The Concept of Security

Primary Concerns:

1. Interstate security- how state could protect themselves from threats of other state; lessen if
not prevent occurrence of war
Some emphasized developing military capabilities and putting up credible defense while
others encouraged building and strengthening of institutions that could induce
cooperation among states.
After World War II, the state became captive to the interests of dominant clans,
warlords, and/or ethnic groups. This situation had caused violent struggles.
It is true that for most part of the Cold War period, there were no wars between major
powers, however, domestic armed conflicts and civil wars were on the rise.

2. intrastate security- internal to the state; addressing state weaknesses and failures ,political
and ethnic grievances and demands for minority rights and freedoms
3. human security- individuals (global warming, influx of refugees, internally displaced
persons, epidemics)
Realist and Liberal Perspectives
It has been argued that the difficulty of attaining interstate security has two underlying
principal causes:
First, system lacks a central authority that can regulate the conduct of states, and
second, states are seen as functionally similar units. This condition is called anarchy
which is a self-help system creating a security dilemma. States build up arms, including
ballistic missiles and nuclear weapons to boost their security, even if others might find
this threatening to their security.
During World War I, when states perceived offensive advantage, they unconditionally
mobilized against the enemies (Van Evera, 1984). The chain-ganging behavior of allies
dictated the logic and necessitated the outbreak of the war.
During World War II, however, when states perceived defensive advantage, states had
turned to their allies to balance an expansionist state. This buck-passing behavior only
contributed to the outbreak of another war (Christensen and Snyder, 1990).
A near-war crisis called the Cuban Missile Crisis, happened at the height of the Cold
War but has not resulted into a war. Nuclear weapons pack tremendous explosive
power capable of wiping out populations and territories, as was shown in the Nagasaki
and Hiroshima bombings. The principle of mutually assured destruction shaped the
strategic paradigm of states.
Kenneth Waltz and Scott Sagan (1995) have an engaging debate on the implications of
nuclear weapons proliferation and the dangers of a nuclear-armed world. According to
Waltz, more may be better while Sagan opposed that more may be worse.
 While the distribution of power matters to international security, some argue that there
are other important factors that affect security as well. They emphasize the role of
economic interdependence, democratic form of government and international
institutions.
Symmetric and Asymmetric Security
A full understanding of the concept of security requires one to not only examine the
threats posed by other states but also consider the threats emanating from non-state
forces (asymmetric threats). Addressing them is a big challenge like threats on
terrorism, illicit trade, and even climate change.
Today, the measures to combat terrorism are extended to crucial areas like trade and
finance, international and domestic law enforcement, state’s institutional capability
building, as well as intelligence and secret services.
Illicit trade is a transnational organized crime. Many commodities are being traded in
the black markets today, including people and human organs, endangered species,
drugs, weapons, counterfeit goods and laundered money.
Climate change is another problem. In the late 1980s, the Intergovernmental Panel on
Climate Change (IPCC) released a report predicting that the consequences of expected
increases in temperatures would be catastrophic. At the start of the of the 21 st century,
unusual weather patterns, storm events, and the melting of polar ice sheets have added
a dimension of public concern to the fears expressed by the scientific community
(Vogler, 2008). Al Gore (2006) pointed out that ”making mistakes in our dealings with
nature can have bigger consequences now because our technology is bigger than the
human scale.” Along with other environmental problems, the thickening of the ozone
layer by greenhouse gases are related to the unsustainable global patterns of natural
resource extraction, production, distribution, consumption and disposal that altogether
put so much pressure on the environment.
In states with clashing ethnic groups, conflicts have become communalized. In some
cases, these conflicts resulted in mass killings and displacement of civilians. The claims
for a moral duty of humanitarian intervention stem from the basic proposition that all
individuals are entitled to a minimum level of protection from harm by virtue of their
common humanity.
Human Security
It was the United Nations Development Program’s (UNDP) 1994 Human
Development Report that made human security a common currency in the
contemporary world. Human security means “that people can exercise these choices
safely and freely and that they can be relatively confident that the opportunities they
have today are not totally lost tomorrow.” In its broader sense, human security is
distinguished by its three characteristics:

1. its focus on the individual/people as the object or subject of security;

2. its multidimensional nature, not just economic, but also political, social and environmental;
3. its universal or global scope, applying to states and societies of the North as well as the
South. The report defined the scope of human security to include seven areas
(Acharya,2008), namely:

Includes insured basic income and employment, and access to such

1. Economic
social safety net
Access to safe water, living in a safe environment, access to health
services, access to safe and affordable family planning and basic
2. Health support during pregnancy and delivery, prevention of HIV/AIDS
and other diseases and to have basic knowledge to live a healthy
life
Protecting people from physical violence, whether from the state
3. Personal or external states, from violent individuals or sub-state factors,
from domestic abuse, and from predatory adults
Concerned with protection of human rights and well-being of all
people; includes protection against people from state repression
4. Political
such as freedom of press, freedom of speech, and freedom of
voting
5. Food Includes access to basic nutrition and food supply
Prevention of water and air pollution, prevention from
6. Environmental deforestation, irrigated land conservation, prevention of natural
hazards such as droughts, floods, cyclones, earthquakes, etc
Covers conservation of traditional cultures, languages and
commonly held values; also includes abolishment of ethnic
7. Community
discrimination, prevention of ethnic conflicts, and protection of
indigenous people
 GLOBAL GOVERNANCE

2OTH CENTURY
• Involvement of IGOs and NGOs
• IGOs- composed of member states established for single or multiple objectives
• NGOs – private voluntary organizations whose members are either individuals or
groups gathered on a common purpose

END OF WORLD WAR II

• IGOs created – UN, IMF, WB, GATT- monopoly status in making crucial decisions
and coordinating actions in areas like peace and security, trade, finance and
development- inclusive formal multilateralism- global collective action

TODAY
• NGOS LINKED WITH IGOS – Funds for World Bank projects are disbursed through
NGO’S
• Many emerging issues are linked with transnational flows of people, goods, capital,
technology and ideas
• There is greater emphasis on sovereignty that is contingent upon the respect of
human rights
• Many actors continue to use force and coercion as their instruments to achieve their
goals;
• Support for peaceful means of dispute settlement, the rule of law and diplomacy
• Not only for preservation of states but also for the protection of the interests of
communities and transnational actors

PERSPECTIVES
• Along with rules, IGOS constitute the formal parts of a regime.
• Regimes – set of implicit and explicit principles, norms, rules, and decision-making
procedures around which actors’ expectations converge in a given area of
international relations (Krasner, 1982)

REGIME
• Composed of informal parts (principles and norms); and formal parts (rules and
decision-making procedures);
• Its content may change from time to time but the norms and principles do not
• When GATT was replaced by WTO, trade principles and norms of reciprocity and
non-discrimination survived

4 defining elements of a regime

• Principles- represented by coherent bodies of theoretical statements about how the
world works
• The GATT operated on the basis of liberal principles which assert that global welfare
will be maximized by free trade
• Norms-specify general standards of behavior and identify the rights and obligations
of states
• In case of GATT, the basic norms is that tariffs and non-tariff barriers should be
reduced and eliminated
• Rules- operate at a lower level of generality than principles and norms;
• Designed to reconcile conflicts which may exist between the principles and norms
• Third World states for examples wanted rules which differentiated between
developed and underdeveloped countries
• Decision-making procedures- identify specific prescriptions for behavior, the system
of voting for example which will regularly change as regime is consolidated and
extended

Global Trade Regime

• When GATT was replaced by WTO, trade principles and norms of reciprocity and
non-discrimination survived.
• Regimes based on neo-liberal institutionalists
• See institutions as mediators and means to achieve cooperation among actors in the
system
• Increase transparency of states;

Regimes
• Provide confidence-building measures to avoid misperceptions of states’ individual
intentions;
• Reduces transaction costs;
• Show the shadow of future which means they provide states idea of sunk costs for
deviating from their commitments and compliance;
• Provide enforcement mechanisms and norms of reciprocity

Liberalists
• Relative peace after World War 2
• Embody the economic institutions cosmopolitan values of liberal political and
• During much of Cold War –regimes persisted despite the declining influence of the
Western states that helped create them
• Helped overcome the difficulty of providing collective goods such as liberal trade and
financial system through mechanisms that dissuade free-riding and raise or
internalize the costs of defection

Realists
• Regime may affect the decisions of states, they do not matter as much as the
balance and distribution states’ material capabilities do
• Regimes may be considered as an extension of a major power’s interests and
preferences
• There is no organization with the formal authority to undertake policy-making
designed to regulate or facilitate affairs within the system
• There is no single system with the police powers to enforce and implement policies
made
• No government
• IGOs are no world governments that have ultimate authority
• Role of International Organizations
• IGOs such as the UN develop the habits of cooperation among actors through
regular interactions
• Along with states IGOs spearhead the creation and maintenance of principles,
norms and rules based on collective concerns
• United Nations
• Establish expectations about the behavior of states and other actors
• Through its Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) consult with NGOs in many
important matters

NGOs
• Advocates for specific policies and offer alternative forum for political participation;
• Mobilize mass public in the promotion of advocacies;
• Perform the roles of providing education, health and agriculture which are
supposedly functions of the government
• Rely on soft power;
• Provide credible information and expertise that attracts the attention and admiration
of governments and the public;
• Politically independent from any sovereign state;
• Can make and execute international policy more quickly and directly and with less
risk to national sensitivities than IGO’s;
• Can participate at different levels, from policy formulation and decision- making to
implementation

• Limitation of NGO
• Lack the traditional forms of power;
• Very limited economic resources

The United Nations

• Founded in 1945
• Result of initiatives taken by governments of the states that had led the war against
Germany and Japan
• 2018- 193 sovereign state members
• UN Charter- an international treaty that set out basic principles of international
relations:
• Sovereign equality of states;
• UN jurisdictions- only international problems; primary concern – international peace
and security
• UN - only organization with the legitimacy that derives from universal membership
and a mandate that encompasses security, economic and social development, the
protection of human rights, and the protection of the environment

Principal Organs
1.The Security Council
• Maintain international peace and security
• Made up initially of 11 states after 1965, 15 states;
• Includes 5 permanent members P5 ( US, UK, France, Russia and China – all are
nuclear states) plus 10 non-permanent members, two states from Latin American
• The 10 non-permanent seats are divided among regions: five states from African
and Asian Sates, one seat from the Eastern European State and last two from
Western European and other States (UNGA Resolution 1991 (XVIII of 17 December
1963)
• 9 out of 15 members – majority – for decision-making (binding)
• 5 permanent members – veto power over all decisions

Threats to International Peace?

• Explores ways to settle dispute peacefully;
• Suggest principles;
• May suggest a mediation;
• In fighting event- secure a ceasefire;
• May send peacekeeping mission;
• Authorized means such as collective military action

2. The General Assembly

• All members states meet to consider world’s most pressing problems
• Each member has one vote;
• 2/3 majority required for decisions on key issues –international peace and security,
admission of new members, UN budget;
• Status of recommendations only not binding

3.The Secretariat
• Carries out substantive and administrative work of the UN as directed by the other
principal organs;
• Led by the Secretary- General who provides all administrative guidance
• On the recommendation of other bodies, it carries out a no. of research functions
and some quasi- management functions;
• Primarily bureaucratic; lacks the political power and the right of initiatives
• Empowered to become involved in threats to peace, economic and social problems
and humanitarian crises

4.The Economic and Social Council

• Intended to coordinate the economic and social work of the UN;
• Also consults with NGO-maintaining a vital link between UN and civil society;
• Overseeing specialized agencies and programmes and funds;
• Composed of 54 elected members by the General Assembly for overlapping three-
year terms

5.The Trusteeship Council

• Under the Charter, the Trusteeship Council is authorized to examine and discuss
reports from the Administering Authority on the political, economic, social and
 educational advancement of the peoples of Trust Territories and, in consultation with
the Administering Authority, to examine petitions from and undertake

6.The International Court of Justice

• The Court has two functions: To settle, in accordance with international law, legal
disputes submitted by States, and. To give advisory opinions on legal questions
referred to it by authorized UN organs and specialized agencies.
The 17 sustainable development goals (SDGs) to transform our world:
GOAL 1: No Poverty
GOAL 2: Zero Hunger
GOAL 3: Good Health and Well-being
GOAL 4: Quality Education
GOAL 5: Gender Equality
GOAL 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
GOAL 7: Affordable and Clean Energy
GOAL 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth
GOAL 9: Industry, Innovation and Infrastructure
GOAL 10: Reduced Inequality
GOAL 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities
GOAL 12: Responsible Consumption and Production
GOAL 13: Climate Action
GOAL 14: Life Below Water
GOAL 15: Life on Land
GOAL 16: Peace and Justice Strong Institutions
GOAL 17: Partnerships to achieve the Goal

The Sustainable Development Goals are the blueprint to achieve a better and more
sustainable future for all. They address the global challenges we face, including those
related to poverty, inequality, climate change, environmental degradation, peace and
justice. The 17 Goals are all interconnected, and in order to leave no one behind, it is
important that we achieve them all by 2030.

Goal 1: No Poverty
More than 700 million people, or 10 per cent of the world population, still live in extreme
poverty today, struggling to fulfil the most basic needs like health, education, and
access to water and sanitation, to name a few. The majority of people living on less than
$1.90 a day live in sub-Saharan Africa. Worldwide, the poverty rate in rural areas is 17.2
per cent—more than three times higher than in urban areas.
For those who work, having a job does not guarantee a decent living. In fact, 8 per
cent of employed workers and their families worldwide lived in extreme poverty in 2018.
One out of five children live in extreme poverty. Ensuring social protection for all
children and other vulnerable groups is critical to reduce poverty.
 One out of five children live in extreme poverty, and the negative effects of poverty and
deprivation in the early years have ramifications that can last a lifetime.

Goal 2: Zero Hunger

According to the World Food Programme, 135 million suffer from acute hunger largely
due to man-made conflicts, climate change and economic downturns. The COVID-19
pandemic could now double that number, putting an additional 130 million people at risk
of suffering acute hunger by the end of 2020.
With more than a quarter of a billion people potentially at the brink of starvation, swift
action needs to be taken to provide food and humanitarian relief to the most at-risk
regions.
At the same time, a profound change of the global food and agriculture system is
needed if we are to nourish the more than 690 million people who are hungry today –
and the additional 2 billion people the world will have by 2050. Increasing agricultural
productivity and sustainable food production are crucial to help alleviate the perils of
hunger.
Hunger
• Current estimates are that nearly 690 million people are hungry, or 8.9 percent of the world
population – up by 10 million people in one year and by nearly 60 million in five years.
• The majority of the world’s undernourished – 381 million – are still found in Asia. More than
250 million live in Africa, where the number of undernourished is growing faster than anywhere
in the world.
• In 2019, close to 750 million – or nearly one in ten people in the world – were exposed to severe
levels of food insecurity.
• An estimated 2 billion people in the world did not have regular access to safe, nutritious and
sufficient food in 2019.
• If recent trends continue, the number of people affected by hunger will surpass 840 million by
2030, or 9.8 percent of the global population.
• 144 million children under age 5 were affected by stunting in 2019, with three quarters living in
Southern Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
• In 2019, 6.9 per cent (or 47 million) children under 5 were affected by wasting, or acute
undernutrition, a condition caused by limited nutrient intake and infection.

Goal 3: Good Health and Well-Being

Ensuring healthy lives and promoting well-being at all ages is essential to sustainable
development. Currently, the world is facing a global health crisis unlike any other —
COVID-19 is spreading human suffering, destabilizing the global economy and
upending the lives of billions of people around the globe.
 Health emergencies such as COVID-19 pose a global risk and have shown the critical
need for preparedness. The United Nations Development Programme highlighted huge
disparities in countries’ abilities to cope with and recover from the COVID-19 crisis. The
pandemic provides a watershed moment for health emergency preparedness and for
investment in critical 21st century public services.
Child health
• Despite determined global progress, an increasing proportion of child deaths are in Sub-Saharan
Africa and Southern Asia. Four out of every five deaths of children under age five occur in these
regions.
• Children in sub-Saharan Africa are more than 15 times more likely to die before the age of 5 than
children in high income countries.
• Malnourished children, particularly those with severe acute malnutrition, have a higher risk of
death from common childhood illness such as diarrhoea, pneumonia, and malaria. Nutrition-
related factors contribute to about 45per cent of deaths in children under-5 years of age.
Maternal health
• Over 40 per cent of all countries have fewer than 10 medical doctors per 10,000 people; over 55
per cent of countries have fewer than 40 nursing and midwifery personnel per 10,000 people.
• 94 per cent of all maternal deaths occur in low and lower middle-income countries.
• Young adolescents (ages 10-14) face a higher risk of complications and death as a result of
pregnancy than other women.
• But maternal mortality ratio – the proportion of mothers that do not survive childbirth compared
to those who do – in developing regions is still 14 times higher than in the developed regions.
HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases
• 38 million people globally were living with HIV in 2019.
• Tuberculosis remains the leading cause of death among people living with HIV, accounting for
around one in three AIDS-related deaths.
• HIV is the leading cause of death for women of reproductive age worldwide.
• AIDS is now the leading cause of death among adolescents (aged 10–19) in Africa and the
second most common cause of death among adolescents globally.
• Over 6.2 million malaria deaths have been averted between 2000 and 2015, primarily of children
under five years of age in sub-Saharan Africa. The global malaria incidence rate has fallen by an
estimated 37 per cent and the mortality rates by 58 per cent.

Goal 4: Quality Education

Education enables upward socioeconomic mobility and is a key to escaping poverty.
Over the past decade, major progress was made towards increasing access to
education and school enrollment rates at all levels, particularly for girls. In 2020, as the
COVID-19 pandemic spread across the globe, a majority of countries announced the
temporary closure of schools, impacting more than 91 per cent of students worldwide.
By April 2020, close to 1.6 billion children and youth were out of school.
 Before the coronavirus crisis, projections showed that more than 200 million children
would be out of school, and only 60 per cent of young people would be completing
upper secondary education in 2030.
• More than half of children that have not enrolled in school live in sub-Saharan Africa, and more
than 85 per cent of children in sub-Saharan Africa are not learning the minimum
• 617 million youth worldwide lack basic mathematics and literacy skills.
• Some 750 million adults – two thirds of them women – remained illiterate in 2016. Half of the
global illiterate population lives in South Asia, and a quarter live in sub-Saharan Africa.

Goal 5: Gender Equality

Gender equality is not only a fundamental human right, but a necessary foundation for a
peaceful, prosperous and sustainable world.
The effects of the COVID-19 pandemic could reverse the limited progress that has been
made on gender equality and women’s rights. The coronavirus outbreak exacerbates
existing inequalities for women and girls across every sphere – from health and the
economy, to security and social protection.
Women play a disproportionate role in responding to the virus, including as frontline
healthcare workers and carers at home. Women’s unpaid care work has increased
significantly as a result of school closures and the increased needs of older people.
Women are also harder hit by the economic impacts of COVID-19, as they
disproportionately work in insecure labour markets. Nearly 60 per cent of women work
in the informal economy, which puts them at greater risk of falling into poverty.
The pandemic has also led to a steep increase in violence against women and girls.
With lockdown measures in place, many women are trapped at home with their
abusers, struggling to access services that are suffering from cuts and restrictions.
Emerging data shows that, since the outbreak of the pandemic, violence against women
and girls – and particularly domestic violence – has intensified.
• Globally, 750 million women and girls were married before the age of 18 and at least 200 million
women and girls in 30 countries have undergone FGM.
• In 18 countries, husbands can legally prevent their wives from working; in 39 countries,
daughters and sons do not have equal inheritance rights; and 49 countries lack laws protecting
women from domestic violence.
• One in five women and girls, including 19 per cent of women and girls aged 15 to 49, have
experienced physical and/or sexual violence by an intimate partner within the last 12 months.
Yet, 49 countries have no laws that specifically protect women from such violence.
• Only 52 per cent of women married or in a union freely make their own decisions about sexual
relations, contraceptive use and health care.
• Globally, women are just 13 per cent of agricultural land holders.

Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation

 While substantial progress has been made in increasing access to clean drinking water
and sanitation, billions of people—mostly in rural areas—still lack these basic services.
Worldwide, one in three people do not have access to safe drinking water, two out of
five people do not have a basic hand-washing facility with soap and water, and more
than 673 million people still practice open defecation.
The COVID-19 pandemic has demonstrated the critical importance of sanitation,
hygiene and adequate access to clean water for preventing and containing
diseases. Hand hygiene saves lives. According to the World Health
Organization, handwashing is one of the most effective actions you can take to reduce
the spread of pathogens and prevent infections, including the COVID-19 virus. Yet
billions of people still lack safe water sanitation, and funding is inadequate.
• Each day, nearly 1,000 children die due to preventable water and sanitation-related
diarrheal diseases
• Floods and other water-related disasters account for 70 per cent of all deaths related to natural
disasters

Goal 7: Affordable and Clean Energy

Energy The world is making progress towards Goal 7, with encouraging signs that
energy is becoming more sustainable and widely available. Access to electricity in
poorer countries has begun to accelerate, energy efficiency continues to improve, and
renewable energy is making impressive gains in the electricity sector.
• 13 per cent of the global population still lacks access to modern electricity.
• 3 billion people rely on wood, coal, charcoal or animal waste for cooking and heating
• Energy is the dominant contributor to climate change, accounting for around 60 per cent of total
global greenhouse gas emissions.
• Indoor air pollution from using combustible fuels for household energy caused 4.3 million deaths
in 2012, with women and girls accounting for 6 out of every 10 of these.

Goal 8: Decent Work and Economic Growth

u Sustained and inclusive economic growth can drive progress, create decent jobs for
all and improve living standards.
COVID-19 has disrupted billions of lives and endangered the global economy. The International
Monetary Fund (IMF) expects a global recession as bad as or worse than in 2009. As job losses
escalate, the International Labor Organization estimates that nearly half of the global workforce
is at risk of losing their livelihoods.
• Globally, 61per cent of all workers were engaged in informal employment in 2016. Excluding
the agricultural sector, 51per cent of all workers fell into this employment category.
• Men earn 12.5per cent more than women in 40 out of 45 countries with data.
• Despite their increasing presence in public life, women continue to do 2.6 times the unpaid care
and domestic work that men do.

Goal 9: Industry, Innovation, and Infrastructure

Inclusive and sustainable industrialization, together with innovation and infrastructure, can
unleash dynamic and competitive economic forces that generate employment and income. They
play a key role in introducing and promoting new technologies, facilitating international trade
and enabling the efficient use of resources.
Global manufacturing growth has been steadily declining, even before the outbreak of the
COVID-19 pandemic. The pandemic is hitting manufacturing industries hard and causing
disruptions in global value chains and the supply of products.
The coronavirus pandemic has revealed the urgent need for resilient infrastructure. The Asian
Development Bank notes that critical infrastructure in the region remains far from adequate in
many countries, despite the rapid economic growth and development the region has experienced
over the past decade.
• 16 per cent of the global population does not have access to mobile broadband networks.
• Least developed countries have immense potential for industrialization in food and beverages
(agro-industry), and textiles and garments, with good prospects for sustained employment
generation and higher productivity
• In 2019, the amount of new renewable power capacity added (excluding large hydro) was the
highest ever, at 184 gigawatts, 20GW more than in 2018. This included 118GW of new solar
systems, and 61GW of wind turbines.
• Capacity investment in solar slipped 3per cent to $131.1 billion in 2019, while that in wind
climbed 6per cent to $138.2 billion – the first time that wind has outweighed solar in terms of
dollars committed since 2010.

Goal 10: Reduced Inequalities

Reducing inequalities and ensuring no one is left behind are integral to achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals.
Inequality within and among countries is a persistent cause for concern. Despite some positive
signs toward reducing inequality in some dimensions, such as reducing relative income
inequality in some countries and preferential trade status benefiting lower-income
countries, inequality still persists.
COVID-19 has deepened existing inequalities, hitting the poorest and most vulnerable
communities the hardest. It has put a spotlight on economic inequalities and fragile social safety
nets that leave vulnerable communities to bear the brunt of the crisis. On the economic front, the
COVID-19 pandemic has significantly increased global unemployment and dramatically slashed
workers’ incomes.
 Inequalities are also deepening for vulnerable populations in countries with weaker health
systems and those facing existing humanitarian crises. Refugees and migrants, as well as
indigenous peoples, older persons, people with disabilities and children are particularly at risk of
being left behind.
• Despite overall declines in maternal mortality in most developing countries, women in rural
areas are still up to three times more likely to die while giving birth than women living in urban
centers.
• Up to 30 per cent of income inequality is due to inequality within households, including between
women and men. Women are also more likely than men to live below 50 per cent of the median
income
• One in ten children is a child with a disability.

Goal 11: Sustainable Cities and Communities

The world is becoming increasingly urbanized. Since 2007, more than half the world’s
population has been living in cities, and that share is projected to rise to 60 per cent by 2030.
Cities and metropolitan areas are powerhouses of economic growth—contributing about 60 per
cent of global GDP. However, they also account for about 70 per cent of global carbon emissions
and over 60 per cent of resource use.
Rapid urbanization is resulting in a growing number of slum dwellers, inadequate and
overburdened infrastructure and services (such as waste collection and water and sanitation
systems, roads and transport), worsening air pollution and unplanned urban sprawl.
• 828 million people live in slums today and most them are found in Eastern and South-Eastern
Asia.
• The world’s cities occupy just 3 per cent of the Earth’s land, but account for 60-80 per cent of
energy consumption and 75 per cent of carbon emissions.
• Rapid urbanization is exerting pressure on fresh water supplies, sewage, the living environment,
and public health.
• Cities account for between 60 and 80 per cent of energy consumption and generate as much as
70per cent of human-induced greenhouse gas emissions
• 90 per cent of urban growth is forecasted to happen in Asia and Africa in the next 30 years.
• By 2050 70 per cent of the world population is predicted to live in urban settlements.

Goal 12: Responsible Consumption and Production

Worldwide consumption and production — a driving force of the global economy — rest on the
use of the natural environment and resources in a way that continues to have destructive impacts
on the planet.
Economic and social progress over the last century has been accompanied by environmental
degradation that is endangering the very systems on which our future development — indeed,
our very survival — depends.
 The COVID-19 pandemic offers countries an opportunity to build recovery plans that will
reverse current trends and change our consumption and production patterns towards a more
sustainable future.
Sustainable consumption and production is about doing more and better with less. It is also about
decoupling economic growth from environmental degradation, increasing resource efficiency
and promoting sustainable lifestyles.
Sustainable consumption and production can also contribute substantially to poverty alleviation
and the transition towards low-carbon and green economies.
Water
• Less than 3 per cent of the world’s water is fresh (drinkable), of which 2.5 per cent is frozen in
the Antarctica, Arctic and glaciers. Humanity must therefore rely on 0.5 per cent for all of man’s
ecosystem’s and freshwater needs.
• Humankind is polluting water in rivers and lakes faster than nature can recycle and purify
• More than 1 billion people still do not have access to fresh water.
• Water use has been increasing worldwide by about 1per cent per year since the 1980s.
• Agriculture (including irrigation, livestock and aquaculture) is by far the largest water
consumer, accounting for 69per cent of annual water withdrawals globally. Industry (including
power generation) accounts for 19per cent and households for 12per cent.
• Over the period 1995–2015, floods accounted for 43per cent of all documented natural disasters,
affecting 2.3 billion people, killing 157,000 more and causing US$662 billion in damage.
• Three out of ten people (2.1 billion people, or 29per cent of the global population) did not use a
safely managed drinking water service4 in 2015, whereas 844 million people still lacked even a
basic drinking water service.
Energy
• If people worldwide switched to energy efficient lightbulbs, the world would save US$120
billion annually.
• Despite technological advances that have promoted energy efficiency gains, energy use in OECD
countries will continue to grow another 35 per cent by 2020. Commercial and residential energy
use is the second most rapidly growing area of global energy use after transport.
• In 2002 the motor vehicle stock in OECD countries was 550 million vehicles (75 per cent of
which were personal cars). A 32 per cent increase in vehicle ownership is expected by 2020. At
the same time, motor vehicle kilometers are projected to increase by 40 per cent and global air
travel is projected to triple in the same period.
• Households consume 29 per cent of global energy and consequently contribute to 21 per cent of
resultant CO2 emissions.
• The global population without access to electricity fell from 1.2 billion in 2010 to 840 million in
2017.
Food
• Each year, an estimated 1/3 of all food produced – equivalent to 1.3 billion tons worth around $1
trillion – ends up rotting in the bins of consumers and retailers, or spoiling due to poor
transportation and harvesting practices
• 38 million children under the age of 5 were overweight or obese in 2019.
• Land degradation, declining soil fertility, unsustainable water use, overfishing and marine
environment degradation are all lessening the ability of the natural resource base to supply food.

Goal 13: Climate Action

2019 was the second warmest year on record and the end of the warmest decade (2010- 2019)
ever recorded.
Climate change is affecting every country on every continent. It is disrupting national economies
and affecting lives. Weather patterns are changing, sea levels are rising, and weather events are
becoming more extreme.
Although greenhouse gas emissions are projected to drop about 6 per cent in 2020 due to travel
bans and economic slowdowns resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic, this improvement is
only temporary. Climate change is not on pause. Once the global economy begins to recover
from the pandemic, emissions are expected to return to higher levels.
Saving lives and livelihoods requires urgent action to address both the pandemic and the climate
emergency.
The Paris Agreement, adopted in 2015, aims to strengthen the global response to the threat of
climate change by keeping a global temperature rise this century well below 2 degrees Celsius
above pre-industrial levels. The agreement also aims to strengthen the ability of countries to deal
with the impacts of climate change, through appropriate financial flows, a new technology
framework and an enhanced capacity building framework.
• As of April 2018, 175 parties had ratified the Paris Agreement and 168 parties had
communicated their first nationally determined contributions to the UN framework convention
on Climate Change Secretariat.
Thanks to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change we know:
• From 1880 to 2012, average global temperature increased by 0.85°C. To put this into
perspective, for each 1 degree of temperature increase, grain yields decline by about 5 per cent.
Maize, wheat and other major crops have experienced significant yield reductions at the global
level of 40 megatons per year between 1981 and 2002 due to a warmer climate.
• Oceans have warmed, the amounts of snow and ice have diminished and sea level has
risen.From 1901 to 2010, the global average sea level rose by 19 cm as oceans expanded due to
warming and ice melted. The Arctic’s sea ice extent has shrunk in every successive decade since
1979, with 1.07 million km² of ice loss every decade
• Given current concentrations and on-going emissions of greenhouse gases, it is likely that
by the end of this century, the increase in global temperature will exceed 1.5°C compared
to 1850 to 1900 for all but one scenario. The world’s oceans will warm and ice melt will
 continue. Average sea level rise is predicted as 24 – 30cm by 2065 and 40-63cm by 2100. Most
aspects of climate change will persist for many centuries even if emissions are stopped
• Global emissions of carbon dioxide (CO2) have increased by almost 50 per cent since 1990

Paris Agreement – Frequently Asked Questions

What is the present status of the Paris Agreement on climate change?
The Paris Agreement on climate change officially entered into force on 4 November 2016, after
55 countries accounting for 55 per cent of the total global greenhouse gas emissions, deposited
their instruments of ratification, acceptance or approval with the UN Secretary-General.
As of 28 September 2017, 166 countries have joined the Paris Agreement.

What are the most significant aspects about the new agreement?
The agreement provides a pathway forward to limit temperature rise to well below 2 degrees,
maybe even 1.5.
The Paris Agreement is an ambitious, dynamic and universal agreement. It covers all countries
and all emissions, and is designed to last. This is a monumental agreement. It solidifies
international cooperation for climate change. It provides a way forward.
The Paris Agreement sends a powerful signal to markets that now is the time to invest in the low
emission economy. It contains a transparency framework to build mutual trust and confidence.
It will serve as an important tool in mobilizing finance technological support and capacity
building for developing countries. And it will also help to scale up global efforts to address and
minimize loss and damage from climate change.
What does the agreement require countries to do?
The agreement requires all countries to take action, while recognizing their differing situations
and circumstances. Under the Agreement, countries are responsible for taking action on both
mitigation and adaptation.
What happens if a country doesn’t live up to its commitments? Would there be
any enforcement?
Countries have every reason to comply with the terms of the Agreement. It is in their interest to
implement the agreement, not only in terms of achieving the benefits of taking climate action,
but also to show global solidarity.

How are climate change and the Paris Agreement linked with the Sustainable
Development Goals?
A strong climate agreement backed by action on the ground will help us achieve the Sustainable
Development Goals to end poverty, build stronger economies and safer, healthier, and more
liveable societies everywhere. There are 12 of the 17 Sustainable Development Goals that
 directly involve taking action on climate change– in addition to climate change having its own
goal.

Goal 14: Life Below Water

The ocean drives global systems that make the Earth habitable for humankind. Our rainwater,
drinking water, weather, climate, coastlines, much of our food, and even the oxygen in the air we
breathe, are all ultimately provided and regulated by the sea.
Saving our ocean must remain a priority. Marine biodiversity is critical to the health of people
and our planet. Marine protected areas need to be effectively managed and well-resourced and
regulations need to be put in place to reduce overfishing, marine pollution and ocean
acidification.
• Oceans cover three quarters of the Earth’s surface, contain 97 per cent of the Earth’s water, and
represent 99 per cent of the living space on the planet by volume.
Climate change
• Oceans absorb about 30 per cent of carbon dioxide produced by humans, buffering the impacts
of global warming.
• Carbon emissions from human activities are causing ocean warming, acidification and oxygen
loss.
• The ocean has also absorbed more than 90per cent of the excess heat in the climate system.
• Ocean heat is at record levels, causing widespread marine heatwaves.
Ocean and people
• Over three billion people depend on marine and coastal biodiversity for their livelihoods.
• Coastal waters are deteriorating due to pollution and eutrophication. Without concerted
efforts, coastal eutrophication is expected to increase in 20 percent of large marine ecosystems
by 2050.
• Roughly 80per cent of marine and coastal pollution originates on land – including agricultural
run-off, pesticides, plastics and untreated sewage.
• Around the world, one million plastic drinking bottles are purchased every minute, while up to 5
trillion single-use plastic bags are used worldwide every year

Goal 15: Life on Land

Nature is critical to our survival: nature provides us with our oxygen, regulates our
weather patterns, pollinates our crops, produces our food, feed and fibre. But it is under
increasing stress. Human activity has altered almost 75 per cent of the earth’s surface,
squeezing wildlife and nature into an ever-smaller corner of the planet.
Around 1 million animal and plant species are threatened with extinction – many within
decades – according to the 2019 Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and
Ecosystem Service. The report called for transformative changes to restore and protect
nature. It found that the health of ecosystems on which we and all other species depend
 is deteriorating more rapidly than ever, affecting the very foundations of our economies,
livelihoods, food security, health and quality of life worldwide.
Deforestation and desertification – caused by human activities and climate change –
pose major challenges to sustainable development and have affected the lives and
livelihoods of millions of people. Forests are vitally important for sustaining life on Earth,
and play a major role in the fight against climate change. And investing in land
restoration is critical for improving livelihoods, reducing vulnerabilities, and reducing
risks for the economy.
The health of our planet also plays an important role in the emergence of zoonotic
diseases, i.e. diseases that are transmissible between animals and humans. As we
continue to encroach on fragile ecosystems, we bring humans into ever-greater contact
with wildlife, enabling pathogens in wildlife to spill over to livestock and humans,
increasing the risk of disease emergence and amplification.
Forests
• Around 1.6 billion people depend on forests for their livelihood, including 70 million indigenous
people.
• Forests are home to more than 80 per cent of all terrestrial species of animals, plants and insects.
Desertification
• Arable land loss is estimated at 30 to 35 times the historical rate
• Due to drought and desertification, 12 million hectares are lost each year (23 hectares per
minute). Within one year, 20 million tons of grain could have been grown.
• Of the 8,300 animal breeds known, 8 per cent are extinct and 22 per cent are at risk of extinction.
• Of the over 80,000 tree species, less than 1 per cent have been studied for potential use.
• Fish provide 20 per cent of animal protein to about 3 billion people. Only ten species provide
about 30 per cent of marine capture fisheries and ten species provide about 50 per cent of
aquaculture production.
• Over 80 per cent of the human diet is provided by plants. Only three cereal crops – rice, maize
and wheat – provide 60 per cent of energy intake.
• As many as 80 per cent of people living in rural areas in developing countries rely on traditional
plant-‐based medicines for basic healthcare.
• Micro-organisms and invertebrates are key to ecosystem services, but their contributions are still
poorly known and rarely acknowledged.

Goal 16: Peace, Justice and Strong Institutions

Conflict, insecurity, weak institutions and limited access to justice remain a great threat
to sustainable development.
In 2019, the United Nations tracked 357 killings and 30 enforced disappearances of
human rights defenders, journalists and trade unionists in 47 countries.

Goal 17: Partnerships

The SDGs can only be realized with strong global partnerships and cooperation.
A successful development agenda requires inclusive partnerships — at the global,
regional, national and local levels — built upon principles and values, and upon a
shared vision and shared goals placing people and the planet at the centre.
Many countries require Official Development Assistance to encourage growth and trade.
Yet, aid levels are falling and donor countries have not lived up to their pledge to ramp
up development finance.
Strong international cooperation is needed now more than ever to ensure that countries
have the means to recover from the pandemic, build back better and achieve the
Sustainable Development Goals.