Chapter 7 – Part B
The Skeleton
7.2 The Vertebral Column
General Characteristics
● Extends from skull to pelvis
● Also called spine or spinal column
● Functions to transmit weight of trunk to lower limbs, surround and protect
spinal cord, provide attachment points for ribs and muscles
● Flexible curved structure contains 26 irregular bones called vertebrae in five
major regions
General Characteristics (cont.)
● Regions and curvatures
– Regions: ~28″ long vertebral column broken into five major regions:
1. Cervical: consists of 7 vertebrae
2. Thoracic: 12 vertebrae
3. Lumbar: 5 vertebrae
– Remember meal times: 7 am, 12 noon, and 5 pm
4. Sacrum: one bone, formed from fusion of several bones, articulates
with hip
5. Coccyx: also fused bones that form terminus of column
General Characteristics (cont.)
– Curvatures: four main curves in the column help to increase resilience and
flexibility of spine
● Cervical and lumbar curvatures
– Concave posteriorly
● Thoracic and sacral curvatures
– Convex posteriorly
General Characteristics (cont.)
● Ligaments: along with trunk muscles, help support vertebral column
– Anterior and posterior longitudinal ligaments: continuous bands from
neck to sacrum that run down front and back of spine
● Support and prevent hyperextension (backward) or hyperflexion
(forward) bending
– Ligamentum flavum: connects adjacent vertebrae
– Short ligaments: connect each vertebra to those above and below
General Characteristics (cont.)
1
● Intervertebral discs
– Cushionlike pad sandwiched between vertebrae that act as shock
absorbers
– Composed of two parts
● Nucleus pulposus
– Inner gelatinous nucleus
– Gives disc its elasticity and compressibility
● Anulus fibrosus
– Outer collar composed of collagen and fibrocartilage
– Limits expansion of nucleus pulposus when compressed
Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.2
● Severe physical trauma to spine may result in one or more herniated
(prolapsed) discs
● Usually involves rupture of anulus fibrosus, resulting in protrusion of nucleus
pulposus, which can press on spinal cord or nerves, causing numbness or
excruciating pain
● Treatment: exercise, massage, heat, painkillers, or surgical intervention
involving bone grafting to fuse adjoining vertebrae
● Percutaneous laser disc decompression vaporizes part of disc; tears can be
sealed electrothermally
Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.2
● Abnormal spinal curvatures can be congenital or result from disease, poor
posture, or unequal pull of muscles on spine
● Scoliosis: abnormal lateral rotation of spine, most often in thoracic region,
which may lead to breathing difficulties
● Kyphosis (hunchback): is abnormal dorsal thoracic curvature common in
people with osteoporosis, tuberculosis of spine, rickets, or osteomalacia
● Lordosis (swayback): is accentuated lumbar curvature that can result from
disease but is also seen in men with pot bellies and in pregnant women
General Structure of Vertebrae
● All have common structural pattern consisting of:
– Body (centrum), the anterior weight-bearing region
– Vertebral arch composed of:
● Two pedicles: short pillars form sides of arch
● Two laminae: fused, flattened plates form posterior arch
– Vertebral foramen: enclosure formed by body and vertebral arch coming
together
– Vertebral canal: series of vertebral foramina
– Intervertebral foramina: lateral openings between vertebrae for passage
of spinal nerves
2
General Structure of Vertebrae (cont.)
● Vertebrae have seven processes:
– Spinous process: projects posteriorly
– Transverse processes (2): project laterally
– Superior articular processes (2): protrude superiorly
– Inferior articular processes (2): protrude inferiorly
Regional Vertebral Characteristics
● Cervical vertebrae
– C1 to C7: smallest, lightest vertebrae
– C3 to C7 share following features:
● Oval-shaped body
● Exception: C7 spinous processes are split (bifid)
● Large, triangular vertebral foramen
● Transverse foramen found in each transverse process for artery
passageways
● C7 is vertebra prominens; large and can be felt through skin, so used
as a landmark
Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
● Cervical vertebrae (cont.)
– C1 (atlas) and C2 (axis) have unique features
– Atlas (C1)
● No body or spinous process
● Consists of anterior and posterior arches, and two lateral masses
● Superior surfaces of lateral masses articulate with occipital condyles
– Occipital condyles “carry” skull
● Movement for nodding head “Yes”
Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
– Axis (C2)
● Has body and processes like other vertebrae
● Major feature is knoblike dens that projects superiorly into anterior
arch of atlas
– Dens is the “missing” body of atlas
● Dens is a pivot for rotation of atlas
● Movement allows side to side rotation for saying “No”
Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
● Thoracic vertebrae
3
– T1 to T12 increase in size and articulate with ribs
– Unique characteristics:
● Body is heart shaped with two small demifacets that articulate with ribs
– T10 to T12 have only single facet, not two
● Vertebral foramen is circular
● Long, sharp spinous process points inferiorly
● Transverse processes have transverse costal facets that articulate with
ribs (except T11, T12)
● Location of articular facets allows rotation of this area of spine
Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
● Lumbar vertebrae
– L1 to L5 “small of back”; receives most stress, so bodies are massive
– Other characteristics:
● Short, thick pedicles and laminae
● Flat, hatchet-shaped spinous processes point posteriorly
● Vertebral foramen is triangular
● Orientation of articular facets locks lumbar vertebrae together to
prevent rotation
Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
● Sacrum: triangular bone shapes posterior wall of pelvis; made from five fused
vertebrae (S1–S5)
– Superior articular process articulates with L5
– Articulates inferiorly with coccyx and laterally with hip bones via its
auricular surfaces, forming sacroiliac joints
– Sacral promontory: anterosuperior margin
– Transverse ridges mark lines of fusion
– Anterior sacral foramina: lie at lateral ends of ridges; act as openings for
nerves and vessels
– Alae: winglike expansions
Regional Vertebral Characteristics (cont.)
● Sacrum (cont.)
– Median sacral crest: roughened bumps on posterior midline and lateral
sacral crest; roughened area seen laterally on posterior side
– Posterior sacral foramina: large openings for sacral spinal nerves
– Sacral canal: continuation of vertebral canal
– Sacral hiatus: large opening at end of canal
● Coccyx: tailbone formed from three to five fused vertebrae; articulates
superiorly with sacrum
– Very little function
4
7.3 Thoracic Cage
● Composed of:
– Thoracic vertebrae posteriorly
– Sternum and costal cartilages anteriorly
– Ribs laterally
● Functions
– Protects vital organs of thoracic cavity
– Supports shoulder girdles and upper limbs
– Provides attachment sites for muscles of neck, back, chest, and shoulders
Sternum
● Also called the breastbone; consists of three fused bones:
– Manubrium: superior portion that articulates with clavicular notches and
ribs 1 and 2
– Body: midportion that articulates with costal cartilages of ribs 2 through 7
– Xiphoid process: inferior end that is site of muscle attachment
● Not ossified until ~age 40
Sternum (cont.)
● Sternum has three important anatomical landmarks:
– Jugular notch
● Central indentation in superior border of manubrium
– Sternal angle
● Horizontal ridge across front of sternum
– Xiphisternal joint
● Point where sternal body and xiphoid process fuse
Clinical – Homeostatic Imbalance 7.4
● Xiphoid process projects posteriorly in some people
● A blow to the chest (chest trauma) at the level of the xiphoid process can
push process into underlying liver or heart
● Can cause massive hemorrhaging
Ribs
● 12 pairs form sides of thoracic cage
● All attach posteriorly to bodies and transverse processes of thoracic vertebrae
● True (vertebrosternal) ribs (pairs 1–7)
– Attach directly to sternum by individual costal cartilages
● False (vertebrochondral) ribs (pairs 8–10)
– Attach indirectly to sternum by joining costal cartilage of rib above
● Vertebral (floating) ribs (pairs 11–12)
5
– No attachment to sternum
Ribs (cont.)
● Main parts of rib:
– Shaft: flat bone that makes up most of rib
● Costal groove: houses nerves and vessels
– Head (posterior end)
● Articulates with facets (demifacets) on bodies of two adjacent vertebrae
– Neck: constricted portion beyond head
– Tubercle: knoblike structure lateral to neck
● Articulates posteriorly with transverse costal facet of same-numbered thoracic
vertebra
