrons, 12 protons, and 13

aZ
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neutrons. What is the ion’s charge?

:c
A. 1– 7.b
B. 3+ :cZg\n
\^kZcd[[
C. 2–

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D. 2+

kZ
aZ
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4. The illustration below shows the apparatus that
J. J. Thomson used.

· A. Energy is released as electrons move to upper

levels.
B. Energy must be absorbed for electrons to fall
to lower levels.
· C. The energy of an electron at each level is dif-
ferent.
D. The energy difference between each level is
the same. 3.a
What did J. J. Thomson discover?
A. Matter contains neutrons. 3.a
B. Electrons have a negative charge. 8. How is Bohr’s atomic model different from
C. Electrons have a positive charge. Rutherford’s model?
D. Atoms can move in a stream. A. Bohr’s model has more electrons. 3.a
B. Electrons in Bohr’s model are located farther
5. What does the symbol Ca2+ represent? from the nucleus.
A. an isotope of calcium 7.b C. Electrons in Bohr’s model have different
B. a calcium atom energy levels.
C. a negative calcium ion D. Electrons in Bohr’s model surround the
D. a positive calcium ion nucleus but do not move.

210 Chapter 4 • Standards Review Standards Review ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Applying Science 3CIENCE

9. List two ways in which Bohr’s atomic model was 17. Write a 500–700-word biography about Antoine
an improvement over Rutherford’s model of the Lavoisier. Describe his background and schooling
atom. 3.a
in science. Explain the experiments that led him
to demonstrate the law of conservation of mass.
10. Explain how a negative ion is formed. 7.b
ELA8: W 2.1
11. Determine how much larger the mass of a pro-
ton is than the mass of an electron. Use the data
in the table below. Show your calculations. 3.a
Applying Math
Particle Charge Mass (amu)
Use the table below to answer questions 18–22.
Proton ⫹1 1.007316

Neutron 0 1.008701 Particle Mass (g)

Electron ⫺1 0.000549 Proton 1.6727 ⫻ 10᎐24

Neutron 1.6750 ⫻ 10᎐24

12. Suggest a possible reason why sulfur’s average Electron 9.110 ⫻ 10᎐28
atomic mass is very close to the whole number
32, whereas magnesium’s average atomic mass is
24.3, which is not a whole number. Use this 18. Find the mass of three protons. ALG: 2.0
information: Sulfur has only one common iso-
tope. Magnesium has several isotopes. 7.b 19. Find the mass of five electrons. ALG: 2.0

13. Demonstrate how you can use Dalton’s atomic 20. Find the mass of four neutrons. ALG: 2.0
symbols to represent the substances water and
hydrogen perioxide. Water has two hydrogen 21. Find the mass of seven protons. ALG: 2.0
atoms and one oxygen atom. Hydrogen peroxide
has two hydrogen atoms and two oxygen 22. Find the mass of six electrons. ALG: 2.0
atoms. 3.a

14. Explain why it is necessary to change models as

new information becomes available. 3.a

15. Describe how you can use the periodic table to

determine the average number of neutrons an
element has, even though the number of neu-
trons is not listed. 3.f

16. Explain how it is possible for two atoms of the

same element to have different masses. 7.b

Chapter 4 • Standards Review 211

 CHAPTER Standards Assessment
1 Ruthenium has an atomic number of 44 and a 4 The atomic number of boron is 5. Boron-11
mass number of 101. How many protons does contains
ruthenium have?
A five electrons and six protons.
A 44
B five protons and six electrons.
B 57
C five protons and six neutrons.
C 88
D six protons and five neutrons. 7.b
D 101 7.b
5 Dalton’s model of the atom described atoms as
2 The diagram below shows a model of an atom spheres that are the same throughout. Why did
that was developed following Rutherford’s scientists develop a new model of the atom?
experiment.
A Philosophers thought that all matter is made
up of atoms.

B Researchers proposed that all atoms of the

same element are alike.

C Experiments showed that atoms contain

smaller particles with different charges.

D Studies suggested that a large amount of

energy could be released from an atom. 3.a

6 The illustrations below show three nuclei.

Which component of the atom is not repre-
sented in Rutherford’s atomic model? 1 Proton 1 Proton 1 Proton
A the neutrons 0 Neutrons 1 Neutron 2 Neutrons

B the nucleus

C the electrons

D the protons 3.a

What is the mass number for each of the nuclei
3 Gloria is making a model of an atom. She is shown in the illustration above?
using three different colors to represent the
three basic particles that make up an atom. A 0, 1, 2
Which particles should she display in the
B 1, 1, 1
nucleus of the atom?
C 1, 2, 2
A neutrons only
D 1, 2, 3 7.b
B electrons only

C protons and neutrons

D electrons and protons 3.a

212 Chapter 4 • Standards Assessment Standards Assessment ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Assessment CHAPTER

7 The table below shows properties of four 11 What did Thomson’s experiment show?
nitrogen isotopes.
A The atom is like a uniform sphere.

B Cathode rays are made up of electrons.

Isotopes of Nitrogen
Isotope Mass Number of C The atom cannot be divided.
Number Protons D The atom was a neutral sphere 3.a
Nitrogen-12 12 7
Nitrogen-13 13 7 12 Why did Rutherford infer the presence of a tiny
Nitrogen-14 14 7 nucleus?

Nitrogen-15 15 7 A The alpha particle went through the foil.

B No alpha particles went through the foil.

How many neutrons does nitrogen-15 have?
C The charges were uniform in the atom.
A 7
D Some alpha particles bounced back from
B 8 the foil. 3.a

C 15
13 The table below describes three carbon atoms.
D 21 7.b
Carbon Atoms and Their Properties
8 Which scientist envisioned the atom as a ball of Carbon-12 Carbon-13 Carbon-14
positive charge with electrons embedded in it?
Mass
A Bohr
12 13 14
number
B Dalton Number of
6 6 6
protons
C Rutherford
Number of
6 7 8
D Thomson 3.a neutrons
Number of
9 Which particle is the smallest? 6 6 6
electrons
A electron Atomic
6 6 6
number
B nucleus

C proton
How are these atoms different from one
D neutron 3.a another?

A Each one is a different isotope.

10 The atomic number is equal to the number of
B Each one is a different element.
A protons.
C Each one is made up of different types
B neutrons. particles.
C electrons. D Each one has different types of particles in
D quarks. 3.a the nucleus. 7.b
Chapter 4 • Standards Assessment 213
 Combining Atoms
and Molecules
/…iÊ Ê`i>
Atoms of two or more
elements can combine to
form compounds that have
different properties from
those of the elements that
formed them.

LESSON 1 3.a, 3.b, 3.f

How Atoms Form
Compounds
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Com-
pounds are chemical
combinations of ele-
ments that have proper-
ties different from the
elements that formed
them.

LESSON 2
3.b, 3.c, 7.c, 9.a, 9.e
Forming Solids
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Atoms,
ions, and molecules
can link together to
form large, repeating
structures such as
solid metals, ionic
and molecular crystals,
and polymers.
The Hardest Known Natural Substance
This is a computer-generated image of the molecular structure of diamonds.
The blue spheres are carbon atoms. The carbon atoms are joined to other
carbon atoms. Diamonds are made from carbon atoms that have been sub-
jected to extreme heat and pressure. They are the hardest known natural
substance.
-Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM Write three questions you have about solids.

214
 Start-Up Activities

Compounds and
Bonds Make the following
What do structures made Foldable to explain the ways
of atoms look like? compounds form.

Atoms make up every- STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper in half

thing in your world. What lengthwise. Make the back edge about 2 cm
makes plastic different longer than the front edge.
from cotton or steel?
Procedure
1. Complete a lab safety form.
2. Build a model of a two-atom molecule
using two gumdrops and one toothpick. STEP 2 Fold into thirds.

3. Build a model of a chain.

4. Build a model of connected cubes using
16 gumdrops and 28 toothpicks.
5. Build a model of three hexagons connected
along two sides. STEP 3 Unfold and cut along the folds
Think About This of the top flap to make three flaps.
• Evaluate How rigid is the structure? Is
the model rigid in one direction, but less
rigid in another direction?
• Consider Are your models able to flow or
slide easily past one another? Is the model
able to bend easily?
STEP 4 Label the flaps as shown.
3.b

œ“«œÕ˜`ÃÊÊÊ>˜`Ê œ˜`Ã
œ˜ˆV
œÛ>i˜Ì iÌ>ˆV
œ˜`à œ˜`à œ˜`Ã

Visualizing As you read this chapter,

describe how each type of bond forms, list
Visit ca8.msscience.com to: the properties of the compounds formed,
and give examples of each.
υ view
υ explore Virtual Labs
υ access content-related Web links
υ take the Standards Check

215
Get Ready to Read
Visualize

Learn It! Visualize by forming mental

images of the text as you read. Imagine how the text
descriptions look, sound, feel, smell, or taste. Look for
any pictures or diagrams on the page that may help you
add to your understanding.

Practice It! Read the following para-

graph. As you read, use the underlined details to form a
picture in your mind.

Sodium chloride, NaCl, is an ionic crystal. Even a

tiny grain of sodium chloride contains billions of
sodium ions and chloride ions. Crystals of sodium
chloride have a regular, cubic structure. The patterns
in the sodium chloride crystal are simple. Sodium
ions (Na+) alternate with chloride ions (Cl−) in a
three-dimensional pattern.
—from page 233

Based on the description above, try to visualize a sodium chloride

crystal. Now look at the photo on page 233.
• How closely does it match your mental picture?
• Reread the passage and look at the picture again. Did your
ideas change?
• Compare your image with what others in your class visualized.

Apply It! Read the chapter and

list three subjects you were able to visualize.
Make a rough sketch showing what you
visualized.

216
 ta l
yo u r own men
Forming l help you
Target Your Reading il
images w what you read.
rememb
er
Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter.
1 Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements
below on your worksheet or on a numbered sheet of paper.
• Write an A if you agree with the statement.
• Write a D if you disagree with the statement.
2 After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if
you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements.
• If any of your answers changed, explain why.
• Change any false statements into true statements.
• Use your revised statements as a study guide.

Before You Read Statement After You Read

A or D A or D
1 Compounds have properties very similar to the
properties of the elements they contain.

2 A given compound always has the same formula

showing the same elements in the same ratios.

3 All elements can form both covalent and ionic bonds.

4 An atom that loses an electron becomes a negative

ion.

5 Covalent bonds can be single, double, or triple.

6 Some of the electrons in metals are free to move

Print a worksheet of from atom to atom.
this page at
ca8.msscience.com.
7 All crystals are held together with ionic bonds.

8 In a sodium chloride crystal, sodium ions surround

chloride ions.

9 A polymer is a stringlike compound made of repeat-

ing units.

217
LESSON 1
Science Content
Standards
How Atoms Form
3.a Students know the structure of the
atom and know it is composed of protons,
Compounds
neutrons, and electrons. >ˆ˜Ê`i> Compounds are chemical combinations of
3.b Students know that compounds elements with properties that are different from the elements
are formed by combining two or more that formed them.
different elements and that compounds
have properties different from their Real-World Reading Connection To make corn tortillas,
constituent elements. you mix together water, salt, and masa harina (a type of corn-
3.f Students know how to use the meal) to make dough. Then, you roll or press pieces of the
periodic table to identify elements in
dough into thin circles and cook them on a griddle. The cooked
simple compounds.
tortillas are not at all like the ingredients you mixed. Like torti-
llas, compounds are combinations of elements that have chemi-
Reading Guide cal and physical properties different from the elements that
make them up.
What You’ll Learn
Describe how a compound What is a compound?
▼

differs from its component Think about all the different kinds of materials you see and
elements. use every day. The world is made up of far more substances than
Explain the differences the approximately 100 known elements. This wide variety of
▼

between ionic and covalent materials exists because atoms of different elements combine to
bonding. form compounds. A compound is a pure substance that con-
Explain how atoms can tains two or more elements. Most of the matter around you is
▼

become stable by forming made of compounds. Figure 1 shows examples of elements and
chemical bonds. compounds that you may recognize.
Why It’s Important
Learning how atoms combine Figure 1 Elements, such as helium, gold, and carbon
helps explain how new (diamond) are less common than compounds such as water,
compounds are made. sucrose (table sugar), and sodium chloride (table salt).

Vocabulary
compound
chemical formula
molecule
chemical bond
ionic bond
valence
covalent bond

Review Vocabulary
ion: a charged particle that
forms from an atom that has
gained or lost electrons Elements Compounds
(p. 200)

218 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules

 Figure 2 Count the number
of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen
atoms.
Check that the chemical formula for
sugar, C12H22O11, includes all the atoms
HjXgdhZ
in one molecule.

LViZg =nYgd\Zc

Dmn\Zc 8VgWdc

Dmn\Zc
=nYgd\Zc

Chemical Formulas for Compounds

Gold is an element, so it contains only gold atoms. Water and
sugar are compounds. How can you tell what elements make up a
compound? An ingredient list would help. Such a list would name
all the elements contained in a compound. It also would tell how
much of each element is present. An ingredient list for a com-
pound is called its chemical formula. A chemical formula contains
atomic symbols and subscripts to show the elements and the num-
ber of atoms of each element that combine to form a compound.

Describing Compounds Maybe you have referred to water as “H

two O.” That’s how you would read the chemical formula for
water, which is H2O. The subscript 2 after the hydrogen symbol
means that a molecule of water contains two hydrogen atoms. A
molecule is a neutral particle that forms as a result of electron WORD ORIGIN
sharing. The element oxygen (O) has no subscript, which means molecule
from Latin moles; means mass
that a molecule of water contains only one oxygen atom. The
chemical formula for table sugar is C12H22O11. Carbon’s subscript,
12, shows that one molecule of sugar contains 12 carbon atoms.
How many hydrogen atoms are in one sugar molecule?

Formulas and the Law of Definite Proportions Table sugar

always contains 12 carbon atoms, 22 hydrogen atoms, and 11 oxy-
gen atoms. Water always contains two hydrogen atoms and one
oxygen atom. Recall that the law of definite proportions states that
a pure compound will always contain the same elements in the
same proportion by mass. Figure 2 shows models of how the atoms
in water and sugar are arranged.

What is the law of definite proportions?

Lesson 1 • How Atoms Form Compounds 219
 Compounds and Their Elements
Compounds have different properties than those of the elements
that make them up. Sodium chloride is an example. Sodium is a
soft, shiny metal. Chlorine is a greenish-yellow gas at room tem-
perature. When sodium and chlorine combine to form a com-
pound, the product is the familiar white table salt, sodium
chloride. What holds sodium chloride together?

SCIENCE USE V. COMMON USE

Ionic Bonds and Ionic Compounds
bond Suppose you blow up two balloons. You rub one with wool
Science Use a force that holds and the other with plastic wrap. You find that the balloons stick
atoms together in a together. The balloon rubbed with wool becomes negatively
compound. Two types of
charged. The balloon rubbed with plastic wrap becomes positively
chemical bonds are ionic and
covalent. charged. Opposite charges attract, so the balloons are attracted to
each other. The force that holds the balloons together is similar to
Common Use a close personal
the force that holds atoms together in a compound. A chemical
relationship between people.
A strong bond of friendship bond is a force that holds atoms together in a compound. Each of
developed between the two girls. the connections between the atoms in Figure 2 represents a chemi-
cal bond.

Ionic Bonds—Transferring Electrons

Just as the balloons became charged by rubbing, an atom of an
element can become charged by transferring one or more electrons
to a different atom. Both atoms become charged particles, or ions.
A positive ion has fewer electrons than protons. A negative ion has
more electrons than protons. The atom that gives up the electron
becomes positively charged. The atom that receives the electron
becomes negatively charged. In Figure 3, a lithium (LIH thee um)
atom transfers an electron to a fluorine (FLOOR een) atom. Lith-
ium becomes a positively charged ion. Fluorine becomes a nega-
tively charged ion. Like the balloons, the two ions attract each
other and stick together. They form a chemical bond. A bond
Figure 3 Lithium and between oppositely charged ions is called an ionic bond. An ionic
fluorine attract each other bond is an electrical attraction between positively and negatively
like two charged balloons. charged ions in an ionic compound.
Explain how lithium becomes
positively charged and fluorine
becomes negatively charged.


A^ ; A^ ;

A^i]^jbA^ ;ajdg^cZ; A^i]^jb[ajdg^YZA^;

220 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules

Ionic compounds
In Figure 3, you saw how a lithium ion and a flouride ion attract
one another and form an ionic bond. The compound lithium flou-
ride is formed. Lithium flouride is an example of the simplest
ionic compound—one that contains ions of two elements. Usually,
the positive ion is a metal. The negative ion is a nonmetal. An
ionic compound with only two different ions is called a binary
compound. Binary describes anything that consists of two parts.
The charges of the ions in a compound always balance. When the
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
charges are balanced, the overall charge of the compound is zero symbol (SIHM bul)
and the compound is neutral. (noun) something that stands
for or suggests something else
Positive Ions How can you tell whether the ions that an atom The stars and stripes are a sym-
forms will be positive or negative? The periodic table can help. Ele- bol for the United States.
ments in the same column of the periodic table are a group. The
groups are identified by a number at the top of the column. A
metal in Group 1, such as sodium, can transfer one electron. In
doing so, it becomes an ion with a +1 charge. The symbol for the
sodium ion is Na+.
Potassium is in Group 1. What is the symbol for the
potassium ion?

Negative Ions The Group 17 elements are nonmetals. A Group 17

element can gain an electron to form an ion with a –1 charge. The
symbol for the chloride ion is Cl–. When a positive ion from
Group 1 combines with a negative ion from Group 17, the result is
a salt such as sodium chloride (NaCl). Figure 4 highlights the ele-
ments in Groups 1 and 17 and the important role that some of
these elements play in your life. What about neighboring Groups 2
and 16? Can the elements from these groups form binary ionic
compounds?
Figure 4 Potatoes and
bananas are rich in sodium and
potassium. Table salt contains
& &- chlorine. These elements from
& = ' &( &) &* &+ &, =Z Groups 1 and 17 are essential in
' A^ 7Z
7 7 8 C D ; CZ your diet.
( CV B\
B 6> H^ E H 8a 6g
( ) * + , - . &% && &'
) @ 88V HX I^ K 8g Bc ;Z 8d C^ 8j Oc <V <Z 6h HZ 7g @g
* GW Hg
H N Og CW Bd IX Gj G] EY 6\ 8Y >c Hc HW IZ > MZ
+ 8h 7
7V AV =[ IV L GZ Dh >g Ei 6j =\ I> EW 7^ Ed 6i Gc
, ;g G
GV 6X G[ 9W H\ 7] =h Bi 9h G\ JjW Jjf

8Z Eg CY Eb Hb :j <Y IW 9n =d :g Ib NW Aj
I] EV J Ce Ej 6b 8b 7` 8[ :h ;b BY Cd Ag

Lesson 1 • How Atoms Form Compounds 221

 ; ;
B\

;ajdg^cZ; ;ajdg^cZ;

BV\cZh^jbB\

 ' 

; B\ ;
Figure 5 Magnesium
loses two electrons. Each
fluorine atom gains one
electron as magnesium
fluoride is formed.
Other Binary Ionic Compounds
Salts formed from Group 1 and Group 17 elements are not the
only common ionic compounds. Group 2 elements, such as mag-
nesium and calcium, are also metals. They often lose two electrons
and form ions with +2 charges (Mg2+ and Ca2+). Elements in
Group 16, such as oxygen and sulfur, are nonmetals. These ele-
ments can gain electrons to form ions with –2 charges (O2– and
S2–). Ionic compounds can form when elements in Group 2 trans-
fer electrons to elements in either Group 16 or Group 17. Magne-
sium transfers two electrons to oxygen to form magnesium oxide,
MgO. Magnesium can also transfer electrons to fluorine atoms to
form magnesium fluoride, MgF2. Figure 5 illustrates how a mag-
nesium atom transfers one electron to each of two fluorine atoms.
The new compound that forms has different properties from either
magnesium or fluorine.
Figure 5 Why are there two fluoride ions in magnesium
fluoride but only one fluoride ion in lithium fluoride?

Properties of Ionic Compounds

What are some of the properties of ionic compounds, such as
magnesium fluoride and sodium chloride? These compounds are
usually solids at room temperature. They are brittle, which means
they easily break apart. They have relatively high melting points
and high boiling points. Like sodium chloride, many ionic com-
pounds dissolve in water. Water that contains dissolved ionic com-
pounds is a good conductor of electricity. The charges of the ions
and the forces that hold them together in the compound are
responsible for the properties of ionic compounds.
222 Chapter 5
 Table 1 Valence and Interactive Table To organize elements and their
Lewis dot diagrams, visit ca8.msscience.com .
Lewis Dot Diagrams
Group Typical Valence Lewis Dot
Number Element Electrons Diagram

1 Lithium 1 A^

2 Beryllium 2 7Z

13 Boron 3 7

14 Carbon 4 8

15 Nitrogen 5 C

16 Oxygen 6 D

17 Fluorine 7 ;

18 Neon 8* CZ

*except helium, which has only 2 electrons

Diagramming Electrons—Lewis Dot Diagrams

American chemist Gilbert Lewis developed Lewis dot diagrams
in 1923 to represent atoms and their electrons. To construct a
Lewis dot diagram for an atom, you need to know the number of WORD ORIGIN
valence electrons an atom has. An atom’s valence is the number of valence
electrons in its outermost energy level. Only valence electrons are from Latin valentia; means
strength, capacity
shown in a Lewis dot diagram. Table 1 lists the valence and Lewis
dot diagrams for typical elements of eight of the groups in the
periodic table. All members of a group have the same number of
valence electrons. A maximum of eight electrons fits around the
atomic symbol, in four pairs.
One method to make a Lewis dot diagram is to first write the
element’s atomic symbol. Use a dot for each valence electron. Place
dots one by one on the top, right, bottom, and left. If an atom has
more than four electrons, continue adding dots, making pairs of
electrons. Follow in the same direction as the first four electrons
until you have placed a dot for each valence electron.
Phosphorus is a Group 15 element with five valence
electrons. Draw its electron dot diagram.

Lesson 1 • How Atoms Form Compounds 223

 Figure 6 If chlorine
gains an electron, its
electron structure
becomes the same as 8a 6g
argon’s. Magnesium’s
electron structure is
the same as neon’s
when magnesium
loses two electrons. 8a 6g
8]adg^cZ 6g\dc

B\ CZ

B\ CZ
BV\cZh^jb CZdc

Ions and Noble Gases

Table 1 excludes Groups 3–12 of the periodic table. These ele-
ments are metals and have valences that can vary. Notice that for
the remaining groups, the number of valence electrons increases
from one to eight across the table. Elements in Group 18, called
the noble gases, each have eight valence electrons. Group 18 ele-
ments are stable because their outer energy levels are filled. Ele-
ments that are stable rarely react to form compounds.

Noble Gas Structure by Gaining Electrons Some atoms can

achieve the same filled outer energy levels of the noble gases if they
gain or lose electrons. Figure 6 shows the electron structures and
Lewis dot diagrams for chlorine and argon. Argon is the noble gas
nearest to chlorine. Compare the diagrams of the two elements.
Notice that chlorine can become more stable by gaining one elec-
tron to form a negative chloride ion (Cl–). Both argon and the
chloride ion have the same electron structure.

Noble Gas Structure by Losing Electrons Magnesium is another

element that can achieve the electron structure of a noble gas. The
nearest noble gas to magnesium is neon. In Figure 6, compare the
Lewis dot diagrams for magnesium and neon. Magnesium has
12 electrons; neon has 10. Magnesium can have the same stable
electron structure as neon if it loses two electrons to form the
magnesium ion (Mg2+).

224 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules

 )Z )Z

8 8 8

8) 8VgWdc8 8)

HVbZZaZXigdc HVbZZaZXigdc
higjXijgZVh]Za^jb higjXijgZVhcZdc

Figure 7 Carbon would have to lose four electrons to have the

same number of electrons as helium. Or, it would have to gain four
electrons to have the same number of electrons as neon.

Covalent Bonds—Sharing Electrons

You have read that ionic bonds form when electrons are trans-
ferred from a metal atom to a nonmetal atom. Atoms lose or gain
the number of electrons that will give them the atomic structure of
a noble gas. Ionic compounds, called salts, are formed when posi-
tive and negative ions attract each other. However, to form ions,
some atoms would have to gain or lose too many electrons. As you
can see in Figure 7, carbon has four valence electrons. It is equally
close to two noble gases, helium and neon. To become an ion with
the noble gas structure of neon or helium, carbon would have to
either gain or lose four electrons. Too much energy is needed for
this to happen easily. Nevertheless, carbon forms millions of com-
pounds, not by transferring electrons, but by sharing electrons.
Figure 7 Explain how C4ⴚ has the same electron
structure as neon.
Covalent Compounds
Atoms that do not transfer electrons often can form compounds
by sharing electrons in a covalent bond. A covalent bond is a
chemical bond formed when atoms share electrons. Elements that
are close together on the periodic table are more likely to share
electrons in a covalent bond than to transfer electrons. Recall that
molecules are neutral particles formed when atoms share electrons.
Covalent compounds are made from molecules. Covalent carbon
compounds are especially important in living organisms because
they include cell molecules such as DNA, proteins, and sugars.
These molecules are examples of an enormous number of organic
compounds that make up the materials of the living world.
Organic compounds are covalent compounds containing carbon
atoms.

What is a covalent bond?

Lesson 1 • How Atoms Form Compounds 225

 Properties of Covalent Compounds
Recall that ionic compounds usually are solids at room temper-
ature. In contrast, covalent compounds can be solids, liquids, or
gases at room temperature. Covalent compounds usually have
lower melting points and boiling points than do ionic compounds.
The atoms in covalent compounds do not separate in water, as the
atoms in ionic compounds do. Solutions of most covalent com-
pounds do not conduct electricity. For example, a solution of the
ionic compound sodium chloride conducts electricity. A similar
solution of the covalent compound sugar does not.

Single Covalent Bonds

To help you understand the sharing of electrons, think about
this situation. You and a friend decide to go to the movies. The
price of a ticket is $5.00, or two tickets for $8.00. You each have
$4.00. You can’t buy your tickets individually, but if you and your
friend put your money together, you can buy tickets for both of
you. Similarly, atoms that have unpaired electrons can form com-
pounds if they share electrons. A compound held together by one
or more covalent bonds is called a covalent compound.
How does electron sharing happen? Follow Figure 8 as you
read. Hydrogen, H, has one unpaired electron. Two hydrogen
atoms can share their single electrons to form one pair of shared
electrons. A shared pair of electrons is a covalent bond. In this
case, the covalent bond holds the molecule H2 together. Carbon
has four unpaired electrons. By combining its four electrons with
the electrons of four hydrogen atoms, carbon can form four cova-
lent bonds. The compound methane, CH4, is formed. Nitrogen
has three unpaired electrons. How many covalent bonds can a
nitrogen atom form with hydrogen atoms?

Why can carbon bond with four other elements?

Figure 8 The hydrogen molecule has one single covalent bond.

Determine how many single bonds methane has.

= = ==
= = ='
=nYgd\Zc =nYgd\Zc =nYgd\Zc
Vidb Vidb bdaZXjaZ

226 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules

 Figure 9 It’s harder to pull two friends
apart when they are holding on to each
other with two hands. In a similar way,
double bonds are stronger than single
= = bonds.

Single Bond

O C O
Double Bond

Double and Triple Bonds

Sometimes two atoms may form a stronger bond by sharing
more than one pair of electrons. In Figure 9, a single bond is rep-
resented by two friends, each joining one of their hands. One pair
of electrons is being shared. A double bond is represented by the
two friends joining both of their hands. A double bond consists of
two shared pairs of electrons. Double bonds are stronger than sin-
gle bonds. It takes more energy to pull the two friends apart when
both of their hands are joined.
What is the difference between a single bond and a
double bond?
A triple covalent bond is three shared pairs of electrons. As you
might predict, triple bonds are stronger than double or single
bonds. Acetylene (uh SEE tul een), a gas that welders use, is a
covalent compound with a triple bond. The atoms in the nitrogen
molecule, N2, are also held together by a triple bond. A nitrogen
molecule forms when two nitrogen atoms share their three
unpaired electrons in a triple bond. The strength of the triple bond
makes the nitrogen molecule unreactive. Nitrogen gas, N2, makes
up almost 80 percent of the air you breathe.

Lesson 1 • How Atoms Form Compounds 227

 What do you know about
compounds?
An enormous number of substances exist in the world because
atoms form compounds. Compounds can be either ionic or cova-
lent. Ionic compounds are formed when atoms transfer electrons.
Covalent compounds result from the sharing of electrons. Chemi-
cal bonds hold atoms together in molecules and compounds.
Chemical formulas show the number and type of each atom in a
molecule or compound. The number of bonds an atom can form
is equal to the number of unpaired valence electrons the atom has.

LESSON 1 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 6. Predict the number of cova-
summary as you design a lent bonds an oxygen atom
1. Explain the difference can make with other atoms.
visual aid.
between an ionic bond and 3.a
1. Write the lesson title, a covalent bond. 3.b
number, and page num-
bers at the top of your 2. Define valence in your own D
poster. words. 3.a
Applying Science
2. Scan the lesson to find Understanding Main Ideas
the red main headings. 7. Construct a model to show
Organize these headings 3. What element can form a what type of bond silicon is
on your poster, leaving positive ion? 3.a most likely to form with oxy-
space between each. gen. Silicon and oxygen are in
A. magnesium
3. Design an information B. carbon the same group of the peri-
box beneath each red odic table. 3.b
C. oxygen
heading. In the box, list
D. bromine 8. Decide whether the bond
2–3 details, key terms,
and definitions from each joining two chlorine atoms
4. Explain why chlorine forms
blue subheading. a –1 ion, but sulfur forms a together in the chlorine
–2 ion. molecule, Cl2, is an ionic or
4. Illustrate your poster with 3.a
covalent bond. Justify your
diagrams of important 5. Compare Copy and fill in the answer. 3.b
structures or processes graphic organizer below to
next to each information describe the properties of
box.
sodium, chlorine, and sodium
ELA8: R 2.3 chloride. 3.c

Sodium
Chlorine
Science nline
Sodium chloride
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com .

228 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules

How can you
model molecules?
Many atoms bond to one, two, three, or four other atoms. Use
your hands and feet as bonds to act like an atom.

Procedure
1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Clear a space in which to move around. Make sure there are no
objects anyone can trip over or bump into.
3. In your Science Journal, create a chart in which to draw Lewis
dot diagrams for the first 18 elements. Determine the number
of bonds each atom can form.
4. Sort the first 18 elements into a Venn diagram similar to the
one below. Write elements that do not form compounds
below the diagram.

Form covalent bonds Form Form ionic bonds

both

5. Make a chart that lists the elements that form one, two, three,
four and zero bonds.
6. Brainstorm how to model covalent bonds and ionic bonds.
Choose the best way to model both types of bonds.
7. Choose one element. As an atom of that element, form bonds
with students representing other atoms.

Analysis
1. Describe how the ionic bonds behaved differently from the
covalent bonds.
2. Describe any problems you had with this modeling activity.

Science Content Standards

3.b Students know that compounds are formed by combining two or more different elements and
that compounds have properties that are different from their constituent elements.

229
LESSON 2
Science Content
Standards
Forming Solids
3.c Students know atoms and molecules >ˆ˜Ê`i> Atoms, ions, and molecules can link together to
form solids by building up repeating form large, repeating structures such as solid metals, ionic and
patterns, such as the crystal structure of molecular crystals, and polymers.
NaCl or long-chain polymers.
Also Covers: 3.b, 7.c, 9.a, 9.e
Real-World Reading Connection Imagine you pour a sack
of identical round beads into a box. Each bead touches as many
other beads as possible. The pattern of the beads in the box is
Reading Guide similar to the way metal atoms pack together in a solid. Now
think of a different pattern. The beads are strung together into a
What You’ll Learn chain. The chain pattern is a lot like a polymer.
Explain the bonding in
▼

metals. Metals
Describe how solids form What do coins, beverage cans, bridges, and airplanes have in
▼

in repeating patterns of common? They are all made from metals. Metals are elements
atoms, ions, or molecules. that are usually shiny, good conductors of heat and electricity,
Describe the crystal and solid at room temperature. They are located on the left and
▼

structure of sodium in the center of the periodic table. About two-thirds of all the
chloride. elements are metals. Examples of common metals are gold, cop-
per, aluminum, zinc, and iron. Metals are used to make jewelry,
Why It’s Important electrical wiring, and the skeletons of tall buildings, as shown in
Knowing how atoms and Figure 10. The properties of metals make them ideal for all of
molecules are arranged in
solids will help you these uses and thousands more.
understand how particles
Where are metals located on the periodic table?
undergo change.
Dễ dát mỏng
Vocabulary Figure 10 Gold is malleable.
metal Copper is ductile and conducts
metallic bond electricity. Steel, which is mostly
malleability iron, is strong.
ductility
crystal
unit cell
polymer
monomer Gold

Review Vocabulary
element: a pure substance
that can be identified by the
number of protons in the
nucleus of its atoms. (p. 195)

Copper Steel

230 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules

Metallic Bonds
How are the atoms in a metal bonded? Metals have some fea-
6\ 6\
tures in common with ionic compounds. Like the atoms in ionic
compounds, individual metal atoms lose electrons to become posi- 6\

tive ions. Metals also have some features that resemble covalent 6\ 6\
compounds. Like covalent compounds, the atoms in metals share
6\
electrons. A metallic bond is a bond formed when many metal
atoms share their pooled electrons. Metal atoms can bond to 6\ 6\

atoms of the same element, or they can bond with other metals. 6\
However, in metals, the electrons are not transferred directly to 6\ 6\
another atom. Instead, they move freely throughout the piece of
metal. The electrons are not attached to any particular atom. They
are a “sea of electrons.” You can see in Figure 11 how a sea of elec- Figure 11 Electrons
trons surrounds an array of positive ions in a solid metal. are free to move among
all the metal ions, but
the overall charge of the
Bonding and Properties Metallic bonding explains many of the metal is zero.
properties of metals. Metals are good conductors of heat and elec-
tricity because their electrons are free to move. When a metal is
hammered into a sheet or pulled into a wire, it does not break
because the ions are in layers. The layers can slide past one another
without losing their attraction to their pooled electrons.

Metal Atoms and Patterns Metal atoms combine in regular pat-

terns in which some electrons are free to move from atom to atom.
Each layer of metal atoms is arranged in a definite pattern. Recall
the beads in the box. Like the beads, metal atoms in solids pack
together as closely as possible in a regular, three-dimensional pat-
tern. In Figure 12, you can see the pattern in which gold atoms
pack together to make solid gold.

Figure 12 The atoms in

this naturally crystallized
gold are arranged in a
regular cubic pattern.
Describe the arrangement of
the gold atoms on a surface of
the cube.

Lesson 2 • Forming Solids 231

 Physical Properties of Metals
Think of the metal in a shiny new cooking pot. Like most met-
als, it has good electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity.
The metal in the pot has a high melting point and a high boiling
point. It is tough and strong. These properties are important in a
material used for cooking pots.
The physical properties of metals make them valuable for many
uses. Gold’s color and shine make it a good material for jewelry.
Figure 13 The six- Gold also is one of the most malleable metals. Malleability is the
sided shape of a
snowflake reflects the ability of a material to be hammered or rolled into sheets. Another
pattern in which water property of metals is ductility. Ductility is the ability of a sub-
molecules are stance to be pulled into wires. Metals also are good conductors of
arranged in the solid. heat and electricity. Copper wire often is used as a conductor of
electricity. Aluminum is used for aircraft bodies because it is
tough and strong, and also light.

Crystals
The particles of different substances arrange themselves into
different patterns when they solidify into crystals. A crystal is a
regular, repeating arrangement of atoms, ions, or molecules. A
snowflake, such as the one in Figure 13, is one of nature’s most
beautiful crystals. In a snowflake, water molecules freeze to form a
six-sided pattern. A snowflake is an example of a molecular crystal.
In another type of crystal, the solid is held together by ionic
WORD ORIGIN bonds. Sodium chloride is an example of this type of crystal,
ductile which is called an ionic crystal. Diamond and quartz are examples
from Latin ductilis; means that of a third type of crystal in which particles are held together by
may be led or drawn
covalent bonds. A crystal’s structure is important because it helps
scientists understand the crystal’s physical properties. Figure 14
shows examples of ionic crystals.
Identify one molecular crystal, one ionic crystal, and
one crystal held together with covalent bonds.

Photo ID #

Figure 14 Aragonite, barite, and beryl are examples of minerals

that are ionic compounds.

232 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules

 CV
8a·

Figure 15 Sodium and chlorine ions alternate in the

unit cell.
Infer how the arrangement of the ions in the cubic unit
cell is reflected in the shape of the magnified crystal.
To see a 3-D animation of the cubic arrangement of
sodium chloride, visit ca8.msscience.com.

Crystal Patterns
Think of a page of stamps. The stamps are arranged next to
each other in a pattern. The pattern might be five stamps across
and four down. Except for the stamps along the edges, each stamp
has four neighboring stamps, to the right, left, top, and bottom.
Now think of a book of stamps. Every page has the same pattern.
But now, each stamp also has one stamp above it and one below it.
Like the pages and books of stamps, crystals are formed from
repeating patterns of smaller parts. A unit cell is the smallest
repeating pattern that shows how the atoms, ions, or molecules are
arranged in a crystal. The unit cell for sodium chloride is shown
in Figure 15, with a microscopic view of the crystalline surface.
Figure 16 shows photos of crystals created by atoms, ions, and
molecules, and the regular patterns that form their crystal struc-
tures.

Sodium Chloride
Sodium chloride, NaCl, is an ionic crystal. Even a tiny grain of
sodium chloride contains billions of sodium ions and chloride ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
ions. Crystals of sodium chloride have a regular, cubic structure. alternate (ALL tuhr nayte)
(verb) to perform by turns or
The pattern in the sodium chloride crystal is simple. Sodium ions in succession
(Na+) alternate with chloride ions (Cl–) in a three-dimensional The students alternate reading
pattern. Ionic bonds hold the ions together. You can see this pat- from the text and answering the
tern in Figure 15. Unlike solid metals, ionic crystals are brittle. questions.
Only a small amount of pressure is needed to make a sodium chlo-
ride crystal crumble.
Figure 15 In the sodium chloride unit cell, which ion,
sodium or chloride, is at each corner?

Lesson 2 • Forming Solids 233

Visualizing Crystal Structure
Figure 16 Many solids exist as crystals. Whether
it is a tiny grain of table salt or a big block of
quartz, a crystal’s shape often is a reflection of
the arrangement of its particles. Knowing a sol-
id’s crystal structure helps scientists understand
its physical properties.

Water

O Si

HEXAGONAL Quartz crystals are six-sided,

just as a snowflake is. This is because the
molecules that make up both quartz and
snowflakes arrange themselves into hexa-
gonal patterns.
Ca2ⴙ
Fⴚ

Naⴙ Clⴚ

CUBIC Fluorite, above, and sodium

chloride form cube-shaped crystals.
This shape is a reflection of the
cube-shaped arrangement of the
ions in the crystal.

234 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules Contributed by National Geographic

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Figure 17 Like a single stamp in a roll of stamps, the

monomer ethene (C2H4) links together in the polymer chain
polyethylene.

What is a polymer?
Just as a crystal can be compared to the pattern of stamps in a
book of stamps, a polymer can be compared to the pattern in a
roll of stamps. In a roll of stamps, individual stamps are joined
together to form a long chain. A polymer is a covalent compound
made up of many small, repeating units linked together in a chain.
The word polymer means “many parts.” DNA is a polymer. So
are plastics, synthetic fibers, many paints, and synthetic elastic
compounds.

Stringlike Molecules
If a polymer is similar to a roll of stamps, a monomer is like a
single stamp. A monomer is a small molecule that forms a link in
a polymer chain. Often, the monomer is a gas at room tempera-
ture. Many hundreds of these small molecules link up by means of
covalent bonds to form a solid polymer.

Synthetic Polymers
In Figure 17, you can see how the monomer ethene (EH theen),
links together to form polyethylene (pah lee EH thuh leen). Each
line connecting the atoms in the monomer and polymer represents
one pair of shared electrons. Polyethylene is a synthetic, or manu-
factured, polymer. It is used for grocery bags and food wrap
because it is lightweight and flexible. Many different synthetic
polymers are made from monomers that are variations of the eth-
ene monomer. For example, if fluorine atoms are substituted for
each of the hydrogen atoms in ethene, an entirely different poly-
mer is formed. This polymer has properties that make it useful as
a nonstick coating for pots and pans.
What kind of chemical bond holds polymers
together?

Lesson 2 • Forming Solids 235

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY Natural Polymers
consist (kuhn SIHST) Did you notice in Figure 17 that the polyethylene chain consists
(verb) to be composed or of carbon atoms? Recall that compounds based on carbon are
made up
Some lunches consist of sand- called organic compounds. Organic compounds are the materials
wiches and fruit. of life. Cells must contain three important kinds of natural
organic polymers. These are proteins, carbohydrates, and nucleic
acids, such as DNA. DNA is present in every living cell, and con-
tains all the information needed for building and maintaining a
living creature.

What element is found in all organic compounds?

Proteins and carbohydrates, which are made or used by your

body, are also natural organic polymers. Proteins make up your
hair, your skin, and your muscles. A protein’s monomer is an
amino acid, which includes carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen atoms.
In carbohydrates, the monomer is a sugar molecule called a mono-
saccharide. Monosaccharides link up to form starches and cellu-
lose. These long chains, called polysaccharides, include carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen atoms. Figure 18 shows protein and carbo-
hydrate polymers with their monomers.
Natural polymers are giant molecules. Nevertheless, the same
kind of chemical bond holds these giant molecules together as
binds together even a small molecule such as water. Both synthetic
and natural organic polymers play important roles in your life.

Figure 18 Amino acid monomers join together to form a protein.

Identify the monomer that forms the starch polymer.

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236 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules

 What do you know about metals,
crystals, and polymers?
Metal atoms are bound together in a solid by a sea of shared
electrons. These electrons are free to move throughout the solid.
They are responsible for the properties of metals, such as mallea-
bility, ductility, and conductivity. Crystals are solid substances in
which atoms, ions, or molecules are arranged in a regular pattern
called a unit cell. In sodium chloride, sodium ions and chloride
ions alternate in rows and layers. Natural and synthetic polymers
are stringlike molecules made up of repeating units of small mole-
cules called monomers. In the next chapter, you will read more
about solids, as well as the liquid and gas states of matter.

LESSON 2 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 6. Describe how a monomer is
summary as you design a related to a polymer. 3.c
1. A(n) is made up of
study web. repeating unit cells. 7. Compare and Contrast Copy
3.c
1. Write the lesson title, and fill in the graphic orga-
number, and page num- 2. Two properties of metals are nizer below to compare and
bers at the top of a sheet and . 7.c contrast ionic crystals and
of paper. solid metals, including the
Understanding Main Ideas chemical bonds they form. 3.c
2. Scan the lesson to find
the red main headings. 3. What holds sodium chloride
crystals together? 3.b
[topic] Similarities Differences
3. Organize these headings
clockwise on branches A. covalent bonds
around the lesson title. B. ionic bonds
4. Review the information C. a sea of electrons
under each red heading Applying Science
D. metallic bonds
to design a branch for 8. Create a drawing showing
each blue subheading. 4. Identify each material as a
how eight chloride ions and
metal, crystal, or polymer.
5. List 2–3 details, key terms, seven sodium ions might be
and definitions from each A. a brittle solid with a high arranged in a single layer of a
blue subheading on melting point crystal. 3.c
branches extending B. a shiny, thin sheet that con-
from the main heading 9. Design an experiment to
ducts heat
branches. determine whether an
C. a thin, clear, lightweight, unknown substance is a metal
ELA8: R 2.3 and flexible wrap 3.c or an ionic crystal. 3.c
5. Explain what is meant by a
sea of electrons. 3.b
Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

Lesson 2 • Forming Solids 237

 Formula Units 3.b, 3.f
A formula unit is the base molecule that is used to build a com-
pound. Use multiplication to find how many atoms are in a molecule.
MA8: ALG 1.0
Example
How many hydrogen (H) atoms, sulfur (S) atoms, and oxygen (O)
atoms are in 3 molecules of sulfuric acid (H2SO4)?
1 Find the number of hydrogen atoms in one molecule of H2SO4.
H2SO4 is made of:

2 hydrogen atoms–H2
1 sulfur atom–S
4 oxygen atoms–O4

One molecule of H2SO4 contains 2 hydrogen atoms, 1 sulfur atom,

and 4 oxygen atoms.

Elements in Formula Unit Number of Atoms

Sulfur (S) 1
Hydrogen (H) 2
Oxygen (O) 4

2 Now find the number of sulfur, hydrogen, and oxygen atoms in

3 molecules of H2SO4. Multiply each number of atoms by 3.

3 molecules ⫻ 2 hydrogen atoms each ⫽ 6 hydrogen atoms

3 molecules ⫻ 1 sulfur atom each ⫽ 3 sulfur atoms
3 molecules ⫻ 4 oxygen atoms each ⫽ 12 oxygen atoms

Answer: Three molecules of sulfuric acid contain 6 hydrogen atoms,

3 sulfur atoms, and 12 oxygen atoms.

Practice Problems
Use the following formula to answer questions 1 and 2. Science nline
Ca(OH)2 For more math practice,
visit Math Practice at
1. How many atoms of hydrogen are in this compound? ca8.msscience.com.
2. How many atoms of calcium and oxygen are in 2 formula units
of this compound?

238 Chapter 5 • Combining Atoms and Molecules

How are ionic radii and lattice
energies of salts related?
The lattice energy of a crystal tells how strong the bonds in the Lattice Energies
crystal are. How do you think lattice energy is related to the dis-
tance between the atoms in the crystal? Salt Energy
(kJ/mol)

Data LiF 1,036

Atomic Radii (pm) NaF 923

Li Na K F Cl Br I KF 821
152 186 227 72 100 114 133 LiCl 853

NaCl 786

Data Analysis KCl 715

1. Calculate For each ionic compound in the table, add the radii LiBr 807
of its two elements. This is the distance between the atoms in
each crystal. NaBr
2. Create a graph with “Distance between atoms” on the x-axis
KBr 682
and “Lattice energy” on the y-axis.
3. Determine the relationship between distance and lattice LiI 757
energy.
NaI 704
4. Predict the approximate lattice energy for NaBr.
KI 649
Science Content Standards
3.b Students know that compounds are formed by combining two or more different elements and
that compounds have properties that are different from their constituent elements.
9.e Construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative statements about the
relationships between variables.

MA8: ALG 6.0

239
 Growing Crystals
Materials Problem
Crystals of ionic compounds can be made to grow from super-
alum
saturated solutions.
distilled water
salt
Form a Hypothesis
sugar
filter paper Read the procedure. What conditions do you think will produce
the best crystals? Write a hypothesis to explain your prediction.
string
hot plate
beaker
Collect Data and Make Observations
spatula 1. Read and complete a safety form.
hand lens 2. Thoroughly clean and rinse all equipment with distilled water
before starting. Impurities from dirty equipment might prevent
the crystals from growing.
3. Use a pencil with a 7-cm string attached as the framework for
growing crystals. Dangle the framework into the supersatu-
rated solution. You may want to put a seed crystal, a small
crystal of the same chemical, on the string. Make sure that you
do not use metal, which could react with the crystal com-
pound. Make sure the framework is very clean.
Safety Precautions 4. A supersaturated solution can be made by stirring as much sol-
ute, or dissolving substance as possible into boiling water. Add
solute spoonful by spoonful to 100 mL of boiling water until it
no longer dissolves. If undissolved solute settles on the bot-
tom, carefully pour your solution into a clean beaker.

240
5. When growing the crystals, it is best to leave them undis-
turbed in an area with no vibrations. Cover the beaker to
protect the growing crystals from dust. You may choose to
grow your crystals at room temperature or in a refrigerator
or freezer.
6. Leave your crystal setup for several hours or overnight. When
you return to the lab, record observations about your own
crystals and those of other lab groups.

Analyze and Conclude

1. Identify the compound that grew the best crystals.
2. Describe which condition grew the best crystals.
3. Describe your experiment and those of your classmates. Make
note of similarities and differences in procedures and results.
Explain how you think that each of the changes in procedure
affected the product.
4. Infer Do you think there is a difference in the way crystals in
the sugar (molecular compound) and the salts (ionic com-
pounds) grew? Explain, using your observations.
5. Draw a diagram on how you think the crystals grow on a
molecular level.
6. Describe the errors that were made. How could the proce-
dures have been improved?

Communicate
3CIENCE ELA8: W 2.6
Write a procedure for growing crystals of rock
candy at home. Imagine that your procedure
would be part of a book of fun experiments to be
done in the kitchen.

Science Content Standards

3.c Students know atoms and molecules form solids by building up repeating patterns, such as
the crystal structure of NaCl or long-chain polymers.
9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.

241
 CFCs and the Ozone Layer
Mario J. Molina was born in Mexico. He conducted
research on chlorofluorocarbon at the University of
California–Berkeley in the 1970s. Molina, along with
two colleagues, discovered that CFCs were deplet-
ing the ozone layer. In 1995, he was awarded the
Nobel Prize in Chemistry for his work on the
formation and decomposition of ozone in the
atmosphere.
Mario J. Molina Visit Careers at
ca8.msscience.com to reasearch Molina’s
accomplishments. Write a 400–500-word bio-
graphy of Mario J. Molina’s life. Include facts
about his childhood, education, and research
background.
ELA8: W 2.1

Sweeter Than Sugar

Sucralose is a molecule made by combining sucrose
(sugar) and chlorine atoms. This molecule, which
was first synthesized in 1976, is approximately
500–600 times sweeter than sugar.
Aspartame is another sugar substitute; it is made
from the amino acid phenylalanine. This molecule
was discovered in 1965 by accident. It is
approximately 180 times sweeter than sugar.
Sugar Substitutes Go to Technology at
ca8.msscience.com to gather information
about sucralose and aspartame. Create a table
on the uses, properties, and side effects of each
molecule.

242
 Discovering DNA’s
Structure
In the early 1950s, Rosalind Franklin, Francis Crick, and
James Watson were trying to discover the shape of the
DNA molecule. Using X-ray crystallography Rosalind
Franklin determined that DNA had a double-helix structure,
meaning that it contains two strands that are intertwined.
James Watson and Francis Crick used this information to
construct the first model of DNA.
The History of DNA Create a time line of the impor-
tant DNA discoveries in the past 200 years. Visit
History at ca8.msscience.com to find information
about important DNA advancements.

The Human Genome Project

A genome is all the genetic information
of an organism. The human genome
project set out to identify the nucleo-
tide sequences of every gene on every
human chromosome. The project was
started in 1986 and completed in 2003.
The Future of Medicine How do
you think the human genome
project will be used to diagnose
and treat diseases in the future?
Write a futuristic newspaper article
about the potential benefits of the
human genome project.
ELA8: W 2.1

243
 CHAPTER Standards Study Guide

/…iÊ Ê`i> Atoms of two or more elements can combine to form compounds that have
different properties from those of the elements that formed them.

Lesson 1 How Atoms Form Compounds 3.a, 3.b, 3.f

• chemical bond (p. 220)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Compounds are chemical combinations of elements
• chemical formula (p. 219)
that have properties different from the elements that formed
them. • compound (p. 218)
• covalent bond (p. 225)
• Atoms of different elements can combine to form compounds.
• ionic bond (p. 220)
• The properties of a compound usually are different from the properties of the • molecule (p. 219)
elements that make it up. • valence (p. 223)
• Ionic bonds usually involve the transfer of electrons from a metal atom to a
nonmetal atom.
• Ionic compounds are usually solid at room temperature. They have relatively
high melting and boiling points. They are soluble in water and their solutions
conduct electricity.
• A pair of electrons is shared in a covalent bond.
• Two pairs of electrons are shared in a double covalent bond. In a triple
covalent bond, three pairs of electrons are shared.

Lesson 2 Forming Solids 3.b, 3.c, 7.c, 9.a, 9.e

• crystal (p. 232)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Atoms, ions, and molecules can link together to form
• ductility (p. 232)
large, repeating structures such as solid metals, ionic and molecu-
lar crystals, and polymers. • malleability (p.232)
• metal (p. 230)
• Solid metals are held together by metallic bonds.
• metallic bond (p. 231)
• Metallic bonds account for many of the properties of solid metals. • monomer (p. 235)
• A single crystal has billions of atoms, ions, or molecules held together in a • polymer (p. 235)
regular pattern. • unit cell (p. 233)
• Crystals can be held together by either ionic bonds or covalent bonds.
• Polymers are long, stringlike molecules made up of small monomers linked
together in a chain.
• Natural polymers such as proteins and carbohydrates contain the element
carbon. Download quizzes, key
terms, and flash cards from
ca8.msscience.com.

244 Chapter 5 • Standards Study Guide Interactive Tutor ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Linking Vocabulary and Main Ideas

Use vocabulary terms from page 244 to complete this concept map.

ionic 1. 2.

can be

Chemical Bonds

form

3. solids

represented by can be

4.
crystals 6. 7.

built from made from

have properties
which are
Visit ca8.msscience.com for:
5. monomers
υ Vocabulary PuzzleMaker
υ Vocabulary eFlashcards
υ Multilingual Glossary 8.
malleability

Using Vocabulary
Describe the relationship between each pair Match a vocabulary term to each definition below.
of terms. 13. a bond formed when many metal atoms share
9. monomer and polymer their pooled electrons
10. covalent bond and valence 14. a regular, repeating arrangement of atoms, ions,
or molecules
11. ductility and maleability
15. uses atomic symbols and subscripts to show the
12. chemical bond and ionic bond
elements and the number of atoms of each ele-
ment that combine to form a compound

Chapter 5 • Standards Review 245

 CHAPTER Standards Review
Understanding Main Ideas 6. What is an example of a synthetic polymer?
Choose the word or phrase that best completes the A. polyethylene
statement. B. polysaccharide
C. carbohydrate
1. What does an ionic compound usually contain D. protein 3.b
besides a positively charged metal ion?
A. a negatively charged nonmetal ion 7. Which does the illustration represent?
B. a positively charged nonmetal ion
C. a negatively charged metal ion
D. a positively charged metal ion 3.b

2. What is most of the matter around you made of?

A. pure elements
B. mixture of pure elements
C. compounds
D. crystals 3.b

3. The illustration below shows the electronic struc-

ture for carbon.

A. an ionic crystal
B. a covalent crystal
C. a metallic solid
8
D. a synthetic polymer 3.c

8. When an atom is chemically stable, how many

electrons are in its outer energy level?
8VgWdc8
A. 8
Determine the number of valence electrons car- B. 7
bon has. C. 4
A. zero D. 1 3.a
B. two
C. four 9. On the periodic table, which groups of elements
D. six 3.a tend to form positive ions?
4. State the number of dots in a Lewis dot diagram A. Group 1 and Group 2
for the Group 17 element fluorine. B. Group 16 and Group 17
A. 2 dots C. Group13 and Group 14
B. 3 dots D. Group 16 and Group18 3.b
C. 7 dots
D. 8 dots 3.a 10. What structure will atoms have after losing or
gaining electrons?
5. Name the type of bond that carbon will NOT
A. a crystal
form.
B. a polymer
A. single bond
C. a binary compound
B. ionic bond
D. a noble gas 3.a
C. double bond
D. triple bond 3.b

246 Chapter 5 • Standards Review Standards Review ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Applying Science Cumulative Review

11. Compare the ways in which the elements 20. Describe the location of the neutrons and
sodium and carbon form chemical bonds. 3.b protons in an atom. 3.a
12. Predict whether an element with a valence of 8 21. Explain why Rutherford’s model of the atom is
is most likely form ionic bonds, covalent bonds, called the nuclear atom. 3.a
or no chemical bonds with other atoms.
22. Explain what is meant by the electron cloud
Explain. 3.b
atom. 3.a
13. Propose an explanation for why the element
carbon, rather than sodium, is important in
forming natural polymers. 3.c Applying Math
14. Classify the unknown substance described in the
table of properties as a solid metal, ionic crystal, Use the following formulas to answer
covalent crystal, or polymer. 3.c questions 23–27.

Properties of an Unknown Solid Formula Table

Hardness brittle Chemical C6H6 H2O NaCl

Formula
Melting point very high
Chemical Benzene Water Sodium
Water solubilty very soluble Name chloride

Electrical conductivity yes 23. How many atoms of hydrogen are in

in a water solution 2 molecules of benzene? MA8: ALG 1.0

24. How many atoms of carbon are in

15. Design an experiment to compare the properties
3 molecules of benzene? MA8: ALG 1.0
of sodium chloride and sand. 3.c
16. Propose an explanation for why chlorine does 25. How many atoms of oxygen are in
not form double bonds. 3.b 3 molecules of water? MA8: ALG 1.0
17. Explain why Groups 1 and 2 form many
compounds with Groups 16 and 17. 3.f 26. How many atoms of chloride are in
6 molecules of sodium chloride? MA8: ALG 1.0
18. Think Critically Silicon has four electrons in its
outer energy level. What type of bond is silicon
most likely to form with other elements? Explain.
3.b

3CIENCE
19. Write rules for a new game that you and your
classmates could play to increase your under-
standing of chemical bonds. ELA8: W 2.6

Chapter 5 • Standards Review 247

 CHAPTER Standards Assessment
1 Sodium combines with fluorine to produce 4 Which elements are least likely to react with
sodium fluoride (NaF), an active ingredient in other elements?
toothpaste. In this form, sodium has the elec-
tron configuration of which other element? A metals

A neon B noble gases

B magnesium C nonmetals

C lithium D semimetals 3.b

D chlorine 3.b 5 What type of bond connects the atoms in a mol-

ecule of nitrogen gas (N2)?
2 The illustration below shows the electron con-
A ionic
figuration for potassium.
B single

C double

D triple 3.b

Use the illustration below to answer questions 6 and 7.

@
 
'

8a B\ 8a

How many electrons does potassium need to

gain or lose to become stable? 6 Which term best describes the type of bonding
A gain 1 in magnesium chloride?

B gain 2 A ionic

C lose 1 B pooling

D lose 2 3.a C metallic

D covalent 3.b
3 What are the small units that make up
polymers? 7 How many electrons did magnesium give to
A monomers each chlorine atom?

B crystal A 0

C unit cell B 1

D chain 3.c C 2

D 3 3.a

248 Chapter 5 • Standards Assessment Standards Assessment ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Assessment CHAPTER

8 What is the number of the group in which the 11 What property allows metals to be shaped into a
elements have a stable outer energy level? musical instrument?

A 1 A conductivity

B 13 B ductility

C 16 C luster

D 18 3.a D malleability 7.c

9 Why are metals good conductors of heat and 12 Which molecule is a synthetic polymer?
electricity?
A DNA
A They have loosely bound electrons within the
atom. B polyethylene

B They have luster and malleability. C carbohydrates

C They are composed of mixtures D proteins 3.c

D They have a shiny appearance. 7.c 13 What is the electron diagram for the ionic com-
pound sodium fluoride (NaF)?
10 The illustration below shows a sodium chloride  
A CV ;
crystal.
 
B CV ;
CV C CV  ; 
8a·
 
D CV ; 3.b

14 Which describes what is represented by the

symbol Clⴚ ?

A an ionic compound

What type of crystal is sodium chloride? B a polar molecule

A ionic C a negative ion

B covalent D a positive ion 3.b

C metallic
15 When magnesium loses its valence electrons, it
D molecular 3.c has the atomic structure of what element?

A neon

B fluorine

C argon

D sodium 3.a

Chapter 5 • Standards Assessment 249

 States of Matter
/…iÊ Ê`i>
Matter can undergo
a physical change from
one state to another as an
increase or decrease in
thermal energy changes
the motion of its particles.

LESSON 1 3.d, 3.e

Solids, Liquids,
and Gases
>ˆ˜Ê`i> The state of
matter depends on the
motion of its particles.

LESSON 2 3.d, 3.e, 9.e, 9.g

Changes in States
of Matter
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Changes in
energy can cause matter
to change from one state
to another.

Moving Up a Slippery Slope

This climber is actually slowly
moving up a waterfall. In the winter this waterfall in the Swiss Alps mountains
has turned into solid ice. Even though ice and water contain the same atoms
and molecules, they have different properties. Why are the properties of ice
and water so different?
-Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM List three differences between ice and water.

250
 Start-Up Activities

Properties of Matter
Make the following Foldable
Model for Particle to organize the properties
Movement of the three states of
matter.
Matter can exist as a solid,
a liquid, or a gas. How do STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper into thirds
particles move in each lengthwise and fold the top down about
state of matter? 3 cm.

Procedure
1. Complete a lab safety form.
2. Using masking tape and a meterstick,
mark off a 4-m square area in your class-
room. Have four people move about the
marked-off area.
3. Divide the space in half and mark with
masking tape. Have the same four people
STEP 2 Unfold and draw lines along all
move about the marked-off area.
folds. Label as shown.
4. Repeat step 3.
Think About This -œ
ˆ`
ˆµÕˆ` >
Ã

• Describe how the movement of people

changed as they got closer together.
3.e

Reviewing As you read this chapter,

record the properties of each state of
Visit ca8.msscience.com to: matter in the appropriate column. Include
information about shape, volume,
υ view attractive forces, and particle movement.
υ explore Virtual Labs Include an illustration of the particles in
υ access content-related Web links each type of matter.
υ take the Standards Check

251
Get Ready to Read
Questioning

Learn It! Asking questions helps you to

understand what you read. As you read, think about the
questions you’d like answered. Often you can find the
answer in the next paragraph or lesson. Learn to ask
good questions by asking who, what, when, where, why,
and how.

Practice It! Read the following passage

from Lesson 2.

One way to measure temperature is to use a liquid

thermometer. Some thermometers have a red liquid
inside a glass tube. When the liquid gets warmer, the
particles in the liquid begin to move faster. The
particles then get farther apart and take up more
space. This causes the liquid to expand and rise in the
tube.
—from page 262

Here are some questions you might ask about this paragraph:
• Where is the liquid being discussed located?
• When do the particles in the liquid move faster?
• Why does the liquid expand?

Apply It! As you read the chap-

ter, look for answers to lesson headings that are
in the form of questions.

252
 ues-
r s el f . Create q
Test yo u nd
read to f i
Target Your Reading tions an
an s we r
d
s t
t h e n
o your o
s.
wn

Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter. question
1 Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements
below on your worksheet or on a numbered sheet of paper.
• Write an A if you agree with the statement.
• Write a D if you disagree with the statement.
2 After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if
you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements.
• If any of your answers changed, explain why.
• Change any false statements into true statements.
• Use your revised statements as a study guide.

Before You Read Statement After You Read

A or D A or D
1 All matter is made of particles that are moving at the
same speed.

2 The particles in a solid are free to move and flow

past each other.

3 Particles are closer together in a gas than they are in

a solid.

4 Particles in matter are moving in different directions.

5 A thermometer measures the thermal energy in a

substance.

6 Particles of matter have both potential energy and

Print a worksheet of
this page at kinetic energy.
ca8.msscience.com .
7 The freezing point of a substance is the temperature
at which the substance changes from a gas to a liquid.

8 The temperature of a substance increases when the

particles in the substance move faster.

253
LESSON 1

Science Content
Standards
Solids, Liquids, and Gases
3.d Students know the states of matter >ˆ˜Ê`i> The state of matter depends on the motion of
(solid, liquid, gas) depend on molecular its particles.
motion.
3.e Students know that in solids the atoms Real-World Reading Connection A glass of ice-cold lemon-
are closely locked in position and can only ade may be just the thing to cool you off after a hard game of
vibrate; in liquids the atoms and molecules soccer. This drink also contains two states of matter. Lemonade
are more loosely connected and can collide is a liquid that easily flows from a glass when you tip it. Solid ice
with and move past one another; and in keeps its shape until it melts. The air in a soccer ball is a third
gases the atoms and molecules are free to
move independently, colliding frequently.
state of matter. Air is a gas that expands to fill the ball.

What are states of matter?

Reading Guide The ice, soft drink, and bubbles in Figure 1 are examples of
the three familiar states of matter: solids, liquids, and gases. The
What You’ll Learn
ice is a solid, the soft drink is a liquid, and the bubbles are filled
Recognize that matter is
▼

with a gas. These are the three states of matter that usually
made of particles that
occur on Earth.
always are moving.
Stars, such as the Sun, are made of another state of matter
Compare the motion of
▼

called plasma. The plasma state is similar to the gas state and
particles in solids, liquids,
usually occurs at high temperatures. A plasma is made of atoms
and gases.
that have been broken apart and contains electrically charged
Compare the arrangement
▼

particles. Although plasmas can be found in lightning and in

of particles in solids, liquids, fluorescent lights, the plasma state is not common on Earth.
and gases.

Why It’s Important Figure 1 The ice, soft drink,

All matter that surrounds and bubbles are examples of
you is composed of particles three states of matter.
that are in constant motion.

Vocabulary
random motion I]Zhd[iYg^c`^hVa^fj^Y#
solid
liquid
gas

Review Vocabulary I]Z^XZ^hVhda^Y#

matter: anything that
takes up space and has mass
(Chapter 4)
I]ZWjWWaZh
XdciV^cV\Vh#

254 Chapter 6 • States of Matter

 Figure 2 The particles in all matter are
moving in random motion. They move in
different directions and at different speeds.
Explain why an object does not move when its
particles are in random motion.

Particles in Matter
Recall from Chapter 4 that all matter is made of very small par-
ticles called atoms. In Chapter 5 you read that atoms can combine Observing
to form molecules, which are also very small particles of matter. Fluid Motion
All objects, such as the flower shown in Figure 2, are made of
these particles. Procedure
1. Fill a clear
In all objects and materials, these tiny particles of matter are glass or jar
always in motion. Even though the flower in Figure 2 is not mov- with luke-
ing, the atoms and molecules in the flower are always moving. warm tap water.
Some particles move to the left or the right, some move up and 2. Allow the container to
down, and some move in other directions. sit undisturbed for 10
minutes.
Particles in matter move in a type of motion called random
3. Add three drops of
motion. In random motion, particles can move in any direction food coloring to the
and can have different speeds. In any object, the number of parti- water. Be careful to
cles moving in one direction is always equal to the number of par- disturb the water as
ticles moving in the opposite direction. As particles move, they little as possible.
also collide with other particles. These collisions can change a par- Analysis
ticle’s direction of motion and its speed. 1. Describe what
occurred when the
In random motion, how are particles moving? food coloring was
added to the water.
2. Explain why this
Particles Attract occurred.
As they are moving, atoms and molecules usually exert a pull, 3. Evaluate Would the
or an attractive force, on each other. These forces tend to pull par- food coloring mix
ticles closer together. Recall from Chapter 4 that atoms contain faster if the water was
a warmer temperature?
positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons. These Explain.
electric charges can cause attractions between the atoms and mole-
cules in matter. If particles move closer together, the attractive 3.e
forces between them become stronger. As they move farther apart,
the attraction between them becomes weaker.

Lesson 1 • Solids, Liquids, and Gases 255

 8%+ %'6 - -

Figure 3 The particles that

make up a solid vibrate in fixed
locations. A solid has a fixed
shape and a fixed volume.

Solids
Why is the dumbbell in Figure 3 a solid? If you hold the
dumbbell in your hand, it doesn’t flow or make a puddle like water
does. If you place the dumbbell in a box, its shape doesn’t change
to match the shape of the box. Like all solids, the volume and
shape of a dumbell do not change. A solid is matter with a fixed
shape and a fixed volume.

SCIENCE USE V. COMMON USE The Forces Between Particles in a Solid

state The motion of the particles and the strength of the attractive
Science Use a condition of forces between them determine whether a substance is a solid, a
matter. Three common states of
matter are solid, liquid, and gas. liquid, or a gas. As in all matter, the particles in a solid always are
Common Use a condition of in motion. However, the particles in a solid are so close together
mind or being. Before the big that the attractive forces between them are strong.
test, the students were in a
nervous state. In a solid, why are the attractive forces between
particles strong?

The Motion of Particles in a Solid

The particles in a solid are attracted to each other by strong
forces that keep the particles close together. Because the forces
between particles are strong, particles in a solid cannot move very
far from each other. The motion of the particles in a solid is shown
in Figure 3. Each particle moves only a short distance back and
forth between neighboring particles. As a result, the particles in a
solid stay in nearly the same position, vibrating back and forth in
all directions. Because the particles in a solid don’t move from one
place to another, the shape and volume of the solid remain fixed.

256 Chapter 6 • States of Matter

 Figure 4 The containers
contain the same volume of
liquid. The shapes of liquid in
the two containers are differ-
ent because the containers
have different shapes.

Liquids
Unlike a solid, a liquid can flow and does not have a fixed
shape. As shown in Figure 4, a liquid has the shape of the con-
tainer in which it is placed. A liquid is matter with a fixed volume
but not a fixed shape.

The Forces Between Particles in a Liquid

The attractive forces between particles in a liquid are weaker
than they are in a solid. These forces are not strong enough to
keep the particles in fixed positions. As a result, the particles in a
liquid move more freely than they do in a solid.

Motion of Particles in a Liquid

Figure 5 shows how the particles in a liquid move. In a solid, a
particle stays in one place and moves a short distance back and
forth. In a liquid, particles can move past neighboring particles.
Because the particles in a liquid can move from one place to
another, a liquid can flow and change shape. However, the forces
between particles in a liquid are strong enough to keep the parti-
cles close to each other. This causes the volume of the liquid to
remain fixed.

Figure 5 Particles in a
liquid are close together, but
can slide past each other.
Compare the motion of particles
in a solid and in a liquid.

257
 Figure 6 A gas spreads out
until it has the same volume
as its container.
Describe how the volume of the I]Z\Vh]Vh
gas changes. hegZVYdjihd^i
[^aahi]ZXdciV^cZg#

<VhbdaZXjaZhWZ\^cid
hegZVYdji^ci]ZXdciV^cZg#

WORD ORIGIN Gases

gas Every second you are surrounded by a gas—the air around you.
from Greek khaos; means
empty space When you breathe, you force this gas to flow into and out of your
lungs. Even though a gas can flow, it is different from a liquid. A
gas is matter that has no fixed volume and no fixed shape.

Changes in Shape and Volume

Gases and liquids do not have a fixed shape. Unlike solids or
liquids, a gas also does not have a fixed volume. If any amount of
gas is put in a container, the gas expands until it fills the container,
as shown in Figure 6. This means that the shape and the volume
of the gas depend on the shape and volume of the container the
gas is in.

Forces Between Particles in a Gas

The particles in a gas are much farther apart than the particles
in a solid or a liquid, as shown in Figure 7. Because the particles in
a gas are so far apart, the forces between these particles are weak.
As a result, the particles in a gas are not held together and move
freely past each other.

Figure 7 Particles in
a gas are far apart and
move freely.

258 Chapter 6 • States of Matter

Motion of Particles in a Gas
Inside a container, gas particles move in random motion from
place to place. As gas particles move, they collide with each other
and with the sides of the container. Between collisions, a gas parti-
cle moves in a straight line. However, a collision can make the par-
ticle move in a different direction and can also change its speed.
Because the particles in a gas can move freely from place to place,
a gas does not have a fixed shape. ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
distribute (dih STRIH
What can cause the direction and speed of a particle byewt)
in a gas to change? (verb) to spread out to cover
Unlike particles in solids and liquids, gas particles are not held something
Sandra distributed the seeds
together by attractive forces. As a result, gas particles spread out throughout the garden.
until they are evenly distributed throughout a container. No mat-
ter how large the container, the volume of a gas is always the same
as the volume of the container the gas is in. Table 1 summarizes
some of the differences between solids, liquids, and gases.

Interactive Table Organize information about

solids, liquids, and gases at ca8.msscience.com.
Table 1 Familiar States of Matter
State of Matter Example
Solid
• fixed shape
• fixed volume
• particles are close together
• strong attractive forces between particles
8%+ %'6 -,)&-*
• particles vibrate in all directions

Liquid
• no fixed shape, a liquid takes the shape of container
• fixed volume
• particles are close together
• attractive forces between particles are weaker in liquids than
in solids
• particles are free to move past neighboring particles

Gas
• no fixed shape
• no fixed volume, a gas expands to fill volume of container
• particles are very far apart
• extremely weak attractive forces between particles
• particles move freely

Lesson 1 • Solids, Liquids, and Gases 259

 What have you learned?
All matter is made of particles, such as atoms or molecules, that
are in random motion. In solids, the particles are close together
and they can only vibrate in place. The attractive force between
the particles in a solid is strong. Because of these strong forces, the
shape and volume of a solid remain fixed.
The attraction between the particles in liquids is weaker than
the attraction between the particles in solids. Because of the
weaker attractive forces between particles, particles in liquids can
move past each other. As a result, liquids are able to flow and to
take the shape of their container.
In gases, the particles are very far apart and the attractive forces
between them are weak. The particles of a gas move freely and col-
lide with the walls of its container and other gas particles. Because
the particles move freely, gases have no fixed shape or volume.

LESSON 1 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson sum- Using Vocabulary 5. Compare Copy and fill in the
mary as you write a script for graphic organizer below and
1. Write the definitions of solid, compare the distance
a television news report.
liquid, and gas in your own between particles in solids,
1. Review the text after the words. 3.d liquids, and gases. 3.e
red main headings and
write one sentence about 2. In , particles can
move in any direction. 3.d Solids
each. These are the head-
lines of your broadcast. Liquids
Understanding Main Ideas Gases
2. Review the text and write
2–3 sentences about each 3. Which state of matter is found
blue subheading. These 6. Compare the attractive forces
in fluorescent lights and light-
sentences should tell who, between particles in a solid
ning strikes, but is relatively
what, when, where, and and in a gas. 3.e
uncommon on Earth? 3.d
why information about
each red heading. A. gas Applying Science
B. liquid
3. Include descriptive details 7. Determine how the volume of
in your report, such as C. plasma air in a room would change if
names of reporters and D. solid the volume of the room were
local places and events. doubled. 3.e
4. Summarize the motion of
4. Present your news report particles in solids, liquids,
to other classmates alone and gases. 3.e
or with a team.

ELA8: LS 2.1 Science nline

For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com .

260 Chapter 6 • States of Matter Matter Changing State ca8.msscience.com

 LESSON 2
Science Content
Standards Changes in States of Matter
3.d Students know the states of matter >ˆ˜Ê`i> Changes in energy can cause matter to change
(solid, liquid, gas) depend on molecular from one state to another.
motion.
3.e Students know that in solids the atoms Real-World Reading Connection Changes in the weather
are closely locked in position and can only can cause changes in states of matter. In early spring, snow melts
vibrate; in liquids the atoms and molecules into liquid water. A summer rain leaves puddles of water on
are more loosely connected and can collide the sidewalk, but the warm Sun makes the puddles evaporate
with and move past one another; and in
into a gas.
gases the atoms and molecules are free to
move independently, colliding frequently.
Also covers: 9.e, 9.g Temperature, Thermal Energy,
and Heat
Reading Guide Ice and liquid water are different states of the same substance.
They both are made from particles that are water molecules. But
What You’ll Learn how can an ice cube change into liquid water? A change from
Compare melting and one state of matter to another is a result of two things. One is
▼

freezing. changes in the motion of the particles. The other is the strength
Compare vaporization and of the forces among particles.
▼

condensation.
Moving Particles and Kinetic Energy
Why It’s Important Recall that moving objects, such as a car or a train, have
The energy released when kinetic energy. The kinetic energy of an object increases as its
water changes from a gas to speed increases. Even when an object is not moving, the parti-
a liquid helps produce cles in the object are in random motion. As a result, these parti-
storms.
cles also have kinetic energy. For example, the particles in the
balloon shown in Figure 8 have kinetic energy even though the
Vocabulary balloon is not moving.
temperature
thermal energy
melting point Figure 8 The gas particles inside the balloon have
freezing point energy because they are moving.
vaporization
boiling
boiling point
evaporation
condensation
sublimation
deposition

Review Vocabulary
potential energy: the
energy an object has due to
its position (Grade 6)

Lesson 2 • Changes in States of Matter 261

 Figure 9 The temperature of a
substance increases as the particles move
faster and have more kinetic energy. Temperature and Average
Compare the motion of air particles inside and Kinetic Energy
outside the balloon. The air inside the hot-air balloon in Figure 9
has a higher temperature than the air outside.
Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of the particles in a material. This means
that the average kinetic energy of particles inside
the balloon is greater than the average kinetic
energy of particles outside. As a result, particles
inside the balloon are moving faster on average
than particles outside the balloon. Particles in
matter move faster as the temperature increases.

Measuring Temperature
One way to measure temperature is to use a
liquid thermometer. Some thermometers have a
Figure 10 The boiling and freezing red liquid inside a glass tube. When the liquid
points of water are different on the Fahren- gets warmer, the particles in the liquid begin to
heit, Celsius, and Kelvin temperature scales.
move faster. The particles then get farther apart
8dbbdcIZbeZgVijgZHXVaZh and take up more space. This causes the liquid to
expand and the liquid rises in the tube.
'&'•; &%%•8 (,(@ The marks on a thermometer tell you the tem-
IZbeZgVijgZ
perature in degrees. Figure 10 shows three com-
Vil]^X]
lViZgWd^ah mon temperature scales. The range between the
temperatures at which water freezes and boils
on the different scales is shown. This range is
divided into 180 degrees on the Fahrenheit scale.
It is divided into 100 degrees on the Celsius and
IZbeZgVijgZ ('•; %•8 ',(@
Vil]^X] Kelvin scales. The Fahrenheit scale is widely used
lViZg[gZZoZh in the United States, but the Celsius scale is usu-
;V]gZc]Z^i 8Zah^jh @Zak^c
ally used in other countries. The Celsius and Kel-
vin scales are used in science.

262 Chapter 6 • States of Matter

 I]ZWVaa]VhbdgZediZci^VaZcZg\n# I]ZWVaa]VhaZhhediZci^VaZcZg\n#

EVgi^XaZhd[bViiZg]VkZbdgZediZci^VaZcZg\n# EVgi^XaZhd[bViiZg]VkZaZhhediZci^VaZcZg\n#

Higher Potential Energy Lower Potential Energy

Figure 11 The
Particles of Matter and Potential Energy potential energy of
the ball depends on
In addition to having kinetic energy, the particles in a substance the distance between
have potential energy as a result of the forces that they exert on the ball and Earth. The
each other. Potential energy decreases as particles get closer potential energy of
together and increases as particles get farther apart. A ball held particles in matter
depends on the dis-
above the ground has potential energy, as shown in Figure 11. The tance between them.
amount of potential energy depends on the distance between the
ball and Earth. If you let the ball go, its potential energy decreases
as it gets closer to the ground. In the same way, the potential
energy of particles in matter decreases when the particles are
closer together.
What can cause the potential energy of particles in
matter to increase?

Thermal Energy
A substance also has thermal energy. Thermal energy includes
both the kinetic energy and potential energy of the particles. Dif-
ferent states of matter have different amounts of thermal energy.
Compared to the solid state, the particles of a substance in the gas
state move faster and are farther apart. These particles have more
kinetic and potential energy than the particles in the solid state.
This means that the thermal energy of the substance in the gas
state is greater than the thermal energy in the solid state. For any
given substance, the particles have the most thermal energy in the
gas state and the least thermal energy in the solid state.

Lesson 2 • Changes in States of Matter 263

 ™I]ZgbVaZcZg\n^cXgZVhZh#
DcanediZci^Va ™6kZgV\ZheZZYd[eVgi^XaZh
ZcZg\n  YdZhc¼iX]Vc\Z#
^cXgZVhZh# ™Cd^cXgZVhZ^ciZbeZgVijgZ#
™HiViZd[bViiZgX]Vc\Zh#
I]ZgbVaZcZg\n^h
VYYZYidV
hjWhiVcXZ#
™I]ZgbVaZcZg\n^cXgZVhZh#
Figure 12 Adding thermal @^cZi^XZcZg\n ™EVgi^XaZhbdkZ[VhiZg#
energy to a substance can cause ^cXgZVhZh# ™IZbeZgVijgZ^cXgZVhZh#
either an increase in temperature ™CdX]Vc\Z^chiViZd[bViiZg#
or a change of state.

ACADEMIC VOCABULARY Adding and Removing Thermal Energy

remove (ree MOOV) Thermal energy can be added to a material or removed from a
(verb) to get rid of material. When you heat a pot of water on a stove, thermal energy
Maria removed the seeds from
the orange before she ate it.
is added to the water. Thermal energy flows into a material when
it is heated. When a warm bottle of water cools in a refrigerator,
thermal energy is removed from the water. Thermal energy flows
out of a material when it is cooled.

How is thermal energy added to a material?

Thermal Energy and Changes in State

When thermal energy is added to a material, the thermal energy
of the material increases. Figure 12 shows that adding thermal
energy can cause the potential energy and the kinetic energy of the
particles in a material to increase. If the kinetic energy increases,
Figure 13 Steel must
then the temperature of the material increases. However, when
be heated to about only the potential energy increases, the temperature of the mate-
1,400°C before it rial doesn’t change. Instead, the material changes from one state of
will melt. matter to another. To change a material from one state of matter
to another, thermal energy must flow into or out of the material.

Changes Between the Solid and

Liquid States
The particles that make up the liquid steel and the solid steel in
Figure 13 are exactly the same. The difference between the liquid
and the solid depends on the movement of the particles and the
thermal energy they contain. Particles in the liquid steel move
faster and have more thermal energy. Particles in the solid steel
move more slowly and have less thermal energy. Thermal energy
must be added to a material or taken away to change it from one
state of matter to another.

264 Chapter 6 • States of Matter

Melting
Melting occurs when a solid changes into a liquid. When you
heat a solid, thermal energy flows into the solid. Then the tem-
perature of the solid increases until the temperature reaches the
melting point. The melting point of a material is the temperature
at which the material changes from a solid to a liquid.
Figure 14 shows how the temperature of a solid material changes
as it is heated and thermal energy is added. At first, the tempera-
ture of the solid increases. But when the temperature reaches the
melting point, the temperature of the material stops increasing. As
the material changes from a solid to a liquid, the temperature stays
constant at the melting point.
Figure 14 Why is the line on the graph horizontal
when melting is occurring?

Energy Changes During Melting

Thermal energy still is being added to the material as it melts.
Because the temperature is not changing, the average kinetic
energy of the particles doesn’t change. Instead, the added thermal
energy causes only the potential energy of the particles to increase.
When the potential energy of the particles increases, the
arrangement of the particles in the material changes. In most
materials, particles move farther apart. The new arrangement
causes the attractive forces between particles to become weaker.
When melting occurs, these forces have become weak enough that
the particles can move past each other. After the solid has changed
completely into a liquid, adding thermal energy causes the temper-
ature of the liquid to increase, as shown in Figure 14.

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Lesson 2 • Changes in States of Matter 265

 I]ZgbVaZcZg\n
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Figure 15 Melting and freezing are

reversible processes. A solid gains ther-
mal energy when it melts. A liquid
loses thermal energy when it freezes.

Freezing
Freezing occurs when a liquid changes into a solid. When a
material cools, thermal energy flows out of the material. The
temperature of the material decreases until the freezing point is
reached. The freezing point is the temperature at which the liquid
changes to a solid. As thermal energy continues to flow out of the
material, the temperature remains constant at the freezing point.
After all the liquid has changed to a solid, the temperature
decreases once again as thermal energy is removed.
How does the thermal energy of a material change as
it freezes?

Freezing—The Opposite of Melting

As Figure 15 shows, freezing is the opposite of melting. For any
material, the freezing point is the same as the melting point. While
freezing is occurring, thermal energy is being removed from the
material. The temperature remains constant, so the average kinetic
energy of the particles doesn’t change. Instead, the potential
energy of the particles decreases. In most materials this means
that the particles move closer together. Then the forces between
the particles become strong enough for the particles to be held in
fixed positions. The liquid becomes a solid.

Changes Between Liquids and Gases

If you heat a pot of water on the stove, as in Figure 16, you will
notice bubbles forming in the water. Tiny water droplets in the
form of steam rise into the air. Water in its invisible gas form,
called water vapor, also rises from the pot. The liquid is changing
to a gas.

266 Chapter 6 • States of Matter

 Figure 16 Vaporization occurs both below
the surface and at the surface of a liquid during
boiling.
Identify the substance contained in the bubbles when
water boils.

Vaporization and Boiling

When liquid water is heated, its temperature rises until it
reaches 100°C. At this temperature, liquid water changes into
water vapor. The change from a liquid to a gas is called
vaporization. When vaporization occurs, the attractive forces WORD ORIGIN
between particles are too weak to keep particles close to each vaporization
from Latin vaporem; means
other. Particles spread out and move independently.
exhalation, steam, heat
Vaporization can occur within a liquid and at the surface of a
liquid, as shown in Figure 16. Vaporization that occurs within a
liquid is called boiling. When a liquid boils, bubbles form within
the liquid. These bubbles contain particles of the material in the
gas state.
The boiling point is the temperature at which boiling occurs in
a liquid. As Figure 17 shows, the temperature doesn’t change while
a liquid is boiling. Boiling ends after the liquid has changed to a
gas. If thermal energy continues to be added, then the temperature
of the gas will continue to rise.

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Lesson 2 • Changes in States of Matter 267

 Figure 18 Evaporation occurs only
at the surface of a liquid.
Compare the energy of the particles that
leave the surface with those in the liquid.

Evaporation
Vaporization that occurs at the surface of a liquid is called
evaporation. Evaporation occurs during boiling and at tempera-
tures below the boiling point. Recall that particles in a material
Sensing move at different speeds. Some particles at the liquid’s surface are
Evaporation moving much faster than other particles. Some of these particles
are moving so fast that the attractive forces aren’t strong enough to
keep them at the surface of the liquid. As shown in Figure 18,
these fast-moving particles escape into the space above the liquid.
Above the liquid, the particles are far apart and the attractive
Procedure forces between them are weak. These particles move independently
and are in the gas state.
During evaporation, the fastest particles leave the surface of the
1. Complete a lab safety liquid. The particles that remain have less kinetic energy. This
form.
means that the average kinetic energy of the liquid decreases. As a
2. Obtain a bottle of result, the liquid cools as evaporation occurs. You experience this
rubbing alcohol from
your teacher. cooling effect when perspiration evaporates from your skin.
3. Dip a cotton swab into Why does a liquid cool when evaporation occurs?
the bottle and close
the bottle.
4. Rub the alcohol-dipped Pressure and the Boiling Point
swab on the back of The boiling point of a liquid depends on the types of atoms and
your hand.
molecules that make up the liquid. The boiling point also depends
Analysis on the pressure exerted on the liquid. Recall the air around you
1. Describe how the exerts pressure. This pressure is exerted on a pot of water heating
alcohol feels on your
skin. on a stove. For the water to boil, bubbles containing water vapor
2. Explain why alcohol must form in water. The pressure exerted on the water by the
feels this way on your air makes it harder for these bubbles to form. As air pressure
skin. increases, the water must be heated to a higher temperature before
3.e bubbles of water vapor form. This means that the boiling point of
a liquid increases as the pressure on the liquid increases. As the
pressure on the liquid decreases, the boiling point decreases.

268 Chapter 6 • States of Matter

Condensation
On a hot day, you might see drops of water on the outside
of a glass of ice-cold water. These drops of water come from
the air surrounding the glass. The air contains water
vapor—a gas. The cold glass cools the air next to it. When
the water vapor in the air next to the glass becomes cool
enough, it changes from a gas to a liquid. The change from a
gas to a liquid is called condensation. Early in the morning,
you might have noticed dew on the grass, as in Figure 19.
During the night, blades of grass cool more quickly than the
air. When their temperature becomes low enough,
condensation occurs and water droplets form.

Condensation—The Reverse of Vaporization

Figure 20 shows how condensation and vaporization are
reversible processes. For condensation to occur, thermal Figure 19 Water droplets
energy must be removed from a gas. This causes the gas par- that form on blades of grass
ticles to move more slowly and the temperature of the gas to overnight are due to
decrease. The gas continues to cool as thermal energy con- condensation.
tinues to be removed. Finally its temperature becomes low
enough for condensation to occur. Then particles move
slowly enough so that the attractive forces are able to keep
the particles close together. As a result, a liquid forms.

Figure 20 Vaporization and condensation are reversible processes.

Thermal energy must be added to a liquid to vaporize the liquid.
Thermal energy must be removed from a gas to make it condense.

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Lesson 2 • Changes in States of Matter 269

Visualizing the Heating
Curve of Water
Figure 21
Water can exist as a solid—ice; as liquid water; or as a gas—water vapor. To change water
from one state of matter to another, thermal energy must be added or removed.
Thermal energy is added when water is heated. The heating curve of water shows how the
temperature of ice, liquid water, and water vapor changes as thermal energy is added. Melt-
ing occurs as solid ice changes to liquid water. Vaporization occurs as liquid water changes to
the gas water vapor. The temperature remains constant as melting or vaporization occurs.

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Melting Vaporization

Solid State Liquid State Gaseous State

270 Chapter 6 • States of Matter Contributed by National Geographic

Changing the States of Water
Imagine that you heat a container in which there is a piece of
ice. Figure 21 shows how the temperature of the ice changes as
thermal energy is added to it.

Adding Thermal Energy

As the container is heated, the temperature of the ice increases.
The temperature of the ice continues to rise until the melting
point of ice is reached. Figure 21 shows that the temperature stays
constant as the ice begins to melt and change from a solid to a liq-
uid. Even though the temperature isn’t changing, thermal energy
must be added to the ice to change all the solid ice to liquid water.

As ice melts, how does its temperature change?

After all the ice has melted, the temperature of the water begins
to increase as the container is heated. When the water temperature
reaches the boiling point of water, the temperature stops increas-
ing, as shown in Figure 21. As the container continues to be
heated, liquid water changes to water vapor. Finally, all the liquid
water changes to water vapor. Adding more thermal energy then
causes the temperature of the water vapor to increase.

Removing Thermal Energy

Ice can be melted to form water by heating the ice. The water
that is formed can be changed back into ice by removing thermal
energy and cooling the water. This means that the changes
between states of matter are reversible. Figure 22 shows how water
vapor can be changed back into ice by cooling.

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Lesson 2 • Changes in States of Matter 271

Figure 23 Sublima-
Changes Between Solids and Gases
tion causes the dry The dry ice in Figure 23 produces a thick fog. Dry ice is solid
ice to change to a gas. carbon dioxide. At room temperature, dry ice absorbs thermal
Deposition causes energy and changes directly into a colorless gas. Sublimation is
frost to form on the
leaf. the change of a solid to a gas without going through the liquid
state. The thick fog around the dry ice is caused by the cold carbon
dioxide gas that causes water vapor in the air to condense into
small droplets. For sublimation to occur, thermal energy must be
added to a solid.
The opposite of sublimation is deposition, the change of a gas
to a solid without going through the liquid state. The frost that
forms on the leaf shown in Figure 23 is caused by deposition. For
deposition to occur, thermal energy must be removed from a gas.
When the leaf becomes cold enough, water vapor in the air
Sublimation surrounding the leaf loses enough thermal energy to change into
a solid.

Changes in Energy Among States

of Matter
The state of matter of a substance depends on the amount of
thermal energy a substance contains. For a material to change
from one state of matter to another, thermal energy must be added
to the material or removed. Figure 24 shows the energy changes
that occur when a material changes from one state to another.

Deposition
Deposition
Figure 24 For a change in state to
occur, thermal energy must move
into or out of the material.
List the changes in state that can occur
<6H when thermal energy is added to a material.
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 What have you learned?
The temperature of a material depends on the average kinetic
energy of the particles in a material. The faster these particles
move, the higher the temperature. Thermal energy is added to a
material when it is heated. Thermal energy is removed when a
material cools. When a material changes from one state of matter
to another, thermal energy must be added or removed.
Melting occurs when a material changes from a solid to a liquid.
Freezing is the reverse of melting. Vaporization occurs when a
material changes from a liquid to a gas. Vaporization can occur
inside a liquid by boiling or at the surface by evaporation. Conden-
sation is the reverse of vaporization. As a material changes from
one state to another, its temperature doesn’t change.

LESSON 2 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary Applying Science
summary as you organize
1. Write the definitions of freez- 7. Summarize Copy and fill in
an outline.
ing point and boiling point in the graphic organizer below to
1. Scan the lesson. Find and your own words. 3.d identify the changes in states
list the first red main of matter that can occur when
heading. 2. Use each term in a separate
thermal energy is removed
sentence: evaporation, con-
2. Review the text after from a material. 3.d
densation, sublimation, and
the heading and list 2–3
deposition. 3.d Remove
details about the heading.
Thermal Energy
3. Find and list each blue Understanding Main Ideas
subheading that follows
the red main heading. 3. During which change of state
do the particles in a material
4. List 2–3 details, key terms, become farther apart? 3.e
and definitions under 8. Explain why a bathroom mir-
each blue subheading. A. vaporization ror becomes fogged when you
5. Review additional red B. freezing take a shower. 3.d
main headings and their C. deposition
9. Describe how the potential
supporting blue subhead- D. condensation energy of water molecules
ings. List 2–3 details about
4. Compare temperature, ther- changes as water changes
each.
mal energy, and heat. 3.d from a solid to a liquid and
ELA8: R 2.3 then from a liquid to a gas.
5. Explain how changes in ther- 3.d
mal energy and changes in
state of matter are related. 3.d
6. Compare and contrast subli-
mation and deposition. 3.d
Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com .

States of Matter ca8.msscience.com Lesson 2 • Changes in States of Matter 273

 How are boiling point and
atmospheric pressure related?
The temperature at which water boils depends on the pressure
above the liquid. When the liquid is in an open container, the
pressure above the liquid is atmospheric pressure.

Atmospheric Pressure and

Boiling Point of Water
Pressure Boiling Point
(kPa) (°C)
98.7 99.2

100.0 99.6

101.3 100.0

102.7 100.4

105.3 101.1

106.7 101.4

Data
Graph the data in the table. Plot pressure on the x-axis and the
boiling point on the y-axis. Label each axis, including the proper
units. Choose an appropriate scale for each axis.

Data Analysis
1. Determine if atmospheric pressure and boiling point have a
linear or nonlinear relationship at this pressure range.
2. Determine the boiling point of water at 102 kPa.
3. Estimate the boiling point of water at 108 kPa.

Science Content Standards

3.d Students know the states of matter (solid, liquid, gas) depend on molecular motion.
9.g Distinguish between linear and nonlinear relationships on a graph of data.

274
Packing Efficiency 3.e
Even when atoms are packed together in a solid, there is empty
space between the atoms. Packing efficiency is a measure of how
MA8: ALG 5.0
much space in a solid is actually taken up by atoms. Different
arrangements of atoms can result in different packing efficiencies.
Find the packing efficiency by dividing the volume of atoms in the
solid by the total volume of the solid. The atoms in most crystalline
solids are arranged in one of the four ways listed in the table below.

Atom Arrangement Packing Efficiency

Body-centered cubic 0.68
Face-centered cubic 0.74
Hexagonal close pack 0.74
Simple cube 0.52

Example
If the total volume of a solid is 20 cm3, what is the volume of atoms
in a body-centered cubic solid?

What you know: • packing efficiency of a body-centered cubic: 0.68

• total volume: 20 cm3
Use this equation: volume of atoms
total volume = packing efficiency
Substitute: volume of atoms
total volume = packing efficiency
volumeXof atoms = 0.68
 20 cm3
Multiply: volume of atoms = 0.68  20 cm3 = 13.6 cm3
Answer: The volume of atoms is 13.6 cm3.

Practice Problems
1. If the volume of atoms in a body-centered cubic is Science nline
4.2 cm3, find the total volume. For more math practice,
visit Math Practice at
2. Find the volume of atoms in a simple cube if the total volume
ca8.msscience.com.
is 12 cm3.

Lesson 2 • Changes in States of Matter 275

 Does change of state take
longer for some liquids?
Materials Problem
Not all liquids look the same. Water is clear. Even some juices,
electric hot plate
such as cranberry and white grape, are transparent. Other juices,
ring stand and clamp
such as tomato and grapefruit juice, are thick and pulpy. You can-
thermometer
not see through them. If a liquid contains materials, such as fruit
glass stirring rod or vegetable pulp, will the time it takes to change from one state
tap-water ice cubes to another be the same as for clear liquids?
10% sugar solution
cubes Form a Hypothesis
grapefruit-juice cubes
Develop a hypothesis about the differences in time it takes for
cranberry-juice cubes
various liquids to change from a solid to a liquid state.
hot pads
stop watch Collect Data and Make Observations
graph paper
1. Read and complete a safety form.
2. Prepare a data table to record your data for each trial.
3. Set up ring stand, clamp, and thermometer as shown in the
photo on the next page.
4. Pour 100 mL of tap water into the beaker and add five tap
water ice cubes. Read and record the temperature every min-
ute until the temperature stops dropping and stabilizes. Stir
occasionally to ensure the temperature is the same through-
out the mixture.
5. When the temperature begins to rise, move the beaker onto
the burner and turn the burner to high. DO NOT TURN THE
Safety Precautions BURNER ON AHEAD OF TIME. Caution: The beaker could
break because it is very cold.
6. Clamp the thermometer so the bulb goes into the liquid fully
but does not touch the bottom of the beaker. Continue to
Science Content read and record the temperature every minute. It will begin to
Standards change rapidly. When the water boils, do not stop recording.
9.e Construct appropriate graphs from When the temperature is exactly the same for 4 min, turn off
data and develop quantitative statements the hot plate and take the thermometer out to cool.
about the relationships between variables.

276
 7. Dispose of the contents of the beaker
as instructed by your teacher.

Test Additional Cubes

8. Start with a new beaker for each test or
wash the beaker before each test. Rinse
and dry the thermometer between
each test.
9. Repeat steps 4–7 for each of the addi-
tional cubes. Record your data in your
data table.
10. Graph the data with time on the x-axis
and the temperature on the y-axis.
Label each axis and place a title on your graph.

Analyze and Conclude

1. Describe the differences in the graphs for each of the dif-
ferent mixtures.
2. Determine from your graphs which mixture took the lon-
gest amount of time and which mixture took the shortest
amount of time to completely change from a solid to a
liquid.
3. Describe how the temperature changed as the ice cubes for
each material were melting.
4. Describe the differences you observed in the boiling points
and melting points of the different mixtures.
5. Identify the material that required the most thermal energy
and the material that required the least amount of thermal
energy to completely melt the ice cubes.
6. Describe the differences in the two materials you identified
in the preceding question.
7. Explain whether or not your data supported your
hypothesis.

Communicate
3CIENCE ELA8: W 2.1
Write a short report describing an experiment that would mea-
sure the freezing point and boiling point of a material. Include in
your report a description of how to reduce the errors in your
measurements.

277
 New and Improved
Sometimes physicists aren’t satisfied with studying
matter as it exists in the physical world. Sometimes
they try to make up new matter in the laboratory.
That is just what award-winning physicist
Dr. Deborah Jin did when she discovered some-
thing called a “fermionic condensate.” It’s not
exactly a gas, a liquid, or a solid. One of its unusual
properties is that it is an extremely good conductor
of electricity—it might just be the “superconductor”
that helps reduce the usage of electrical energy!
Physicists can help solve some big problems.
Learn more about superconductors by visiting
Careers at ca8.msscience.com. Write a 500-
to 700-word report about the ways in which
they might be used.
ELA8: W 2.3

World Record Holder

Sometimes solids aren’t very dense at all. According
to The Guinness Book of World Records, the least
dense solid is Aerogel, a material developed at
NASA’s Pasadena, California, laboratory. Even though
it is made of the same materials as glass, Aerogel is
99.8 per cent air. It looks like blue smoke, but it is
strong enough to be used on spacecraft.
Why is Aerogel still a solid even though it is
mostly air? Write an explanation for why it is
still considered a solid.

278
 Statistical Matters
A teaspoon of water contains an unimaginable number of
water molecules. How do the properties of water depend
on the motions and properties of these water molecules?
The answer was found by Ludwig Boltzmann, an Austrian
scientist who lived from 1844 to 1906. Boltzmann helped
develop a branch of physics called statistical mechanics.
This approach uses statistical methods to connect the
properties of materials, such as temperature, with the
properties of atoms and molecules, such as their kinetic
energy.
Calculate the average height of five of your classmates.
How do you think this average height would compare
to the average height of all the students at your school?

A Cool Way to Go
It’s likely that every day, especially in
summer, you benefit from a change in
a state of matter: the change of a
refrigerant from a liquid to a gas. This
change in state makes air conditioning
work, and it has had a huge impact on
population distribution in the United
States. The introduction of air condi-
tioning around 1950 enabled large
growths in populations in the states
with hotter climates.
Visit Society at
ca8.msscience.com and make a
graph comparing population
change from 1950 to 2000 in
California, Florida, Arizona, Illinois,
Wisconsin, and New York. Do you
detect a pattern? Explain.

279
 CHAPTER Standards Study Guide

/…iÊ Ê`i> Matter can undergo a physical change from one state to another as an
increase or decrease in thermal energy changes the motion of the particles.

Lesson 1 Solids, Liquids, and Gases 3.d, 3.e

• gas (p. 258)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> The state of matter depends on the motion of its
• liquid (p. 257)
particles.
• random motion (p. 255)
• All particles in matter are moving in random motion. • solid (p. 256)
• Particles in matter can exert attractive forces on each other.
• Solids have a fixed shape and volume.
• Particles in a solid vibrate about a fixed location.
• Liquids have a fixed volume but no fixed shape.
• Particles in a liquid can slide past each other.
• Gases have no fixed shape or volume.
• The particles in a gas move independently of each other.

Lesson 2 Changes in States of Matter 3.d, 3.e, 9.e, 9.g

• boiling (p. 267)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Changes in energy can cause matter to change from
• boiling point (p. 267)
one state to another.
• condensation (p. 269)
• Temperature is a measure of the average kinetic energy of all the particles in • deposition (p. 272)
a material.
• evaporation (p. 268)
• Heating a material adds thermal energy, and cooling it removes thermal • freezing point (p. 266)
energy. • melting point (p. 265)
• Adding thermal energy can change either the state of matter or its • sublimation (p. 272)
temperature. • temperature (p. 262)
• A substance changes from a solid to a liquid at its melting point. • thermal energy (p. 263)
• vaporization (p. 267)
• A substance changes from a liquid to a solid at its freezing point.
• Vaporization can occur as boiling or evaporation.
• A change from a liquid to a gas occurs within a liquid at its boiling point.
• Condensation is the change from a gas to a liquid.
• Sublimation is the direct change of a solid to a gas.
• Deposition is the direct change from a gas to a solid. Download quizzes, key
terms, and flash cards from
ca8.msscience.com.

280 Chapter 6 • Standards Study Guide Interactive Tutor ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Linking Vocabulary and Main Ideas

Use vocabulary terms from page 280 to complete this concept map.

States of Matter

particles
move in

1.

includes

2. liquids 3.

changes changes
between states between states

4. 5. freezing melting

can occur occurs occurs

by at at

evaporation 6. 7. 8.

Using Vocabulary
Match each phrase with the correct vocabulary term from the Study Guide.
Visit ca8.msscience.com for:
9. includes the kinetic and potential energy of particles in a material υ Vocabulary PuzzleMaker
υ Vocabulary eFlashcards
10. matter with a fixed volume but not a fixed shape υ Multilingual Glossary
11. average kinetic energy of particles
12. temperature at which liquid changes to a gas within the liquid
13. a change in state directly from a solid to a gas
14. a change from a liquid to a gas at the surface of a liquid

Chapter 6 • Standards Review 281

 CHAPTER Standards Review
Understanding Main Ideas 4. A pile of snow slowly disappears into the air,
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the even though the temperature remains below
freezing. Which process explains this?
question.
A. condensation
1. What would happen if you tried to squeeze a gas B. deposition
into a smaller container? C. evaporation
A. The particles would have fewer collisions with D. sublimation 3.e
the container.
B. The force of the particles would prevent you 5. Which explains why liquids can flow but solids
from doing it. cannot?
C. The attractive forces among the particles A. The attractive forces between particles are
would increase. weaker in liquids than in solids.
D. Repulsive forces of the particles would pull B. Solids have no repulsive forces between the
on the container. 3.e particles.
C. The distance between particles is much
Use the figures below to answer questions 2 and 3.
greater in a liquid than in a solid.
D. Gravity pulls more strongly on the particles
of a liquid than those of a solid. 3.e

6. Which is a form of vaporization?

A. condensation
B. evaporation
Bdi^dc& Bdi^dc' C. freezing
D. melting 3.e

7. The figure below shows the temperature of two

beakers of water.

Bdi^dc( Bdi^dc)
2. Which type of motion causes a pencil to remain '*8 ,*8
still even though the particles that make up the
pencil are always moving?
A. motion 1
B. motion 2
C. motion 3
D. motion 4 3.d

3. Which type of motion best represents the move- Which property of the liquid particles increased?
ment of gas particles? A. average kinetic energy
A. motion 1 B. average potential energy
B. motion 2 C. total kinetic energy
C. motion 3 D. total potential energy 3.d
D. motion 4 3.d

282 Chapter 6 • Standards Review Standards Review ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Applying Science 3CIENCE

Use the graph below to answer questions 8 and 9. 17. Write a paragraph describing how you could
determine the melting point of a substance from
I]Z=ZVi^c\8jgkZd[LViZg its heating curve or cooling curve.
(!*%%
Y
(!%%%
:cZg\nVYYZY?

'!*%%
Cumulative Review
'!%%% 18. Compare When a solid melts, the densities of
X
&!*%% the solid and the liquid are usually nearly the
&!%%% same. Infer from this how the distance between
W
*%% particles in a solid compare with the distance
V
% between particles in a liquid. Explain. 3.e, 8.a
·'% % '% )% +% -% &%% &'%
IZbeZgVijgZ8 19. Compare Adding thermal energy to water causes
the water to boil, but doesn’t break the chemical
8. Estimate the amount of thermal energy that bonds in water molecules. Which are stronger:
must be added to change 1 g of ice at the melting the attractive forces between water molecules or
point completely into water. 3.d the chemical bonds in water molecules? Explain.
3.e
9. Identify the regions on the graph where only the
potential energy of the water molecules is 20. Infer When gold melts, the density of the liquid
changing. 3.d is slightly less than the density of the solid. Will
solid gold float in the melted gold? 3.e, 8.d
10. Summarize the differences between freedom of
movement of particles in solids, liquids, and
gases. 3.e
11. Compare the pressure inside a pressure cooker Applying Math
to the air pressure outside if the boiling point of
water is higher inside the pressure cooker than Use the table below to answer questions 21 and 22.
outside. 3.d
Packing of Atoms
12. Explain why evaporation of water from your
skin makes you feel cooler. 3.d Atom Arrangement Packing Efficiency

13. Describe how the forces between water Face-centered cubic 0.74
molecules in an ice cube change as the ice cube Hexagonal close pack 0.74
melts. 3.d
Simple cube 0.52
14. Explain why it is incorrect to say that air bubbles
form in boiling water. 3.d
21. If the volume of atoms in a face-centered cubic
15. Evaluate Your friend claims that she can cook is 5 cm3, find the total volume. MA8: ALG 5.0
spaghetti noodles in a pot of boiling water faster
by increasing the heat on the stove. Is she cor-
22. Find the volume of atoms in a simple cube if
rect? Explain your answer. 3.d
the total volume is 9.3 cm3. MA8: ALG 5.0
16. Predict whether the size of an inflated balloon
would change or remain the same if you placed it
in a freezer. Explain your prediction. 3.e

Chapter 6 • Standards Review 283

 CHAPTER Standards Assessment
1 Which of the following best describes the parti- 4 The illustration below shows models of parti-
cles in matter? cles in four different containers.

A They are larger in solids than in liquids or

gases.

B They are larger in gases than in solids or

liquids.

C They do not move in solids. E F G H

D They are always moving. 3.d

Which container most likely contains a gas?

2 The table below shows the density of four differ- A container P

ent materials.
B container Q

C container R
Density of Materials
D container S 3.e
Material Density (g/cm3)
F 7.63
5 During which processes must thermal energy
G 0.78 be added to a material?
H 0.0008
A freezing and boiling
I 2.17
B condensation and melting

Which material is a gas? C melting and vaporization

A material F D sublimation and freezing 3.d

B material G
6 The temperatures of one glass of water is 30°C
C material H and the temperature of another glass of water is
0°C. Both glasses contain the same amount of
D material I 3.e water. Which is a correct statement about the
two glasses of water?
3 Which is the process of a gas cooling to form a
liquid? A The molecules of the cold water are larger.

A deposition B The molecules of the warm water are larger.

B condensation C The molecules of the warm water have a

higher average kinetic energy.
C vaporization
D The molecules of the cold water have a higher
D sublimation 3.d average kinetic energy. 3.d

284 Chapter 6 • Standards Assessment Standards Assessment ca8.msscience.com

 Standards Assessment CHAPTER

7 Which description best describes a liquid? 10 The illustration below shows the motion of par-
ticles in a material.
A It has a definite shape and volume.

B It has a definite volume but no definite shape.

C It expands to fill the shape and volume of its

container.

D It cannot flow. 3.e

8 In which state of matter are particles close

together, yet are able to move past one another?

A solid

B gas In which state of matter is the material?

C liquid A gas

D plasma 3.e B liquid

C plasma
9 The illustration below shows a gas in a closed
D solid 3.e
cylinder.

11 Which statement best describes a solid?

A Its particles vibrate in place.

B Its particles do not move at all.

C It particles can flow past each other.

D Its particles are very far apart. 3.e

12 Which are the two ways that vaporization

can occur?

A sublimation and deposition

B evaporation and boiling

C melting and freezing

What happens to the gas as the piston moves
downward? D melting and boiling 3.d

A The volume of the gas increases.

B The attractive forces between gas particles

increase.

C The distance between gas particles increases.

D The gas undergoes sublimation. 3.d

Chapter 6 • Standards Assessment 285

 The Periodic Table and
Physical Properties
/…iÊ Ê`i>
Elements on the periodic
table are grouped together
based on their properties.

LESSON 1 3.f, 7.a

Organization of the
Periodic Table
>ˆ˜Ê`i> The peri-
odic table contains
information about the
structures and character-
istics of elements.

LESSON 2 7.a, 7.b, 9.e

Isotopes and
Radioactivity
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Over time,
radioactive isotopes
decay at varying rates.

LESSON 3 5.d, 7.c, 9.a

Physical Properties
and Changes
>ˆ˜Ê`i> Substances
have physical properties
that can be described
and physical changes
that can be observed.

Taking It for Granite

Barre quarry in Vermont is America’s oldest
granite quarry. This quarry contains granite, which is composed of feldspar,
quartz, and mica. These minerals are composed of elements, such as silicon,
oxygen, calcium, and potassium.
-Vˆi˜ViÊÊ+PVSOBM Write a paragraph explaining why you think it’s helpful to
keep your books, notebooks, and papers organized.

286
 Start-Up Activities

Regions of the Periodic

Table Make the following
Which element Foldable to identify the
are you? regions of the periodic table.

How can you organize your STEP 1 Fold a sheet of paper into thirds
class into a periodic table? lengthwise.
Procedure
1. Find your assigned element
on the periodic table. Color
the poster board the same
color as your element’s block. STEP 2 Unfold and draw lines along the
folds. Draw three vertical lines to divide
2. Use a dark marker to print your element’s
the paper into four columns, as shown.
atomic number, symbol, name, and
atomic mass on your poster board.
3. Find the classmates whose elements are to
the left, to the right, above, and below
your element on the periodic table.
4. Arrange yourselves so that you are in the
correct positions.
Think About This
• Explain why you and your classmates
arranged yourselves as you did.
Clarifying
• Assess What limitations did you find in Label the top row of your Foldable with the
making the table? names of the regions. In the boxes below,
describe the location, the properties, and
3.f some examples of elements in that region.

Visit ca8.msscience.com to:

υ view
υ explore Virtual Labs
υ access content-related Web links
υ take the Standards Check

287
Get Ready to Read
Make Predictions

Learn It! A prediction is an educated

guess based on what you already know. One way to pre-
dict while reading is to guess what you believe the author
will tell you next. As you are reading, each new topic
should make sense because it is related to the previous
paragraph or passage.

Practice It! Read the excerpt below

from Lesson 3. Based on what you have read, make pre-
dictions about what you will read in the rest of the lesson.
After you read Lesson 3, go back to your predictions to
see if they were correct.

Predict whether a
solution could be
formed from salt Dissolving is mixing a substance into another
and water. substance to form a solution. As sugar dissolves in
water, it disappears and seems to become part of the
water. But if you boil the water away, the sugar
becomes visible again. Dissolving is a physical change
What would you because the sugar is unchanged.
predict would be a
characteristic of all —from page 317
solutions?

Can you predict

another kind of
change that matter
could undergo?

Apply It! Before you read,

skim the questions in the Standards Review.
Choose three questions and predict the
answers.

288
 r e ad , c heck the see
As you you mad
e to
Target Your Reading pred
if t h
ic
e
t
y
io
w
n
er
s
e correc
t.

Use this to focus on the main ideas as you read the chapter.
1 Before you read the chapter, respond to the statements
below on your worksheet or on a numbered sheet of paper.
• Write an A if you agree with the statement.
• Write a D if you disagree with the statement.
2 After you read the chapter, look back to this page to see if
you’ve changed your mind about any of the statements.
• If any of your answers changed, explain why.
• Change any false statements into true statements.
• Use your revised statements as a study guide.

Before You Read Statement After You Read

A or D A or D
1 The elements are arranged on the periodic table
according to their atomic numbers and mass numbers.

2 The elements in a group have similar properties.

3 Metals are located on the right side of the periodic

table.

4 Not all isotopes are radioactive.

5 Radioactive elements have unstable nuclei.

6 An element’s mass number is the number of neutrons

in its nucleus.
Print a worksheet of
this page at 7 Transmutation is another word for half-life.
ca8.msscience.com.
8 Melting and boiling points change with pressure.

9 Thermal conductivity occurs because particles

collide with one another.

10 Density is a physical property that depends on the

size of a sample.

289
LESSON 1

Science Content
Standards
Organization of the
3.f Students know how to use the periodic
table to identify elements in simple
Periodic Table
compounds. >ˆ˜Ê`i> The periodic table contains information about the
7.a Students know how to identify regions structures and characteristics of elements.
corresponding to metals, nonmetals, and
inert gases. Real-World Reading Connection A map is a source of much
information. You can find streets, cities, lakes, and rivers on a
map. But you must first know how to read the map. The peri-
Reading Guide odic table is similar to a map. You can learn a lot about the ele-
ments once you learn how to read the periodic table.
What You’ll Learn
Describe the arrangement How are the elements arranged?
▼

of the elements in the Imagine what a library would be like if books weren’t orga-
periodic table.
nized on the shelves. You wouldn’t be able to find the informa-
Identify metals, nonmetals, tion you needed. Like a library, the periodic table is a system for
▼

and semimetals by their organizing information. Recall that each element has a different
positions in the periodic atomic number. The atomic number is the number of protons in
table.
an atom of an element. The elements are arranged in the peri-
Identify and describe the
▼

odic table according to their atomic numbers. Each element

noble gases. block contains the same type of information. The block for car-
bon is shown in Figure 1. A key at the top of the table shows that
Why It’s Important
The periodic table will
each block contains the element’s name, atomic number, symbol,
provide you with a lot of and atomic mass. Each block also has an icon, or a picture. The
information once you know icon indicates whether the element is normally a gas, a liquid, or
how to use it. a solid. Another icon shows whether the element is found in
nature or is made by humans.
Vocabulary
What do the icons in the element blocks show?
period
group
metallic
luster Figure 1 Each block on the periodic table provides the same
conductivity type of information about the element as other blocks do.
halogen
noble gas 6idb^X
CVbZd[
Review Vocabulary
i]ZZaZbZci 8VgWdc cjbWZg

element: pure substance

made from atoms that all + HiViZd[ZaZbZci
Vigddb
have the same number of
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290 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

 <gdje
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Figure 2 Elements in
the periodic table are
organized into
Periods horizontal periods and
Learning to read an individual block is the first step in under- vertical groups.
standing the periodic table. You also need to be able to read the
periodic table as a whole. Notice in Figure 2 that the elements are
arranged in horizontal rows. These rows are numbered from 1 to 7
down the left side of the table. A horizontal row of elements is
called a period. Period 2 starts with the element lithium (Li),
which has the atomic number 3. Notice as you go across period 2
that the atomic numbers increase by 1.

Groups
A vertical column of elements on the periodic table is called a
group. Groups are numbered from 1 to 18 across the top of the
periodic table. Figure 2 shows that Group 2 starts with beryllium
(Be) and ends with radium (Ra). Other members of this group are
calcium, magnesium, strontium (STRON tee um), and barium.
Generally, groups of elements have similar chemical and physical
properties. Recall from Chapter 5 that Group 2 elements are reac-
tive. They easily form ionic compounds with elements in Groups
16 and 17. Group 2 elements share some similar physical proper-
ties. Calcium, strontium, and barium are shiny, silvery, and solid.
They have the same crystal structure and similar melting and boil-
ing points. If you know the properties of one element in a group,
you can predict that the properties of the other members of the
group are likely to be similar. In this way, the group number of an
element can provide you with additional information.
Figure 2 What element is in both period 2 and
Group 2?

Lesson 1 • Organization of the Periodic Table 291

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292 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

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Lesson 1 • Organization of the Periodic Table 293

 Figure 3 The lanthanide and
actinide series of elements are
usually placed at the bottom
of the periodic table. Notice
how wide the table is when
the two groups are placed
within the table.
Determine how many lanthanide
elements there are. How many
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Traditional Table

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I] EV J Ce Ej 6b 8b 7` 8[ :h ;b BY Cd Ag

Extended Table

The Lanthanide and Actinide Series

By now, you have probably noticed the two rows of elements at
the bottom of the periodic table. These are the lanthanide (LAN
thuh nide) series and the actinide (AK tuh nide) series of elements.
The lanthinide elements are also known as the rare earth elements.
These elements are placed at the bottom of the table to save space.
You can see in Figure 3 how wide the periodic table becomes when
they are placed inside the table. When reading across rows 6 and 7
in the traditional table, insert these elements back into the peri-
odic table. Notice that the first member of the lanthanide series is
WORD ORIGIN cerium, with atomic number 58. The actinide element thorium
luster (THOR ee um) follows actinium (AK tin ee um).
from Latin lustrare; means
spread light over, brighten
What are the regions of the
periodic table?
You have seen that the elements in a group share some physical
and chemical properties. The periodic table has three regions in
which elements with particular properties are arranged. These
regions are the metals, the nonmetals, and the semimetals.

294 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

 Figure 4 Notice that the
blue color of the metallic
BZiVah elements covers most of the
periodic table. Only a triangle
of other element blocks is in
the right corner.

Metals
All kinds of things are made of metals. The rings on a binder,
aluminum foil, cars, machinery, and jewelry are all made of met-
als. The elements that are metals are on the left side and in the
middle of the periodic table. Notice in Figure 4 that the metal
blocks are colored blue.
An element is classified as metallic if it has certain properties.
Metallic refers to the collective properties of common metals. One
property of metals is luster. Luster is shine. Gold and silver jew-
elry, copper fixtures, and stainless-steel cooking pots all exhibit
luster. Metals are also malleable. Malleability is the ability of met-
als to be hammered into sheets. Malleable metals can also be
molded into cooking pans or rolled into sheets to make car bodies.
Metals are ductile. A ductile metal can be stretched or pulled into
wires for conducting electricity.

What are two properties of metals?

Conductivity (kahn duk TIH vuh tee) is the ability of a mate-

rial to transfer electricity or thermal energy (heat). Metals are
good conductors of electricity. The wires that bring electricity to
your home are made of metal. Metals also conduct heat well. An
aluminum chair that has been standing in the Sun can be uncom-
fortably hot to sit on. You notice the heat because the metal con-
ducts heat rapidly to your skin. Some metals of the lanthanide
series, such as neodymium (nee oh DIH mee um), are magnetic.
Strong magnets are made by combining neodymium, iron, and
boron. Figure 5 shows some of the ways that the properties of
Figure 5 The conductiv-
ity of metals makes it possi-
metals make them useful in everyday life. ble to bring electricity to
The most reactive metals are in Group 1 and Group 2. A reac- your home. The properties
tive metal combines readily with other substances to form com- of ductility and malleability
make metals suitable for
pounds. The metals of Groups 1 and 2 are so reactive that they are making many objects.
never found in nature by themselves. They react with water and
the oxygen in the air to form compounds.
Lesson 1 • Organization of the Periodic Table 295
 Figure 6 The number CdcbZiVah
of nonmetals is small
compared to the number
of metals.
Identify the group of
elements whose members are
all nonmetals.

Nonmetals
The elements on the right side of the periodic table are called
nonmetals. They are colored yellow, as shown in Figure 6. Non-
metals exhibit properties that are opposite those of metals. Non-
metals are brittle, which means they break easily. They do not have
luster and cannot be easily shaped. Nonmetals are not good con-
ductors of heat and electricity. Nonmetals are found in lasers, plas-
tics, and many other products. They are in the air you breathe and
the nutrients that plants and animals need. Recall the important
role that the nonmetal carbon plays in the millions of compounds
that make up the living world. Other important nonmetals are
hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur, and phosphorus. These ele-
ments combine with carbon in many compounds. Most of the ele-
ments contained in plants and animals, such as those in Figure 7,
are made of nonmetals.

What are four properties of nonmetals?

The most reactive nonmetals are located in Group 17. Elements

in Group 17 are known as halogens. Like the Group 1 and
Group 2 elements, halogens are highly reactive. For this reason,
they are not found by themselves in nature.

Figure 7 Nonmetals make up most

of the matter in the living world.
Water is 100 percent nonmetallic.
Rocks contain a significant amount of
oxygen and carbon.

296 Chapter 7
 HZb^bZiVah Figure 8 The properties of
semimetals are a blend of
the properties of the metals
on the left to the nonmetals
on the right.
Predict whether some
semimetals might have a shiny
appearance like a metal or be
brittle like a nonmetal.

Semimetals ACADEMIC VOCABULARY

The blue representing metals and the yellow representing non- conduct (kun DUKT)
metals cover most of the periodic table. But a small number of ele- (verb) to lead from a position
of command
ments have green blocks. These are the semimetals, also known The chairperson of the commit-
as metalloids. Figure 8 shows that the semimetals are located tee will conduct the meeting.
between the metals and nonmetals. They follow a kind of stairstep
pattern. Semimetals have properties of both metals and nonmetals.
This makes them excellent semiconductors. A semiconductor is an
element that does not conduct electricity as well as a metal but
conducts better than a nonmetal. Silicon is an important semicon-
ductor. It is found in computer chips used in electronics and global
communication satellites, such as the one in Figure 9.

Noble Gases
One group of elements is unique among the nonmetals. These
are the Group 18 elements, known as the noble gases. Noble gases
are extremely stable by themselves, so they are not found naturally
in compounds. In nature, they exist as individual atoms. In the
past, the noble gases were known as the inert gases. Inert means
“unreactive.” Recently, however, chemists have been able to form
compounds from some of the heavier Group 18 elements. This is
why these gases are no longer considered inert.

Figure 9 Computer chips make use of the

semiconductor silicon. These tiny devices
make global communication possible.

297
 8]Zb^hi Figure 10 This chemist
finds the information she
,
needs on a periodic table
C that differs from the one
&h'
you use.
'h''e(

6idb^X
HigjXijgZ
6higdcdbZg
:aZbZciVa
&#.*%Z+
VWjcYVcXZh
C
&'(@

8dcYZchVi^dc
iZbeZgVijgZ
Are there other periodic tables?
Now you know how to find information about the elements by
E]nh^X^hi using the periodic table in this book. However, did you know that
) %
, H ($'
C the periodic table you are studying is not the only periodic table
C^igd\Zc <gdjcY being used today?
&)#%%+,
&h''h''e(
hiViZaZkZa
&)#*()&
Periodic Tables—Meeting Different Needs
>dc^oVi^dc When you think of a periodic table as a road map, it makes
ZcZg\n sense that different types of scientists might need different infor-
mation on their periodic tables. Your choice of a map depends on
HijYZci
what information you need. You wouldn’t use a city map to plan a
C^igd\Zc
,
cross-country trip. For a hiking trip in the Sierra Nevada, you
C would need to take along a map of the trails. Just as there are dif-
&)#%%, ferent kinds of maps, there are different periodic tables that pro-
vide a variety of information.
Figure 11 A variety of Chemists, physicists, and astronomers each do different work.
periodic tables are They choose a periodic table just as you might choose a map. For
designed to provide the
information needed by example, the chemist shown in Figure 10 needs information about
different groups of people. atomic structures. Astronomers need information on how much of
Deduce Are the two values each element is found in the solar system. To meet these needs, the
for nitrogen’s atomic mass on information in the blocks in each type of periodic table is unique.
the student’s and the physicist’s Figure 11 shows four different blocks for the element nitrogen
element blocks the same
number, or are they different?
designed for the needs of four different types of scientists. All
Explain. blocks show the element symbol. Almost all show the atomic num-
ber. Some give the element name. What are the differences? The
element blocks for chemists and physicists have information about
atomic structure. The element blocks for physicists and students
show atomic masses. Notice the special information in the physi-
cist’s blocks. In spite of their differences, you can learn to use any
periodic table by making use of its key.
Figure 11 What information is on the student’s periodic
table that is not on the chemist’s periodic table?

298 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

 What do you know about the
periodic table?
The periodic table starts at the left with the element having the
smallest atomic number, hydrogen. Elements that follow hydrogen
are listed according to increasing atomic number across the table
in columns numbered from 1 to 18. A column of elements is called
a group. Members of a group have similar properties. A horizontal
row is called a period. Metals occupy the left and middle portions
of the table. Nonmetals are on the right. A few semimetals fall
between the metals and nonmetals. Metals, nonmetals, and semi-
metals have distinctive properties. You’ll learn more about the
physical properties of elements in Lesson 3.

LESSON 1 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 7. Use the periodic table to dis-
summary as you write a cover two characteristics of
1. Distinguish between a group potassium besides its name.
newsletter.
and a period on the periodic 3.f
1. Write this lesson title, table. 3.f
number, and page num- 8. Contrast Copy and fill in the
bers at the top of a sheet 2. In your own words, write a graphic organizer below to
of paper. definition of conductivity. 7.c contrast the properties of
2. Review the text after metals and nonmetals. 7.a
Understanding Main Ideas
the red main headings
and write one sentence 3. What region of the periodic
about each. These will be table has the most elements?
the headlines of your
newsletter.
A. inert gases 7.a
B. metals
3. Review the text and write Applying Science
2–3 sentences about each
C. nonmetals
blue subheading. These D. semimetals 9. Write instructions to tell
sentences should tell who, someone how to use the
4. Identify the group on the periodic table and what
what, when, where, and periodic table that contains
why information about information can be obtained.
only nonmetals. 7.a 3.f
each headline.
4. Illustrate your newsletter 5. Explain why the noble gases 10. Give an example of a metal,
with diagrams of impor- are sometimes called inert a nonmetal, and a semimetal.
tant structures and pro- gases. 7.a 7.a
cesses next to each 6. Decide which of the following
headline. elements would be best suited
for electrical wiring: gold, sul-
ELA8: W 2.1
fur, or neon. 7.a Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

Lesson 1 • Organization of the Periodic Table 299

 Can you guess
the element?
Elements are organized in the periodic table
according to their atomic numbers. An element
can be a solid, a liquid, or a gas; a metal, a semi-
metal, or a nonmetal. How well do you think you
know some of the elements?

Procedure
1. Organize the element cards from the Launch
Lab into groups. Identify some of the physical
properties of the groups.
2. Group some of the metals according to a spe-
cific property, such as luster or malleability.
3. Choose other groupings that you will remember easily. Group these with
the properties that are most important.
4. Identify other elements with additional physical or chemical properties.
5. Your teacher will hold up an element card without showing its face and
give one clue to the identity of the element.
6. Someone might say, “I can guess that element with just five clues!”
Someone else might challenge and say, “I can guess that element with
only four clues.”
7. Your teacher will give the number of clues that ended the challenge. The
student who won the challenge will name the element.

Analysis
1. Identify which properties you found easiest to become
familiar with when you were organizing your notes.
2. Give an example of groups you found difficult to learn about.
3. Explain how the challenge helped you understand the
organization of the periodic table.

Science Content Standards

3.f Students know how to use the periodic table to identify elements in simple
compounds.

300
 LESSON 2

Science Content
Standards
Isotopes and Radioactivity
7.b Students know each element has a >ˆ˜Ê`i> Over time, radioactive isotopes decay at
specific number of protons in the nucleus varying rates.
(the atomic number) and each isotope of the Real-World Reading Connection Some of the electricity you
element has a different but specific number
use in your home was probably generated by means of nuclear
of neutrons in the nucleus.
9.e Construct appropriate graphs from energy. Nuclear energy comes from spontaneous reactions of
data and develop quantitative statements the nuclei of unstable isotopes. These reactions produce large
about the relationships between variables. amounts of energy and change one element into a different one.
Also covers: 7.a
Isotopes—Different Numbers
Reading Guide of Neutrons
What’s the difference between the two atoms in Figure 12?
What You’ll Learn Both have the same atomic number, 8. Both have the same
Compare and contrast the
▼

number of protons and electrons, eight. But notice that the

isotopes of an element. atom on the right has an extra neutron. Because both atoms
Define radioactive decay. have the same atomic number, they are the same element, oxy-
▼

gen. However, these are two different versions of oxygen atoms

Contrast varying rates of
▼

decay. because they have different numbers of neutrons. To distinguish

between them, the symbols oxygen-16 and oxygen-17 are used.
Research how elements
▼

Oxygen-16 atoms, with eight neutrons, are far more common

are named.
than oxygen-17, atoms with nine neutrons. These different
Why It’s Important versions are called isotopes. Isotopes are atoms of an element
Learning about isotopes will having the same number of protons in their nuclei, but different
help you understand the numbers of neutrons.
benefits and dangers of
radioactivity. How many neutrons does the most common form
of the oxygen atom have?

Vocabulary
radioactive decay Figure 12 These isotopes of oxygen have the same properties,
radioactive even though they have different numbers of neutrons.
transmutation
radioactive element
half-life
synthetic element
particle accelerator
%
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Review Vocabulary   %  % %%
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more atoms of an element
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Figure 13 Subtract the

atomic number from the
mass number to find the How Many Neutrons?
number of neutrons in Isotopes with more neutrons are heavier than isotopes with
an isotope. fewer neutrons. For example, carbon occurs naturally in three iso-
Compare and Contrast topes: carbon-12, carbon-13, and carbon-14. Diagrams of these
What is the same about the three isotopes are shown in Figure 13. The numbers 12, 13, and 14
three isotopes? What is
different? are the mass numbers of the isotopes. An atom’s mass number is
the sum of the number of protons and neutrons the atom has.
Starting with this information, it’s easy to determine the number
of neutrons in each carbon isotope. First, find the number of pro-
tons in carbon. Remember that the atomic number is the number
of protons an atom has. Carbon’s atomic number is 6. Therefore,
carbon has six protons. Next, subtract the atomic number from the
mass number of the isotope to determine the number of neutrons.

mass number – atomic number = number of neutrons

(neutrons plus protons) – (protons) = neutrons
14 – 6 = 8

Carbon-14 has eight neutrons. You can determine the number

of neutrons in carbon-13 and carbon-12 in the same way.
Carbon-13 has seven neutrons. Carbon-12 has six neutrons.
Check these results by counting the numbers of neutrons in
Figure 13. All of carbon’s isotopes have the same number of pro-
tons and electrons but different numbers of neutrons.

What determines properties?

Recall from Chapter 4 that the number of electrons an atom has
and how they are arranged determines the chemical properties of
an element. The number of electrons in an element’s outer energy
level determines what type of bond it will form. Some elements
transfer electrons to form ionic bonds. Others share electrons in
covalent bonds. Because the three carbon isotopes have the same
number of electrons, they have almost-identical chemical proper-
ties. This is true for all isotopes.

302 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

What is radioactive decay?
You have read that the three isotopes of carbon have the same
chemical properties. But something is different about one isotope.
Carbon-14 nuclei are unstable. Many atomic nuclei are stable when
they have the same number of protons and neutrons. Carbon-14
has six protons and eight neutrons. To become stable, carbon-14
nuclei release particles and energy and change into other nuclei.
Radioactive decay occurs when an unstable atomic nucleus
changes into another nucleus by emitting one or more particles
and energy. A nucleus that is unstable and undergoes radioactive
decay is called radioactive. Thus, carbon-14 nuclei are radioactive.
Radioactive nuclei have found many uses in science and medi-
cine. Figure 14 shows an image produced when a small amount of
the isotope iron-59 was injected into a patient’s bloodstream. The
image allows doctors to study the circulation of the patient’s blood. Figure 14 The radia-
tion released by a small
Gold-Foil Experiment and Radioactive Decay amount of iron-59 is
detected by an instru-
Recall from Chapter 4 that in the gold-foil experiments of
ment, which produced
Ernest Rutherford, a speeding alpha particle was used to bombard this photo.
the gold foil. An alpha particle consists of two protons and two
neutrons. These four nuclear particles were blasted out of an iso-
tope as a single particle. Because of their release, the isotope
gained stability. Figure 15 shows that when an isotope of ameri-
cium releases an alpha particle, two protons are lost. Because the
isotope now has a different number of protons, the atomic number
of the isotope is no longer that of americium. Americium has
become the element neptunium. In radioactive decay processes
such as this one, stability increases and a different element is
formed.

Figure 15 The release of four nuclear particles as an alpha particle increases

stability. A new element, neptunium, is formed.
Determine whether the numbers of particles on both sides of the equation are equal.

e c
e
c

6ae]V 'e
eVgi^XaZ
'c

6bZg^X^jb .*e CZeijc^jb .(e

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Lesson 2 • Isotopes and Radioactivity 303

 ·

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% %
% % % %
% %
8"&)cjXaZjh C^igd\Zc
cZjigdch2- cZjigdch2,
egdidch2+ egdidch2,
Figure 16 Carbon-14 undergoes radioactive decay by gaining
a proton and emitting an electron.

WORD ORIGIN Radioactive Decay and Transmutation

transmutation An isotope can increase its stability in ways other than by
from Latin trans– (means releasing an alpha particle. Some radioactive isotopes decay by
thoroughly) and mutare changing their neutrons into different particles. Others trap one
(means to change)
of their own electrons and put it in the nucleus. Each type of
decay involves the release of nuclear particles and energy. The
carbon-14 isotope emits an electron from its nucleus and gains a
proton. An electron released from the nucleus of an atom is called
a beta particle. When an isotope releases a beta particle, it gains a
proton. The isotope then becomes the element with the next
higher atomic number. This process is called transmutation.
In transmutation (trans myew TAY shun), an atom of one element
is changed into an atom of another element.
Transmutation occurs in most types of radioactive decay.
Figure 16 shows how carbon-14 undergoes transmutation when it
emits an electron, or a beta particle. The atomic number of carbon-
14 is 6. When a beta particle is emitted, a neutron is converted to a
proton. The extra proton increases the isotope’s atomic number to
7. However, 7 is the atomic number of nitrogen. After radioactive
decay, carbon-14 is no longer carbon. It has become nitrogen.
What happens when a radioactive isotope releases a
beta particle?

Uses of Radioactive Decay

You have seen how the radioactive isotope iron-59 can provide
doctors with an image of a patient’s bloodstream. This is just one
of many medical uses of radioactivity. These include both the
detection of cancer and the killing of cancer cells. For example,
cobalt-60 has been used to stop the growth of brain tumors.
Radioactive isotopes are also used to preserve food. The radiation,
or energy produced by the radioactive decay process, kills bacteria,
fungi, insects, and other pests that cause food to spoil.
304 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties
Radioactive Elements and the Periodic Table
Recall that carbon has two stable and one radioactive isotopes.
Similarly, hydrogen has two stable isotopes—protium and deute-
rium. The third isotope, tritium, is radioactive. Some heavier
elements, however, have no stable isotopes. All of their isotopes are
radioactive. Elements having only radioactive isotopes are classified
as radioactive elements.

The Discovery of Radioactive Elements In 1896, French scientist

Antoine-Henri Bequerel had stored a mineral containing uranium
on top of a piece of wrapped film. When the film was developed,
Bequerel found that it had been exposed to radiation. Bequerel Figure 17 Marie
hypothesized that the radiation had come from radioactive ele- Curie (1867–1934) won
ments in the uranium rock. Another French scientist, Marie Curie, the Nobel Prize in
Chemistry in 1911 for
shown in Figure 17, separated the radioactive elements in a her discovery of polo-
uranium mineral. With her husband Pierre, she discovered two nium and radium.
new radioactive elements, polonium and radium.

Radioactive Elements Figure 18 shows that technetium (tehk

NEE she um), promethium (proh MEE thee um), polonium (puh
LOH nee um), and all elements with atomic numbers higher than
84 are radioactive. Elements with the largest numbers of protons
in their nuclei tend to be unstable. For that reason, it might be
puzzling that the radioactive element uranium can still be found
in nature. Don’t isotopes decay into different stable elements?
Earth is billions of years old. It would seem reasonable that all of
Earth’s supply of uranium would have already been converted into
some other element. How can the presence of uranium in Earth’s
crust be explained?

Figure 18 Most of the radioactive elements are heavy ele-

ments, so they are found near the bottom of the periodic table.
Identify the radioactive elements in Groups 1, 2, 17, and 18.

GVY^dVXi^kZ
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IX
Ed 6i Gc
;g GV 6X G[ 9W H\ 7] =h Bi 9h G\ JjW Jjf

Eb
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Lesson 2 • Isotopes and Radioactivity 305

 =Va[A^[Zd[JgVc^jb·'(*
*%%

<gVbhd[JgVc^jb·'(*\
)%%

(%%

'%%

&%%

%
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Figure 19 A nuclear submarine can operate for a
NZVghb^aa^dch
long time on just 400 g of uranium-235.

Half-Life
The presence of uranium on Earth can be explained by how iso-
topes decay. Isotopes decay at very different rates. Some decay in a
matter of days, minutes, seconds, and even milliseconds. Others
take millions of years. The uranium-235 isotope has a half-life of
713 million years. Half-life is the time it takes for a sample of a
radioactive isotope to decay to half its original mass. It would take
713 million years for a 1-g sample of uranium-235 to decay to half
its mass, or 0.5 g. In another 713 million years, the sample would
have decreased again by half and a mass of 0.25 g would remain.
The rest of the 1-g sample would have turned into another element.
With uranium’s long half-life, it’s not surprising that the element
still exists on Earth. Uranium is mined for use in generating elec-
tricity. One nuclear submarine, like the one shown in Figure 19,
uses more than 400 g of uranium-235 for fuel in its nuclear power
plant. But it will take a very long time for the 400 g of uranium
to decay.
Figure 19 Determine what mass of uranium-235 would
remain after another 713 million years.

How are elements discovered

and named?
Although supplies of natural uranium still exist on Earth, this is
not the case for some other radioactive elements that you will find
on the periodic table. These elements either are not found in
nature, or they are found in very small amounts. They are called
synthetic elements. Synthetic elements are radioactive elements
that are made by scientists in laboratories or created during
nuclear reactions. The icon that identifies them on the periodic
table is a small circle within a larger circle.

306 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

Synthetic Elements ACADEMIC VOCABULARY
Scientists have searched for technetium (atomic number 43) on process (PRAH ses)
Earth without success. They knew that the element must exist (noun) a series of actions or
operations taken to achieve
because of the patterns of properties in the periodic table. The ele- an end
ment molybdenum (mah LIB duh num) belongs in Group 6. Simi- Students are in the process of
larly, the properties of ruthenium (roo THEE nee um) place it in getting an education.
Group 8. Scientists knew there must be an element between them,
in Group 7. They could predict the element’s properties from the
periodic table. Because it was not found naturally, technetium
became the first synthetic element. Scientists made it in a labora-
tory. Promethium (atomic number 61) is another synthetic element.

Heavy Synthetic Elements All elements with atomic numbers

greater than 92 are synthetic elements. These elements exist only
because scientists make them by artificial transmutation. The
process involves crashing rapidly moving particles into target
atoms. The speeding particles could be, for example, neutrons,
protons, or alpha particles.

How are synthetic elements made?

Particle Accelerators Picture yourself bowling. If you roll the ball

very fast and it hits the pins, the pins will be knocked all over the
place. If you roll the ball more slowly, the pins will fall differently.
Suppose you use a baseball or a basketball. The results will be dif-
ferent for each ball. In a similar way, scientists bombard target
atoms with different types of particles traveling at different speeds.
To obtain the speeds needed for transmutation, scientists use a
particle accelerator like the one shown in Figure 20. A particle
accelerator is a giant machine that is capable of making particles
move very fast. Depending on the conditions of the experiment,
the speeding particles might meld together with the target atoms.
The result could be a new element with a higher atomic number.
You can read more about particle accelerators and how they work
in Figure 21.

Figure 20 This view of

the particle accelerator at
Fermilab in Batavia, Illinois
shows the enormous size
of the tunnel needed to
accelerate particles to the
speeds needed for success-
ful collisions.

Lesson 2 • Isotopes and Radioactivity 307

Visualizing Synthetic Elements
Figure 21
The element uranium, with 92 protons and
146 neutrons, is the heaviest element found nat-
urally in Earth’s crust. But scientists have been
able to make elements with larger atomic num-
bers by using giant machines called particle
accelerators. These machines force atomic parti-
cles to move at extremely high speeds, often
close to the speed of light. The speeding parti-
cles are smashed into other particles in the hope
that the particles will fuse together into new and
heavier elements. Elements formed by successful
collisions are usually unstable and decay into
other elements in only a fraction of a second.

▲ Particles in an accelerator might collide

with such force that they meld or fuse
together into one larger particle. In the
fusion process, energy and a subatomic
particle are released. The new, heavier
element usually has a very short half-life.

▲ Particles are moved at enormous speed down

the long passage shown in this exterior view of the
Stanford Linear Accelerator at Stanford University in
California.

Recently, the IUPAC (International Union of Pure

and Applied Chemistry) General Assembly confirmed
the official name and symbol of element 111. Ele-
ment 111, previously known as unununium, is now
called Roentgenium in honor of Wilhelm Roentgen,
the discoverer of X rays.
Contributed by National Geographic

308 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

Naming New Elements
When scientists have evidence that they have made a new syn-
thetic element, its existence must be officially confirmed. The con-
firmation is done by a team of scientists from the International
Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) and the Interna-
tional Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP). The scientists
who made the new element write a paper describing their discov-
ery. They ask the expert team to review their work. The team must
decide whether there is enough evidence to support the scientists’
claims. To make their decision, they use a set of rules. First, the
experiment must be successfully repeated in another laboratory.
This is important because a true scientific discovery must have
dependable results. Second, the methods for making the element
must be scientifically sound. That means the procedures used Figure 22 Glenn Seaborg
was a Nobel Laureate who
must follow known scientific principles. Third, the element must had an enormous impact on
show distinct chemical and/or physical properties. the research for synthetic
elements.
What three rules are used to determine if a new
element has been made?
Once the rules are met, the scientists who discovered the ele-
ment have earned the privilege of giving the element a name and a
symbol. If more than one team of scientists claims to have discov-
ered a particular element, the expert team decides who has the
right to name it.

Element Names
Some names that scientists have chosen for elements are shown
in Table 1. Notice that element names often honor the scientists
who created them or the places where the scientists worked. For
example, Seaborgium (see BOHR gee um) was named to honor
Glenn Seaborg, shown in Figure 22. Seaborg was a researcher at
the Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory in Berkeley, California.
Seaborg discovered 10 elements, atomic numbers 93–102. When
scientists who worked with Seaborg discovered element 106, they
named it in his honor.

Table 1 Origins of Element Names

Atomic Number Element Name Element’s Namesake
96 Curium French scientist, Marie Curie

97 Berkelium Place where berkelium was

synthesized, Berkeley, California

99 Einsteinium Famous scientist, Albert Einstein

106 Seaborgium Scientist, Glenn Seaborg

Lesson 2 • Isotopes and Radioactivity 309

 What have you learned?
You have read that isotopes are atoms of an element that have
the same number of protons and electrons but different numbers
of neutrons. Some isotopes are radioactive and undergo radioac-
tive decay. Radioactive decay is the spontaneous release of particles
and energy from the nucleus of an atom. The process of radioac-
tive decay is called transmutation when it results in the formation
of a different element. Rates of radioactive decay vary greatly and
are measured in half-lives. Many of the heavier elements exist for a
short period of time. However, some elements have been made in
laboratories using particle accelerators that smash nuclei together
to create elements with greater mass.

LESSON 2 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 6. Calculate how many more
summary as you design a neutrons U-238 has than U-235.
1. Use the term radioactive decay 7.b
visual aid.
in a sentence. 7.b
1. Write the lesson title, 7. =Va["A^[Zd[JgVc^jb
JgVc^jb"'(*\
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bers at the top of your tation in your own words. 7.b (%%
'%%
poster. &%%
Understanding Main Ideas %
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2. Scan the lesson to find
the red main headings. 3. Identify the region of the NZVghb^aa^dch

Organize these headings periodic table where most Calculate how much
on your poster, leaving radioactive elements are uranium-235 would remain
space between each. found. 7.b after a fourth half-life. 7.b
3. Design an information 4. Construct a diagram that
box beneath each red shows how much of a 10-g Applying Science
heading. In the box, list
sample of barium-131 would 8. Formulate a plan for how sci-
2–3 details, key terms,
remain after 36 days. The half- entists might go about trying
and definitions from each
life of this isotope is 12 days. to make an element with
blue subheading.
7.b atomic number 115. 7.b
4. Illustrate your poster with
diagrams of important 5. Compare and Contrast Copy 9. Judge the fairness of the pro-
structures or processes and fill in the graphic orga- cess for confirming and nam-
next to each information nizer below to compare and ing new elements. 7.a
box. contrast synthetic and natu-
rally occurring elements. 7.b
ELA8: R 2.3

Science nline
For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

310 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

Isotope Half-Life Conversions 3.f, 7.b
Isotopes of an element can have varying half-lives ranging from sec-
onds to years. In order to see the magnitude of difference between
MA8: ALG 2.0
these half-lives, they need to be converted to the same units. A table
of half-life values for several isotopes of erbium is shown below.

Half-Lives of Erbium
Isotope Half-Life
145Er 0.9 s
147Er 2.5 s
154Er 3.73 min
156Er 19.5 min
158Er 2.29 h
169Er 9.40 days

Example
How many seconds is the half-life for 154Er?

What you know:

• Half-life for 154Er: 3.73 min

• There are 60 seconds in 1 minute.

What you need to find:

• How many seconds are in 3.73 minutes?

Follow these steps:

1 Find how many seconds are in 1 minute: 60 s.
2 Multiply 60 s ⴛ 3.73 min to find how many seconds are in 1 minute.
60 ⴛ 3.73 ⴝ 223.8 s

Practice Problems
1. How many minutes is the half-life for 158Er? Science nline
2. How many seconds is the half-life for 158Er? For more math practice,
visit Math Practice at
ca8.msscience.com.

Lesson 2 • Isotopes and Radioactivity 311

 How can you show a visual
explanation of half-life?
Naturally occurring radioactive isotopes break
down at known rates. Each radioactive isotope
has its own half-life. A half-life may be a fraction
of a second or thousands of years. You can simu-
late radioactive decay using pennies.

Data Collection
1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Create a data table in your Science Journal.
3. Place the pennies in a container. Shake and gently pour the pennies onto
the table.
4. Separate the pennies into two piles, those with tails showing and those
with heads showing.
5. Count the pennies with tails showing, record the number, and put the
pennies back into the container.
6. Repeat steps 3–5 until no more pennies remain.

Data Analysis
1. Plot a graph of the total number of pennies on the x-axis versus the
number of pennies with tails showing on the y-axis.
2. Plot a graph of all students’ data on the same graph and compare
the graphs.
3. Infer Does the larger sample come closer to the ideal outcome, in
which half of the atoms decay during each trial?
4. State how many atoms were represented by your original number of
pennies.
5. State how many shakes represented one half-life.

Science Content Standards

7.b Students know each element has a specific number of protons in the nucleus (the atomic
number) and each isotope of the element has a different but specific number of neutrons in the
nucleus.
9.e Students will construct appropriate graphs from data and develop quantitative statements
about the relationships between variables.
312 MA8: ALG 6.0
 LESSON 3

Science Content
Standards
Physical Properties
5.d Students know physical processes
include freezing and boiling, in which a
and Changes
material changes form with no chemical >ˆ˜Ê`i> Substances have physical properties that can be
reaction. described and physical changes that can be observed.
7.c Students know substances can be
classified by their properties, including their Real-World Reading Connection Almost everybody likes
melting temperature, density, hardness, and frozen yogurt, but how would you describe it? You might use
thermal and electrical conductivity. words such as delicious, flavorful, or tasty. But these words
9.a Plan and conduct a scientific describe how you feel about the frozen yogurt. Other people
investigation to test a hypothesis. might feel differently. A better way to describe frozen yogurt
would be to state its properties.
Reading Guide
What is a physical property?
What You’ll Learn How can you describe the frozen yogurt in Figure 23 in a way
Identify physical everyone would agree upon? You could list its physical properties.
▼

properties. A physical property is any characteristic of a material that can be

Explain why melting and
observed without changing the identity of the material itself.
▼

boiling temperatures are Physical properties include details about a material’s appearance,
physical properties. such as color, length, and shape. Some physical properties of
chocolate frozen yogurt are brown color, smooth texture, and
Define a physical change.
▼

cold temperature. The bowl is hard, white, and round. Some

Why It’s Important physical properties, such as mass and volume, depend on the
The physical properties of a amount of matter. Other physical properties, such as density,
substance are keys to how melting point, and boiling point, do not depend on the amount
the substance can be useful. of matter.
What are three physical properties of chocolate
Vocabulary frozen yogurt?
physical property
melting point
boiling point
thermal conductivity
electrical conductivity
physical change

Review Vocabulary
density: the mass of an
object divided by its volume
(Grade 6)

Figure 23 You can observe the

physical properties of frozen yogurt
without changing the frozen yogurt.

Lesson 3 • Physical Properties and Changes 313

 Melting and Boiling Points
Figure 24 Water boils at lower tempera- You have seen ice melt and water boil. In these
tures at higher elevations because atmo-
spheric pressure is lower than at sea level. processes, water changes its state. When ice melts,
water changes from the solid to the liquid state.
The temperature at which a solid changes to a liq-
-.#.•8
(!%%%b uid is its melting point. When water boils or
evaporates, water changes from the liquid state to
.'#+•8
the gaseous state. The temperature at which a liq-
'!'*%b uid changes to a gas is its boiling point. The tem-
perature at which a substance changes its state is
.*#%•8 a physical property of the substance. Melting and
&!*+%b boiling points are characteristics of a substance
and can be used to identify the substance.

.-#%•8
Attractive Forces The melting and boiling
+%%b points of a substance are determined partly by
the attractive forces among its particles. Mole-
&%%•8 cules with greater attraction for one another are
HZVaZkZa
likely to have higher boiling points and melting
points. Molecules with weaker attractions have
lower melting and boiling points. For example,
water has a much higher boiling point than mol-
ecules of similar or larger sizes. The higher boil-
ing point occurs because water molecules are
strongly attracted to one another. For water to
melt or evaporate, more energy must be absorbed
to break loose the molecules from one another.
Why does water have a higher

  
boiling point than other molecules?





Pressure The pressure of the air around a sub-

stance also affects its melting point and boiling
points. The pressure of the air is called atmo-
spheric pressure. Normal atmospheric pressure at
sea level is 1 atmosphere (atm). Water has a boil-
ing point of 100°C when the pressure is 1 atm. At
IdbVidZh elevations higher than sea level, atmospheric
pressure is lower. As Figure 24 shows, less energy
is needed to change liquid water into a gas, and
the boiling point decreases below 100°C. Simi-
Figure 25 A pressure cooker cooks food larly, boiling points increase as pressure increases.
faster than an ordinary cooking pot because Figure 25 shows a pressure cooker used for can-
the temperature of the boiling water inside
is hotter. ning vegetables. Inside, the pressure can be
Infer why it would be important to use special care increased enough to raise the temperature of
when using a pressure cooker. boiling water to 140°C. This temperature ensures
that microbes are killed and the food is preserved.

314 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

 Figure 26 The volumes are the
same, but the density of the gas is
<Vh less than the density of the solid
because there are fewer gas particles
in the container.

Hda^Y

Density SCIENCE USE V. COMMON USE

Another physical property of matter is density. Density is the property
Science Use a characteristic of
mass per unit volume of a substance. The density of a substance is
material that can be either
greater if its particles are packed tightly together. Figure 26 shows physical or chemical. A
two containers that have the same volume but different masses. physical property of iron is that
One container holds a gaseous substance. The gas particles are it is magnetic.
Common Use something
spread far apart. The other container holds the same substance,
owned or possessed, such as
but in the solid state. The particles in a solid and a liquid are real estate. The real estate
packed close together. The mass of the gas is much lower than the company sold some property on
mass of the liquid or the solid. Because the gas has the same vol- Main Street.
ume but a smaller mass, the gas has a lower density than that of
the solid or the liquid.
Hardness
Hardness is a physical property that shows how strongly the
particles of a substance are held together. Diamonds, a form of
carbon, are the hardest substance found in nature. Table 2 shows
that each carbon atom in a diamond is attached to four other car-
bon atoms. In graphite, only three covalent bonds join the carbon
atoms together. The atoms form sheets of hexagons that can slip
past one another. Graphite is soft compared to diamond.

Table 2 Atomic Structures of Diamond and Graphite

Atomic Structure
Diamond

Graphite

Lesson 3 • Physical Properties and Changes 315

 WORD ORIGIN Thermal Conductivity
thermal Some materials have the physical property of
from Greek therme; means conducting heat well. Thermal conductivity is
heat
the ability of a material to transfer heat by
collisions between its particles. Cooking pans
are usually made of metal because metals have
ACADEMIC VOCABULARY high thermal conductivity. If one part of the
transfer (TRANS fur)
(verb) to pass from one to metal is heated, its particles move quickly and
another collide with nearby particles. Heat is transferred
The teacher will transfer the by means of these collisions.
book to a student.
Thermal Conductivity of Gases Gases have
low thermal conductivity compared to solids
and liquids. The particles in a gas are spread
farther apart, so the particles collide less
frequently and transfer heat more slowly. For this
reason, gases are used as insulating materials, or
materials that lessen heat loss.

Using Gases as Insulators For example, gases

HZVaZYheVXZh such as air and argon are sometimes sealed
[^aaZYl^i]\Vh between two or three layers of window glass, as
shown in Figure 27. Because the gas does not
conduct heat well, less heat is lost through the
Thermal Conductivity windows of a building during the winter.
Similarly, less heat can enter the building by
Figure 27 Less heat will flow through the
window because the gas that fills the space means of the windows during the summer.
between the layers of glass has low thermal Why do some windows have air
conductivity. or another gas sealed between
layers of glass?

<ddYZaZXig^XVaXdcYjXi^k^in Electrical Conductivity

Similar to thermal conductivity, electrical
EddgZaZXig^XVaXdcYjXi^k^in conductivity is the ability of a material to
transfer electric charges through a material.
Recall that the valence electrons in metals are
able to move among the metal’s atoms and can
carry the charge. An electrical cord like the one
in Figure 28 consists of three copper wires
covered with plastic.
Copper is used for this purpose because of its
Electrical Conductivity high electrical conductivity. The plastic
surrounding the copper has low electrical con-
Figure 28 The metal parts of this electrical ductivity. Its purpose is to prevent the transfer
cord are good conductors. The nonmetal
parts are poor conductors, or insulators. of an electric charge to your body when you
touch the wire, causing you to be shocked.

316 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

What is a physical change?
Frozen yogurt melts into a liquid. Bubble gum
is blown into a sphere. A piece of modeling clay
is shaped into a statue. These are physical
changes. A physical change is any change in the
size, the shape, or the state of matter in which the
identity of the substance is unchanged.

Dissolving
Dissolving is mixing a substance into another
substance to form a solution. As sugar dissolves
in water, it disappears from view and seems to
become part of the water. But if you boil the
water away, the sugar becomes visible again. Dis-
solving is a physical change because the dissolved
substance is unchanged.

Mixing
When you mix two substances, sometimes nei-
ther one dissolves in the other. In a mixture of Figure 29 Mixtures, like this one of iron
iron filings and sand, you can identify individual filings and sand, can be easily separated.
particles of both substances. Figure 29 shows that Infer Would this method of separation work if the
mixture consisted of salt and sand?
if you pass a magnet through the mixture, it
attracts the iron filings and separates them from
the sand. Mixing is a physical change because the
substances are unchanged.

Changes in State
Changes in state are also physical changes. The
ice cubes in a drink gradually melt and become
liquid water. The physical properties of a sub-
stance change during a change in state, but the
identity of the substance remains the same. A
melted ice cube is the same substance as the orig-
inal ice cube. Figure 30 shows the element gal-
lium changing from a solid to a liquid. The
atoms that make up gallium are the same before
and after the change.
Changes in state are reversible. The solid gal-
lium that melts at normal body temperature will
harden back to a solid when it is put in a cooler
place. This is a physical change. A physical
change does not change the particles that make Figure 30 Gallium melts at the
temperature of your hand. The identity of
up the substance.
the liquid gallium remains the same, so
Why are changes in state also melting is a physical change.
classified as physical changes?

Lesson 3 • Physical Properties and Changes 317

 What do you know about physical
properties and changes?
You can observe and describe the physical properties of an
object without changing it. Some physical properties, such as den-
sity, melting point, and boiling point, do not depend on the
amount of matter. But melting and boiling points do depend on
the attractive forces between particles and on atmospheric pres-
sure. Hardness, thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity
are other physical properties. A physical change is any change in
the appearance of an object that doesn’t change its identity. Dis-
solving and mixing are examples of physical changes. Changes of
state are also physical changes. Remember that a substance does
not change its identity when it changes its state.

LESSON 3 Review
Summarize Standards Check
Create your own lesson Using Vocabulary 7. Compare Copy and fill in the
summary as you design a graphic organizer below and
1. When ice changes to water, compare the physical proper-
study web.
water undergoes a _________. ties of air and gold. 5.d
1. Write the lesson title, 5.d
number, and page num-
bers at the top of a sheet 2. Use the term physical property
of paper. in a sentence. 7.c
2. Scan the lesson to find Understanding Main Ideas
the red main headings. 8. Deduce why two objects
3. Organize these headings 3. Which is NOT a physical with the same mass can have
clockwise on branches change? 5.d different densities. 7.c
around the lesson title. A. burning
4. Review the information B. dissolving
Applying Science
under each red heading C. melting 9. Design an experiment for
to design a branch for D. mixing comparing the thermal con-
each blue subheading. ductivity of glass and wood.
5. List 2–3 details, key terms,
4. Identify three physical proper- 7.c
and definitions from each ties of water and two physical
changes it can undergo. 5.d 10. Assess the importance of the
blue subheading on
branches extending
physical properties of glass
5. Describe what would happen when it is used for windows.
from the main heading to the boiling point of a sub-
branches. 7.c
stance if the elevation were
ELA8: R 2.3 to rise. 5.d
6. Explain why the rusting of
an iron pole is not a physical Science nline
change. 5.d For more practice, visit Standards
Check at ca8.msscience.com.

318 Chapter 7 • The Periodic Table and Physical Properties

Which parachute will
drop first?
One physical property of metals is that they con-
duct heat. The ability of a material to transfer heat
is thermal conductivity. Some metals conduct heat
faster than others do. Which metals do you think
conduct heat more rapidly than other metals?

Procedure
1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
2. Choose three foil cupcake forms and three
toy people.
3. Use three short pieces of thread to attach a person to a foil form so the form
becomes a parachute.
4. Choose three rods about 10 cm long, each made of a different metal.
5. Light a candle and carefully allow wax to drip on the center of the outside of a
cupcake form. While the wax is melted, attach a rod horizontally to the parachute.
Allow the wax to harden.
6. Repeat step 5 for the other two rods.
7. Loosely secure the ring on a ring stand to be positioned later.
8. Place the ends of the three rods as close together as possible on the ring. Use
metal clamps to keep them secure.
9. Place a candle in a holder under the ring. Secure the rod ends and ring directly
above the candle.
10. Light the candle and observe.

Analysis
1. Identify the parachute that dropped first.
2. Explain what property of metals caused the parachutes to drop at different times.
3. Hypothesize the results if three different metals had been used in this experiment.

Science Content Standards

7.c Students know substances can be classified by their properties, including their melting
temperature, density, hardness, and thermal and electrical conductivity.
9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.
319
 Investigating Physical Changes
Problem
Materials
Matter makes up all the substances you find in your world.
substances that are Matter can go through changes in size, shape or color, or even
made up of some of changes of state, but it still is the same matter. Matter accom-
the elements used in plishes tasks, such as moving heat or electricity or cooling your
the Launch Lab or drinks, but it still is the same matter. It is made up of the same
other elements or atoms and has the same properties.
compounds: carbon, The changes in matter mentioned above are physical changes.
iron filings, sand, How can you show that physical changes do not actually
copper penny, copper change matter?
wire, salt, ice cube,
balloon, a mineral Form a Hypothesis
sample, milk Think about the elements you organized into a periodic table in
the Launch Lab. If you change these elements in some way, or
use them, can you show that they are still the same matter?
Write a hypothesis for an experiment that explains why the
composition of matter remains the same even though it under-
goes a physical change.

Collect Data and Make Observations

1. Read and complete a lab safety form.
Safety Precautions
2. Choose five items or substances that can be put through a
physical change.
3. Make a table that lists the substances and at least one ele-
ment in the substance. Make a physical change to each sub-
stance and observe.
4. In your data table, record the physical change. Give a brief
explanation of how the substance can be changed back.

Data Table
Substance Element in Physical Change to How to Change
Substance Substance Substance Back

320
Analyze and Conclude
1. Explain why you chose certain substances
for your investigation.
2. Explain why you chose the physical changes
you made.
3. Evaluate how difficult it was to recover the
original substance following some physical
changes.
4. Apply Are there some physical changes
that would be very difficult to reverse?
Explain.
5. Infer You may have seen tanks marked
“Liquid Nitrogen.” Has the gas form of
nitrogen undergone a physical change?
Does the nitrogen in the tank have the same properties as the
nitrogen in the air you breathe?
6. Draw Conclusions Matter can go through changes that make
it look different and feel different, but it is still the same mat-
ter. Why is this so? Give some examples.

Error Analysis
Did you make any changes in which the original substance could
not be observed or returned to its original state? For example, did
you cook an egg or bake a cupcake? Check to be certain all the
changes you made were physical. How can you be sure?

Communicate
3CIENCE ELA8: W 1.3
Write a Paragraph Explain how you can determine that a change
in matter is a physical change. Use your observations in this
experiment to provide examples.

Science Content Standards

7.c Students know substances can be classified by their properties, including their melting
temperature, density, hardness, and thermal and electrical conductivity.
9.a Plan and conduct a scientific investigation to test a hypothesis.

321
 The Chemistry of Color
A ceramic artist creates pieces of pottery using clay
and glazes with specific properties. Glazes change
color when fired in a kiln, a brick-lined oven. The
artist must choose materials and heating conditions
very carefully to produce the desired result. How
can you become a ceramic artist? In high school,
you will need to take chemistry and art classes.
Visit Careers at ca8.msscience.com to research
how ceramic artists use chemistry. Pretend you
are a ceramic artist applying for work. Write a
letter to an art studio. Explain your credentials
and your interest in their program. Mention at
least three elements in your letter.

Superconductors
This train does not run on a normal track—it glides
on a magnetic cushion created by a superconduc-
tor. A superconductor is usually a ceramic substance
with specific metals added to the mix. This allows
an electric current to flow without resistance. The
drawback is that the susperconductor must operate
at a very low temperature.
Visit Technology at ca8.msscience.com to
research how superconductors work. Make a
bar graph of the critical temperature of ten
superconducting substances.

322
 Uses of Lead in History
Although incredibly flexible and versatile, lead is also quite
toxic. The Romans called lead plumbum, giving the element
the symbol Pb. The Roman name of plumbum gives us the
term plumber. The architect Vitruvius condemned the
widespread use of lead in 14 B.C. His warnings went
unheeded until the European League of Nations banned
white-lead paint in 1922. The United States did not follow
suit until 1992.
Visit History at ca8.msscience.com to read more
about the symptoms and probable causes of lead
poisoning. Write a public health magazine article
citing the dangers and ways to avoid them.

ELA8: W 1.3

Fluoridation of Drinking Water

In 1945, Grand Rapids, Michigan
became the first city in the world to
fluoridate its drinking water. By 1956,
the rate of cavities in children had
dropped more than 60 percent. Many
other American cities also began to
fluoridate their water. Not everyone
agreed with this. Many citizens and
professionals continue the debate
today.
Visit Society at ca8.msscience.
com to find out more about the
controversy over water fluoridation.
Evaluate arguments and evidence
presented by each side.

323
 CHAPTER Standards Study Guide

Elements on the periodic table are grouped together based on their

/…iÊ Ê`i> properties.

Lesson 1 Organization of the Periodic Table 3.f, 7.a

• conductivity (p. 295)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> The periodic table contains information about the
• group (p. 291)
structure and characteristics of elements.
• halogen (p. 296)
• Elements on the periodic table are arranged horizontally in periods by • luster (p. 295)
increasing atomic number.
• metallic (p. 295)
• Each element has a specific number of protons in its nucleus. • noble gas (p. 297)
• Elements on the periodic table are arranged vertically in groups. • period (p. 291)
• Elements in groups share similar physical and chemical properties.
• Elements on the periodic table fall into one of three main types: metals,
nonmetals, and semimetals.
• Different types of periodic tables provide different information.
Lesson 2 Isotopes and Radioactivity 7.a, 7.b, 9.e

• half-life (p. 306)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Over time, radioactive isotopes decay at varying
• particle accelerator (p. 307)
rates.
• radioactive (p. 303)
• Isotopes have the same number of protons and electrons, but a different • radioactive decay (p. 303)
number of neutrons.
• radioactive element (p. 305)
• The number of neutrons in an isotope can be found by subtracting the • synthetic element (p. 306)
atomic number from the mass number. • transmutation (p. 304)
• Isotopes that are radioactive have unstable nuclei.
• Elements that have atomic numbers 43, 61, and 84 and higher are
radioactive.
• Radioactive isotopes undergo decay at different rates.
• Scientists who discover elements have the right to name their elements.
Lesson 3 Physical Properties and Changes 5.d, 7.c, 9.a

• boiling point (p. 314)

>ˆ˜Ê`i> Substances have physical properties that can be
• electrical conductivity (p. 316)
described and physical changes that can be observed.
• melting point (p. 314)
• Melting and boiling points depend on the attractions between particles • physical change (p. 317)
and the pressure of the air.
• physical property (p. 313)
• Density is the mass per unit volume of a substance. • thermal conductivity (p. 316)
• Hardness, thermal conductivity, and electrical conductivity are physical
properties.
Download quizzes, key
• Dissolving and mixing are physical changes. terms, and flash cards from
ca8.msscience.com.
• Changes in state are physical changes.

324 Chapter 7 • Standards Study Guide

 Standards Review CHAPTER

Linking Vocabulary and Main Ideas

Use the vocabulary terms from page 324 to complete this concept map.

Elements

arranged in the can be can be

periodic table
according to
nonmetals 4. 7.
stable
atomic
number
3. undergo

fall into
radioactive
decay

groups 1. have physical

properties at a rate called

two of
which are luster 5. 6. 8.

halogens 2.

Visit ca8.msscience.com for:

υ Vocabulary PuzzleMaker
υ Vocabulary eFlashcards
υ Multilingual Glossary

Using Vocabulary
Describe the relationship between each pair Fill in the blanks with the correct vocabulary term.
of terms. 15. Each radioactive isotope decays at a rate defined
9. group and period by its . 7.b
10. electrical conductivity and physical property 16. Synthetic elements are made in large machines
11. halogen and noble gas called . 7.b

12. particle accelerator and transmutation 17. A(n) occurs when a piece of clay is
molded into a statue. 7.c
13. boiling point and melting point
14. electrical conductivity and thermal conductivity

Chapter 7 • Standards Review 325

 CHAPTER Standards Review
Understanding Main Ideas 6. Which statement is true about all synthetic
Choose the word or phrase that best answers the elements?
question. A. They are found in nature.
B. They are radioactive.
1. In what way are the elements in a group similar? C. They have atomic numbers greater than 92.
A. atomic numbers D. They have all been discovered. 7.b
B. atomic masses
C. chemical properties 7. Which is a property of nonmetals?
D. symbols 7.a A. malleability
B. luster
2. Which physical properties of copper wire are C. good conductor of electricity
independent of the amount of matter? D. poor conductor of electricity 7.c
A. density
B. length 8. Which is NOT found on the element blocks of
C. mass the periodic table?
D.