CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW

A. Theoretical Description

1. Definition of Classroom Interaction

Classroom interaction is a kind of interaction that occurs as two or more

objects have an effect upon one another in a classroom. According to Dagarin,

classroom interaction is an interaction between teacher and students in the

classroom where they can create interaction at each other. 10 In line with that,

Allwright and Bailey stated that classroom interaction has to be managed by both

teacher or students, not just by the teacher because interaction is obviously not

something you just to people, but something people do together, collectively.11

Interaction in the classroom is significant to the learners as they can

understand the aim of the classroom events. As stated by Chaudron as cited in

Dayu, interaction is viewed as significant because it is argued that only through

interaction, the learner can decompose the teaching learning structures and derive

meaning from classroom events.12 Moreover, Rivers as cited in Dayu said that

interaction is important because students can increase their language store as they

listen to others including both the teacher talk and output of their fellow students

in discussions or problem solving tasks through interaction, and they can use all

10
Dagarin, M. (2005). Classroom Interaction and Communication Strategies in Learning
English as a Foreign Language. Elope Journal. Vol.1, No.1-3, 127-139. P. 130.
11
Allwright, D., & Bailey, K, M. (1991). Focus on the Language Classroom: An
Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers. New York: Cambridge University
Press. P. 18-19.
12
Restia Ensi Dayu. Ibid. P. 13.

8
 9

they have learned in real-life exchanges where they express their views and use

the language for communication. In this way students get the experience of using

the language.13

Classroom is considered as the most important place for foreign language

learners to apply and practice their target language. Classroom is conceptualized

to create a condition in which students can improve their ability in learning

English that is for using the English for the real communication. Then, Allwright

and Bailey stated that through classroom interaction, the plan produces outcomes

(input, practice opportunities, and receptivity). It can be concluded that interaction

plays very important role in teaching-learning process. Interaction in the

classroom is an essential part of teaching learning process.14

2. Types of Classroom Interaction

Classroom interaction will occur if teacher and students interact at each other.

Interaction that occurs in the classroom will be described depending on the

dominant types of interaction. According to Abarca in Putri, there are three

dominant types of classroom interaction including teacher-dominated, teacher-

centered, and students-centered. In teacher-dominated, the teacher takes much

time to talk and the students do not have more chance to talk in the classroom

interaction. In teacher-centered, the teacher controls the student to participate at

the classroom interaction. Meanwhile, in students-centered, the teacher is as

facilitator and the students are more active in the classroom interaction.

13
Restia Ensi Dayu. Ibid. P. 13.
14
Allwright, D., & Bailey, K, M. (1991). Focus on the Language Classroom: An
Introduction to Classroom Research for Language Teachers. New York: Cambridge University
Press. P. 25.
 10

On the other hand, Dagarin as cited in Putri contends that there are five types

of interaction that occur in the classroom, as the follows:

a) Teacher - whole class

Teacher-whole class means that the teacher stimulates the students to talk,

and the classroom interaction is controlled by the teacher. Tang as cited in Putri

contend that in most of the EFL classroom context, the teacher always initiates

this type of classroom interaction by asking questions, and the students responds

to the teachers' questions. It means that in teacher-whole class interaction, the

teacher has to stimulate the students to talk by asking some questions orally.

Besides that, because teacher-whole class interaction is for stimulating the

students to talk, the teacher has to use some strategy to make the students to talk.

Rivera as cited in Putri argues that there are three types of teacher-whole class

interaction such as giving explanations, praises, information, and instructions. It

means that teacher-whole class interaction is an important interaction for making

the students to talk.

b) Teacher - a group of students

The common activity that is in this interaction is the teacher gives a task

that has to be discussed in the group. It means that the students who are in group

discuss what the teacher wants to do for them. In addition, interaction between

teacher and group of students is like helping other students who do not understand

yet at the discussed materials, and controlling the interaction in order to

preventing uncontrolled classroom.

 11

c) Student - Student

This interaction facilitates the student to exchange information and ideas

about the materials that they get. It will increase their learning since they do

collaboratively. Rivera in Putri contends that most of interaction between student-

student in EFL context is a dialogue where the students have prepared the

dialogue to practice it in the classroom. It means that the most activity that

acquires the students to do collaboratively in students' book is making a dialogue

to practice it in the classroom. This activity requires the students to exchange their

ideas or add some information to make their dialogue perfect that reflect real life

context. Besides that, the students who do not understand yet at the materials can

ask other students to answer or help them in understanding the material. It means

that if the students do not understand, they will feel freedom to ask whatever he

wants to ask since they interact at each other.

d) Students - Students

This interaction will give advantage for the students since they will feel

freedom to talk at each other. Ur as cited in Putri insists that there are many

patterns of classroom interaction, such as group work, closed-ended teacher

questioning, individual work, choral responses, collaboration, teacher initiates and

student answers, full-class interaction, teacher talk, self-access and open-ended

teacher questioning.

e) Teacher - Students

This interaction will encourage the teacher giving information and

feedback, and the students asking a question about material that they do not

understand yet. Asking question is the most common activity that the students do
 12

for their teacher. Based on the explanation above, the researcher concludes that

the teacher has to use their role in the classroom maximally. It means that the

teacher can make the students active in the classroom if the teacher initiates them

by praising them, clarifying the students' opinion, asking question, giving

direction, etc.15

3. The components of classroom interaction

a) Collaborative Dialogue

Classroom interaction should take the role as collaborative dialogues do

for its significance in communicative teaching. According to Swain as cited in

Dayu, it may be realized in the format of an everyday conversation. Furthermore,

it also accelerates the development of high achiever student if the classroom

settings play an effective role as social settings.

b) Negotiation

Ellis claims as cited in Dayu, in Interaction Hypothesis that when learners

face communicative problems and they have the opportunity to negotiate

solutions to them, they are able to acquire new language. Negotiated interaction is

important for input to become comprehensible.16

c) Co-construction

According to Jacoby & Ochs as cited in Dayu, Co-construction is defined

as "the joint creation of a form, interpretation, stance, action, activity, identity,

institution, skill, ideology, emotion or other culturally-related meaning reality." 17

All the participants have the responsibility to construct a successful and

15
Febby Garetsa Putri. (2014). An analysis of Classroom by Using Flander Interaction
Analysis Categories System (FIACS) technique at SMPN 13 kota Bengkulu in 2013/2014
academic year (Thesis). English Education Study Program, Faculty of Teachers Training and
Education, Universitas Bengkulu, Bengkulu. P. 10-13.
16
Restia Ensi Dayu. Ibid. P. 30.
17
Restia Ensi Dayu. Ibid. P. 30.
 13

appropriate interaction for a given social context. Meaning is negotiated through

face-to-face interaction and is jointly co-constructed during a locally bound social

context. In classroom interaction, the L2 learners construct the awareness of self-

regulation gradually from dialogic interaction when they negotiate with peers and

tutors.

4. Elements of teaching effectiveness

The most comprehensive review of elements of teaching effectiveness has

been made by Walberg in Inamullah, he collected more than 3,000 studies, and

then carefully analyzed them to determine how important each particular element

was in student learning. From his result, he compiled an inventory of weighted

factors selected from his overall list of elements that are very closely associated

with teacher behavior within the classroom. The selected elements consisted of

academic learning time, use of positive reinforcement, cues and feedback,

cooperative learning activities, classroom atmosphere, high order questioning, and

use of advance organizers.18

a) Academic Learning Time

According to Walberg as cited in Dayu, academic learning time in the

classroom has emerged as an important variable; how efficiently lesson is planned

and how long it takes to get started, how the teacher handles digressions, off-task

behavior, and discipline, and the way the teacher handles transitions will have an

impact on student learning.19 Each classroom has different rule of educational

learning time, it depends on the govt or school's policy. Usually, in Indonesia,

18
Inamullah, M. (2005). Patterns of classroom interaction at different educational levels
in the light of Flander’s interaction analysis (Ph.D. Thesis). Retrieved Jan.3, 2020, from
http://eprintshec.goal.pk
19
Restia Ensi Dayu. (2016). A Study on Teacher-Student’s Interaction of English Subject
in the Classroom. (Thesis). English Education Study Program of Tarbiyah and Tadris, Department
Islamic Education and Tadris Faculty, The State Islamic Institute, Bengkulu. P. 23.
 14

each meeting has 45 minutes length, and therefore the subject is typically taught

in twice meeting (90 minutes).

b) Use of Reinforcement

B.F. Skinner developed the theory of reinforcement. According to Skinner

as cited in Dayu, reinforcement is the specialist term in operant conditioning for

the 'stamping-in' of stimulus associations and response habits that follows the

experience of reward.20 Skinner's theory, also as other reinforcement techniques

was later applied to classroom settings with the thought that using reinforces

could increase the frequency of productive behaviors and reduce the frequency of

disruptive behaviors.

There are two kinds of reinforcement; positive and negative reinforcement.

Positive reinforcement is presenting a gift after a desired behavior, whereas

negative reinforcement is removing a negative stimulus after a desired behavior.

Basically, in classroom situation, positive reinforcement is when teachers praise

and reward students for proper behavior. Negative reinforcement is when

punishment is including positive experiences for proper behavior. Studies have

shown that specific praise is extremely effective, while general praise isn’t. In

other words, saying, "Johnny, excellent job adding those numbers," is far better

than saying, "Great job, class".

c) Cues and Feedback

To some extent, the utilization of cues and feedback is said to the method

of questioning. According to Harmer as cited in Dayu, through cueing, the teacher

provides some helps to students in answering questions. While the feedback

20
Restia Ensi Dayu. Ibid. P. 24.
 15

encompasses not only correcting students, but also offering them an assessment of

how well they need done.21 Moreover, Hattie and Timperley as cited in Dayu

stated that, feedback is conceptualized as information provided by an agent (e.g.,

teacher, peer, book, parent, self, experience) regarding aspects of one's

performance or understanding.22

d) Co-operative Learning

The effectiveness of cooperative learning is a most interesting new

finding. The main point here is that the importance within the classroom of

employing small-group techniques with cooperative objectives. Such a procedure

encourages student participation and also leads to improved academic

performance. The most direct thanks to create classroom interaction is to adopt

the principles of collaborative learning.

According to Bishop as cited in Dayu, in collaborative learning, the teacher

designs a learning problem or task, and then assigns small groups of students to

address the problem collaboratively.23 Students are typically instructed to reach a

consensus on an issue, or to create a group product. The purpose of the

collaborative learning is to reinforce learning and achievement by encouraging

peer-to-peer interaction and cooperation.

e) Classroom Atmosphere

Main element of effective teaching is that the got to create a comparatively

relaxed learning environment within teaching-learning process. The arrangement

of classroom setting is one among the ways to make relaxing atmosphere.

21
Restia Ensi Dayu. Ibid. P. 24.
22
Restia Ensi Dayu. Ibid. P. 24.
23
Restia Ensi Dayu. Ibid. P. 25.
 16

Moreover, the classroom facilitation also gives an impact to the students' desire to

review.

A positive atmosphere can make a classroom a more pleasant place to be and,

in turn, a simpler, motivating place to find out. It is simple to do, and it can have

positive results on the achievement of students. Moreover, when teacher creates a

positive classroom atmosphere, students learn better. Every student must feel safe

and important in the class in order for maximum learning to take place. How to

create a positive atmosphere in the classroom can be seen below.

1) Create a Positive Physical and Emotional Atmosphere

Firstly, the teacher leads the students by example. Changes begin with the

teacher's positive caring attitude and thoughtful construction of the physical

environment. After that, begin each class greeting students with a smile and a

personal welcome. Help each student feel important and set a positive tone to the

class.

Then, organize the classroom neatly and methodically to control confusion

and stress. The teacher and the students need to know where to find books and

materials at all times. After that, plan lessons that allow students to actively

participate in the learning process, and arrange the desks to meet the needs of the

students and lessons.

Next, teach students to set measurable academic and behavior goals.

Acknowledge the completion of the goals with stickers, treats, public

announcements and certificates. Finally, Search for students' strengths and build

on them. Put activities in teacher's lesson plans that allow every student to feel a

measure of success.
 17

2) Create a Positive Classroom Discipline System

Firstly, allow students to help set classroom rules to give them ownership

in the discipline process. Post the rules and consequences in the room. Next, stick

to the rules and fairly and consistently execute the consequences. After that, use

negative consequences infrequently by reinforcing positive behaviors with a

reward system.

Then, integrate correct behavior and accountability instruction into the

teacher's lesson plan. Hold each student accountable for her actions and don't

allow the blame game. After that, discipline students privately. This demonstrates

respect and protects the student from public humiliation. Finally, Praise the

students frequently and find something positive to say about each student.

f) Higher Order Questions

A higher-order question is basically a query that requires the student to

analyze and produce a reasoned response, not the teacher's words. In order words,

there is not an already prescribed factual answer to the question.

g) Advance Organizers

The final skill involves the use of the deductive approach. The student is

told in advance what the main point or the main concepts to be covered will be.

On the one hand, such advance organizers have been shown to help students focus

attention on the key points. On the other hand, the effect is positive but not

particularly strong, representing about a 25 percent improvement in the standard

deviation. In all probability, then, an advance organizer is a good method to get a

class glued in.

h) Direct Instruction
 18

Essentially, direct instruction is in highly structured. The teacher presents

material in small steps, uses advance organizers, checks for understanding, has

students answer turn by turn in ordered fashion, and provides immediate feedback

on their answers.

i) Indirect Teaching

Several aspects of teaching effectiveness have been strongly advocated.

One of these was the concept of "indirect teaching" as propounded by Flander.

Indirect teaching is usually defined to include minimum teacher's talk and

maximum student's talk, minimum lecture and maximum discussion, stress on

independent student learning, frequent praise of students, frequent use of student

ideas and inclusion of student ideas in discussion, and frequent student to student

interaction.

j) The Democratic Classroom

In democratic classroom and schools, students are given more power and

responsibility than in autocratic system. If they are asked to learn how to live in a

democracy, students must be able to manage freedom responsibly.

5. Teacher and High Achiever Students

According to Travers as cited in Salikin at all, Achievement is the result of

what an individual has learned from some educational experiences. A high

achiever student is a person who knows what it takes to be successful in school

and is willing to put in the time and effort.24

Then, as stated by Dagarin as cited in Dayu, it will encourage the teacher

giving information and feedback, and the students asking a question about

24
Salikin, H., Zulfiqar, S., & Emelia, C. (2017). The Higher Achiever Students’
Strategies in English Learning. Modern Journal of Language Teaching Methods (MJLTM), 7(11),
087-102.
 19

material that they do not understand yet. Asking question is the most common

activity that the students do for their teacher. 25 It can conclude that the teacher has

to use their role in the classroom maximally. It means that the teacher can make

the students active in the classroom which is included the high achiever students

outside of classroom if the teacher initiates them by praising them, clarifying the

students' opinion, asking question, giving direction, etc.

6. Factors of learning achievement

As according to Purwanto, factors that can affect learning achievement

include: (1) factors that exist within the organism itself which can be called

individual factors, such as maturity / growth, intelligence, exercise, motivation,

and personal factors, (2) factors that exist outside of the individual are called

social factors, such as family / household circumstances, the teacher and the way

the teacher teaches, tools used in teaching and learning, the environment and

opportunities available, and social motivation.26 Furthermore Dalyono states that

the factors that influence learning can be classified into two factors namely:

internal factors (originating from within self) and external factors (originating

from outside self). Internal factors include: health, intelligence and talents,

interests, and motivation, ways of learning, while external factors include: family,

school, community, and the surrounding environment. 27 So, teachers who master

subject matter well, use appropriate learning methods and media, are able to

manage class well, and have the ability to foster student motivation to learn, will

positively influence student achievement inside and outside of school.

25
Restia Ensi Dayu. (2016). A Study on Teacher-Student’s Interaction of English Subject
in the Classroom. (Thesis). English Education Study Program of Tarbiyah and Tadris, Department
Islamic Education and Tadris Faculty, The State Islamic Institute, Bengkulu. P. 20.
26
Purwanto, N. (1990). Psikologi Pendidikan. Bandung: Remaja Rosdakarya. P. 102.
27
Dalyono. (2005). Psikologi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta. P. 55-59.
 20

B. Previous Related Study

There are some previous related studies with this research. Firstly, a study

written by Nurmasitah in 2010, entitled "A Study of Classroom Interaction

Characteristics in a Geography Class Conducted in English: The Case at Year

Ten of An Immersion Class in SMA N 2 Semarang".

This research is related to the characteristic of interaction in the classroom.

With the formulation of the problem of how is the classroom interaction

characteristics and to find out whether or not the English interactions as used for

teach Geography at year ten of Immersion Class at SMAN 2 Semarang have met

teaching effectiveness elements. This thesis used a qualitative research design;

especially a case study. Data obtained from several sources, including class

observation, and questionnaire.

The similarities between this thesis with this research are the study is related

to the interaction in the classroom. This thesis also used qualitative research

design specifically a case study, and the data of this thesis is obtained from

several sources, including class observation, and questionnaire.

The differences between this thesis with this research are this thesis did not

obtained data from interview. The next differences is the formulation of the

problem of how is the classroom interaction characteristics and to find out

whether or not the English interactions as used for teach Geography at year ten of

Immersion Class whereas this study formulation of the problem’s is how is the

Classroom Interaction Between Teacher and High English Achiever Students.

Then, the subject of this thesis are the 30 students of the year ten of immersion

grade of students whereas this study subject is only at least a high achiever
 21

student, and the subject of this research is the second grade of Senior High

School. The object of this thesis is in the SMAN 2 Semarang whereas this

research is conducting the study in SMA IT IQRA’ Kota Bengkulu.

The result of this thesis was support previous work performed by Pheasanty in

2003, and Inamullah in 2005. This thesis shows that there was the interaction in

each meeting had similar pattern; content cross and teacher’s talking were the

dominant characteristics. Moreover, the classroom interaction met most of

requirements of teaching effectiveness elements by Walberg, but some of them

were in very little proportion. So, the classroom interaction was not active

enough. 28

For the second previous related studies with this research is an analysis

written by Putri in 2014, entitled "An Analysis of Classroom Interaction by Using

Flander Interaction Analysis Categories System (FIACS) Technique at SMPN 13

Kota Bengkulu in 2013/ 2014 Academic Year".

This research is related to the interaction in the classroom by using Flander

Interaction Analysis Categories System (FIACS) Technique. With the formulation

of the problem of how much talking time did teacher and students spend during

classroom interaction at SMPN 13 Kota Bengkulu in 2013/2014 academic year,

what were teacher’s and students’ characteristics during classroom interaction at

SMPN 13 Kota Bengkulu in 2013/2014 academic year and what was the

correlation between the teacher and the students talk time and students’ and

teacher’s characteristics during classroom interaction at SMPN 13 Kota Bengkulu

in 2013/2014 academic year. This thesis used a qualitative research design;

28
Sita Nurmasitah. (2010). A Study of Classroom Interaction Characteristics in a
Geography Class Conducted in English: The Case at Year Ten of An Immersion Class in SMA N 2
Semarang. (Thesis). Postgraduate Program, Diponegoro University, Semarang.
 22

especially an analysis. Data obtained from several sources, including class

observation and recording.

The similarities between this thesis with this research are the study is related

to the interaction in the classroom, it means this thesis is focused on the classroom

interaction. This thesis is also used qualitative research design, and the data of this

thesis is obtained from observation.

The differences between this thesis with this research are although this thesis

is a qualitative study, but it is an analysis whereas the researcher study is a case

study. Next, this thesis did not obtained data from questionnaire and interview.

Then, the subject of this thesis is not classified by grade of students whereas the

subject of this research is the second grade of Senior High School. The object of

this thesis is in the SMPN 13 Kota Bengkulu whereas this research is conducting

the study in SMA IT IQRA’ Kota Bengkulu. After that, this thesis formulation of

the problems are different as it showed of how much talking time did teacher and

students spend during classroom interaction at SMPN 13 Kota Bengkulu in

2013/2014 academic year, what were teacher’s and students’ characteristics

during classroom interaction at SMPN 13 Kota Bengkulu in 2013/2014 academic

year and what was the correlation between the teacher and the students talk time

and students’ and teacher’s characteristics during classroom interaction at SMPN

13 Kota Bengkulu in 2013/2014 academic year, whereas this study formulation of

the problem’s is showed as how is the teacher-student’s interaction of English

subject in the classroom.

The result of this thesis was support previous work performed by Nugroho in

2009, and Nurmasitah in 2010. This thesis shows that FIACS were influence
 23

teachers’ and students’ characteristics on teachers’ and students’ talking time,

characteristic, and the correlation of whether the number of teachers and students

talk. 29

For the last previous related studies with this research is an analysis written by

Dayu in 2016, entitled "A Study on Teacher-Student’s Interaction of English

Subject in the Classroom (An Analysis at the VIII th Grade of SMPN 12 Muko-

Muko in the Academic Year of 2015/2016)".

This research is related to the interaction in the classroom between teacher and

students. With the formulation of the problem of how is the teacher-student’s

interaction of English subject in the classroom used by teachers at SMPN 12

Muko-Muko. This thesis used a qualitative research design; especially an

analysis. Data obtained from several sources, including class observation,

interview, and documentation.

The similarities between this thesis with this research are the study is related

to the interaction in the classroom between teacher and students. This thesis also

used qualitative research design, and the data of this thesis is obtained from

several sources, including class observation, interview. After that, the next

similarity is the formulation of the problem of how is the teacher-student’s

interaction of English subject in the classroom.

The differences between this thesis with this research are although this thesis

is a qualitative study, but it is an analysis and the researcher study is a case study.

Next, this thesis did not obtained data from questionnaire. Then, the subject of

29
Febby Garetsa Putri. (2014). An analysis of Classroom by Using Flander Interaction
Analysis Categories System (FIACS) technique at SMPN 13 kota Bengkulu in 2013/2014
academic year. (Thesis). English Education Study Program, Faculty of Teachers Training and
Education, Universitas Bengkulu, Bengkulu.
 24

this thesis is the VIIIth Grade of students and the subject of this research is the

second grade of Senior High School. The object of this thesis is in the SMPN 12

Muko-Muko whereas this research is conducting the study in SMA IT IQRA’

Kota Bengkulu.

The result of this thesis was support previous work performed by Nugroho in

2009, Nurmasitah in 2010, and Mujahidah in 2011. This thesis shows that there

were some students still did not respond willingly to the teacher’s question and

did not participate in class discussion. 30

30
Restia Ensi Dayu. (2016). A Study on Teacher-Student’s Interaction of English Subject
in the Classroom. (Thesis). English Education Study Program of Tarbiyah and Tadris, Department
Islamic Education and Tadris Faculty, The State Islamic Institute, Bengkulu.