Information Gathering: Interactive Methods

Interactive Methods to Elicit Human Information Requirements

• Interviewing

• Joint Application Design (JAD)

• Questionnaires

Interviewing

• Interviewing is an important method for collecting data on human and system information
requirements.

• Interviews reveal information about:

• Interviewee opinions

• Interviewee feelings

• Goals

• Key HCI concerns

Interview Preparation

• Reading background material

• Establishing interview objectives

• Deciding whom to interview

• Preparing the interviewee

• Deciding on question types and structure

Question Types

• Open-ended

• Closed

Open-Ended Questions

• Open-ended interview questions allow interviewees to respond how they wish, and to what
length they wish.

• Open-ended interview questions are appropriate when the analyst is interested in breadth
and depth of reply.
Advantages of Open-Ended Questions

• Puts the interviewee at ease

• Allows the interviewer to pick up on the interviewee’s vocabulary

• Provides richness of detail

• Reveals avenues of further questioning that may have gone untapped

• Provides more interest for the interviewee

• Allows more spontaneity

• Makes phrasing easier for the interviewer

• Useful if the interviewer is unprepared

Disadvantages of Open-Ended Questions

• May result in too much irrelevant detail

• Possibly losing control of the interview

• May take too much time for the amount of useful information gained

• Potentially seeming that the interviewer is unprepared

• Possibly giving the impression that the interviewer is on a “fishing expedition”

Closed Interview Questions

• Closed interview questions limit the number of possible responses.

• Closed interview questions are appropriate for generating precise, reliable data that is easy
to analyze.

• The methodology is efficient, and it requires little skill for interviewers to administer.

Benefits of Closed Interview Questions

• Saving interview time

• Easily comparing interviews

• Getting to the point

• Keeping control of the interview

• Covering a large area quickly

• Getting to relevant data

Disadvantages of Closed Interview Questions

• Boring for the interviewee

• Failure to obtain rich detailing

• Missing main ideas

• Failing to build rapport between interviewer and interviewee

Attributes of Open-Ended and Closed Questions

Bipolar Questions

• Bipolar questions are those that may be answered with a “yes” or “no” or “agree” or
“disagree.”

• Bipolar questions should be used sparingly.

• A special kind of closed question

Probes

• Probing questions elicit more detail about previous questions.

• The purpose of probing questions is:

• To get more meaning

 • To clarify

• To draw out and expand on the interviewee’s point

• May be either open-ended or closed

Arranging Questions

• Pyramid

• Starting with closed questions and working toward open-ended questions

• Funnel

• Starting with open-ended questions and working toward closed questions

• Diamond

• Starting with closed, moving toward open-ended, and ending with closed questions

Pyramid Structure

• Begins with very detailed, often closed questions

• Expands by allowing open-ended questions and more generalized responses

• Is useful if interviewees need to be warmed up to the topic or seem reluctant to address the
topic
Pyramid Structure for Interviewing Goes from Specific to General Questions

Funnel Structure

• Begins with generalized, open-ended questions

• Concludes by narrowing the possible responses using closed questions

• Provides an easy, nonthreatening way to begin an interview

• Is useful when the interviewee feels emotionally about the topic

Funnel Structure for Interviewing Begins with Broad Questions then Funnels to Specific Questions

Diamond Structure

• A diamond-shaped structure begins in a very specific way.

• Then more general issues are examined

• Concludes with specific questions

• Combines the strength of both the pyramid and funnel structures

• Takes longer than the other structures

Diamond-Shaped Structure for Interviewing Combines the Pyramid and Funnel Structures

Closing the Interview

• Always ask “Is there anything else that you would like to add?”

• Summarize and provide feedback on your impressions.

• Ask whom you should talk with next.

• Set up any future appointments.

• Thank them for their time and shake hands.

Interview Report

• Write as soon as possible after the interview.

• Provide an initial summary, then more detail.

• Review the report with the respondent.

Joint Application Design (JAD)

• Joint Application Design (JAD) can replace a series of interviews with the user community.

• JAD is a technique that allows the analyst to accomplish requirements analysis and design
the user interface with the users in a group setting.

Conditions that Support the Use of JAD

• Users are restless and want something new.

• The organizational culture supports joint problem-solving behaviors.

• Analysts forecast an increase in the number of ideas using JAD.

• Personnel may be absent from their jobs for the length of time required.

Who Is Involved

• Executive sponsor

• IS analyst

• Users

• Session leader

• Observers

• Scribe

Where to Hold JAD Meetings

• Offsite

• Comfortable surroundings

• Minimize distractions

• Attendance

• Schedule when participants can attend

• Agenda

• Orientation meeting

Benefits of JAD

• Time is saved, compared with traditional interviewing

• Rapid development of systems

• Improved user ownership of the system

 • Creative idea production is improved

Drawbacks of Using JAD

• JAD requires a large block of time to be available for all session participants.

• If preparation or the follow-up report is incomplete, the session may not be successful.

• The organizational skills and culture may not be conducive to a JAD session.

Questionnaires

Questionnaires are useful in gathering information from key organization members about:

• Attitudes

• Beliefs

• Behaviors

• Characteristics

Planning for the Use of Questionnaires

• Organization members are widely dispersed.

• Many members are involved with the project.

• Exploratory work is needed.

• Problem solving prior to interviews is necessary.

Question Types

Questions are designed as either:

• Open-ended

• Try to anticipate the response you will get.

• Well suited for getting opinions.

• Closed

• Use when all the options may be listed.

• When the options are mutually exclusive.

Tradeoffs between the Use of Open-Ended and Closed Questions on Questionnaires

Questionnaire Language

• Simple

• Specific

• Short

• Not patronizing

• Free of bias

• Addressed to those who are knowledgeable

• Technically accurate

• Appropriate for the reading level of the respondent

Measurement Scales

• The two different forms of measurement scales are:

• Nominal

• Interval

Nominal Scales

• Nominal scales are used to classify things.

• It is the weakest form of measurement

 • Data may be totaled

Interval Scales

• An interval scale is used when the intervals are equal.

• There is no absolute zero.

• Examples of interval scales include the Fahrenheit or Centigrade scale

Validity And Reliability

• Reliability of scales refers to consistency in response—getting the same results if the same
questionnaire was administered again under the same conditions.

• Validity is the degree to which the question measures what the analyst intends to measure.

Problems with Scales

• Leniency

• Central tendency

• Halo effect

Leniency

• Caused by easy raters

• Solution is to move the “average” category to the left or right of center

Central Tendency

• Central tendency occurs when respondents rate everything as average.

• Improve by making the differences smaller at the two ends.

• Adjust the strength of the descriptors.

• Create a scale with more points.

Halo Effect

• When the impression formed in one question carries into the next question

• Solution is to place one trait and several items on each page

Designing the Questionnaire

• Allow ample white space.

• Allow ample space to write or type in responses.

• Make it easy for respondents to clearly mark their answers.

 • Be consistent in style.

Order of Questions

• Place most important questions first.

• Cluster items of similar content together.

• Introduce less controversial questions first.

When Designing a Web Survey, Keep in Mind that There Are Different Ways to Capture Responses

Methods of Administering the Questionnaire

• Convening all concerned respondents together at one time

• Personally administering the questionnaire

• Allowing respondents to self-administer the questionnaire

• Mailing questionnaires

• Administering over the Web or via email

Electronically Submitting Questionnaires

• Reduced costs

• Collecting and storing the results electronically

Information Gathering: Unobtrusive Methods

Unobtrusive Methods

• Less disruptive

• Insufficient when used alone

• Multiple methods approach

• Used in conjunction with interactive methods

Sampling

• A process of systematically selecting representative elements of a population

• Involves two key decisions:

• What to examine

• Which people to consider

Need for Sampling

The reasons systems analysts do sampling are:

• Containing costs

• Speeding up the data gathering

• Improving effectiveness

• Reducing bias

Sampling Design

• To design a good sample, a systems analyst must follow four steps:

• Determining the data to be collected or described

• Determining the population to be sampled

• Choosing the type of sample

• Deciding on the sample size

Four Main Types of Samples the Analyst Has Available

The Sample Size Decision

• Determine the attribute.

• Locate the database or reports in which the attribute can be found.

• Examine the attribute.

• Make the subjective decision regarding the acceptable interval estimate.

• Choose the confidence level.

• Calculate the standard error.

• Determine the sample size.

A Table of Area under a Normal Curve Can Be Used to Look up a Value Once the Systems Analyst
Decides on the Confidence Level

Calculate the Standard Error of the Proportion

sp = i/z

i = interval estimate

z = confidence
coefficient found in
the confidence level
lookup table
Determine the Sample Size

σp = standard error

ρ = the proportion of the

population having the attribute
Example: A. Sembly Company

• Determine that you are looking for orders with mistakes .

• Locate order forms from the past six months.

• Examine order forms and conclude that p=5%.

• Subjective decision of acceptable interval i = ± 0.02

• Look up confidence coefficient z-value = 1.96.

• Calculate sp = i / z = 0.02/1.96 = 0.0102.

• Determine n; n = 458.

Investigation

• The act of discovery and analysis of data

• Hard data

• Quantitative

• Qualitative

Analyzing Quantitative Documents

• Reports used for decision making

• Performance reports
 • Records

• Data capture forms

• Ecommerce and other transactions

Reports Used for Decision Making

• Sales reports

• Production reports

• Summary reports

A Performance Report Showing Improvement

A Manually Completed Payment Record

Data Capture Forms

• Collect examples of all the forms in use.

• Note the type of form.

• Document the intended distribution pattern.

• Compare the intended distribution pattern with who actually receives the form.
Questions to Ask about Official and Bootleg Forms that Are Already Filled out

Analyzing Qualitative Documents

• Key or guiding metaphors

• Insiders vs. outsiders mentality

• What is considered good vs. evil

• Graphics, logos, and icons in common areas or Web pages

• A sense of humor

• Email messages and memos

• Signs or posters on bulletin boards

• Corporate Web sites

• Manuals

• Policy handbooks
Analysis of Memos Provides Insight into the Metaphors that Guide the Organization’s Thinking

Observation

• Observation provides insight on what organizational members actually do.

• See firsthand the relationships that exist between decision makers and other organizational
members

• Can also reveal important clues regarding HCI concerns

Analyst’s Playscript

• Involves observing the decision-makers behavior and recording their actions using a series of
action verbs

• Examples:

• Talking

• Sampling
 • Corresponding

• Deciding

A Sample Page from the Analyst’s Playscript Describing Decision Making

STROBE

STRuctured OBservation of the Environment—a technique for observing the decision-maker’s

physical environment

STROBE Elements

• Office location

• Desk placement

• Stationary equipment

• Props

• External information sources

 • Office lighting and color

• Clothing worn by decision makers

Office Location

• Accessible offices

• Main corridors, open door

• Major traffic flow area

• Increase interaction frequency and informal messages

• Inaccessible offices

• May view the organization differently

• Drift apart from others in objectives

Desk Placement

• Visitors in a tight space, back to wall, large expanse behind desk

• Indicates maximum power position

• Desk facing the wall, chair at side

• Encourages participation

• Equal exchanges

Stationary Office Equipment

File cabinets and bookshelves:

• If not present, person stores few items of information personally

• If an abundance, person stores and values information

Props

• Calculators

• Personal computers

• Pens, pencils, and rulers

• If present, person processes data personally

External Information Sources

• Trade journals or newspapers indicate the person values outside information.

 • Company reports, memos, and policy handbooks indicate the person values internal
information.

Office Lighting and Color

• Warm, incandescent lighting indicates:

• A tendency toward more personal communication

• More informal communication

• Brightly lit, bright colors indicate:

• More formal communications (memos, reports)

Clothing

• Male

• Formal two-piece suit—maximum authority

• Casual dressing (sport jacket/slacks)—more participative decision making

• Female

• Skirted suit—maximum authority

Observe a Decision Maker’s Office for Clues Concerning His or Her Personal Storage, Processing, and
Sharing of Information

Applying STROBE

• The five symbols used to evaluate how observation of the elements of STROBE compared
with interview results are:

• A checkmark means the narrative is confirmed.

• An “X” means the narrative is reversed.

• An oval or eye-shaped symbol serves as a cue to look further.

• A square means observation modifies the narrative.

• A circle means narrative is supplemented by observation.

An Anecdotal List with Symbols for Use in Applying STROBE