Structural Analysis Leonhard Euler
is the prediction of the performance of a given (1707–1783), who developed the theory of
structure under prescribed loads and/or other buckling of columns
external effects, such as support movements
and temperature changes. Charles Agustin de Coulomb
(1736–1806), who presented the analysis of
PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS IN
STRUCTURAL DESIGN. bending of elastic beams.
In 1826 Claude-Louis Henri Navier
1. Stress
2. Deflection (1785–1836) published a treatise on elastic
behavior of structures, which is considered to
3. Support Reactions be the first textbook on the modern theory of
strength of materials.
Egyptian pyramids (about 3000 b.c.)
Greek temples (500–200 b.c.),
THE IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTORS IN OF
Roman coliseums and aqueducts CENTURY AND TO THE 19TH CENTURY UP TO
(200 b.c.–a.d. 200) 20TH CENTURY
Gothic cathedrals (a.d. 1000–1500) Benoît Paul Émile Clapeyron(1799–1864), who
formulated the three-moment equation for the
analysis of continuous beams
THE IMPORTANT CONTIBUTORS IN THE
SECOND HALF OF 17TH CENTURY AND TO THE James Clerk Maxwell
18TH CENTURY (1831–1879), who presented the method of
Robert Hooke (1635–1703), who developed consistent deformations and the law of
reciprocal deflections
the law of linear relationships between the
force and deformation of materials (Hooke’s Otto Mohr
law); (1835–1918), who developed the conjugate-
Galileo Galilei beam method for calculation of deflections and
(1564–1642) is generally considered to be the Mohr’s circles
originator of the theory of structures. In his of stress and strain
book entitled Two New Sciences, which was
published in 1638, Galileo analyzed the failure Alberto Castigliano (1847–1884), who
of some simple structures, including cantilever formulated the theorem of least work
beams.
Charles Ezra Greene
Sir Isaac Newton
(1842–1903), who developed the moment-area
(1642–1727), who formulated the laws of method
motion and developed calculus
Heinrich Franz Bernhard Müller(1851–1925),
John Bernoulli who presented a principle for constructing
(1667–1748), who formulated the principle of influence lines.
virtual work
George A. Maney (1888–
1947), who developed the slope-deflection When a straight member is subjected to lateral
method, which is considered to be the loads and/or moments in addition to axial loads,
precursor of the matrix stiffness method; it is called a beam-column.
Hardy Cross Arch is a curved structure, with a shape similar
to that of an inverted Cable. Such structures are
frequently used to support bridges and long-
(1885–1959), who developed the moment- span roofs.
distribution method in 1924
TRUSSES
The availability of computers in the 1950s
revolutionized structural analysis. Trusses are composed of straight
members connected at their ends by hinged
The development of the current computer- connections to form a stable configuration.
oriented methods of structural analysis can be
attributed to: Real trusses are usually constructed by
connecting members to gusset plates by bolted
J. H. Argyris, R. W. Clough, or welded connections.
S. Kelsey, R. K. Livesley, SHEAR STRUCTURES
H. C. Martin, M. T. Turner, Shear structures, such as reinforced concrete
E. L. Wilson, and shear walls are used in multistory buildings to
reduce lateral movements due to wind loads
O. C. Zienkiewicz. and earthquake excitations. Shear structures
develop mainly in plane shear, with relatively
small bending stresses under the action of
Structural analysis is an integral part of any external loads.
structural engineering project, its function
being the prediction of the performance of the BENDING STRUCTURES
proposed structure.
FIVE BASIC CATEGORIES OF STRUCTURES
1. TENSION STRUCTURES
Tension structures are composed of flexible Beam
steel cables that are frequently employed to
support bridges and long-span roofs. beam is a straight member that is loaded
perpendicular to its longitudinal axis.
2. COMPRESSION STRUCTURES
Rigid frames
Compression structures develop mainly
compressive stresses under the action of Rigid frames are composed of straight members
external loads. Two common examples of such connected together either by rigid (moment-
structures are columns and arches. resisting)
Columns are straight members subjected to
connections or by hinged connections to form
axially compressive loads.
stable configurations. Unlike trusses, which are
subjected only to joint loads, the external loads
on frames may be applied on the members as • Flexible, or hinged, connections.
well as on the joints.
A hinged connection or joint prevents
only relative translations of member
ends connected to it; that is, all
Development of the analytical model generally
member ends connected to a hinged
involves consideration of the following factors
joint have the same translation but may
Plane have different rotations.
If all the members of a structure as well as the
applied loads lie in a single plane.
SUPPORT
Space
• Hinged
A three-dimensional structural framework
• Roller
which is designed to behave as an integral unit
and to withstand loads applied at any point. • Fixed/Rigid
Line Diagram
• The analytical model of the two- or
three-dimensional body selected for
analysis is represented by a line
diagram.
• On this diagram, each member of the
structure is represented by a line
coinciding with its centroidal axis.
• The dimensions of the members and
the size of the connections are not
shown on the diagram.
CONNECTIONS
• Rigid Connections
A rigid connection or joint prevents
relative translations and rotations of the
member ends connected to it; that is,
all member ends connected to a rigid
joint have the same translation and
rotation.
INTERNAL
FORCES
Axial force
Shearing force
Bending moment
Torque
Two requirements must be imposed
EXTERNAL FORCES for the principle of superposition to
APPLIED FORCES - have a tendency for apply :
a body to move. 1. The material must behave in a linear-
elastic manner, so that Hooke’s law is
valid, and therefore the load will be
Examples: Live loads and wind load proportional to displacement.
REACTION FORCES - have a tendency to
prevent its motion and keep it in
equilibrium.
2. The geometry of the structure must not
undergo significant change when the
loads are applied, i.e., small
displacement theory applies. Large
displacements will significantly change
and orientation of the loads. An
example would be a cantilevered thin
rod subjected to a force at its end.
STATIC DETERMINACY, INDETERMINACY, AND
INSTABILITY
A structure may be supported by a
INTERNAL STABILITY sufficient number of reactions (r≥3) but may
still be unstable due to improper arrangement
A structure is internally stable, or rigid, if it of supports. Such structures are referred to as
maintains its shape and remains a rigid body geometrically
when detached from the supports.
unstable externally.
Conversely, a structure is termed internally
unstable (or non-rigid) if it cannot maintain its STATIC DETERMINACY OF INTERNALLY
shape and may undergo large displacements UNSTABLE STRUCTURES—EQUATIONS OF
under small disturbances when not supported CONDITION
externally.
As this figure indicates, these reactions, which
would have been sufficient to fully constrain an
internally stable or rigid structure, are not
sufficient for this structure.
STATIC DETERMINACY OF INTERNALLY STABLE
STRUCTURES
=======================================
An internally stable structure is considered to =======================================
be statically determinate externally if all its
support reactions can be determined by solving Section Modulus, S
the equations of equilibrium.
Section modulus is a geometric property for a
If a structure is supported by more than given cross-section used in the design of beams
three reactions, then all the reactions cannot be or flexural members.
determined from the three equations of
equilibrium. Such structures are termed
statically indeterminate externally. The
reactions in excess of those necessary for
equilibrium are called external redundant, and
the number of external redundant is referred to
as the degree of external indeterminacy. Thus, if
a structure has r reactions (r > 3), then the
degree of external indeterminacy can be written
as
If a structure is supported by fewer
than three support reactions, the reactions are
not sufficient to prevent all possible movements
of the structure in its plane. Such a structure
cannot remain in equilibrium under a general
system of loads and is, therefore, referred to as
statically unstable externally.
