Helicopters

In Search and Rescue

Basic Level

Charley Shimanski
Mountain Rescue Association
www.mra.org
 Helicopters
in Search and Rescue
Basic Level
By Charley Shimanski
with Charles Haviland Mize, BA MD,

Mountain Rescue Association

www.mra.org
© 2019, Charley Shimanski/Mountain Rescue Association – All rights reserved

COVER PHOTO: Adam Ward-News Corp Aust.

Table of Contents

Objective ........................................................................................................ 1
Introduction .................................................................................................. 1
Part 1 – Helicopter Basics ............................................................................. 3
Use of Helicopters ....................................................................................................................... 3
Helicopter Limitations ................................................................................................................ 4
Classifications of Helicopters ..................................................................................................... 5
Part 2 – What Makes a Helicopter Fly (Besides Money) .............................. 9
Aerodynamics ............................................................................................................................. 9
Helicopter Design ....................................................................................................................... 9
Helicopter Controls..................................................................................................................... 9
Types of Landing Gear ............................................................................................................... 11
Part 3 – Principles of Flight ........................................................................ 13
Ground Effect............................................................................................................................. 13
Translational Lift ....................................................................................................................... 14
Normal Takeoff .......................................................................................................................... 14
Maximum Performance Takeoff ................................................................................................ 14
Autorotation............................................................................................................................... 15
Part 4 – Helicopter Management and Safety Precautions .......................... 16
Landing Zones (“LZs”) ............................................................................................................... 16
Landings and Takeoffs ...............................................................................................................18
Loading and Unloading ............................................................................................................ 23
Air-to-Ground and Air-to-Air Communication ........................................................................ 26
Part 5 – Search and Rescue Helicopter Operations .................................... 29
Rescuers aboard Helicopters .................................................................................................... 29
Dogs aboard Helicopters: ......................................................................................................... 29
Searching From Helicopters ..................................................................................................... 30
Extrication of Subjects by Helicopter ....................................................................................... 30
Extricating Uninjured Search Subjects...................................................................................... 31
Emergency Procedures ............................................................................................................. 32
Conclusion ................................................................................................... 33
Acknowledgements ..................................................................................... 33
Objective
The Mountain Rescue Association (MRA), a volunteer organization dedicated to saving lives
through rescue and mountain safety education, has developed this program to assist search and
rescue (SAR) organizations in their helicopter operations.

This material is designed for search and rescue professionals that work occasionally with
helicopters in their search and/or rescue operations.

At the conclusion of this program, students should be able to:

 Understand the basic functions and operation of helicopters,
 Identify key elements of aerodynamics, helicopter design and controls,
 Implement helicopter management and safety precautions, and
 Recognize key issues that contribute to effective use of helicopters in search and rescue.

About the Authors

Charley Shimanski
Charley Shimanski is President of the Air Rescue Commission
for the International Commission for Alpine Rescue. He is a 30-
year member of Alpine Rescue Team and Mountain Rescue
Program Coordinator, Flight For Life Colorado. He is also Past
President and Education Director for the Mountain Rescue
Association, a national organization of rescue mountaineers.

Charley has participated as a field member and Incident

Commander for hundreds of rescues among Colorado’s highest peaks, and has consulted rescue
mountaineers, mountain guides, and climbers throughout the world, from Israel to China, from
Mt. Kilimanjaro to Aconcagua.

Dr. Charlie Mize

Charles Haviland Mize, BA MD, is a specialist in emergency
medicine and resuscitation and is a leading expert on the
retrieval of critically-ill and injured patients from austere
environments at high-altitude. He has led numerous helicopter
rescue operations throughout the Himalaya. He is a co-founding
member of BearBadger, a physician-led team that undertakes
high-risk patient retrieval, and is the founder of Bhutan
Emergency Aeromedical Retrieval, the Kingdom of Bhutan’s pre-
hospital helicopter critical care and mountain rescue team.
 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Introduction 1
Basic Level

CBS-affiliate KMGH pilots Peter Peelgrane

Introduction and Lyle Gurley flew countless hours
assisting in the search.
The introduction of helicopter aviation
dramatically changed the reach and power Helicopters bring unique value - and unique
of search and rescue work. Search and danger. Helicopter crashes are devastating
rescue (SAR) operations that were once and often lethal events that threaten even
limited by rescuers’ ability to traverse the most prepared and careful rescue
difficult terrain, terrain sufficiently operations. Even on the ground, helicopters
dangerous to create a need for rescue, can pose significant danger: rotor blades
be brought quickly into action from the sky. spinning faster than 150 M.P.H. can inflict
Capable of search and reconnaissance as deadly wounds to the careless or inattentive.
well as rescue and extrication, the helicopter The safety of helicopters in search and
brings unparalleled versatility in its ability rescue is in direct proportion to the
to support emergency and disaster knowledge and skill of those who manage
response. But with this versatility come the their use.
dangers inherent to helicopter flight and
operations. As local SAR teams gain
improved access to air support, it becomes
essential that those who work in search and
rescue learn the basics of helicopter aviation
and receive a thorough orientation to
helicopter safety.

The past several decades have seen

helicopters play an increasing role in search
and rescue. The Alpine Rescue Team
employed seven helicopters throughout its
1988 Colorado search for a lost hiker: two
Despite the fact that helicopters are
U.S. Army Chinooks, three news helicopters
and two charter helicopters. In a typical uniquely valuable, they can be
demonstration of helicopter versatility, the extremely dangerous. Photo: Office
news helicopters conducted aerial searches of Aircraft Services (OAS)
for the victim while the Chinooks carried
rescuers to be deployed in the field.
Helicopter aviation enabled NBC affiliate In the United States, there have been
KCNC-TV pilot Mike Silva to spot the crash several recent accidents involving rescue
site of a Civil Air Patrol plane and to then helicopters;
guide field teams and an Army Chinook to
the site. Thanks to his work, these SAR  2008 – A rescue paramedic was
teams were able to rescue a survivor from fatally injured when he was struck in
the crash. Silva later brought helicopter the head by a main rotor blade
support to the aid of several rescuers during a rescue of two hikers.
suffering from Acute Mountain Sickness,  2009 – A New Mexico State Police
extracting them from the top of Pendleton helicopter crashed into a
Mountain during a SAR operation. That mountainside. The pilot and the
operation also employed a charter search subject he rescued died in the
helicopter to fly infrared scanning crash, but the spotter survived.
equipment while KCNC’s Silva together with  2012 – Mount Rainier National Park
 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Introduction 2
Basic Level

Ranger Nick Hall died from a 2,400 whose lift arises from the air movement that
foot fall when he lost his balance on forward thrust generates on stationary
the mountain during a helicopter wings. This course and those that follow it
rescue of injured climbers. use term helicopter and rotary-wing aircraft
 2013 – An Alaska State Police interchangeably.
helicopter crashed during a rescue of
a snowmobiler. The pilot, his
spotter, and the subject they rescued
died in the crash.

Pilot error and machine failure can both

lead to crash. A helicopter is only as skilled
as its pilot; its pilot, only as strong as the
machine he or she flies. There are three
major killers of helicopter pilots: ‘Wind,
Weather, and Wires.’

These tragedies are cause for caution but

not alarm. Helicopter crashes kill fewer
people than any other form of
transportation, representing, for example,
just 0.1 percent of the 56,000
transportation fatalities that occurred in
1979. Moreover, when a helicopter crashes,
its pilot and occupants are far more likely to
survive than those aboard a crashing plane.
Contrary to popular conception, it is not
impact with the ground that usually kills
passengers, but rather the forward
momentum at time of landing. This speed
carries the aircraft into trees and other
hazards. In general, helicopters have a
lower forward speed than do planes because
helicopters require less air speed to avoid
stalling. In addition to reducing the
likelihood of impact with obstacles on the
terrain, this lower forward speed also allows
a helicopter pilot to negotiate an emergency
landing with less room. It is important to
note that, in addition to trauma, cabin fire is
another significant cause of death after
helicopter crash.

We close this introduction with a note on

terminology. Aviation often refers to
helicopters as rotary-wing aircraft, a name
that comes from the rotating ‘wings’ of the
helicopter’s rotor blades. By contrast, fixed-
wing refers to planes and other aircraft
 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 1 – Helicopter Basics 3
Basic Level

Part 1 – Helicopter
through the transport of rescuers and/or
their gear. The speed afforded by helicopter
transport can reduce time and rescuer
Basics fatigue, both vital considerations in many
rescue operations.

Use of Helicopters A thorough analysis of the benefit and the

risk of helicopter deployment in any given
When a search and rescue team employs a
search and rescue operation is vital to safe
helicopter, it puts a powerful instrument to
helicopter use. The Incident Commander
work. Modern helicopters are capable of a
and other leadership must undertake this
variety of missions, to include:
analysis and decide if the benefits brought
by helicopter aviation outweigh its
 The search for a lost or injured attendant risks. Is it worth the risk, for
person or persons
example, to deploy a helicopter to evacuate
 Their subsequent evacuation a healthy search subject simply to avoid a
 The insertion or extrication of two- or three-mile walkout? Few would say
rescuers it is. Conversely, who would question the
 An aerial survey of topography by need for an air ambulance when the victim
search and rescue leadership of a plane crash lies unconscious and
bleeding at the scene of the crash? Between
While SAR teams will often engage planes to these two examples fall the majority of
search large open areas for prominent clues search and rescue operations and the more
(e.g. ski tracks, tents, downed aircraft, etc.), difficult decision to call for air support or to
they turn to helicopters to search with closer decline it.
detail or to explore areas more difficult to
examine from fixed‑wing aircraft (such as
cliffs, gullies, cliff bottoms, etc.).

In search operations, the noise from a

helicopter may attract the victim of a search
who, in turn, may attempt to attract the
attention of those on board the helicopter.
In addition, helicopters can transport
searchers and other equipment to remote
search and rescue assignments.

Helicopters are often used not only to

evacuate an injured subject from the field Rescue leadership must perform a
but to transport that injured party to a local thorough risk-benefit analysis in order
hospital. Helicopter rescue teams employ a to assure safe utilization of helicopter
number of methods to evacuate injured resources. Photo: Lifeflight hoist
subjects. In addition to carrying victims operation by Deseret News, Salt Lake
into the helicopter cabin, helicopter teams City.
can also perform extrications where victims
and rescuers are carried outside of the
helicopter. These methods referred to
“external loads,” and include the use of hoist
systems and slings. SAR teams also employ
helicopters to support operation logistics

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 1 – Helicopter Basics 4
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Helicopter VFR rules dictate that there must be a

minimum one-half mile visibility and a 500-
Limitations foot ceiling (distance between ground and
bottom of lowest clouds). For National
To accurately weight the advantages Guard helicopters, the visibility for VFR is
brought by helicopter use against its risks increased to 1 mile. A pilot flying under
and expense, search and rescue teams must VFR must have sight of the ground at all
be aware of the many factors that limit times.
helicopter aviation. Altitude, weather and
terrain will all affect a helicopter’s The standards for night flying are more
performance and will thus in turn alter its conservative. During night flying, VFR
usefulness in search and rescue operations. require a minimum three-mile visibility.
All aircraft have a limited working altitude The rules further demand that the pilot keep
(called service ceiling), which changes with a 500-foot minimum below clouds, a 1000-
air temperature and humidity. foot minimum above clouds, and a 2,000-
foot horizontal distance from clouds.
Visibility Minimums
Safe flight requires pilots to know where Larger helicopters, such as most of those
they are, where they are going and what used in search and rescue operations,
possible obstacles might endanger their generally possess instrument flight
journey. Absent this knowledge, flying is capability and can thus fly under instrument
exceeding dangerous. Depending on the flight rules.
capability of the aircraft and the training of
the pilot, flights are governed through either Weather Conditions
one of two sets of rules to ensure that pilots Turbulence is the rough air that causes
are in contact with their environment: sudden and undesired movement in flight.
Visual Flight Rules (VFR) and Instrument Heavy turbulence can make helicopter flight
Flight Rules. VFR requires that a pilot difficult or even unsafe and can render the
maintain visual contact with the careful control required for many rescue
environment and must avoid clouds. IFR operations challenging or impossible. There
allows flight through the use of instruments, are several causes of turbulence: storm
flight plans and coordination with air traffic wind, rising air and the air currents around
control teams when imperfect weather mountains are common examples. Pilots
compromises a pilot’s ability to see with a often desire the calm air of morning flights
naked eye. before the sun has warmed the earth and set
the air to rise. Cumulus clouds indicate
In general, smaller helicopters do not have turbulence with strong updrafts and
IFR capability, and must fly in what the downdrafts. Downdrafts often flow in the
aviation community refers to as visual middle of a valley and can challenge a
meteorological conditions – they cannot fly helicopter’s lift, especially at high altitudes
through clouds and must keep a safe with their consequent reduction in engine
distance from other aircraft. power. By contrast, updrafts often exist
over ridges or on the sunny side of a rising
Although visual flight rules are used by both hill or mountain. The leeward side of a
fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft, VFR for ridge (that side sheltered from the
helicopters is different from that employed predominant wind) may have severe
by planes due to the slower speeds downdrafts.
helicopters are able to fly.

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 1 – Helicopter Basics 5
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Even if a helicopter is on its way to evacuate flight. In the United States, a flight nurse
a victim, ground personnel should still move and paramedic often comprise these teams.
to the scene with all equipment necessary to A physician may staff a flight to meet
transport the victim. Never assume a specific clinical need, although this is
helicopter en route will become a helicopter uncommon. These ships can usually carry
on scene. Should weather, mechanical anywhere from one to four supine adult
failure or crash arrest the helicopter’s patients, depending on the type of craft and
progress, the ground team must be prepared the internal configuration.
to continue to mission.
Emergency medical equipment including
Fuel electrocardiograph monitor, oxygen,
As noted in the "Helicopter Types" section defibrillator, suction apparatus,
(below), each type of helicopter has flight endotracheal intubation equipment,
range dictated by engine type, weight and intravenous fluids, transport Isolettes and
fuel supply. Helicopters are often based emergency drugs are all carried on board
some distance from the search and rescue the helicopter. In effect, the emergency
mission, and the journey from this base to room is carried to the patient for immediate
the point of action costs time and fuel. SAR treatment and care.
leadership might engage a mobile fuel
tanker at the operation’s heliport to refuel
helicopters during an extended search
mission, but more often than not helicopters
will have to leave the scene to refuel.

Mechanical
It goes without saying that a helicopter is a
machine, and machines do not always work.
Moreover, their failure can be unpredictable
and catastrophic. For this and other
important reasons (cost, ground safety, and Flight nurses and/or paramedics are a
so on), it is imperative that SAR teams key element of med-evac helicopters.
conduct a thorough risk-benefit analysis Photo: Charley Shimanski
prior to each and every helicopter operation.
These air ambulances enable an emergency
Classifications of medicine and critical care team to provide
immediate intensive care to a patient at the
Helicopters site of injury and to transport that patient as
rapidly as possible to the hospital for
definitive care.
Helicopter Emergency Medical
Services (HEMS) Helicopters Whenever a Helicopter Emergency Medical
Most search and rescue teams will have Services (HEMS) helicopter responds to a
access to local Helicopter Emergency mission, search and rescue team members
Medical Services (HEMS) helicopters, since should refrain from talking to the flight
many rescue missions occur within nurse or pilot. The only person who should
proximity of a large town with a Level I discuss the patient with the flight nurse is
trauma center. Flight crews specially the primary medical team member, who will
qualified in critical care medicine staff each give the flight nurse a full (and brief) update

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 1 – Helicopter Basics 6
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of the patient's condition, nature of injuries, enforcement helicopters and their pilots. If
etc. (For further information on this either lack the ability to fly at altitude, they
briefing, contact your team's Medical should not be considered a resource for high
Director. If you do not have a Medical altitude missions.
Director, contact the HEMS helicopter’s
medical director). The helipad director or On the other hand, many county
person most familiar with helicopter governments have sophisticated aviation
operations should be the only person to programs. In most of California, for
speak with the pilot while the ship is on the example, the vast majority of search and
ground. rescue operations are conducted by county
aviation units. In Los Angeles County, it can
SAR team members should be aware of how be either the Sheriff or the fire department’s
HEMS helicopters are dispatched. In most rescue-equipped helicopters. In other
cases, this will be via the local Sheriff's counties it may be a combined unit or a
dispatch, although some SAR teams may be Sheriff’s unit. Within the last couple of
able to request these helicopters directly. years, the California Highway Patrol has
greatly expanded their program and now
If the SAR team believes that a victim’s flying missions when county resources are
injury or illness may require immediate not available, including missions in
medical care, then the rescuers should mountainous terrain.
notify the HEMS crew or dispatch in
advance. Doing so allows the pilot and Civilian Helicopters
flight crew to familiarize themselves with Charter helicopters may be available to SAR
the terrain and weather conditions before teams. Although charter helicopters can be
they are actually called into action. a valuable resource for SAR teams, the
possible benefit they bring requires
HEMS teams and their aircraft operate forethought and anticipatory planning if the
under their own set of limitations. Their benefit is to be fully realized. Often these
equipment and the regulations that govern helicopters and their pilots lack extensive
HEMS work often limit where they are able experience in search and rescue flights and
to land. As an example, if the HEMS team sometimes in flying at altitude.
works under Federal Aviation Coordination between charter helicopters
Administration (FAA) code Part 135, they and SAR teams is less likely to be rehearsed;
may be restricted from certain landing sites, SAR teams will often lack familiarity with
particularly at night, that public use aircraft the machine and its pilot. Whenever
may safely and legally use. Also, their size possible, safety demands that SAR team
or configuration, set up mostly for helipads leadership develop an awareness of the
and streets, might not work well in the altitude and performance limits of charter
mountains. aircraft and pilots. There is also the matter
of cost: charter helicopter services usually
Law Enforcement Helicopters charge for their services. SAR teams that
Many local county Sheriffs or city Police anticipate the engagement of charter
Departments operate helicopters for law aircraft should develop a plan with the local
enforcement, especially those in the vicinity sheriff and the private helicopter agency
of a large city. The altitude limits of these before the need becomes real. In some
helicopters often preclude their use in the situations, funds may be available to
mountains, but may allow for search and augment search or rescue missions, but SAR
rescue flights in the foothills. SAR teams team leadership would be wise to
should know the limitations of local law

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 1 – Helicopter Basics 7
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investigate such possible funding in advance Small acts of collaboration between the SAR
of a real need. team and the news crew may seem to be
insignificant when they are anything but:
Media Helicopters actions that seem trivial to SAR team
Search and Rescue teams close to large members can carry significant importance
cities with network television stations may for a news. Imagine that a television news
be fortunate to have at their disposal one or helicopter, with a SAR member on board as
more media helicopters. In many a spotter, is responsible for a "find" during a
situations, these helicopters can become an search operation in which a safe field
extremely valuable resource. Key to the landing and extrication of the victim is
successful implementation of media possible. Often, the television station will
helicopters is a strong mutual relationship have a ground crew at the command post,
between the SAR team and the local shooting footage of the return of the
television or radio station that operates the helicopter. When the SAR team allows the
ship. Since these helicopters are an pilot to come to full rotor stop and to escort
expensive tool for the station, the SAR team the victim off the helicopter himself or
must be judicious in requesting these herself, the SAR team allows the television
resources. station to tell a great story, to present itself
in a positive light, and to take appropriate
Search and Rescue overhead teams should recognition of the contribution of their
keep in mind that the media helicopter pilot helicopter. Remember that it is the
and crew have two important objectives. television station that foots the bill for the
The first objective is to "bring home the expensive helicopter! And that the pilot’s
news story." The second objective is to skills enabled the "find."
assist in the SAR mission. The overhead
team must respect the media's needs while As with charter helicopters, SAR team
focusing on its own objectives. leadership must also be aware of the
operational and altitude limitations of
media aircraft and their pilots.
Nonetheless, these extremely valuable
resources should never be overlooked.

Some state SAR teams make little use of

private helicopters. For example, California
rescue teams occasionally receive support
from military aircraft, they seldom engage
media or charter helicopters.

Military Helicopters
Because the armed services have a budget to
assist civilian search and rescue efforts, SAR
Key to the successful utilization of teams are increasingly undertaking
media helicopters is a strong mutual missions that involve collaboration with
relationship between the SAR team military helicopters stationed at local Army
and the local television or radio or Air Force bases. The US military
station that operates the ship. Photo: generally employs three types of helicopters
Charley Shimanski to assist in SAR work: the double rotor
Chinook and the single rotor UH-70 Lakota
and Blackhawk. The UH-70 Lakotas are

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 1 – Helicopter Basics 8
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used less frequently for mountain activities

due to their altitude limitations.

Requests for Army air support are made

through the Air Force Rescue Coordination
Center (AFRCC) headquarters. Since
missions requiring this type of air support
are generally multi-agency missions, these
requests are made by the local sheriff's
office or, when present, by the State Mission
Coordinator for the state SAR agency.

Requests for Army air support are

made through the AFRCC
headquarters. Photo: Scott Darsney

National Guard resources may also be

requested through the state's National
Guard Joint Operations Centers.

While military helicopters are often

operated by some of the best pilots in the
country, they frequently fly in environments
different from those found in mountain
rescue. This environment includes more
than just the physical geography of the
flight, and may include the radio
frequencies available, the types of maps
used and the required crew size to fly a
mission.

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 2 – What Makes a
Helicopter Fly
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Basic Level

Part 2 – What Makes

while in motion, especially at night. The
dangerous speed and near-invisibility of the
tail rotor have important implications for
a Helicopter Fly helicopter safety. The cabin is defined as
the internal portion of the helicopter where
(Besides Money) pilots and passengers are seated.

Aerodynamics
Most helicopters operate with a single main
rotor coupled with a single tail rotor. If a
helicopter with a single main rotor lacked a
tail rotor, the torque of the main rotor
would cause the fuselage of the ship to spin
in the direction opposite to that of the rotor
blades. The tail rotor acts to counteract the
effect of this torque, allowing the helicopter
to fly without spinning. Twin rotor
helicopters correct the spinning effect of
this torque by having the two main rotors
turn in opposite directions.
Rotor Systems
The actual "lift" in a helicopter is There are two basic helicopter designs, the
accomplished by the main rotor blade, single main rotor helicopter or the dual
which has a cross-section similar to the (a.k.a. tandem or twin) main rotor
wing of an airplane. As this "wing" moves helicopter. The most common design uses a
through the air, spinning on an engine- single main rotor, which imparts lift and
driven shaft, lift is generated. The amount thrust, and a smaller tail rotor, which
of lift generated is dependent on the "pitch," compensates for torque induced by the
or the angle of attack of the rotor blade powered turning of the main rotor.
through the air.
Some helicopters have dual main rotors,
If you extend your hand out the window of a mounted in tandem, side-by-side or one
speeding car and move the angle of your above the other. The two rotors can then
hand up from the horizontal position, you correct each other’s torque by turning in
can feel the lift produced as the angle is opposite directions.
increased. A rotor blade works in the same
way.
Helicopter Controls
Helicopter flight requires a pilot to master
Helicopter Design four controls and their interplay. These are:
The main rotor is the rotor that rotates on o Collective Pitch Control
the horizontal plane. The main rotor turns o Throttle Control
at speeds of approximately 300 RPM. In o Anti-Torque Control
helicopters with a single main rotor, the tail o Cyclic
rotor is the smaller rotor in the rear or the
aircraft, rotating in the vertical plane. The Collective Pitch Control
tail rotor generally turns between 1,500 - The "collective pitch control" lever is located
1,800 RPM, making it impossible to see to the left of the pilot and moves in a simple

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up and down motion. It is important to Anti-torque Control

note that the location of the pilot in the The two floor pedals provide "anti-torque"
aircraft is not standardized. In many control by varying the amount of thrust
helicopters, the pilot sits in the right hand generated by the helicopter’s tail rotor by
(starboard) seat, while in others he or she adjusting the pitch (angle of attack) of the
sits on the left. The collective pitch control tail rotor blade(s). This thrust counteracts
is positioned relative to the pilot’s seat (to the torque generated by the helicopter's
its left) and not simply on the left (port) side main rotor. Anti-torque control is
of the aircraft. The collective allows the essential: it prevents the helicopter from
pilot to vary the angle of attack, or "pitch," spinning out of control. By maintaining tail
of the main rotor blades, increasing the rotor thrust equal to main rotor torque, the
corresponding lift. For turbine engine helicopter will hold a hover without
helicopters, as the collective pitch control is spinning in any direction. While in a hover
pulled up, the angle of attack of the main or at low airspeeds, the pilot can change the
rotor blade is increased. As the pitch of the aircraft’s heading by increasing or
main rotor blades is increased, power must decreasing the anti-torque. With the
be increased to assure a constant r.p.m. A initiation of forward movement, the pilot
fuel governor accomplishes this by must blend pedal action with other control
providing more fuel to the engine as the movements to produce a coordinated flight.
pitch is increased.

Throttle Control
The throttle increases or decreases the rate
of revolution of the main rotor blade. On
piston engine helicopters, the throttle is
mounted to the collective pitch stick to allow
for their coordinated use. Increasing the
pitch of the main rotor blades requires more
engine power to maintain rotor RPM when
the helicopter lifts off or climbs. On
turbine-powered helicopters, this power
coordination is accomplished automatically
through the fuel control and governor
systems of the turbine engine.
On dual rotor helicopters, the problem of
torque control is solved through the
counter-rotation of the main rotor blades.
Manipulation of the relative torques of the
two main blades affords heading and
directional control in a hover.

It is important to recognize that while anti-

torque control provides helicopters with
substantial maneuverability, it can become
an important liability as well. Sometimes
wind conditions, altitude and the limitations
of engine performance conspire to create a
situation where the maximum thrust
provided by the tail blades is insufficient to

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 2 – What Makes a
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Basic Level

counteract the torque generated by the main force is produced, pushing the helicopter in
rotor. When this occurs, the aircraft will that direction. To move to the right, the
enter into an uncontrollable turn, a rotor blades are unbalanced and more
circumstance dangerous for all on-board. thrust is produced over the left side of the
helicopter.
Cyclic Control
The final primary flight control is the
"cyclic" control stick, which is controlled by
Types of Landing
the pilot's right hand via a lever that
projects between the legs. The cyclic pitch
Gear
Several types of landing gear are found on
control produces changes in pitch to each
helicopters. Each type of landing gear
rotor blade individually. If the pilot pushes
provides a unique function relative to
the cyclic stick forward, the pitch of each
others. The most common types of landing
blade is increased as it sweeps toward the
gear are detailed below:
tail of the helicopter. As each blade swings
forward, toward the nose of the helicopter,
pitch is flattened. The result is that each
blade produces more lift as it swings to the
rear than when it swings ahead. Lift-thrust
force is produced in the rear, which elevates
the tail of the helicopter.

Wheels
Wheels are primarily used on medium- and
heavy-class helicopters. Helicopters with
wheels are often capable of movement on
the ground, an important ability when
necessity requires repositioning at a
heliport.
Directional movement of the helicopter
(including bank during turns) and speed in Skids
forward flight are achieved by use of the Skids are the most common type of landing
"Cyclic Control." The main rotor system is gear used in light- and medium-class
tilted in the direction of the stick movement. helicopters. Skids are permanent, non-
retractable horizontal "feet" which provide a
This principle occurs whenever the cyclic is long, flat touchdown surface for the
moved, allowing the pilot lateral and roll helicopter. Tundra pads and snow pads
control of the helicopter. may be used for weight distribution when
landings are required in areas where
To hover and move to the left, pitch is helicopter weight may cause the ship to
changed to each blade, producing more settle on landing.
thrust as it swings to the right. A side ward

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 2 – What Makes a
Helicopter Fly
12
Basic Level

Floats
Floats can be used on land as well as water.
There are two types of floats, "fixed" and
"inflated."

Retractable Landing Gear

Some of the more refined helicopters are
equipped with landing gear that may be
retracted during flight. The retraction of
landing gear makes the helicopter more
aerodynamic.

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 3 – Principles of Flight 13
Basic Level

Part 3 – Principles of
Flight
Certain terms and concepts are vital to
helicopter aviation. Familiarity with them is
essential for all those working around
helicopters. The most common are detailed
below.

Ground Effect
Ground effect is a condition of improved
performance that a helicopter experiences
when operating near the ground. It arises Out of Ground Effect (OGE)
from an interaction between the helicopter’s Conversely, a helicopter experiences "Out of
rotor wash and the ground and becomes Ground Effect" (OGE) performance when
more pronounced the closer the helicopter the rotor wash is not affected by proximity
is to the surface beneath it. to the ground. OGE usually occurs when the
helicopter is more than one-half of the rotor
diameter above the ground. In OGE, a
In Ground Effect (IGE) helicopter is power dependent when a hover
In Ground Effect (IGE) is the effect on the is maintained. A helicopter will also
performance of a helicopter caused by the experience OGE conditions when near to
return of the rotor wash from the ground. ground if the ground does not allow for the
As the helicopter's main rotor turns, its creation of a cushion of air underneath the
wash presses against the ground, creating a aircraft. When in hover over tall grass,
cushion of air beneath the hovering water, and certain types of rough terrain, a
helicopter. This compressed air provides helicopter will not experience In Ground
additional lift to the helicopter. Once the Effect performance. If the pilot is instructed
helicopter is above the ground by a distance to try to land in these conditions, the
equal to the diameter of the main rotor, the helispot should be described as an "OGE
extra lift furnished by IGE rapidly falls to Helispot."
nothing.

In Ground Effect (IGE) occurs to its greatest

extent at approximately one-half of the rotor
diameter above the ground. There are
additional, technical reasons why ground
effect increases lift and allows lift to be
sustained with less power. The ground
alters the airflow pattern around and
through the rotor system. The airflow
through the rotor system moves with a
lower velocity and, as a consequence, with
lower drag. Furthermore, rotor tip vortex
generation is reduced.

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 3 – Principles of Flight 14
Basic Level

Many helicopters are able to lift less payload to obtain maximum airspeed with minimum
by sling than they can when the payload is ground speed.
on board the helicopter, because sling lifts
occur higher off the ground and thus require
OGE performance.

Translational Lift
Horizontal movement of the surface wind
increases the efficiency of the hovering
rotor. As increasing velocities of airflow
enter the rotor system, turbulence and
vortices are left behind and airflow becomes
horizontal. This improved rotor efficiency
resulting from directional flight is called
"translational lift."

In effect, this is the lift that is obtained from

translation from a hover to forward flight. Maximum
It is felt as a "shudder" in the aircraft.
Performance Takeoff
"Maximum performance takeoff" is the
takeoff procedure used when departing a
confined area, that is, where flight of the
helicopter is limited by terrain or other
obstructions. During the maximum
performance takeoff, little use can be made
of ground effect or translational lift until the
obstruction has been cleared. Thus, the
rotor system is less efficient and the takeoff
requires a greater demand on the
helicopter’s power plant, with less engine
power in reserve as a safety margin.
Confined landing sites are thus less safe and
should be avoided whenever possible. It is
Effective Translational Lift important to note that the greatest strain on
a helicopter's engine occurs during landings
At airspeeds between 10 and 15 knots,
and takeoffs, and that confined landing sites
depending on the model of helicopter, the
leave little room for error.
rotor completely outruns the recirculation
of old vortices and begins to work on clean
air. Effective translational lift results.

Normal Takeoff
Normal takeoff is the procedure used where
flight of the helicopter is not limited by the
presence of obstructions---natural or man-
made. Normal takeoff is made into the wind

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 3 – Principles of Flight 15
Basic Level

Autorotation
"Autorotation" is the flight condition during
which no engine power is supplied to the
rotor system and the movement of air up
through the rotor blades enables sustained
flight. Autorotation allows the pilot to use
the inertia generated by this airflow to slow
the rate of descent and effect a safe landing.
Unlike fixed wing aircraft, rotor wing
aircraft are capable of controlled landings
during most conditions when power is lost,
assuming a suitable landing surface exists
below the helicopter. Landing in
autorotation is an essential part of training
to be a helicopter pilot.

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
16
Basic Level

Part 4 – Helicopter
their use. Finally, all personnel should
remain 100 feet away from helicopters,
except when loading.
Management and
Landing Zones
Safety Precautions
Safety training for any rescue team
(“LZs”)
Contrary to popular belief, helicopters do
personnel working with helicopters is not normally land "on a dime," but rather
essential, and must include which actions to require or desire a sizable landing zone,
take and which to avoid when working with particularly at high elevation. Helicopters
helicopters either on the ground or in the generally will not take off or land vertically.
air. Rather, they need a landing zone (often
called an "LZ", referred to throughout this
Those overseeing helicopter operations material as a "helispot") that may be
should conduct a briefing prior to each day's hundreds of feet long. The ideal helispot is
operation. This briefing should set forth the a flat strip 100 feet wide and 300 feet long
plan of action for the pilots and the ground (roughly the size of a football field). Flat
personnel, including a review of on-the- ridges and saddles often provide the best
ground and in-the-air safety precautions. helispots in the field. Highways, streets or
Pertinent safety plans and flight hazard roads unobstructed by outlying trees can
maps should be reviewed before a flight is make for excellent landing zones, but their
scheduled. The pilot is responsible for the use requires that law enforcement be
safety of the helicopter at all times, and available to control traffic and crowds.
should, therefore, participate in operational
planning to improve his ability to keep the A primary reason helicopters need large
machine and its occupants safe from harm. landing zones is to improve safety. A
helicopter is more likely to experience
The SAR team should limit helicopter flights engine failure during takeoff due to the high
to daylight hours whenever possible engine stress takeoff entails, and if it does, it
(defined as ½ hour before sunrise to ½ will need extra room to land safely.
hour after sunset). The mission's leadership
must track wind velocity and visibility in
any anticipated flight path and halt any
mountain flight when the average wind
velocity exceeds a helicopters' limitations.

Passengers of the helicopter should request

a briefing from the pilot prior to the flight to
ascertain the location of emergency exits,
fire extinguishers, the emergency electrical
and fuel shut-off, the emergency locator
transmitter (ELT) manual switch, first aid
kits and survival gear. No unauthorized
personnel should be allowed to fly on any The ideal helispot is a flat strip 100
mission. feet wide and 300 feet long (roughly
the size of a football field). Photo:
Helicopter hand signals should be used as Dave Bathke
needed, but only by personnel trained in

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

Remember that a helicopter experiences team leaders must consider whether the
"Out of Ground Effect" (OGE) performance benefits of night operations outweigh their
when the ground is not close enough to risks. If the team decides that a night flight
allow interaction with rotor wash. In OGE, is absolutely necessary, then every effort
a helicopter’s hover depends entirely upon should be made to inform the pilot of the
engine power, receiving no assistance from optimal flight paths to avoid hazards such as
the ground. When considering landing trees, peaks, ridges and especially power
zones, it is important to remember that lines. At night, rescuers can use headlamps
OGE conditions can occur near the ground to mark a helispot, provided the lamps are
when the helicopter hovers over tall grass, able to provide steady and consistent light.
water, and certain types of rough terrain.
As noted above, any helispot with these Alternatively, two vehicles can illuminate a
features should be described as an “OGE helispot with headlights. To do so, the
Helispot” to warn any pilot trying to land at vehicles should be positioned 40 yards
the site. downwind from and at opposing 45-degree
angles to the landing site. The helicopter
Helispots should be designed in such a way will then approach between the two vehicles
that the helicopter can land and take off into and will land near the intersection of their
the wind to increase lift. SAR teams should lights, roughly 40 yards upwind from the
create "hover hole" helispots only as a vehicles. These vehicles should have low
measure of last resort. A hover hole is a beams on so as not to blind the pilot or flood
landing zone where, due to its size the instrument panel with light.
restrictions or the presence of obstacles, the
pilot must slow to a hover above the landing
area and then descend to the ground. When
taking off from a hover hole, the pilot must
use all available engine power, leaving little
or no room for error. The dangers are
obvious; therefore, hover holes should be
avoided whenever possible.

Since the typical helicopter can kick up rotor

wash in excess of 100 mph on takeoffs and
landings (significantly more on Chinooks),
the helispot should be free of lightweight
objects that will blow away. The landing site Helispots should be defined in such a
should be free of tall dry grass and shrubs to way that the helicopter can land and
prevent possible damage to the sensitive tail take off into the wind to increase lift.
rotor. Tree stumps should be less than 1 Photo: Charley Shimanski
foot high. A snowfield can make a good
helispot, but markers such as backpacks In the event that the pilot cannot locate the
must be placed near the helispot to give the proposed helispot, due to other surface
pilot some sense of depth perception. lights in the area, emergency vehicle lights
can be illuminated. As the helicopter
The last decade has seen an increased ability approaches, put out all lights except those
to undertake night operations as the ability used to illuminate hazards and the
to fly under instrument flight rules has touchdown pad. All strobes and rotating
become increasingly common. Since night beacons must be shut off as well, as this can
landings and takeoffs are significantly more cause vertigo and affect the pilot's horizon.
dangerous than those made by day, SAR

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

Landings and familiar with helicopter operations,

including landing zones, ground-to-air
Takeoffs communications and helicopter safety.
Once the helicopter is within radio range,
Landings and takeoffs are generally made the parking tender should make radio
easier in the presence of a light, steady contact with the pilot. Knowing that a
breeze (such as 10 knots or 12 mph) than in knowledgeable parking tender is available
still air. In addition, the pilot may choose will ease the mind of most pilots flying into
not to take off or land in a wind greater than mountainous terrain. As the ship enters the
45 knots (approximately 50 mph) or with a area of the rescue, the parking tender's
gust spread of over 20 knots (23 mph). communication with the pilot becomes
essential.
When landing, a pilot will often make a high
level pass over the helispot to note obstacles
and wind indicators and then will come in
on a "final approach," where he or she
attempts to land. All personnel not in the
helispot should resist the desire to watch the
helicopter and to look away to avoid injury
from flying debris kicked up by the rotor
wash, especially during Chinook landing or
takeoffs. All ground staff must secure any
loose gear.

During final approach, only one ground

crew – the person working as ‘parking
Knowing that a knowledgeable parking
tender’ - should be in the helispot. With the
tender is available may ease the mind of
helicopter some distance away, the parking
tender will indicate the touchdown point by most pilots flying into mountainous
standing upwind of the landing site with his terrain. Photo: Ryan Schumacher
or her back to the wind while pointing with
his or her arms toward the desired landing Ground-to-Air communication
spot.
during landings and take-offs
The landing zone should be clear of rescuers Radio communication from rescuers on the
during any attempted landing on snow or ground to the helicopter pilot and/or crew is
ice. There is always the chance that the essential for rescuers to safely land a
helicopter's weight will cause it to settle in helicopter at a proposed landing zone. Any
the snow, which could be dangerous for any pilot on an incoming ship will want to know
rescuer in the helispot. This sudden shift in the precise location of the proposed landing
snow after landing led to a nearly fatal zone. The location should be clearly
accident on Mount Robson, Canada, in specified, using landmarks such as roads.
1981. Pilots generally do not carry the usual 7.5'
USGS quadrangle maps used by ground
search teams.
Parking Tenders
To a helicopter pilot, the parking tender The helispot should also be clearly defined.
may be the most critical person in the field. This may be an empty parking lot near the
This guide, designated by the field site Incident Command Post. More likely, the
commander, should be the person most landing site will be in the mountains,

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

requiring a general description of its terrain. Using this orientation, you can easily guide
Its elevation should be stated, as well as any a pilot to your location by telling him or her,
obstructions to include their distances and for example, "The helispot is at your 2
bearings (e.g. "100 foot tower 300 feet SSE o'clock." Combining this orientation with
of helispot"). Aerial wires must be an estimated distance from the ship to the
mentioned, as these are often unmarked helispot will greatly assist the pilot.
and very difficult for a pilot to see. The
1988 KUSA helicopter crash that killed pilot Finally, the ground team must communicate
Galanis and photographer Hostetler was the weather conditions to the pilot. The ceiling
result of unmarked power lines. Today, is the distance from the ground to the lowest
those same lines have "floaters" on them. clouds, and should be stated in feet.
The ground team should provide wind Visibility is stated in miles. Temperature is
indicators whenever possible and alert the very important, as is an estimate of wind
pilot to obstacles in the flight path. velocity, direction and gust spread. Gust
spread is the difference in speed between
Most pilots require longitudinal/latitudinal the lightest gust of wind and the heaviest,
coordinates when attempting to find a e.g. 10-25 mph. Parking tenders should
helispot. Any team member proficient in make note of this information while the
reading topographic maps should be able to helicopter is en route and read from their
provide this information. Those unfamiliar notes to the pilot as the helicopter makes its
with topographic maps should take caution approach.
before reporting coordinates: it is easy to
confuse GPS longitude/latitude coordinates Mountain flight is challenging, and
with Universal Transverse Mercator (UTM) providing pilots with an indication of wind
coordinates. A simple mistake can send the direction and velocity is one of the most
helicopter to Bolivia! valuable tasks that the parking tender can
perform. While some groups employ small
Once the parking tender has the helicopter film-canister size smoke grenades, most
in sight, it should be easy to direct the pilot teams wisely avoid use smoke grenades
to the proposed helispot. This is done using altogether because their use entails a high
the clock method. Imagine the helicopter risk of fire. The helispot manager’s
mounted on the base plate of a clock. The observations coupled trail tape streamers
helicopter's nose points to twelve o'clock, its are equally effective at determining wind
tail to six o'clock. direction and are less dangerous. Streamers
or plastic flagging in bright colors may be
tied to rocks, bushes, trees or poles.

If smoke grenades must be used, the

parking tender should activate them
downwind of the helispot, and to one side of
the approach pattern, as the helicopter
makes its high level pass over the helispot.
If wind is light (under 10 mph) and variable,
smoke may obscure the helispot and
become more of a hindrance than help.
Commercial smoke grenades, usually about
the size of a film canister, will release smoke
for less than a minute. Parking tenders
should wear gloves when activating them.
As opposed to commercial smoke grenades,

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

most military grenades generate too much have no role in the communication between
heat to be safely held in hand. ground teams and air support, and serve
only to confuse or mislead pilots. For
Wind indicators should be placed as close to example, when rescuers attempt to guide a
the edge of the helispot as is safe, so that the helicopter pilot to a landing zone by waving
pilot gets a true picture of the wind currents their arms back and forth, they risk
moving close to ground at the site. It is dismissing the pilot. The ‘waving arms’ is
important to ensure that streamers or the "Wave-off" signal that tells the pilot not
flagging are secured so that they are not to land! In a recent SAR mission, field team
blown free by the helicopter's rotor wash. members who were expecting a helicopter
Parking tenders or other rescue team ride back to the Incident Command Post
members should establish these wind were left in the field because they used the
indicators well in advance of the helicopter's "wave off" to catch the pilot's attention. The
arrival. pilot did see them, and interpreted this as a
signal to leave the area, and he did so. The
Wind coming over a ridge can change speed result... a long walk out for the field team.
and direction throughout the day. By Their spontaneous signaling conveyed the
positioning some flagging to the sides of the wrong message to pilot. Be careful not to
landing site on the ridge top, the team can use hand signaling unless you are using it
note the nature and timing of this change appropriately.
and provide valuable information to pilots
and flight crews.

Even in the absence of an experienced

parking tender, it remains important that
some rescue member still establish
communication with any incoming
helicopter. A pilot will easily be able to ask
the right questions of the untrained person
to determine the landing conditions. To a
pilot, an inexperienced ground contact is
much better than no ground contact at all!

Hand Signals
When properly employed, hand signaling The "Wave-off" signal tells a pilot NOT
can provide an additional means for those to land due to hazards. Photo:
on the ground to communicate with a pilot. Charley Shimanski
SAR teams must take care with their use,
however, or risk confusing pilots with
unclear or inadvertent (wrong) messages. If When a helicopter is landing at any heliport
a pilot is to successfully receive hand signals or helispot, it may be necessary to have a
by a rescuer, the pilot must be able to SAR team member acting as helispot
identify the individual making signals. This parking tender, guiding the pilot to the
means that, whenever possible, the SAR helispot with hand signals. The hand
team should tell the pilot how the signaler is signals employed in a standard landing are
dressed and where he or she is located. The as follows. First, as the helicopter makes its
rescuer attempting signal communication high level pass and as it begins its final
must be familiar with the standard hand approach, the helispot parking tender
signals. Arbitrary or improvised signals stands at the end of the helispot, with his or

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

her back to the wind. The arms are embraced by any search and rescue team
extended towards the landing area, which member that may work around helicopters.
means "Land here, facing me, my back is to
the wind." Then, as the helicopter Attached to this document are examples of
approaches the helispot, the parking tender helicopter hand signals.
extends his or her arms outward with
clenched fists, which means, "Hold your Safety Precautions on the
hover."
Ground
As the helicopter skids or wheels get within It is vital that SAR teams train their rescuers
several feet of the ground, the arms are in these safety precautions to ensure a
slowly swept downward, indicating "move thorough understanding of how to work
downward." As the helicopter skids or safely around a helicopter while on the
wheels touch the ground, the parking tender ground.
should hold the arms extended outward at a
45 degree angle to the ground with the Ground personnel should never run when
thumbs pointing downward. This says to approaching or leaving a helicopter.
the pilot "Hold your helicopter on the Furthermore, they should always approach
ground. Then, if the helicopter is to come to and leave the helicopter with head and
full rotor stop the parking tender crosses the equipment low, but maintain eye contact
neck with the right palm facing down (a.k.a. with the pilot when doing so. Approaches
"kill it"). This means "Shut down your should be made in a crouched position from
engine(s)." the front or side of the helicopter and in full
view of the pilot (except with Chinooks).
If the parking tender is confident that the
pilot is on final approach to the desired
helispot, there may be no reason to continue
to stand in the middle of the helispot and
get blasted by the rotor wash. The parking
tender may wish to alert the pilot that she or
he will move away from the helispot as the
helicopter approaches.

A pilot might often choose to ignore a

rescuer’s hand signals. In doing so, a pilot is
not demonstrating a lack of familiarity with
the signals, nor a callous disregard of the
rescuer. Rather, a cautious pilot may be
uncertain as to whether or not the rescuer is
indeed familiar with the signals, or may not A helicopter should never be approached
trust the rescuer. Pilots are not mind from the side where the ground is higher
readers and they have every right to trust than where the helicopter is standing or
themselves more than a stranger. hovering.
Furthermore, the pilot may be aware of
terrain challenges and weather conditions
unknown to the rescuers on the ground and
so may choose his or her own angle of
approach. Nonetheless, a simple familiarity
with these signals is valuable and should be

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
22
Basic Level

National Park to make an unscheduled

emergency landing in 1998).

Passengers must inform the pilot if they

intend to carry any explosive, flammable or
otherwise dangerous materials on board, to
include any firearms.

In-flight Precautions
While helicopters are in flight, rescue
personnel on board the helicopter must
follow several principles to help ensure safe
flight.
Rescuers should always approach and
leave the helicopter with head and First, the pilot's word is final as to whether
equipment low. Photo: Todd Rector. or not a flight can be made.

Before takeoff, all passengers must fasten

Rescuers onboard a helicopter must observe
and adjust the safety belt and shoulder
safety requirements when flying in
harness. After landing, they should keep
commercial light helicopters. First, they
this equipment fastened until instructed to
should wear a helmet at all times when near
leave the helicopter. The passenger should
or onboard the helicopter. Fire-resistant
refasten this equipment on the seat and
clothing and leather boots should be worn,
assure that no belts are outside the
if at all possible.
helicopter as the door is closed.
For Department of Interior (United States
Forest Service, National Park Service and
Passengers must locate the emergency exits
Bureau of Land Management) contracted
and review exit instructions. There should
helicopters, rescuers MUST have NOMEX
be NO SMOKING during takeoffs or
clothing, all leather boots, and an approved
landings. Even at the pilot's discretion,
helmet.
rescue personnel will NOT smoke during
the flight.
Rescue members should carry a portable
two-way radio capable at a minimum of
Rescuers must keep clear of all flight
transmission on air-to-ground and ground-
controls and must hold maps and papers
to-ground frequencies. If at all possible,
securely while in flight. They should keep
rescuers should wear the radio in a chest
track of the aircraft’s general location
harness to allow easy access, but should
during the flight, and should assist the pilot
turn the radio off while onboard to avoid
by keeping alert for hazards, particularly
feedback with the on-board radio headsets.
other aircraft and power/telephone lines.
Rescuers should also carry a backpack. In
They must inform the pilot when they see
military helicopters, the pilot may request
these hazards and where the hazards are
the backpack be stowed in a cargo bay.
located. When requested to do so, rescuer
Whenever a rescuer is going to offload in a
should also assist the pilot in watching tail
one-skid or hover jump situation, however,
rotor's clearance during landings at field
the rescuer should store his or her backpack
landing sites.
securely between the legs with all loose
items secured. (An errant water bottle
Occasionally, helicopters will be used with
caused a helicopter at Sequoia-Kings
the doors removed or left in the open

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

position. In these circumstances, make sure ensure it is fully settled before powering off.
nothing can accidentally fly out of the A noticeable change in the pitch of the
helicopter. If necessary, put away all maps, engine’s hum accompanies this drop in
notebooks, and secure everything loose. It power to the main rotor and alerts ground
doesn’t take much to damage a tail rotor. staff it will soon be safe to approach the
ship. Pilots often give the universal
Do not throw objects out of the helicopter at “thumbs-up” sign to indicate that they are
any time, except when instructed by the ready for ground staff to approach.
pilot to do so. It is essential to
communicate with the pilot when moving When approaching a helicopter, rescuers
objects into or out of a helicopter, to prevent must carry all equipment such as packs,
disrupting its balance. Do not move about skis, snowshoes, and ice axes horizontally
the helicopter while in flight. below waist level to prevent contact with the
rotor blades. One should never equipment
upright or over the shoulder. Skis are
especially dangerous, given their length and
the tendency of mountaineers to carry them
upright over one shoulder. Avoid this
practice when approaching a helicopter,
unless you like reeeeeeeeeally short skis.

With the assistance of the pilot, maintain

radio communication with the heliport
and/or the command post at all times.

One-wheel or one-skid landings should not

be performed without the approval of the
Heliport Manager, Operations Chief and/or
the Incident Commander. Rescuers should approach the helicopter
towards its front, in clear view of the pilot.
Loading and One must never approach a helicopter
from behind or to the rear of the skids or the
Unloading side doors. If you must change sides, do so
by passing around the front of the aircraft,
where you and the pilot can always see each
Approaching the Helicopter other. Rescuers should move toward the
SAR team members and other ground crew aircraft in a squat to maximize clearance
should not approach the helicopter until it from rotor blades. Although moving in
has completely landed and the pilot has crouched posture, resist the tendency to
given the signal to approach. After initial look down; always look at the pilot.
touch down, a pilot will often make small Depending on the helispot’s terrain, wind
adjustments to the aircraft’s position to and other flight factors, the pilot may have

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

to maintain engine power. If these There should be no smoking within 200 feet
circumstances, the helicopter may pull off of the helicopter during landing, loading or
suddenly due to precarious positioning, or if takeoff procedures. There must be NO
it goes into ground resonance (harmonic SMOKING while aboard ANY aircraft at
imbalance between landing gear and rotor ANY time.
blades causes the helicopter to vibrate
dangerously). In either of these cases, the Loading and Unloading Safety
helicopter must become airborne. Visual
contact between pilot and approaching Procedures
rescuers allows for emergency The guidelines listed below detail proper
communication should the need arise. loading and unloading of a helicopter while
the helicopter remains under full rotor
If it becomes necessary that a rescuer power. While terrain, weather and the
approach the helicopter without first being circumstances of rescue sometimes conspire
signaled to do so, that person should stand to require movement into and out of a
directly in front of the ship and wait until helicopter underneath its spinning blades, it
she or he has the attention of the pilot or remains vital to recognize the significant
crew chief. The rescuer should then point danger such movement poses to both
directly at the ship, an indication that the rescuers and flight crew.
rescuer wishes to approach the helicopter.
The pilot or crew chief will generally signal All loading or unloading must take place on
the rescuer to approach. the downhill side of the ship, since the rotor
blade may be as close as 5 feet to the ground
in many models, even when the ship is on
level ground.

Chinook helicopters present an important

exception to this rule. A rescuer should
never approach a Chinook from the front.
For all but the Chinook, loading should be
If the helicopter is going to shut down from within 60 degrees of the front of the
completely (come to a full rotor stop) and aircraft to ensure visual contact with the
the pilot intends to leave the aircraft, then pilot.
no rescuer should approach the aircraft
until the blades have come to a FULL STOP. The tail rotor must be avoided at all times.
Plan on at least two minutes per engine to This rotor is not visible while turning at
cool down. high speed and has decapitated careless
passengers. The pilot must see all personnel

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

within reach of the tail rotor so that she or told to disembark and should keep their
he can avoid striking them with the heads low as they do so. Prior to exiting,
helicopter’s tail should the need arise to rescuers should refasten their seat belts
turn the aircraft. underneath them so that the belt cannot fall
outside and bang against the fuselage while
Every rescuer on board a helicopter should in flight.
wear Personal Protective Equipment (PPE).
PPE includes the following essentials: One-Skid Landings
- Helmet with the chinstrap securely Generally, a helicopter will be fully on the
fastened ground when rescuers enter or exit. There
- Eye protection, such as shatterproof may be conditions, however, when the pilot
glasses is only able to put one skid down and may
- Ear (hearing) protection actually be in a semi-hover while rescuers
Finally, search and rescue teams should exit the ship. This situation is called a
consider use of fire-resistant clothing such "one-skid landing."
as NOMEX suits whenever possible, noting
that such suits are often impractical for field One-skid landings occur when one skid or
rescue personnel in mountain rescue one wheel of a helicopter is in contact with
operations. As mentioned earlier, the U.S. the ground while the rest of the helicopter
Department of Interior requires all rescuers remains suspended in the air under the
aboard its contracted helicopters to wear power of the rotor blades. Rescuers must
NOMEX suits, all-leather boots, and an employ extra caution when boarding or
approved helmet. disembarking from aircraft in one-skid
landings or in hover. It is essential that all
Rescuers should carry, not wear, their packs involved discuss the procedure with the
as they approach the aircraft. A worn pack pilot and familiarize themselves with
will prevent proper use of the seat harness important signals before attempting these
and removing it on-board can delay proper potentially dangerous maneuvers.
stowage. Once on board, rescuers should
immediately fasten their seat belt and
secure their equipment.

It is highly unlikely that SAR team members

will be involved in a crash while aboard a
helicopter. Still, if your pack is small
enough and can be safely secured between
your feet (instead of stowing the pack in the
luggage compartments), you may want to
keep it within reach when loading the
helicopter. This way, you have your survival
gear and, hopefully, a hand-held radio
nearby in the case of a crippling crash.
For one-skid or hover boarding and
Unloading the helicopter requires the same exiting operations, extra caution must
attention to safety and follows the same be used, and a few signals and
procedures as loading. To reiterate, all procedures discussed beforehand with
personnel will exit downhill toward the the pilot. Photo courtesy Flight for
front of the ship (except with Chinooks) and Life Colorado
NEVER towards the tail. Rescuers should
leave the helicopter only when specifically

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

Helicopters are very sensitive to weight and yourself from the ship, moving towards the
balance. Stepping in or out of a helicopter front and downhill so the pilot can take
balancing on one skid should be done very flight as soon as possible. If you cannot
e-a-s-i-l-y to avoid radical weight change move away, stay as low to the ground as you
on one side of the ship. The probability of a can.
downdraft, power settling, or recirculation
effect occurring is high during a hover or If more than one rescuer is to disembark via
one-skid – conditions that can require the a one-skid landing, each rescuer should do
pilot to act quickly and can put unprepared so one at a time. Rescuers in the back seats
rescuers in peril. It is therefore essential of small aircraft must take extra care to
that the rescuers communicate clearly with communicate clearly since it is often
the pilot throughout one-skid loading or impossible for the pilot to see them.
unloading. Even when a one-skid load is
performed perfectly, the pilot will need time Terrain challenging enough to require one-
to adjust the controls for the increased or skid loading or unloading is often steep and
decreased load coming onto or off of one cragged ground. Although such terrain can
side of helicopter. The last thing the pilot constrain your movement once you exit the
wants is for a clumsy, adrenaline-loaded aircraft, you must not run uphill into the
200-lb. rescuer to jump anxiously from the path of rotor blades or scramble out along a
ship. rock arête where one slip will mean a long
fall. If you cannot move away from the
To exit a helicopter in a one-skid landing is helicopter, hold your position and wait for
careful, multi-step process. You should the aircraft to complete its task and take off.
open the aircraft door only after the pilot It is important to remember the hazards
has told you to do. Once the door is open, inherent to mountain terrain, hazards easily
tell the pilot you are preparing to drop your neglected when the full-throttle of a
pack out. Shifting weight in a small helicopter engine is screaming close above
helicopter can throw the balance of the ship, your head. Allow the helicopter to lift away
and the pilot must be prepared. With your into the air before continuing your search
headset still on, tell the pilot "On the count and rescue work.
of three, I will drop my pack out...one, two
three." After gently dropping the pack out SAR teams should try to find or make a
of the helicopter, prepare to exit the ship. place to land, rather than turning routinely
to high-risk one-skid or hover-loads. An
Complete all communication with the pilot ordinary evacuation of a lost subject or
while wearing your headset. Once the victim with a broken leg can transform into
headset is removed, the pilot will be unable tragedy the instant a helicopter goes down.
to hear you and only simple hand signaling
will remain at your disposal. You should
inform the pilot the movement you intend Air-to-Ground and
to take and ask for confirmation: "I will step
smoothly from the ship after I give you the Air-to-Air
count of three...do you understand?" The
pilot will agree or advise otherwise. At this
Communication
point, upon approval from the pilot, remove The Incident Command Post or Air
your headset. Then remove your seat belt Operations Branch Director may or may not
and refasten it behind you while remaining have direct radio communications with
seated. Then prepare to exit, and give the helicopters involved in a search or rescue
pilot the count of three. Once on the operation. TV, private, media and HEMS
ground, you should quickly distance helicopters may or may not be equipped

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

with the local/state SAR or EMS channel.

Army helicopters (Chinooks, UH-70 Lakotas
and UH-60 Blackhawks) may not be
equipped with programmable radios and
may be required to use specialized aviation
frequencies or other common emergency
frequencies such as National Law
Enforcement Channel (NLEC) at 155.475
MHz or Fire Emergency Radio Network
(FERN) at 154.280 Mhz.

Field teams should avoid ground-to-air

radio communication unless they have
something very important to communicate. Rescuers should minimize radio
Even though field teams will likely hear air- communication with the pilot, since the
to-ground radio traffic, including inquiries pilot must monitor additional radio
from the helicopter crew, the helicopter traffic that the spotter may not hear on
crew often has a more difficult time his/her headset. Photo: Charley
receiving radio messages from the ground. Shimanski

On board civilian helicopters, either the

If a helicopter employed for searching lacks
pilot or the spotter can communicate over
the local/state SAR or EMS channel on its
specific radio channels, as dictated by the
radio, the spotter can use a handheld radio
pilot. As mentioned earlier, the spotter
on board. Magnetic and audible noise often
should minimize unnecessary
interferes with these handheld devices,
communication with the pilot, since the
however, rendering the quality of their
pilot must monitor additional radio traffic
transmission and reception poor. Use of a
that the spotter may not hear on his/her
headset connected to the handheld radio in
headset. Generally, the pilot will give the
place of the handheld’s built-in speaker and
spotter specific instructions on how to
microphone can improve the quality of
communicate with the Incident Command
communication.
Post or ground personnel using the ship's
radio.
Air-to-Air Communications
When multiple helicopters are operational,
it is important for SAR command to alert
each airborne aircraft when others take
flight. These aircraft can often
communicate with each other air-to-air
(often on a VHF frequency such as 123.025)
to prevent interference between aircraft. To
do so, however, each aircraft must first
know that the other is in flight nearby.
Pilots’ attention to air-to-air coordination
helps the SAR Manager focus on ground
operations.

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 4 – Helicopter
Management and Safety
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Basic Level

Sterile Cockpit
The ‘sterile cockpit’ is a safety concept
embraced by the military and professional
air carriers and one with which SAR teams
should be familiar. A cockpit becomes
sterile when all crew cease unnecessary and
casual communication. It mandates no
conversation on the aircraft intercom radio
during departures and arrivals until a safe
altitude is reached. A sterile cockpit allows
the crew to focus solely on clearing the
airspace and communicating with air traffic
control.

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 5 – Search and Rescue
Helicopter Operations
29
Basic Level

mission, the team's leadership should

Part 5 – Search and always choose rescuers experienced with
helicopter operations and proven to have

Rescue Helicopter stomachs strong enough for helicopter

flying. Unlike fixed-wing flights, helicopter
flights are often akin to a roller coaster ride
Operations without the tracks in front. Search and
rescue helicopter flights should not be
bestowed to a SAR team member to reward
Rescuers aboard his or her efforts organizing or in the field –
they should be staffed with the rescuers
Helicopters well-trained and familiar with helicopter
Rescuers must board the helicopter fully operations.
prepared to hike out. Flying conditions can
quickly deteriorate, and a flight in does not
guarantee a flight out. In fact, a helicopter
Dogs aboard
may be able to safely land to avoid
dangerous weather, then be grounded when
Helicopters:
the weather fails to improve or when an Search and rescue dogs can be trained to
unforeseen technical malfunction renders ride in helicopters. Dog handlers and other
flight impossible. SAR professionals should recognize,
however, that dogs will find several aspects
of helicopter flight uniquely challenging.

Rescuers aboard any helicopter must

board the helicopter fully prepared to
hike out. Photo: Bill Vargas Dogs can be trained to ride in
helicopters during search and rescue
A rescuer aboard a helicopter may find it operations. Photo courtesy Flight for
difficult to follow the course of the ship on a Life Colorado
map in unknown territory. For this reason,
rescuers should study their topographic First, dogs have very sensitive ears and they
map carefully before takeoff, and look for react to vibrations – especially low
prominent landmarks as soon as the ship is frequency vibrations. The larger the
airborne. helicopter, the lower the frequency of
vibrations. Dogs can become fearful when
When a SAR team has the opportunity to approaching or riding in these larger
put a rescuer on board a helicopter during a aircraft. Handlers should be prepared to

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 5 – Search and Rescue
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carry the dog on board. Additionally, topographic map carefully before takeoff,
handlers should make sure the dog has and look for prominent landmarks as soon
relieved itself before the helicopter as the ship is airborne. Finding a search
approaches – or the dog may just do so subject in the middle of a rocky outcrop
promptly after boarding. provides little assistance to the SAR team if
you have no idea where that rocky outcrop
Some dog handlers will use an Ace-bandage is.
to wrap a dog’s mouth to prevent the dog
biting anyone in response to the stress of If at all possible, the spotter should be an
loading and flight. experienced rescuer, one familiar with
communications to ground personnel, the
While in flight, the dog handler should talk nature of the search and the overhead
to the dog, and reassure it that everything is team's definition of "probability of area."
OK. The dog takes its cues from the The ideal spotter will have experience with
handler. helicopter flight, and will not necessarily
rely on the pilot to determine which area is
Additionally, the fumes from helicopter best to search. The spotter should also be
engines and mechanicals can hinder a SAR very familiar with the area of the search,
dog’s ability to search. The smell of burning and know where the Incident Commander
aviation fuel can be strong and is often wants to put the helicopter to work.
disruptive for a dog.
The spotter will generally wear a radio
Chinook and other military helicopters headset, provided by the pilot. Using this
generally have some amount of hydraulic headset, the pilot and spotter can talk to one
fluid on the floors and ramps of the another aboard the intercom. In addition,
helicopters. This fluid can irritate a dog’s either can communicate over other radio
paw, especially if the paw is injured or raw. channels, as dictated by the pilot. While
aboard the helicopter, the spotter should
Nicholas Razum, one of the founders of the minimize unnecessary communication with
search dog unit within the Los Angeles the pilot, since the pilot must monitor
County Sheriff's Department, has developed additional radio traffic that the spotter may
an informative web site on search dogs and not hear on his or her headset.
helicopters. (For more, go to
http://www.helitac.net/).
Extrication of
Searching From Subjects by
Helicopters Helicopter
When helicopters are employed during SAR teams must take special care when
search operations, a rescuer, called a extricating a subject by helicopter, whether
"spotter," will fly with the pilot. The pilot or not the subject is injured. Ground
must devote full attention to the helicopter; personnel must ensure that everyone,
it is the spotter, therefore, who conducts the including rescuers, give wide berth to the
search. tail rotor. This is best accomplished by
designating two SAR personnel to stand at
As noted above, a spotter may find it the front and rear of the ship while it is on
difficult to follow the aircraft’s course on a the ground.
map in unknown territory. Especially in
this case, spotters should study their

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 5 – Search and Rescue
Helicopter Operations
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Rescuers should carefully consider

the risk of using a helicopter to
extricate uninjured subjects. Photo: Loading of injured subjects will often
Phreakdigital. take place with the rotors turning,
increasing the risk to all involved.
Photo: Charley Shimanski
Extricating Uninjured Search
Subjects Rescuers should not allow subjects to leave
If the subject of a search is located by the helicopter on their own. In many cases,
helicopter, it may be possible to land, pick the first thing a person will do upon exiting
up the subject and return to the Incident the helicopter is walk back towards the tail
Command Post. Even a straightforward rotor. The safest course of action, especially
retrieval of the subject can be complicated when evacuating children, is to allow the
by weather, poor landing conditions and the engine to come to complete rotor-stop
subject’s lack of familiarity with helicopter before offloading subjects.
safety. Rescuers and pilot must determine if
the benefit of immediate evacuation Extricating Injured Victims
outweighs any risk to aircraft and crew.
Often, rescue personnel will assist HEMS
helicopter personnel with field loading of
If the subject is in good physical condition,
injured parties. Circumstances often
the rescue team should consider guiding
require loading while the blades are turning,
ground teams to the subject, then walking
increasing the danger of the work and,
or driving the subject out of the field.
consequently, the need for attention while
Rescuers must remember that most people
carrying it out.
are not accustomed to being around a
helicopter and that the hazards become very
As the rescue team members carry the
real in the presence of a nervous or excited
victim to the helicopter, often in a litter or
person approaching a helicopter for the first
on a backboard, the SAR personnel should
time. This is no time for heroics when
seek and accept direction from the flight
heroics are unnecessary.
nurse or pilot, who will choose the path to
the loading door of the helicopter. Once the
patient is securely loaded on board the
helicopter, rescuers should immediately
exit the area by walking directly to the front
of the helicopter as they move away from
the aircraft. By doing so, the team avoids

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Part 5 – Search and Rescue
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Basic Level

the tail rotor and affords the pilot visual

contact with all field personnel prior to
takeoff.

Emergency
Procedures
Unlike fixed wing aircraft, helicopters can
often land safely after engine failure if a
suitable landing site exists. When power to
the main rotor is lost, the pilot will put in
negative pitch in the main rotor to initiate a
controlled descent at the rate of perhaps
1800 feet per minute in a procedure known
as Autorotation, as described earlier in this
work. As the ship comes within 75-100 feet
of the ground, the pilot will add pitch,
checking the descent. The pilot often has
only 5 or 10 seconds to land an aircraft
descending in autorotation.

Once on board the helicopter, passengers

should check to see that seat belts and
equipment are tightly secured. In addition,
they should note the location of exits, door
handles, fire extinguishers, as well as the
Emergency Locator Transmitter (ELT) and
its manual switch before flight. Passengers
must stay clear of all flight controls and
avionics.

During an emergency, it is possible that the

pilot may want heavy items dropped out of
the ship, if time permits - although this is
unlikely. Do nothing else until told to do so
by the pilot, to include exiting once on the
ground.

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 Helicopters in Search and Rescue Conclusion and
Acknowledgements
33
Basic Level

Conclusion
Flight for Life Colorado staff and
pilots; Denver CO
Patrick Mahany – Helicopter Pilot,
Proficiency in helicopter operations requires Flight For Life Colorado
study and experience. The essentials of Kevin Kelble – former Flight
helicopter safety, however, are Paramedic; Flight for Life
straightforward. For those beginning work Colorado
around helicopters, the following are most Peter Peelgrane - Chief Helicopter
important: Pilot, KUSA-TV Denver CO
Air Life staff and pilots; Denver CO
 THINK! Panic is your worst enemy Drew Davis - Past President,
around helicopters. Mountain Rescue Association
 Never approach the helicopter until Jim Frank - Santa Barbara County
the pilot gives the OK. Sheriff’s SAR
 Always approach or leave the Mike Fyola - Pilot, Jefferson County
helicopter in the crouched position (CO) Aviation Wing and
from the front (except with Colorado Army National
Chinooks) so that you are in view of Guard
the pilot. Mike Silva - Helicopter Pilot, KCNC-
 Never approach or leave a helicopter TV Denver CO
from any side where the ground is
higher than the landing pad - you
may walk into the rotor blade.
 Never approach or exit a helicopter
with the rotors turning unless
instructed by the pilot to do so.
 If you have little or no experience
around helicopters, rely on team
members who have the necessary
experience.
 The pilot-in-command is directly
responsible for the aircraft under his
or her charge, and is the final
authority on the operation of that
aircraft.

Acknowledgements
Our personal thanks to Tim Kovacs, Past
President of the Mountain Rescue
Association for his invaluable assistance in
the early development of this program. In
addition, thanks to the following individuals
and organizations that assisted in the
development of this program:

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