Learning for STEM Literacy: STEM Literacy for Learning

Alan Zollman
Northern Illinois University

We are in the STEM generation whose comprehensive purpose is to resolve (1) societal needs for new technological
and scientific advances; (2) economic needs for national security; and (3) personal needs to become a fulfilled,
productive, knowledgeable citizen. STEM specifically refers to science, technology, engineering, and mathematics, but
now has a broader meaning to include environment, economics, and medicine. Currently, there is not an agreement of
the particulars in education, or in standards, by professional organizations that define STEM literacy. Most definitions
do cover societal and economic needs but overlook personal needs. There is a general consensus that everyone needs
to be STEM literate. But there is a difference between literacy and being literate. STEM literacy should not be viewed
as a content area but as a deictic means (composed of skills, abilities, factual knowledge, procedures, concepts, and
metacognitive capacities) to gain further learning. This paper gives a brief background of literacy definitions in STEM
and presents a description of STEM literacy based upon (1) cognitive, (2) affective, and (3) psychomotor learning theory
domains. The paper stresses the need to evolve from learning for STEM literacy to using STEM literacy for learning to
satisfy our societal, economic, and personal needs.

Introduction There is a general consensus that everyone needs to be

Since 1944, the United States has commissioned reports STEM literate, but there is a difference between literacy
with similar charges—identify solutions to the dearth of and being literate. STEM literacy should not be viewed as
scientific talent. The first report, Science, the Endless a content area but as a shifting, deictic means (composed
Frontier (Bush, 1945), was a response to the competitive of skills, abilities, factual knowledge, procedures, con-
challenges in science from Germany and Japan. Through cepts, and metacognitive capacities) to gain further learn-
the years, hundreds of related reports and programs have ing. Currently, there is not an agreement of the particulars
followed. The current White House program, Educate to in education, or in standards, by professional organizations
Innovate (2010), aims to help student excel in science, that define STEM literacy. Most definitions do cover the
technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM). All societal and the economic needs but overlook the personal
these reports and programs have analogous concerns: the needs. This paper provides a background of literacy defi-
future need for more scientists, technicians, engineers, and nitions in the four STEM strands, and presents a descrip-
mathematicians (the supply pipeline); the necessity for tion of STEM literacy based upon three domains of
more innovative workers (a knowledgeable population) learning: (1) cognitive, (2) affective, and (3) psychomotor
trained in science, technology, engineering, and math- from educational learning theory. This paper stresses the
ematics; and recommendations for what schools should do need to evolve from learning for STEM literacy to using
to solve the shortage. Their overarching purpose is to STEM literacy for learning to satisfy our societal, eco-
resolve (1) societal needs for new technological and sci- nomic, and personal needs.
entific advances; (2) economic needs for national security;
and (3) personal needs to become a fulfilled, productive, Literacy and STEM Background
knowledgeable citizen. Read the following sentences carefully and answer the
We now are in the STEM generation. STEM specifically ensuing two questions.
refers to science, technology, engineering, and mathemat- A mayber was railing his temp. Saintly a durf accotted
ics, a term coined in 2001 by Judith Ramaley as the assis- some padis in the mayber’s temp.
tant director of the Education and Human Resources Question 1: What did the durf accot in the mayber’s
Directorate at the National Science Foundation. STEM temp?
now has a broader meaning, and includes agriculture, Question 2: Why did the durf accot padis in the may-
environment, economics, education, and medicine ber’s temp?
(Zollman, 2011). (Some say it should be STEAM, to Question 1 can be answered correctly, “The durf accotted
include the arts and creativity-related components padis in the mayber’s temp.” However, Question 2 cannot
[Tarnoff, 2010]). be answered. It is an analysis question that requires
12 Volume 112 (1)
 STEM Literacy for Learning

understanding to answer why. The two sentences with the proficiency. They define technological literacy as the
mayber and the durf are made-up nonsense, so there can be capacity to use, understand, and evaluate technology, as
no understanding. For Question 1, we can be literate but well as to understand technological principles and strat-
for Question 2, we need more—we need literacy. egies needed to develop solutions and achieve goals
Traditionally, being literate was viewed as the ability to (National Assessment Governing Board, 2010). The
read and write, but now literacy encompasses more than International Society for Technology in Education further
these two capabilities. Shanahan (1992) includes recogni- includes the ability to demonstrate creativity and innova-
tion, fluency, comprehension, and composition. The tion, communicate and collaborate, conduct research and
National Council of Teachers of English states that twenty- use information, think critically, solve problems, make
first-century readers and writers need to: decisions, and use technology effectively and produc-
1. develop proficiency with the tools of technology; tively (2000). A third organization, the International
2. build relationships with others to pose and solve Technology Education Association, includes the ability to
problems collaboratively and cross-culturally; understand, in increasing sophistication over time, how
3. design and share information for global communities technology is created, and how it shapes society, and
to meet a variety of purposes; additionally, is shaped by society (2007).
4. manage, analyze, and synthesize multiple streams of The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Devel-
simultaneous information; opment (2003) describes engineering literacy as the
5. create, critique, analyze, and evaluate multimedia understanding of how technologies are developed via the
texts; and engineering design process. This incorporates the ability
6. attend to the ethical responsibilities required by these to systematically and creatively apply scientific and math-
complex environments (NCTE, 2008). ematical principles to practical ends, such as the design,
UNESCO (2008) goes further: Literacy involves a con- manufacture, and operation of efficient and economical
tinuum of learning in enabling individuals to achieve their structures, machines, processes, and systems. The
goals, to develop their knowledge and potential, and to Accreditation Board for Engineering and Technology
participate fully in their community and wider society. includes knowledge of the mathematical and natural sci-
This definition is coupled to UNESCO’s four pillars of ences gained by study, experience, and practices that are
learning: (1) learning to know, (2) learning to do, (3) applied to develop ways to utilize economically the mate-
learning to live together, and (4) learning to be. Literacy rials and forces of nature for the benefit of mankind
now is interwoven with traditional language processing, (2010).
mutimodal digital technologies, and social practices of Mathematical literacy is defined in the Program for
communications (Lankshear & Knobel, 2006). Literacy is International Student Assessment (PISA) as the capacity
deictic; it is constantly changing as new technology devel- to identify, understand, and engage in mathematics. PISA
ops (Leu et al., 2007). includes the ability to make well-founded judgments about
Similarly, STEM literacy now is more than the four the role that mathematics plays in an individual’s private
separately defined literacy strands (“silos”) of science, life, occupational life, and social life, as well as life as a
technology, engineering, and mathematics, as described in constructive, concerned, and reflective citizen (Organiza-
Table 1. According to the National Science Education tion for Economic Cooperation and Development, 2006).
Standards (National Research Council, 1996) and the The National Council of Teachers of Mathematics defines
Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development mathematical literacy (also called numeracy) as the ability
(2003), scientific literacy is the knowledge and under- to read, listen, think creatively, and communicate about
standing of scientific concepts and processes required for problem situations, mathematical representations, and
personal decision making, participation in civic and cul- solutions to develop and deepen understanding of math-
tural affairs, and economic productivity. It includes the ematics (2000).
ability to use scientific knowledge (in physics, chemistry, From Table 1, the professional organization literacy
biological sciences, and earth/space sciences) and pro- definitions do overlap. All these separate literacy defini-
cesses to understand, and additionally, to participate in tions speak on the importance of knowledge and under-
decisions that affect science in life and health, earth and standing. Most definitions mention the importance of
environment, and technology. applying and evaluating. Two of the definitions even
The National Assessment of Education Progress is discuss creating/applying knowledge, skills, and abilities
developing assessments for technology and engineering to goals in their respective content areas. These
School Science and Mathematics 13
 STEM Literacy for Learning

Table 1
Literacy Definitions of Professional Organizations
Scientific Literacy National Science Knowledge and understanding of scientific concepts
Education Standards and processes required for personal decision making,
(1996) participation in civic and cultural affairs, and
economic productivity
Organization for Ability to use scientific knowledge (in physics,
Economic Cooperation chemistry, biological sciences, and earth/space
and Development (2003) sciences) and processes to understand, and
additionally, to participate in decisions that affect
science in life and health, earth and environment, and
technology
Technological National Assessment Capacity to use, understand, and evaluate technology,
Literacy Governing Board (2010) as well as to understand technological principles and
strategies needed to develop solutions and achieve
goals
International Society for Ability to demonstrate creativity and innovation,
Technology in Education communicate and collaborate, conduct research and
(2000) use information, think critically, solve problems,
make decisions, and use technology effectively and
productively
International Technology Ability to understand, in increasing sophistication
Education Association over time, how technology is created and how it
(2007) shapes society, and further, is shaped by society
Engineering Literacy Organization for Ability to systematically and creatively apply
Economic Cooperation scientific and mathematical principles to practical
and Development (2003) ends such as the design, manufacture, and operation
of efficient and economical structures, machines,
processes, and systems
Accreditation Board for Knowledge of the mathematical and natural sciences
Engineering and gained by study, experience, and practices that is
Technology (2010) applied to develop ways to utilize economically the
materials and forces of nature for the benefit of
mankind
Mathematical Program for International Capacity to identify, understand, and engage in
Literacy (Numeracy) Student Assessment mathematics, and to make well-founded judgments
(2006) about the role that mathematics plays in an
individual’s current and future private life,
occupational life, social life with peers and relatives,
and life as a constructive, concerned, and reflective
citizen
National Council of Ability to read, listen, think creatively, and
Teachers of Mathematics communicate about problem situations, mathematical
(2000) representations, and solutions to develop and deepen
their understanding of mathematics

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 STEM Literacy for Learning

professional organization literacy definitions focus on (1) advances as an extension of student access to knowledge
society and (2) economic needs. (Fisher, 2009), as illustrated in Figure 1. For example,
STEM literacy does not simply mean achieving literacy remembering factual knowledge now might require doing
in these four strands (Toulmin & Meghan, 2007). It also a Boolean algebra search on Google.
means more than mapping the numerous overlapping Bloom’s taxonomy model categorizes learning into
interdisciplinary skills, concepts, and processes. STEM three domains: cognitive domain (knowledge and pro-
literacy is the synergy of these literacy strands—where the cesses), affective domain (attitudes and beliefs), and psy-
total is much more the sum of the individual parts. Extend- chomotor domain (manual and physical skills) (Anderson
ing these ideas, only the PISA (2006) slightly mentions the & Krathwohl, 2001; Bloom & Krathwohl, 1956; Krath-
(3) individual’s needs. wohl, Bloom, & Masia, 1964). For a complete description
Nobel laureate physicist Leon Lederman approaches of STEM literacy, all three learning domains (cognitive,
this aspect when he describes STEM literacy as the ability affective, and psychomotor) are necessary.
to adapt to and accept changes driven by new technology Thus, a deictic description for developing STEM lit-
work, to anticipate the multilevel impacts of their actions, eracy needs to spotlight three strata: (1) literacies of
to communicate complex ideas effectively to a variety of science, technology, engineering, mathematics, and other
audiences, and perhaps most importantly, to find mea- associated areas; (2) personal, societal, and economic
sured, yet creative, solutions to problems that are today needs; and (3) cognitive, affective, and psychomotor learn-
unimaginable (1998). ing domains. Figure 2 shows a graphical representation of
This is learning for the purpose of STEM literacy, not these three strata in the STEM literacy process. For
STEM literacy for the purpose of learning. STEM literacy example, with respect to the personal needs of a student,
needs to go beyond content and beyond processes, the student must operate technology efficiently (e.g.,
although these are vital elements. Learning for STEM muscle memory for typing); personally obtain competence
literacy may accomplish our societal needs and our eco- and value the sciences; and be able to apply factual, pro-
nomic needs, but what about personal needs to become a cedural, and conceptual knowledge to solve problems and
fulfilled, productive, knowledgeable citizen? attain personal goals.

The Domains of STEM Literacy in Education How to Develop, Apply, and Support STEM
There are three major problems with the current Literacy in the Classroom
STEM literacy definitions. First, constructing a definition To evolve from learning for STEM literacy to a process
of STEM literacy by adding the four separately defined of STEM literacy for learning, four main aspects need to
literacy strands of science, technology, engineering, be considered by the curriculum and by the teacher. First,
and mathematics together dilutes the essence of each. the STEM areas cannot be viewed as independent silos of
Second, such a compilation listing neglects the synergy content. For example, there cannot be a separate engi-
of the four strands. Third, it does not realize the personal neering curriculum and a technology curriculum. STEM
needs of the individual. We want to have STEM literacy should be viewed as a metadiscipline, the creation of a
to further learning for economic, societal, and personal discipline based on the integration of other disciplines
needs—going beyond “learning to know and learning to into a new whole (Kaufman, Moss, & Osborn, 2003;
do” to “learning to live together and learning to be.” Morrison, 2006). Second, content and pedagogy also
Perhaps a better approach is to reflect on widely used must blend; as mentioned in the National Science Edu-
educational learning theory, such as Bloom’s Taxonomy cation Standards (National Research Council, 1996),
of Educational Objectives (1956). In 1948, Benjamin “There should be less emphasis on activities that demon-
Bloom chaired a committee of educational psychologists strate and verify science content” and more emphasis on
to develop a system of categories of learning behavior for those “that investigate and analyze science questions”
the design and assessment of educational learning. Criti- (p. 113). This means a reduced concern for covering
cism of Bloom’s taxonomy comes from some who misin- content and an increased emphasis in helping a student
terpret it as hierarchical, meaning one needs always to learn. Third, student attitudes, beliefs, self-esteem, self-
begin at the lower levels of the cognitive domain and go confidence, and motivation must be considered. A stu-
step-by-step through all the levels. However, there is a dent’s self-identity must be nurtured to value STEM.
renewed interest in Bloom’s taxonomy—Bloom’s Digital Fourth, a student needs to operate STEM technologies
Taxonomy, sparked by informational and technological autonomically, efficiently.
School Science and Mathematics 15
 STEM Literacy for Learning

Figure 1. Bloom’s Digital Taxonomy.

Figure 2. Spotlighting the Three Strata in the STEM Literacy Process.

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Cognitive Domain and Reflection In the affective domain for STEM literacy, four broad
With respect to the first learning domain of STEM lit- classes of teacher actions comprise classroom identity
eracy, cognitive domain, why does one student learn (gains work: (1) fostering self-determination, (2) cultivating
literacy) while another student in the same class does not self-regulation, (3) capitalizing on collaborative social
(Zollman, Smith, & Reisdorf, 2011)? Cognitive under- goals, and (4) establishing an engaging classroom
standing occurs when the student decodes, conceptualizes, environment (Zollman et al., 2011). Teachers create
and applies the content—then reflects. Piaget (Beth & classroom conditions that nurture student needs for self-
Piaget, 1966) states that students construct knowledge determination by providing opportunities for students to
through the process of reflective abstraction. Piaget (Beth make choices, demonstrate their competency, and partici-
& Piaget, 1966) describes four constructs of reflective pate in supportive peer relationships. They teach,
abstraction: interiorization, coordination, encapsulation, support, and encourage student self-regulation behaviors,
and generalization. Dubinsky (1991) refines the concept of thereby helping students evaluate their progress toward
reversal into a fifth construct. desired goals. Such teachers also encourage student
Interiorization is a translation of successive actions into exploration of positive possible selves to connect learn-
a construction of an internal process. Coordination is the ing to considerations of their future lives. Rather than
process of synchronizing two or more processes to obtain discouraging social interaction among students, teachers
a new process. Encapsulation is the conversion of a who engage in identity work expressly encourage and
dynamic process into a static process—a thematic object support student peer relationships and achievement of
of thought. Generalization occurs when a student applies collaborative social goals. Employing pedagogical prac-
an existing schema to a wider collection of concept. Rever- tices such as cooperative, authentic learning enables stu-
sal occurs when a student constructs a new structure by dents to work and learn together. Finally, the engaging
undoing the processes of a known structure (Beth & classroom environment emphasizes student effort,
Piaget, 1966; Dubinsky, 1991). improvement, and mastery with an eye toward helping all
These five reflective abstraction constructs are the basis learners not only feel confident but be competent in
of successful STEM education activities and projects. STEM (Zollman et al., 2011).
Many of these projects propose problem-based learning
(PBL) as a method to synthesize mathematics, engineer- Psychomotor Domain and Physical Skill
ing, technology, and the sciences for critical thinking, cre- The psychomotor domain, the third learning domain of
ativity, innovation, and real-world problem solving. In STEM literacy, is demonstrated by physical skills such as
learning material in the context it is used, both retention of movement, coordination, manipulation, dexterity, grace,
material and transfer of learning are enhanced. Research strength, and speed, and actions that demonstrate fine
findings on PBL show students also learn how to work motor skills as in the accurate use of precision instruments
collaboratively and communicate clearly (Duch, Groh, & or tools. In the psychomotor domain, there are three stages
Allen, 2001). Initiated by the teacher or by the curriculum, (Dave, 1970; Romiszowski, 1999): thinking (cognitive),
PBL requires interiorization, coordination, encapsulation, linking (associative), and autonomic (physical dexterity).
generalization, and reversal constructs. Awkward, slow movements mark the thinking stage where
the learner is consciously trying to control actions. Perfor-
Affective Domain and Identity Development mance is generally poor, and the student makes many
In the second domain for STEM literacy, all affects— errors in sluggish, choppy movements. Frustration level is
motivation, self-esteem, self-confidence, beliefs and high, but diligent practice helps the student improve.
attitudes—are associated with personal identity strivings. In the linking stage, the student begins to associate one
According to Nakkula (2008), identity is the embodiment movement with another known movement (Dave, 1970;
of self-understanding, and identity formation is the funda- Romiszowski, 1999). The student still must think about
mental development task of psychological maturity during every movement. However, the movements begin to look
the adolescent years (Erikson, 1968). Students initiate smoother, and the student feels less awkward.
identity work as they begin to think about their competen- Autonomic state is reached when learning almost is
cies and attributes, set short- and long-term goals, and complete, although an individual can continue to refine the
evaluate personal beliefs. Classroom teacher actions create skill through practice (Dave, 1970; Romiszowski, 1999).
the appropriate classroom conditions for this identity work The student no longer needs to depend on the teacher for
to flourish (Zollman et al., 2011). feedback about performance. Motions and movements
School Science and Mathematics 17
 STEM Literacy for Learning

become spontaneous. The learner no longer has to think areas; cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains from
about the movement; mind and body are one. learning theory; and economic, societal, and personal
Traditionally, there has been less emphasis on the psy- needs of humanity. Such a vision allows us to evolve from
chomotor domain than the cognitive and affective domains focusing on learning for STEM literacy to using STEM
in STEM literacy. Technological advances quickly change literacy for continued learning.
the psychomotor domain skills needed. For example,
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Author’s Notes
Keywords: STEM literacy; literacy definition;
Bloom’s taxonomy; learning domains; cognitive; affec-
tive; psychomotor.
School Science and Mathematics 19