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Science and Industry of Electropolishing

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Science and Industry of Electropolishing
By Benu Chatterjee

Electropolishing technique transforms surface irregularity of metals and alloys into a smooth, bright finish
without adversely affecting their mechanical (tensile) properties. It is a cost effective operation and provides
high degrees of efficiency, consistency and quality of polishing. Over the decades, the benefits of controlled
removal of metals have led to thousands of commercial applications of the electropolishing process. A
comprehensive account of the science and industry of the electropolishing technology is presented along
with the special case of its application for treatment of stainless steel.

1 Introduction less lustrous / bright surface will result where the

Polishing whether carried out manually on a polishing incident light is reflected in different directions. An
wheel machine, or by electrochemical, chemical, or optical microscopy in this case will reveal presence
mechanical methods, is not necessarily a “black art” of scratch lines criss-crossing at all angles producing
but a technology that is based on scientific principles. a dull, matt finish.
Electropolishing (EP) has been practised commer- A comparative physical illustration of pre- and post-
cially since the 1930s with the first widespread use EP treatments is shown in Figure 1. The develop-
in cosmetic appeal such as in cookware and fountain ment of lustrous finish would result from a combina-
pens. It still remains the ultimate technique for pro- tion of
duction of super-smooth surfaces [1–14]. In recent 1) “smoothing” by elimination of large-scale macro-
years, the emphasis has shifted to wider applications scopic irregularities (above one micron or
including the food, medical, pharmaceutical and 4 · 10–5 inch size) of surface characterized by a
semiconductor industries. series of hills / peaks and valleys / crevice, and
Over the years, there have been many studies of the 2) “brightening” by removal of smaller irregularities
basics and practical operation of EP. In the light of on a microscopic scale (down to about 1 / 100th
recent resurgence of interests, the present article of a micron or ~ 4 · 10–7 inch).
discusses the academical and commercial aspects of
EP technology. 3 Mechanical polishing (MP) and EP
In contrast to the practice of EP in the early 20th
2 Polishing criteria century, mechanical polishing (MP) started earlier
By definition, a perfectly flat, defect-free, smooth perhaps in the 13th century as a finishing process
surface should reflect incident light uniformly pro- to provide smooth, bright surface with an aesthetic
ducing a very bright polished surface with a high appeal. For MP, mechanical tools and abrasives were
degree of lustre similar to that expected on a work- used as well as other techniques such as hammering
piece following an EP treatment. However, for an or frictional contact with a harder material to cause
unpolished component, a less reflective and hence plastic deformation of the surface layer (burnishing).
Present day methods for MP include grinding, filing,
lapping, buffing etc.
The MP process results in the crystalline surface of a
metal being smeared, bent, stressed or even fractured.
The technique is unsuitable for polishing too heavy,
highly sophisticated or fragile parts. Also, the treated
parts are often left with undesirable flawed amor-
phous layer (known as the Beilby layer ~ 50 Å thick)
Fig.1: Schematic diagrams of surface contour in pre- and comprising grease, abrasive particles, oxide and
post-electropolishing stages polishing compound embedded within the surface [3].

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing
78

Fig. 2: Examples of pre (left) and post (right) electropolished samples

Fig. 3: Optical (top) and SEM (bottom) photomicrographs showing transformation of mechanically
polished rough surface on the left to smooth finish after electropolishing

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing 79

Furthermore, the mechanical strength of the treated deposition” (normally up to 10 μm or ~ 0.0004 inch)
surface is often adversely affected. For example, for electroplating.
tensile strength of steel could be reduced from Although hydrogen and oxygen are given off at the
100,000 psi to 35,000 psi on mechanical polishing cathode and anode respectively in both processes,
[14, 15]. hydrogen would be directly discharged along the sur-
In contrast, EP based on electrolytic removal of metal face of the cathode workpiece during electroplating.
ions from the workpiece surface [16, 17] (Faraday’s As a result, hydrogen which is likely to be absorbed
laws of electrolysis) provides a bright polished finish by the electroplated part could cause deleterious
without affecting the tensile properties. The tech- effect of hydrogen embrittlement (HE) of the part. In
nique can also remove surface contaminants as well contrast, HE is unlikely to occur in electropolished
as “stressed and disturbed” Beilby layer left behind anode workpiece because only oxygen gas is evolved
after mechanical pre-treatment. at the anode surface during anodic dissolution. Also,
EP is essentially a micro metal removal process in there is no risk of distortion or peeling of the surface
contrast to the predominantly macro removal by over time in EP.
conventional MP. It is apparent that rather than com-
peting each other, MP and EP are complimentary
processes. There are cases where EP is best served 5 EP mechanisms
as the final method to complement mechanical pre- Chemical physics and electrochemistry of EP mecha-
treatment, while in other cases some parts can be nisms are discussed.
electropolished without the need for pre-MP treat-
ment. In this way, present day demands for high 5.1 Chemical physics [22-33]
levels of smoothness, brightness and corrosion Three widely recognised mechanisms for EP are
resistance are met which would otherwise never be discussed based on 1) viscosity of liquid at anode,
possible with MP treatment alone [13] (Fig. 2 and 2) diffusion of ions from anode and 3) formation of
Fig. 3). a compact solid film on anode.
1) A viscous layer theory was suggested by Jacquet
4 Difference between EP and electroplating
[26–27] who in 1936 was first to observe EP via
Technical advancement in electroplating industry controlled anodic dissolution of copper. A viscous
during World War II led to new technologies from layer of anodic dissolution products was proposed
which commercial EP grew. However, electro- to be formed at anode from controlled mass
polishing is sometimes confused with electroplating transfer of anions (-ve ions) from the electrolyte.
because of shared technology and similar physics This would limit the current with a corresponding
involved. In practice, EP which removes surface increase in electrical resistivity and viscosity of
irregularities is essentially a reversal of electro- the liquid film at the anode compared to the bulk
plating [18–21]. electrolyte.
The workpiece to be electropolished acts as anode The viscous, insulating liquid layer on a typical
(positive electrode) rather than cathode (negative rough anode surface would be thicker in valleys
electrode) as in electroplating. In either method, both than on peaks. As a result, current density (c.d.
the positive and negative terminals are submerged denoted by i) would be higher on peaks than
in the electrolyte to form a complete electric circuit in valleys causing greater rapid dissolution of
which operates on direct current (DC). peaks than valleys with subsequent surface level-
In EP, metal is removed from the surface via anodic ling / smoothing i. e. anodic levelling. Such action
dissolution, generally less than 0.001 inch (25 μm), would smooth the irregular surface typically to
but could be higher on sharp edges. In contrast, the point where it is shiny and reflective [22–24].
cathodic deposition of metal ions onto the workpiece Other benefit of EP includes removal of surface
takes place in electroplating. The operative word for stresses on peaks left from any pre-treatment
electropolishing is “controlled removal” (typically using MP. Bauman and Ginsberg [28] criticized
~ 6.25 μm or ~ 0.00025 inch), while it is “controlled Jacquet’s theory by suggesting, without any phy-

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing
80

sical evidence, that surface levelling occurs due to leave the anode film / solution interface at the
greater dissolution possibility at peaks. same rate as they enter it. This would produce a
2) Elmore [29] postulated a diffusion theory based brightening effect via dissolution of peaks down
on concentration gradients of the Nernst diffu- to 0.01 micron. Presence of solid film will also
sion layer of metal ions spread from the anode enhance polishing by suppressing any surface
surface to the bulk electrolyte. This would cause heterogeneity that may originate from crystal
the dissolution products of metal ions i. e. +ve orientation in a polycrystalline material.
cations formed at the +ve anode surface to diffuse
out through the anodic film into the electrolyte. 5.2 Electrochemical aspect [34–41]
The diffusion rate, as expected, would be higher Classical electrochemistry can explain EP mecha-
from peaks than valleys, causing surface level- nism by considering the well-known anodic polari-
ling. Edwards [30] criticized Elmore’s model by zation phenomenon. The flow of current from the
proposing that although concentration gradient is anodic (+ve) workpiece causes polarization of the
expected to be higher on peaks than in valleys, anode in an electropolishing bath. This results in an
the polishing rate is, however, determined by the anodic polarization curve (Fig. 4) which is typically
diffusion of not the metal cations from anode, based on changes in potential (V) with logarithm
but of the acceptor ions (-ve anions) such as of current density (log i) or corrosion rate. Cations
(H2PO4)1–, (HPO4)2– and (PO4)3– from the elec- (+ve ions) produced from the anodic oxidation of
trolyte to the anode surface. These anions would workpiece (M) goes into solution as M Mn+ + ne–
presumably assist to dissolve anode workpiece for with an initial shift of potential in a positive direction
subsequent diffusion out. from the free corrosion potential (Vcorr). The polari-
Some degree of commonality among the above zation curve in Figure 4 typically displays three dis-
mechanisms is apparent. It is a fact that a viscous tinct stages as discussed below, namely active (A-B),
film really does form on an anode surface, and passive (B-D) and transpassive regions (D-E):
diffusion via convection takes place at faster rates 1) an initial increase in corrosion rate i. e. M M n+
from peaks than valleys of an irregular surface. occurs from A to B reaching a maximum disso-
However, both theories are evidently based pri- lution / corrosion current icrit as Vcorr approaches
marily on a single issue namely either viscosity, passivation potential Vpp at B. The anode is
or diffusion, and thus do not provide a complete aggressively attacked up to B with likely forma-
picture of anodic polishing. tion of an etched surface
Furthermore, no consideration is given to the 2) a transition from active dissolution (A-B) to a
practical situation where EP is normally carried passive state (B-C-D) occurs when a solid species
out in agitated, heated bath. These conditions becomes thermodynamically more stable than
could have adverse effect on smoothness / bright- a metal ion. A protective passive film begins to
ness of the surface by affecting Jacquet’s viscous form at B with a sudden drop in icrit to a very low
layer and Elmore’s ionic diffusion process. Also, value ipass which could be 100 times smaller
the theories do not explain anodic oxidation than icrit. The corresponding potential at C is
during EP via the anodic polarization curve dis- called flade potential VF which is slightly higher
cussed later on (sec. 5.2). than Vpp. A stable passive film is formed on the
3) In the solid film theory, the highly polarizing film electrode surface in the passive region C-D. A
(as described in sec. 5.2) through which anodi- current plateau above VF is developed where the
cally dissolved metal ions move to reach the bulk current density is maintained steady at a low level
electrolyte, is considered to be a solid rather than (~ ipass) despite further increase in potential
fluid. A compact solid film theory has been put 3) the protective passive film starts to break down at
forward by Hoar et al. to explain EP via enhanced D in the transpassive region when both pitting of
oxidation-dissolution equilibrium theory [31–33]. the surface and oxygen evolution begin. Current
It is considered that a compact thin solid film density rises linearly with potential from D to
is formed that would allow metal cations to E. An ideal electropolishing condition is estab-

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing 81

Fig. 4: Schematic drawing of an anodic polarization curve

lished at a more noble i. e. +ve potential around the solid film theory [31–33] could explain the pre-
the limiting current density near E with evolu- vention of such etching. The high limiting current
tion of oxygen. Current distribution during EP is density at E is expected to assist dissolution of the
influenced by mass transport control which can be anodic workpiece at the outer anodic surface as fast
basically attributed to as it is formed via anodic oxidation of the metal
a) diffusion of dissolving metal ions away from [46–49]. Besides electrochemical potential and
the polished anode surface [29], applied current density, efficiency of EP also depends
b) diffusion of acceptor anions (-ve ions) from on various controlling factors such as alloy compo-
the electrolyte to the polished surface that sition, presence of impurities, temperature and other
would complex the dissolving +ve metal cat- operating conditions.
ions to form a viscous salt film on the anode
surface to improve electropolishing [30], and /  5.3 Kinetics of the process
or The quantity of metal expected to be removed from
c) water molecules that would hydrate the dis- the anode workpiece is directly proportional to the
solving metal ions as soon as they reach the amount of current applied and the operating time
surface, resulting in zero surface concentration necessary for optimum polishing without exceeding
under EP conditions [41]. dimensional tolerances. Distribution of current in-
An optimum condition for EP is thus achieved via fluenced by the geometry of the workpiece, affects
mass transport in post-current limited plateau of the removal rate of metal in local areas (deburring). The
polarization curve (transpassive regime) assisted differential dissolution rates at peaks and valleys of
by high temperature. [42–45]. It evidently becomes a surface during EP involve metal crystals literally
imperative that for best possible surface finish by being dissected atom by atom with rapid attack on
EP, a V-log i curve is to be established first for every the high (peak) than low (valley) c.d. areas. As a
workpiece-electrolyte system. result, an overall surface-levelling profile is achieved
Since EP results are best obtained after the c.d. by EP with removal of burr from the metal surface
plateau in the transpassive regime with evolution of limited to 0.002 inch or less. Larger burrs would
oxygen, electropolished materials are quite likely require a longer process time which can be, however,
to end up in an etched (matt) condition. However, reduced by mechanical polishing prior to EP. Metal

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing
82

removal rate is also directly affected by agitation and 5) ratio of anode to cathode surface area – this
temperature of the electrolyte [16]. should include geometry of both electrodes and
Since the c.d. plateau region in the V-log i curve their relative location in the bath. Compared to
influences the eventual electropolishing conditions the anode area, cathode surface area should be
in the oxygen evolution regime, any information on typically at least four times larger. Any smaller
the effect of process parameters on the plateau will cathode area is expected to provide lower cur-
be useful. It has been thus reported that temperature, rent density which might lead to electrochemical
stirring and acid concentration of the electrolyte do etching instead of electropolishing
not alter the voltage but directly affect the current 6) chemical composition of the electrolyte solu-
density [36]. tion – different solutions for different metals are
characterized by throwing powers, viscosities,
6 System evaluation precautions for handling, costs etc., and would
6.1 Prerequisite operating parameters require different applied voltages and processing
The primary requirement for an EP operation is to time
establish the V-log i curve of the system to be worked 7) solution age – for satisfactory operation, the
on. Besides pre-treatment of the workpiece using large amount of metal dissolved from the anode
physical methods of surface cleaning [50–51], the workpiece in commercial baths must be removed
following parameters are prerequisites for successful by either chemical precipitation or electrodeposi-
EP [3, 39, 41, 52–55]: tion onto the cathode. In some cases, concentra-
1) initial surface finish and geometry – typically, tion of the dissolved metals is allowed to build
rougher and sharper areas of workpieces are up until the operation ceases when the “aged”
preferably removed solution is replaced with a fresh new solution
2) anode current density – a higher applied current 8) solution viscosity – it is important to determine
density will result in a higher rate of material the viscosity required for optimum electro-
removal until a limiting current density is reached. polishing, which should be maintained by proper
A too high applied potential is to be avoided control of metal concentration, temperature regu-
which would otherwise lead to too much oxygen lation and adjustment of specific gravity
evolution causing surface pitting and obstruction 9) agitation of the solution to improve EP speed –
of current passage an oscillating mechanical movement of work-rod
3) bath temperature – an increase in temperature would provide necessary directional change of
will lower the viscosity of the solution. This electrolyte movement. However, it is important
would, according to the Stokes-Einstein law, that agitation of the bath needs to be optimised
allow greater diffusion of ions and molecules first in order to ensure no disturbance of the
in the solution with consequent faster polishing anodic film so that gassing streaks, flow marks
speed. In addition, heating of the solution would and similar unacceptable surface blemishes are
typically accelerate electrochemical reactions avoided. Besides mechanical movement, air
with enhanced generation of gas bubbles. The agitation could be applied for parts with simple
flow of bubbles at or near the surface of an shapes using short operating time
article would provide local agitation and hence 10) choice of electrolyte – EP solutions are formu-
increased current density. It is, of course, im- lated to provide required anodic films along with
portant to bear in mind that the acid electrolyte a balanced rate of transport of +ve metal cations
normally used could lead to excessive heating of from the workpiece to the electrolyte. The history
the solution because of its high electrical resis- is full of stories regarding the serendipitous
tivity, and may thus call for “reverse action” i. e. invention of chemical compositions of electro-
requiring chilling action during operation lytes that provided the desired surface proper-
4) polishing time – the rate of material removal ties and profiles by EP [56]. These inventions
varies almost linearly with time which is typi- ultimately become the paradigm of research for
cally 1 to 20 minutes for EP new electrolyte chemistry for ultimate develop-

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing 83

ment of today’s proprietary chemical additives. showing typical EP installation (Fig. 5) and illustra-
A delicate balance has to be struck between a too tion of the smoothing effect (Fig. 6).
high rate of film dissolution which could pro- The edges of the tank are lined with metal plate that
duce pitting, and a too slow rate that could lead functions as cathode. Terminals from a rectifier are
to passivation with growing solid film. connected with the +ve side to the workpiece (anode),
and the -ve side to the metal side plate (cathode).
6.2 Operation Both electrodes are submerged inside the electro-
The following three major steps are involved in a lyte. The various parameters, namely current, voltage
typical EP operation: and temperature are adjusted to the settings required
1) metal preparation which requires removal of all for a particular job. The electrical conditions depend
oils, lubricants, shop dirt, fingerprints, oxides, on the electrolyte, agitation, solution temperature,
scales and other contaminants from the sur- size of both the electrodes and the tank. Generally,
face. Suitable cleaning methods include vapour cell voltage ranges between 5 and 15 V at 10 to
degreasing, alkaline and / or acid cleaning, spray 40 A/dm2.
washing, sanding, wire brushing, and other types The power is turned on once the workpiece is lowered
of mechanical treatments into the processing tank. After a suitable operating
2) execution of the main function which
includes production of a) smooth,
bright, deburred, stress relieved, pas-
sivated surface, and b) hygienically
clean product with improved anti-
friction and corrosion resistance pro-
perties, and
3) post treatment to remove chemical
residues or by-products of electro-
polishing, and to assist drying
Electrolytes [12, 55, 56] for EP are often
concentrated acid solutions with high
viscosity such as mixtures of sulphuric
acid and phosphoric acid. Both acids
provide conductivity to the solution as
well as anions (-ve ions) for metals that Fig. 5: Basic installation diagram for electropolishing
are soluble.
Other electrolytes are mostly based on
phosphoric acid with addition of chro-
mic acid. The uses of perchloric-acetic
acid baths, perchloric acid-methanol or
butoxyethanol mixtures, nitric acid and
methanol, mathanolic solutions of sul-
phuric etc. have also been reported. Most
of them are hazardous and only suitable
for small scale operation.
A typical EP operation is accomplished
via a series of wet processing steps using
tanks similar to electroplating. The parts
to be electropolished are mounted on a
rack or jig which is moved from tank to Fig. 6: Drawing of installation of electropolishing illustrating the
tank. Schematic diagrams are presented smoothing effect

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing
84

time, the power is turned off. The treated parts lurgy, machining and surface impurities of the mate-
covered with film are taken off and are transferred rials brought by the customers.
to a rinse (“drag out”) tank next to the process tank. The following features of surface quality of an
The “drag out” tank is filled with de-ionized water electropolished part are to be addressed [57]:
to rinse off the thick anodic film from the electro- 1) average surface roughness quantified by surface
polished parts [15, 24]. This is followed by a second profiler to indicate how well the polishing did to
rinse tank where parts are hosed down with fresh remove surface peaks to attain an overall planer
de-ionized water to remove all remaining traces of surface,
anode film. A final treatment could include a dip in 2) some pitting on the metal surface due to evolution
dilute nitric acid tank for passivation followed by of oxygen gas at anode is kept to a minimum for
cold and hot water rinsing and a final stage of drying. high quality finish, and
6.3 Process control 3) surface brightness or lustre as well as corrosion
resistance and mechanical strength especially in
The quality and consistency of a finished product
the case of stainless steel are improved by creating
depend on the degree to which the EP process is
high chromium and nickel contents.
controlled. A lack of process control could result in
inconsistent, unpredictable quality. There are ope- For quality control, it is important to adopt an appro-
rating variables for EP that are direct functions of priate technique to examine the final surface finish.
the technology, while others are related to “the art An inferior finish can be readily identified either
of electropolishing” i. e. ability of the operator [14]. visually or via optical microscopy [58]. A visual
examination will suffice where the goal is to achieve
It is imperative that a proper electrolyte is chosen
a pleasing cosmetic finish. However, microscopic
with 1) precise maintenance of temperature (heating
evaluation would be necessary where a “top quality”
or cooling as necessary), and 2) constant monitoring
finish is required. For example, a buffed surface may
of its chemistry namely specific gravity (an indica-
often appear electropolished to the untrained eye.
tor of water content), acid concentration and metal
Either of the above surface finish may provide the
content.
same readings on a profilometer. In such a situation,
Correct voltage and current density (amperes / square
a substantial difference between the two surfaces can
foot) should be supplied from a clean ripple-free DC
only be detected from photomicrographs (Fig. 3).
rectifier. The technique of electropolishing an awk-
The electropolished surface would appear featureless
ward workpiece with inaccessible areas, corners and
compared to the smeared, disturbed and damaged
areas of low current density depends on operator’s
metal of buffed surface [59]. Thus, photomicro-
experience of proper location of the cathode. Equally
scopy besides being cost-effective, provides a tech-
important is the knowledge of where, when and how
nique for an objective evaluation with a positive
to agitate either the electrolyte or the workpiece in
proof of quality of electropolished finish which, of
order to prevent gassing streaks, flow marks or simi-
course, can be kept as a permanent record for future
lar undesirable markings.
reference.
6.4 Quality control Besides visual inspection and optical microscopy,
Quality control normally implies comparison of the following instrumental techniques are available for
finished product with a defined set of product stan- evaluation of surface quality of electropolished pro-
dards. Generally, roughness after mechanical ducts:
polishing is reduced by 50 % on EP. For example, 1) scanning electron microscopy (SEM) to examine
50 Ra (average surface roughness) after MP is smoothness and to detect potential sites on the
reduced to 25 Ra on eletropolishing. However, most surface for accumulation of particles
electropolishers would not be able to guarantee a 2) auger electron spectroscopy (AES) to analyse
specified surface finish unless the customers provide atomic composition of the surface, and
details of the mechanical history of the submitted 3) electron spectroscopy for chemical analysis
work pieces. This is because EP is sensitive to metal- (ESCA) to determine various forms of an element

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing 85

such as chromium in metallic, trivalent or hexa- polishing along with simultaneous deburring of
valent states at various depths from the surface. peaks and valleys.
Some parts may have intricate shapes and deep
6.5 Stipulation of finish standard recesses that are difficult to access for mechanical
A lack of accepted specifications for electropolished deburring. In such a case, EP would be a cost-
components left many customers uncertain for many effective operation to solve the deburring problems
years to specify a desired finish on the metal surface. for highly complex or fragile parts.
However, an electropolishing finish can be stan- In mass finishing techniques using tumbling or
dardised by adopting following two steps [60]: vibro-finishing, parts are subjected to plastic defor-
Step 1: It is advisable that customers should first mation with subsequent development of residual
discuss with the electropolisher about the choice stress and possible scratches on the final finish.
of material, because responses of EP vary with In comparison, EP being a non-distorting process,
materials. For example, a generic stipulation of say the treated parts are never subjected to stress from
300-series for a stainless steel component would abrasive media, nor are they impinged or tumbled
not be enough. This is because some in 300 series onto each other as expected in mechanical mass
such as Type 316 electropolishes better than finishing. In fact, any surface modification such
Type 304, while Type 303 is the worst because of as non-uniform deformed layer, residual stresses
the presence of sulphide inclusions. Thus a cor- and surface tension from a preceding mechanical
rect specification of metal alloy is essential for grinding / polishing operation could be improved
expected quality of finish. during EP treatment.
Step 2: The quality of finish needs to be considered c) Microfinishing: Surface roughness in terms of
in the light of its application. Sometimes an inter- microfinish can be improved by at least 50 %
mediate step of mechanical abrasive polishing using EP. For instance, profilometer reading of
may be required prior to the final electropolishing 50 Ra will be reduced to 25 Ra. In other words,
stage to achieve the desired finish. a 16 microinch surface before electropolishing,
for example, will be improved to 8 microinch
7 Benefits and drawbacks afterward. Also, EP works equally well on soft as
The benefits of EP process in terms of cost savings well as hard components with no bearing on the
and production improvement are broadly based on processing time or cost.
the following four attributes that offer great prom- Surface smoothness by EP reduces the surface
ises to designers and production engineers [9, 23, 59, area, and thereby decreases surface friction and
61–66]: entrapment of foreign particles. Less friction
a) Size control via microsizing: Material removal by and reduced surface drag are features of electro-
EP ranges normally from 1.25 μm / 0.00005 inch polished surfaces along with improved micro-
to 50 μm / 0.002 inch, and the process can be used finish which reduces product adhesion and hence
as a method of sizing parts to tolerances within eliminates any build up of contamination.
25 μm / 0.001 inch. The removal rate is usually Better anti-friction and non-galling properties
identical on all surfaces, but selective removal provided by the smooth finish of EP; improve
is possible via suitable masking method. Micro- the release properties for gears and valves inside
sizing using EP can salvage oversized parts such vessels or tubes. Also, superior micro finishing is
as expensive gears and machined components. useful where it is important to maintain heat and
The technique is ideal for processing parts in light reflectivity. More about microfinishing will
quantity where uniform size or weight is required. be discussed later on while dealing with stainless
b) Deburring: The rate of anodic dissolution, as steel.
mentioned earlier, is directly proportional to the d) Corrosion resistance: Surface contaminants such
current density which is high at peaks but low in as grease, dirt, iron and other metallic particles left
valleys. This differential mode of current distribu- after machining, welding and other fabrication
tion is fully exploited by EP to provide surface processes, disrupt natural corrosion resistant

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing
86

oxide layer on metals and alloys. EP provides Defects, such as heavy orange peel effect, mould-
a homogeneous metal surface by effectively surface texture and rough scratches are not removed
removing surface material along with the above by normal practice of electropolishing and would
contaminants. require “cutting down” the defects first mechanically.
Besides removing embedded particles and inclu- Castings will normally electropolish to a bright finish
sions, EP also improves the atomic ratios of alloy but not to the same brightness or smoothness pro-
composition. For example, a high chromium / iron duced by wrought alloys.
ratio can be achieved in stainless steel with EP by EP also does not readily remove carbon from any
preferential dissolution of iron. This will result in steel alloy because carbon is electrochemically very
enriching chromium content and hence increased inert. If the exposed carbon layer is present in any
formation of chromium oxide, which would significant quantity, it can be seen left on the surface.
greatly enhance inherent corrosion resistance of This layer referred to in the industry as “smut”, is
the alloys. Salt spray tests have shown that parts normally removed mechanically from the surface
on electropolishing are about four to five times before it is used in service. Smutting is, however, not
more resistant to corrosion than untreated parts. a common problem associated with electropolishing.
Absence of hydrogen evolution at anode during
electropolishing avoids occurrence of detrimental 8 Applications
hydrogen embrittlement in the finished compo- Benefits are allied with applications. Over the
nents. Lack of hydrogen also prevents bacterial decades, the benefit of controlled metal removal by
growth in electropolished parts and thereby facili- EP has led to literally tens of thousands of applica-
tates sterilization and maintenance of hygienically tions of the process, which have been in place since
clean surfaces needed in many sectors [67]. the early 1940s. The technique was first invented
as a means of sample preparation for the Electron
7.1 Drawbacks Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis (ESCA) [70].
The majority of electrolytes for commercial EP A wide range of metals such as Al, Be, Co, Cu,
processes are based on highly corrosive and toxic Fe, Mg, Mo, Nb, Ni, Ti etc. and their alloys can be
mixtures of phosphoric and sulphuric acids with electropolished using various electrolytes [56]. The
addition of viscosity improver such as glycerol. The development of newer electrolytes and advancement
use of such dangerous acid solutions is a big handi- of handling techniques of parts have combined to
cap for EP, which would need special handling pro- improve production yields on a range of products.
cedures. Safety issues in EP also require controlling As a result, EP technology has become attractive
the highly flammable evolution of hydrogen at the to a wider field than ever before which includes the
cathode [68, 69]. electronics, medical, dental, chemical, pharmaceu-
Other disadvantages of EP include formation of tical, aerospace and marine industries that demand
large volumes of sludge from dissolution of the improved surface properties of their products [6, 61,
anode metals. Also, extensive gas (oxygen) evolution 65, 70–72].
at anode results in poor current efficiency ~ 10 to Besides avoiding hydrogen embrittlement (HE), the
20 %. EP technique is also capable of de-embrittling parts
Multi-phase materials are difficult to electropolish where hydrogen is absorbed on the surface by other
because of the differential rate at which various methods. The EP method can thus act as a stress
phases are removed. EP is also incapable of smearing relieve annealing process for HE with the advantage
over to cover up defects, such as seams and non- of the process operating at ambient rather than the
metallic inclusions in metals. In fact, any flawed normally required higher de-embrittling tempera-
characteristics inherent in a metal, are revealed on ture. Furthermore, since bacteria cannot successfully
removal of metal by electropolishing [14]. Some multiply on an electropolished surface that is devoid
features including edges and micro-cracks, might of hydrogen, the EP process is ideal for medical,
change the shape and / or expand parts on electro- pharmaceutical, semiconductor and food processing
polishing. equipment [17, 73].

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing 87

9 Cost 11 Special application of EP:

It is difficult to quantify an estimated cost of run- Stainless steel
ning a commercial EP operation because of number Although nearly all metals and alloys can be electro-
of variables involved [12, 18, 74]. The basic costs polished, stainless steel in reality accounts for the
should include those due to labour of the operator, biggest majority of commercial electropolishing
use of chemicals (and their subsequent disposal), [75–78]. The inherent strength and corrosion resis-
necessary utilities to maintain proper temperature of tance make stainless steel suitable for process equip-
the solution (both heating and cooling as required), ment and many consumer products.
power for the rectifier, and investment on tanks, Steel is an alloy of iron with carbon along with addi-
material handling equipment and facilities. Costs for tions of other elements such as silicon, sulphur,
pre-cleaning and water usage should also be added to manganese, chromium, molybdenum etc. to ease
the basic running costs. machining and enhance resistance to corrosion and
Equipment for electropolishing is available over a heat. It is the amount of chromium in steel that
wide range of types and sizes. On the basis of require- differentiates “regular” steel from “stainless” steel
ments, materials handling systems can be manual or with the latter containing a minimum of about 10 %
automatic. A smallest complete system suitable for chromium. On exposure to oxygen, chromium
small-scale production can have console units that forms a strongly-bonded film of chromium oxide
would facilitate pre-cleaning, electropolishing (5 to that blocks ingress of oxygen, making stainless steel
25 gallons capacity) and post treatment. resistant to corrosion. Electropolishing of stainless
The cost of running EP process with or without steel involves dissolution via either diffusion through
pre-mechanical polishing must be balanced against the chromium oxide film or randomly located oxida-
the benefits earned, and compared with lower cost tion sites using vacancy sites in the oxide layer.
options. In many cases, EP as a single process or in
combination with mechanical treatment would fare 11.1 Response of various types
favourably when compared with alternatives such of stainless steel to EP
chrome plating. Among the many varieties, austenitic (type 304
and 316), ferritic (type 430) and martensitic (type
10 Safety issues 410) stainless steels are commonly electropolished
The procedure for safety in EP is described in OC to spectacular bright shiny finish. Results are com-
655/6 Version 1 of Health and Safety Executive parable with the mirror finish of “bright chrome
(HSE), UK [69]. It describes details of a fatal acci- plated” automotive parts without, however, incurring
dent during electropolishing the interior of a vessel. the high costs and environmental disadvantages of
Since EP is carried out in aqueous electrolytes, chrome plating [18, 80, 81]. Parts from 400-series
gasses like hydrogen (at cathode) and oxygen (at although illustrate deburring, cleaning and passiva-
anode) are generated. In an open tank, the buoyancy tion comparable with other types, they show less
of the gasses compared to the air present, would not spectacular cosmetic finish.
allow formation of any explosive mixture. However, The mostly used stainless steel is type 316 which is
a potentially dangerous concentration of hydrogen an improved version of type 304, and typically con-
and oxygen can rapidly build up if EP operation is tains up to 0.08 % carbon, 16 to 18 % chromium,
carried out in a confined area such as a vessel. Such 10 to 14 % nickel and 2 to 3 % molybdenum with
a gas mixture can explode with an accidental small rest as iron. It has been reported that type 316 is
electric spark etc. The various safety precautions always more corrosion resistant than 304 stainless
are stipulated by HSE, which should be followed to steel (especially in halide environment) [82].
prevent recurrence of an accident. Most forms (wrought or cast) of stainless steel are
Environmental constraints in EP are the same as for claimed to be successfully electropolished, although
electroplating and should include requirements of sulphurised free-machining grades (types 303, 416
appropriate permits for the generation and disposal and 430F) do not provide a high standard of surface
of waste. finish. Besides poor results, sulphides can provide

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing
88

sites for corrosion on the surface of a treated com- in a “drag out” tank. A passivation treatment is
ponent [83]. carried out, if needed, in a warm acid solution of
20 % volume nitric acid, or 5 % volume sulphuric
11.2 Effect of EP on stainless steel surface acid containing 1 % sodium dichromate.
EP improves the near-surface chemistry of stain-
less steel by removing surface contaminants, such 11.3.2 Bath maintenance
as amorphous, deformed Beilby layer (sec. 3). Such The acid bath becomes saturated with metal salts of
contaminants disrupt formation of natural corrosion stainless steel during usage. The solution is almost
resistant chromium oxide layer on stainless steels always maintained around an equilibrium point
[23]. Presence of non-metallic inclusions on steel by precipitating out additional metals as sludge.
surface becomes more visible after EP than after MP The quality of electropolished products in terms of
treatment. Also, an EP process can assist checking brightness, drops when the iron content of the bath
surface soundness of castings. exceeds a certain level (~ 6 wt. %), leading to an
increased volume of sludge [70, 86]. For an ideal
11.3 System evaluation process, iron in the solution is to be maintained
11.3.1 Operation below 5 wt. % during electropolishing which will
reduce formation of voluminous of sludge.
A mixture of phosphoric and sulphuric acids is
normally used as electrolyte. An alternative non- 11.3.3 Disposal of spent electrolyte
commercial electrolyte could be an oxidizing solu-
The EP tank should be periodically decanted off its
tion of sulphuruc acid and chromium(VI)oxide
acid content, or alternatively emptied occasionally.
[85]. The layout of a typical plant is similar to that
However, disposal of hazardous decantant is costly,
described in section 6.
and also the iron concentration in the solution may
Industrial electropolishing of stainless steels, like fluctuate. Probably the best way to remove iron is
most metals, is generally carried out at or beyond by precipitation at the cathode. Recent commercial
the current plateau in V-log i curve (sec. 5.2) in the development of electrolyte is claimed to precipitate
transpassive region under oxygen evolution regime iron as iron oxides at the cathode in the presence of a
[23, 84]. The operating parameters are adjusted catalyst, and thus keeping the iron concentration in the
as necessary [6, 11, 63]. Normally large currents acid electrolyte at a low constant level (< 2.5 wt. %)
between 750 and 3000 amperes are required with
[70].
anode current densities around 20 to 40 A/dm2
Alternatively, since elemental iron, unlike iron oxides,
depending upon the alloy and shape of the article
is not electrochemically stable in acidic electrolyte, a
used [77,86]. The cathode current density, in com-
plausible disposal method would be to oxidize iron
parison, is low ~ 5 to 8 A/dm2. The applied voltages
first using oxygen, which is readily available in the
are relatively low (between 10 and 20 volts) depen-
solution at anode. Development of a suitable catalyst
ding upon the size of the load, the current density,
is reported that would reduce the activation energy
anode / cathode distance and the ratio of the surface
of oxidation of iron by oxygen below that of oxida-
areas of the anode and cathode. Temperature could
tion of iron by acid. The iron oxide thus produced is
range between 60 and 90 °C. A provision for mild
easy to handle for disposal.
air agitation may be necessary during processing to
assist stirring for solution movement which would 11.4 Effect of EP on corrosion resistance
prevent layering and promote expected bright finish. of stainless steel
The processing time usually between 4 and
20 minutes depending upon the part, must be main- 11.4.1 Corrosion susceptibility of stainless steel
tained to a minimum to ensure maximum solution [87–91]
life. At the end of the process, the power is turned Any stainless steel bought off the shelf or re-manu-
off. The parts taken off the jigs are similar to that factured via mechanical operation will have appre-
described in section 6.2, covered with a thick viscous ciable amount of iron (known as “free iron”) worked
anodic film, which is rinsed off next by immersion into its surface. This unavoidable deposit of iron

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing 89

corrodes easily. Also, contaminants that promote cor- rosion, pitting corrosion, crevice corrosion and
rosion could contain deformed, amorphous Beilby stress corrosion cracking [6, 102].
layer (sec. 3) produced during mechanical treat- 3) Surface smoothing by EP with preferential disso-
ment. Other contaminants include pre-polishing lution of surface peaks relative to valleys greatly
compounds, pre-existing oxides, inclusions of hard reduces the surface area of the part and thereby
martesitic phase, foreign material, etc. They are all minimizes development of local corrosion sites.
imbedded underneath the “skin” of stainless steel This improvement in micro geometry by EP is
creating undesirable corrosion cells on the sur- not affected by material thickness.
face. 4) The smoothing effect by EP produces equipo-
tential grain boundaries in metallic materials
11.4.2 Improvement of corrosion resistance
that ultimately results in levelling of the grain
by EP
boundaries of the metal [6]. In fact, the effect can
Besides levelling the workpiece surface, EP re- be so pronounced at times, that visual identifi-
markably improves corrosion resistance of stainless cation of the boundaries of an electropolished
steel by providing a passive film via differential dis- part can no longer be made. The electron micro-
solution of metals. In fact, corrosion resistance of graphs of mechanically polished and electro-
stainless steel can be improved by EP in four basic polished surfaces of iron were studied [103]. As
ways [19, 23, 83, 87, 88, 92–94]: a result, the electropolished sample revealed a
1) EP removes “free iron” as well as corrosion pro- smoother surface covered with a thin oxide film
ducing compounds trapped in the Beilby layer (~ 100 Å). Furthermore, with smooth grain
[6, 87, 88, 95]. boundaries from edge to edge, the usual sites for
2) Atomic percentages of alloying elements in stain- stress cracking are removed.
less steel are modified by EP via their differential
removal. For example, iron and nickel atoms are 11.5 Application of
removed by EP from the crystal lattice in prefe- electropolished stainless steel parts
rence to chromium atoms. With elimination of The austenitic nickel-chrome steels are versatile
corrosion-prone “free iron” up front as well as for various usages namely pumps, valves, textile,
nickel, the surface layer now becomes enriched medical and chemical equipment, pulp & paper and
in chromium i. e. high Cr / Fe ratio. This will ulti- marine applications. Besides the benefits and appli-
mately enrich the metal surface with a chromium cations of electropolished parts mentioned earlier
oxide layer formed via oxidation of chromium in (sec. 7, 8 and 11.4), electropolished stainless steel,
air. Stainless steel surface is thus covered with a such as 316 LVM (where L designates low carbon
high quality passive film of chromium oxide that content, and VM denotes vacuum method) [104, 105]
would enhance corrosion resistance immensely. has been widely used for treatment of body implants
There have been reports verifying the over- and medical devices of intricate shapes including
whelming benefit of “passivation” of stainless cardiovascular devices such as heart valves and coro-
steel by EP over conventional chemical method nary stents (tube-shaped intervascular devices) [106].
[83, 87–89, 96–98]. In fact, the ASTM report A smooth surface can help to prevent activation and
emphasizes the improvement in passivation to aggregation of platelets, which is recognised to be a
such a great extent that it even omits the necessity stage in thrombosis [107, 108]. A study has shown
of nitric acid rinse (i. e. chemical passivation) as that EP clearly reduces the thrombogenicity of stents
the final processing stage if EP has been used [109]. Mechanical polishing of small implants with
[18, 77, 80, 89, 99–101]. a complicated geometry and non-uniform metallurgy
The quality of passivation will depend on type of is likely to result in unsatisfactory results. One way
stainless steel used, formulation of EP electro- to overcome the problem is to electropolish such
lyte and conditions of operation. Electropolished device. The EP process is also reported to be effec-
stainless steels are known to be better suited to tive for complex metallic implants, such as artificial
resist onset of microbiologically influenced cor- heart valve frames and miniature glaucoma implants.

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing
90

Studies by the US Department of Agriculture indi- severe than many other solvents. A balance between
cate that electropolished surfaces are less susceptible reduction in emission of volatile organic compound
to bacterial attachment and early biofilm formation (VOC) and spills into waterway (via ponds / streams
[110]. This feature is of great importance in pharma- etc.) is essential to avoid damage to aquatic environ-
ceutical, biotech, food and beverage industries. ment. Also, despite low vapour pressure (~ 10–10 Pa
Furthermore, anti-corrosion property with excellent at 25 °C), ILs are combustible and therefore require
finish makes electropolished stainless steel of 316L careful handling. All these issues need to be carefully
type deemed to be an indispensable material in the evaluated before IL technology can be accepted as
semiconductor industry [91]. “environmentally friendly” commercial proposition
for industry.
12 Miscellaneous EP methods
for stainless steel 12.2 Introducing magnetic field [78, 124–127]
Besides aqueous acid electrolyte, following diverse In magnetoelectropolishing (MEP), an external
conditions such as ionic liquids, magnetic field and magnetic field is applied to a standard aqueous EP
ultrasonic bath have been used for electropolishing process. Laboratory experiments had been reported
stainless steel. on austenitic stainless steels (304 and 316 types) in
acid electrolyte such as 30/70 mixture of sulphuric / 
12.1 Application of ionic liquids [111-123] phosphoric acids at ~ 65 °C using current density
Ionic liquid (IL) can be defined as a salt that is liquid beyond the plateau i. e. in the transpassive region
when applied normally below 100 °C. A typical under oxygen evolution regime (sec. 5.2). The dis-
example is choline chloride [HOC2H4N(CH3)3+ Cl–] solution rate of anode workpiece depends on the
mixed with an organic solvent such as ethylene intensity of the magnetic field (ranging from 50 mT
glycol in 1:2 ratio at 75 °C. The mechanism of liquid to 1 T) and could be either enhanced or retarded –
salt formation relies on the asymmetry between the however, the rate remains independent of the mag-
sizes of cation (+ ion) and anion (- ion) with cationic netic properties of the workpiece or the type of elec-
species generally larger. The asymmetry influences a trolyte used.
distortion of the link between the two species, resul- The introduction of a magnetic field complicates the
ting in low lattice energy that allows them to separate mechanics of EP process by creating a Lorentz force
with ultimate formation of a liquid. (a cross product of magnetic field and current) that
The ionic liquids for EP in comparison with the causes the electrolyte to rotate around the axis parallel
highly acidic aqueous electrolyte are non-acidic to the direction of the magnetic field. In the c.d. pla-
and non-corrosive and characterized with marginal teau below the oxygen evolution regime, this rotat-
gassing and higher current efficiency ~ 80 to 90 %. ing movement reduces the thickness of Jaccquet’s
The technique is associated with reduced, simpli- viscous layer  / 
Elmore’s diffusion layer. Reduced
fied waste treatment. The quality of electropolished thickness theoretically speeds up the dissolution
products using IL is apparently comparable with that process by increasing the rate of mass transport as
obtained from commercial acid bath. reflected with increased current density. However,
The general operating parameters for EP in IL diametrically opposite behaviour is reported when
include treatment time of ~ 10 to 15 minutes at 30 to EP is conducted in the oxygen evolution regime
50 °C using current density ~ 20 to 40 A/dm2 which associated with a reduced dissolution rate. This is
are all comparable with those for commercial electro- explained by the paramagnetic property of oxygen in
polishing of stainless steel in acid electrolyte. Despite the magnetic field.
close comparison, EP in IL is yet to draw commercial Compared to EP, MEP is reported to provide sur-
attraction which may be due to environmental reason faces with better characteristics such as reduced
as discussed next. IL although not intrinsically microroughness, more uniformity, improved corro-
“green”, contributes to “green chemistry” with its sion resistance, increased surface energy and more
low volatility and near non-flammability. However, surface wettability i. e. better hydrophilicity. These
toxicity of cations and anions of IL could be more improvements make MEP technique attractive for

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing 91

medical applications such as medical stents and able effect on electropolishing large flat pieces which
implant devices. often ends up with bright centre and dull edges.
A typical laboratory condition for optimum results
12.3 Using pulsed direct current (DC) and include operation at 60 °C, 50 Hz pulsed current and
ultrasonic bath [37, 57, 128–131] 50 % duty cycle for 90 seconds at c.d. of 323 mA/cm2
Pulsed DC source with periodically reversing cur- [57]. Surface roughness decreases with better
rent / voltage profiles is reported to improve surface polishing at the expense of thickness i. e. reduction
quality of electropolishing. Heat and reaction by- of the workpiece thickness is inversely related to
products are released from the workpiece at each the surface roughness values for most materials. A
off-current interval of the electric pulse. This charac- reduction of duty cycle decreases the thickness via
teristic, unlike conventional EP method, would thus electrochemical dissolution of the workpiece, but the
require a lower average current density in pulsed surface quality remained relatively unpolished, and
DC without the need for a high electrolyte flow rate. vice versa on increasing the duty cycle.
During the off-current period, the surface finish A pulse / pulse reverse EP process is reported using
is improved due to limited growth of reaction gas 30 wt. % aqueous sulphuric acid electrolyte [37].
bubbles and hence their accumulation at the sur- The guiding principles are presented for developing
face of the workpiece. The drawbacks of EP via DC the necessary waveform. Results on electropolishing
pulsing, however, include relatively lower rate of nitinol (nickel-titanium alloys) and niobium coupons
material removal and longer polishing time because show the surface roughness (Ra) to range from 0.12 μm
of the presence of off-peak intervals during the (nitinol) to a minimum of 0.004 μm (niobium).
pulsing process.
The usefulness of applying pulsed DC can be 13 Conclusion
improved if assisted by simultaneous incorporation There has been a resurgence of interest in EP tech-
of an auxiliary ultrasonic (US) cleaning unit to clean nology in the last two decades mainly due to in-
out the system. Such a unit characterized by emis- creasing demand for super clean, smooth, homo-
sion of high frequency vibration energy, would effec- geneous, corrosion resistant, biocompatible sur-
tively discharge dregs and other electropolishing faces. The process is commercially attractive because
by-products from the working area. In this way, the of improved efficiency, consistency and quality at
polishing cycle time will be shortened with improved reduced cost. Areas such as semiconductor, biotech-
surface quality of the workpiece. An average surface nology, pharmaceutical and human implant industries
roughness of 0.3 μm is claimed. welcome improved surfaces by EP. The present
There have been several reports on either pulsing article provides a comprehensive account of EP tech-
DC voltage or an US bath being used separately to nology with a special reference to stainless steel,
electropolish implantable metals such a 316 VM which provides the greatest majority of applications
stainless steel for medical devices. Pulse polish- of the process.
ing seemed to eliminate the erosion effects of gas The EP process characterized by controlled anodic
bubbles in solution, while the US bath was found to dissolution of a metal surface is versatile enough to
be useful when a fairly uniform, patterned (cratered) combine properties, which cannot be achieved by
surface is needed, e.g. for osseointegration or sur- other surface polishing methods. For example, MP
face preparation for electrodeposition. It is, however, involving grinding, belting, or buffing methods may
claimed that for electropolishing, the overall effect produce mirror-like results on stainless steel, but
of US is better than pulsed DC [130]. they are, unlike EP, labour intensive and leave a
Based on the theory of pulse elecropolishing of stain- distorted surface layer that is highly stressed and
less steel, a minimum voltage of 5 V is recommended contaminated with grinding media. EP can success-
for EP in the transpassive region [131]. It has been fully operate on its own or as compliment to MP for
reported that pulse current tends to provide a more a final superior finish.
uniform polishing of articles with complex geo- The commonly employed chemical methods for
metries. Pulsed DC can also eliminate any undesir- passivation would provide clean, corrosion resistant

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 Chatterjee: Science and Industry of Electropolishing
92

surfaces, but are unable to produce bright, lustrous [17] http://www.metallichrom.co.uk/epol.htm

[18] www.electropolish.com/pubs/overview.pdf
appearance as produced by EP. Also, corrosion resis-
[19] http://www.readcube.com/articles/10.1002/jbm.a.31429 (Eliaz, N.;
tance of electropolished stainless steel far exceeds Nissan, O.: J. Biomed. Mater. Res., Vol. 83A, November, 546,
that achieved by standard chemical passivation 2007)
[20] Metals Handbook, Vol. 5, Surface Cleaning, Finishing and Coating,
process. p. 303, 9th ed. Ohio, ASM, 1982
EP is a well-established technique both in research [21] idem, Vol. 9, Metallography and Microstructures, p. 48, 9th ed.,
Ohio, ASM, 1982
and industry. Although chemical physics and electro-
[22] WO: 103446 (2007)
chemical aspects of EP are discussed, there is still a [23] http://www.electrobright.com/electro.htm
lack of a universal theory that can extensively des- [24] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Electropolishing
cribe the process. The introduction of magnetic field [25] http://epaper.kek.jp/SRF2003/talks/wet02_talk.pdf
[26] Jacquet, P.A.: Trans. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 69, 629, 1936
in EP opens up a new area of investigation that could
[27] Idem, Met. Finish., Vol. 47(5), 48, 1949
encourage one to explore roots of EP theory in quan- [28] Baumann, F.; Ginsberg, H.: Aluminium (BRD), Vol 32, 706, 1956
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[33] Hoar, T.P. et al.: Corrosion Sci. Vol. 5, 279, 1965
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HE: Hydrogen embrittlement tiodynamic.html, http://www.electropolish.com/basic-principles/
[35] Irving, C.C.: www.kepcoinc.com/downloads/articles/LC_electro-
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[37] Inman, M. et al.: www.faradaytechnology.com/PDF%20files/
Ra: Average surface roughness Publications/Inman%20-%20ASM%20MPMD%202011.pdf
IL: Ionic liquid [38] http://etd.ohiolink.edu/letd.send_file?accession=OSU1330544777
8disposition=inline (Chandra, A.: On the Mechanism of Niobium
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[97] http://www.delstar.com/passivating.html – Boehme, O.: ibid, Vol. 90 (5) 1287, 1999
[98] http://www.kepcoinc.com/?page=serviceselectropolishing – Vengris, T. et al.: ibid, Vol. 88 (2) 396, 1997
[99] ASTM: A 967-01, 2001: Chemical passivation treatment for stain- – Ponto, L. et al.: Surf. Coat. Technol., Vol. 30 (3) 265, 1987
less steel – Hryniewicz, T.: ibid, Vol. 64 (2), 75, 1994
[100] ASTM: A967-99E, January, 2000: Passivation of stainless steel – Heinrich, H.; Feller, H.G.: Metalloberfläche, Vol. 38 (5) 192 and (6)
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steel.html – Piesslinger-Schweiger, S.: ibid, Vol. 38 (11)505, 1984 and Vol. 40 (8)
[102] Nielson, T.S.: NACE Corrosion, 2007, paper 07194, Nashville, TN, 317, 1986
March, 2007 – Matlosz, M.; Landolt, D.: J. Electrochem. Soc., Vol. 136, 919, 1989
[103] http://www.nrcresearchpress.com/doi/pdf/10.1139/v53-034 – Metal Finishing Guidebook and Directory, Vol. 100 (1A), 425, 2002
(Caule, E.J.; Cohen, M.: Canadian J. Chem., Vol. 31 (3) 237, 2011) – Kuhn, A.: Metal Fin., Vol. 102 (6) 80, 2004

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