Water pollution

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Raw sewage and industrial waste in the New River as it

passes from Mexicali (Mexico) to Calexico, California
Water pollution is the contamination of water bodies, usually as a result of human
activities. Water bodies include for
example lakes, rivers, oceans, aquifers and groundwater. Water pollution results
when contaminants are introduced into the natural environment. For example, releasing
inadequately treated wastewater into natural water bodies can lead
to degradation of aquatic ecosystems. In turn, this can lead to public health problems for
people living downstream. They may use the same polluted river water for drinking or
bathing or irrigation. Water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and
[1][2]
disease, e.g. due to water-borne diseases.
Water pollution can be classified as surface water or groundwater pollution. Marine
pollution and nutrient pollution are subsets of water pollution. Sources of water pollution
are either point sources or non-point sources. Point sources have one identifiable cause
of the pollution, such as a storm drain or a wastewater treatment plant. Non-point
[3]
sources are more diffuse, such as agricultural runoff.  Pollution is the result of the
cumulative effect over time. All plants and organisms living in or being exposed to
polluted water bodies can be impacted. The effects can damage individual species and
impact the natural biological communities they are part of.
The causes of water pollution include a wide range of chemicals and pathogens as well
as physical parameters. Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances.
Elevated temperatures can also lead to polluted water. A common cause of thermal
pollution is the use of water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers.
 Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food
chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by
[4][5]:375
new thermophilic species.
Water pollution is measured by analysing water samples. Physical, chemical and
biological tests can be conducted. Control of water pollution requires
appropriate infrastructure and management plans. The infrastructure may
include wastewater treatment plants. Sewage treatment plants and industrial
wastewater treatment plants are usually required to protect water bodies from untreated
wastewater. Agricultural wastewater treatment for farms, and erosion control at
construction sites can also help prevent water pollution. Nature-based solutions are
[6]
another approach to prevent water pollution.  Effective control of urban runoff includes
reducing speed and quantity of flow. In the United States, best management practices
for water pollution include approaches to reduce the quantity of water and
[7]
improve water quality.

Contents
 1Introduction
 2Types
o 2.1Surface water pollution
o 2.2Marine pollution
o 2.3Groundwater pollution
 3Categories of pollution sources
o 3.1Point sources
o 3.2Non-point sources
 4Contaminants and their sources
o 4.1Pathogens
o 4.2Organic, inorganic and macroscopic
contaminants
o 4.3Change in temperature
 5Measurement
o 5.1Sampling
o 5.2Physical testing
o 5.3Chemical testing
o 5.4Biological testing
 6Control of pollution
o 6.1Municipal wastewater treatment
o 6.2On-site sanitation and safely managed
sanitation
o 6.3Industrial wastewater treatment
o 6.4Agricultural wastewater treatment
o 6.5Erosion and sediment control from
construction sites
o 6.6Control of urban runoff (storm water)
 7By country
 8See also
 9References
 10External links
Introduction
Pollution in the Lachine Canal, Canada
Water is typically referred to as polluted when it is impaired
by anthropogenic contaminants. Due to these contaminants it either does not support a
human use, such as drinking water, or undergoes a marked shift in its ability to support
its biotic communities, such as fish. Natural phenomena such as volcanoes, algae
blooms, storms, and earthquakes also cause major changes in water quality and the
ecological status of water.
Water pollution is a major global problem. It requires ongoing evaluation and revision
of water resource policy at all levels (international down to individual aquifers and wells).
It has been suggested that water pollution is the leading worldwide cause of death and
[2][1] [8]
diseases.  Water pollution accounted for the deaths of 1.8 million people in 2015.
The organization Global Oceanic Environmental Survey (GOES) consider water
pollution as one of the main environmental problems that can present a danger for the
existence of life on earth in the next decades. One of the main concerns, is that water
pollution, heart phytoplankton who produce 70% of oxygen and remove a large part
of carbon dioxide on earth. The organization proposes a number of measures for fixing
[9][10][11]
the situation, but they should be taken in the next 10 years for being effective.
India and China are two countries with high levels of water pollution. An estimated 580
people in India die of water pollution related illness (including waterborne diseases)
[12] [13]
every day.  About 90 percent of the water in the cities of China is polluted.  As of
[14]
2007, half a billion Chinese had no access to safe drinking water.
In addition to the acute problems of water pollution in developing countries, developed
countries also continue to struggle with pollution problems. For example, in a report
on water quality in the United States in 2009, 44 percent of assessed stream miles, 64
percent of assessed lake acres, and 30 percent of assessed bays and estuarine square
[15]
miles were classified as polluted.

Types
Surface water pollution
See also: Nutrient pollution

Mean eutrophying emissions (water pollution) of

different foods per 100g of protein[16]
Eutrophying Emissions (g PO43-eq
Food Types
per 100g protein)
Beef 365.3
Farmed Fish 235.1
Farmed
227.2
Crustaceans
Cheese 98.4
Lamb and Mutton 97.1
Pork 76.4
Poultry 48.7
Eggs 21.8
Groundnuts 14.1
 Peas 7.5
Tofu 6.2
Surface water pollution includes pollution of rivers, lakes and oceans. A subset of
surface water pollution is marine pollution.
Marine pollution
Main article: Marine pollution

A polluted river draining an abandoned copper mine on

Anglesey
One common path of entry by contaminants to the sea are rivers. An example is directly
discharging sewage and industrial waste into the ocean. Pollution such as this occurs
particularly in developing nations. In fact, the 10 largest emitters of oceanic plastic
pollution worldwide are, from the most to the least, China, Indonesia, Philippines,
[17]
Vietnam, Sri Lanka, Thailand, Egypt, Malaysia, Nigeria, and Bangladesh,  largely
through the rivers Yangtze, Indus, Yellow, Hai, Nile, Ganges, Pearl, Amur, Niger, and
the Mekong, and accounting for "90 percent of all the plastic that reaches the world's
[18][19]
oceans."
Large gyres (vortexes) in the oceans trap floating plastic debris. Plastic debris can
absorb toxic chemicals from ocean pollution, potentially poisoning any creature that eats
[20]
it.  Many of these long-lasting pieces end up in the stomachs of marine birds and
animals. This results in obstruction of digestive pathways, which leads to reduced
appetite or even starvation.
There are a variety of secondary effects stemming not from the original pollutant, but a
derivative condition. An example is silt-bearing surface runoff, which can inhibit the
penetration of sunlight through the water column, hampering photosynthesis in aquatic
plants.
Groundwater pollution
Main article: Groundwater pollution

Interactions between groundwater and surface water are complex. Consequently,

groundwater pollution, also referred to as groundwater contamination, is not as easily
[21]
classified as surface water pollution.  By its very nature, groundwater aquifers are
susceptible to contamination from sources that may not directly affect surface water
bodies. The distinction of point vs. non-point source may be irrelevant in some
situations.
Analysis of groundwater contamination may focus on soil characteristics and site
geology, hydrogeology, hydrology, and the nature of the contaminants. Causes of
groundwater pollution include: naturally-occurring (geogenic), on-site
sanitation systems, sewage, fertilizers and pesticide, commercial and industrial
leaks, hydraulic fracturing, landfill leachate.

Categories of pollution sources

Surface water and groundwater have often been studied and managed as separate
[21]
resources even though they are interrelated.  Surface water seeps through the soil
and becomes groundwater. Conversely, groundwater can also feed surface water
sources. Sources of surface water pollution are generally grouped into two categories
based on their origin.
Point sources

Point source pollution at a shipyard in Rio de Janeiro,

Brazil.
Further information: United States regulation of point source water pollution

Point source water pollution refers to contaminants that enter a waterway from a single,
identifiable source, such as a pipe or ditch. Examples of sources in this category include
discharges from a sewage treatment plant, a factory, or a city storm drain.
The U.S. Clean Water Act (CWA) defines point source for regulatory enforcement
[22]
purposes.  The CWA definition of point source was amended in 1987 to include
municipal storm sewer systems, as well as industrial storm water, such as from
[23]
construction sites.
Non-point sources
Nonpoint source pollution refers to diffuse contamination that does not originate from a
single discrete source. This type of pollution is often the cumulative effect of small
amounts of contaminants gathered from a large area. A common example is the
leaching out of nitrogen compounds from fertilized agricultural lands.
[3]
 Nutrient runoff in storm water from "sheet flow" over an agricultural field or a forest
are also cited as examples of non-point source pollution.

Blue drain and yellow fish symbol used by the UK

Environment Agency to raise awareness of the
ecological impacts of contaminating surface drainage
Contaminated storm water washed off of parking lots, roads and highways, called urban
runoff, is sometimes included under the category of non-point sources. This runoff
becomes a point source because it is typically channeled into storm drain systems and
discharged through pipes to local surface waters.

Contaminants and their sources

Further information: Wastewater, Sewage, and Industrial wastewater

The specific contaminants leading to pollution in water include a wide spectrum

of chemicals, pathogens, and physical changes such as elevated temperature and
discoloration. While many of the chemicals and substances that are regulated may be
naturally occurring (calcium, sodium, iron, manganese, etc.) the concentration usually
determines what is a natural component of water and what is a contaminant. High
concentrations of naturally occurring substances can have negative impacts on aquatic
flora and fauna.
Oxygen-depleting substances may be natural materials such as plant matter (e.g.
leaves and grass) as well as man-made chemicals. Other natural and anthropogenic
substances may cause turbidity (cloudiness) which blocks light and disrupts plant
[24]
growth, and clogs the gills of some fish species.
Alteration of water's physical chemistry includes acidity (change in pH), electrical
conductivity, temperature, and eutrophication. Eutrophication is an increase in the
concentration of chemical nutrients in an ecosystem to an extent that increases
the primary productivity of the ecosystem. Depending on the degree of eutrophication,
subsequent negative environmental effects such as anoxia (oxygen depletion) and
severe reductions in water quality may occur, affecting fish and other animal
populations.
Pathogens

Poster to teach people in South Asia about human

activities leading to the pollution of water sources

A manhole cover unable to contain a sanitary sewer

overflow.
Fecal sludge collected from pit latrines is dumped into a
river at the Korogocho slum in Nairobi, Kenya.
Disease-causing microorganisms are referred to as pathogens. Pathogens can
[25]
produce waterborne diseases in either human or animal hosts.  Coliform bacteria,
which are not an actual cause of disease, are commonly used as a bacterial indicator of
water pollution. Other microorganisms sometimes found in contaminated surface waters
that have caused human health problems include:

 Burkholderia pseudomallei
 Cryptosporidium parvum
 Giardia lamblia
 Salmonella
 Norovirus and other viruses
[26][27]
 Parasitic worms including the Schistosoma type 
High levels of pathogens may result from on-site sanitation systems (septic tanks, pit
[28]
latrines) or inadequately treated sewage discharges.  Older cities with ageing
infrastructure may have leaky sewage collection systems (pipes, pumps, valves), which
can cause sanitary sewer overflows. Some cities also have combined sewers, which
[29]
may discharge untreated sewage during rain storms.  Silt (sediment)
from sewage discharges also pollutes water bodies.

Muddy river polluted by sediment.

Pathogen discharges may also be caused by poorly managed livestock operations.
Organic, inorganic and macroscopic contaminants
Contaminants may include organic and inorganic substances. Many of the chemical
[5]:229
substances are toxic.

A garbage collection boom in an urban-area stream

in Auckland, New Zealand.
Organic water pollutants include:

 Detergents
 Disinfection by-products found in chemically disinfected drinking water, such
as chloroform
 Food processing waste, which can include oxygen-demanding substances, fats and
grease
 Insecticides and herbicides, a huge range of organohalides and other chemical
compounds
 Petroleum hydrocarbons, including fuels (gasoline, diesel fuel, jet fuels, and fuel oil) and
[30]
lubricants (motor oil), and fuel combustion byproducts, from storm water runoff
 Volatile organic compounds, such as industrial solvents, from improper storage.
 Chlorinated solvents, which are dense non-aqueous phase liquids, may fall to the bottom
of reservoirs, since they don't mix well with water and are denser.
o Polychlorinated biphenyl (PCBs)
o Trichloroethylene
 Perchlorate
 Various chemical compounds found in personal hygiene and cosmetic products
 Drug pollution involving pharmaceutical drugs and their metabolites, this can
include antidepressant drugs or hormonal medicines such as contraceptive pills.
These molecules can be small and difficult for treatment plants to remove without expensive
[31]
upgrades.
Macroscopic Pollution in Parks Milwaukee, WI
Inorganic water pollutants include:

 Acidity caused by industrial discharges (especially sulfur dioxide from power plants)

 Ammonia from food processing waste
 Chemical waste as industrial by-products
 Fertilizers containing nutrients--nitrates and phosphates—which are found in storm water
[30]
runoff from agriculture, as well as commercial and residential use  (see nutrient pollution)
[30][32]
 Heavy metals from motor vehicles (via urban storm water runoff)  and acid mine
drainage
 Secretion of creosote preservative into the aquatic ecosystem
 Silt (sediment) in runoff from construction sites, logging, slash and burn practices or land
clearing sites.
Macroscopic pollution – large visible items polluting the water – may be termed
"floatables" in an urban storm water context, or marine debris when found on the open
seas, and can include such items as:

 Trash or garbage (e.g. paper, plastic, or food waste) discarded by people on the ground,
along with accidental or intentional dumping of rubbish, that are washed by rainfall
into storm drains and eventually discharged into surface waters.
 Nurdles, small ubiquitous waterborne plastic pellets. See plastic pollution
 Shipwrecks, large derelict ships.

The Brayton Point Power Station in Massachusetts

discharges heated water to Mount Hope Bay.
Change in temperature
Main article: Thermal pollution

Thermal pollution is the rise or fall in the temperature of a natural body of water caused
by human influence. Thermal pollution, unlike chemical pollution, results in a change in
the physical properties of water. A common cause of thermal pollution is the use of
water as a coolant by power plants and industrial manufacturers. Elevated water
temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food
chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by
[4][33][5]:375
new thermophilic species.  Urban runoff may also elevate temperature in
[34]
surface waters.
Thermal pollution can also be caused by the release of very cold water from the base of
reservoirs into warmer rivers.

Measurement

Environmental scientists preparing water autosamplers.

Water pollution may be analyzed through several broad categories of methods:
physical, chemical and biological. Most involve collection of samples, followed by
specialized analytical tests. Some methods may be conducted in situ, without sampling,
such as temperature. Government agencies and research organizations have published
standardized, validated analytical test methods to facilitate the comparability of results
[35]
from disparate testing events.
Sampling
Sampling of water for physical or chemical testing can be done by several methods,
depending on the accuracy needed and the characteristics of the contaminant. Many
contamination events are sharply restricted in time, most commonly in association with
rain events. For this reason "grab" samples are often inadequate for fully quantifying
contaminant levels. Scientists gathering this type of data often employ auto-sampler
devices that pump increments of water at either time or discharge intervals.
Sampling for biological testing involves collection of plants and animals from the surface
water body. Depending on the type of assessment, the organisms may be identified
for biosurveys (population counts) and returned to the water body, or they may be
dissected for bioassays to determine toxicity.
Further information: Water quality §  Sampling and measurement

Physical testing
Common physical tests of water include temperature, solids concentrations (e.g., total
suspended solids (TSS)) and turbidity.
Chemical testing
See also: water chemistry analysis and environmental chemistry

Water samples may be examined using the principles of analytical chemistry. Many
published test methods are available for both organic and inorganic compounds.
Frequently used methods include pH, biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
[36]:102 [36]:104
 chemical oxygen demand (COD),  nutrients
(nitrate and phosphorus compounds), metals (including copper, zinc, cadmium, lead
and mercury), oil and grease, total petroleum hydrocarbons (TPH), and pesticides.
Biological testing
Main article: Bioindicator

Biological testing involves the use of plant, animal or microbial indicators to monitor the
health of an aquatic ecosystem. They are any biological species or group of species
whose function, population, or status can reveal what degree of ecosystem or
[37]
environmental integrity is present.  One example of a group of bio-indicators are
the copepods and other small water crustaceans that are present in many water bodies.
Such organisms can be monitored for changes (biochemical, physiological, or
behavioral) that may indicate a problem within their ecosystem.
For microbial testing of drinking water, see Bacteriological water analysis.

Control of pollution
Municipal wastewater treatment
Main articles: Sewage treatment and Wastewater treatment

Deer Island Wastewater Treatment Plant serving Boston,

Massachusetts and vicinity.
In urban areas of developed countries, municipal wastewater (or sewage) is typically
treated by centralized sewage treatment plants. Well-designed and operated systems
(i.e., with secondary treatment steps or more advanced treatment) can remove 90
[38]
percent or more of the pollutant load in sewage.  Some plants have additional
systems to remove nutrients and pathogens, but these more advanced treatment steps
get progressively more expensive.
Nature-based solutions are also being used instead of (or in combination with)
[6]
centralized treatment plants.
Cities with sanitary sewer overflows or combined sewer overflows employ one or
more engineering approaches to reduce discharges of untreated sewage, including:

 utilizing a green infrastructure approach to improve storm water management capacity

[39]
throughout the system, and reduce the hydraulic overloading of the treatment plant
[29]
 repair and replacement of leaking and malfunctioning equipment
 increasing overall hydraulic capacity of the sewage collection system (often a very
expensive option).
On-site sanitation and safely managed sanitation
Further information: Sanitation

Households or businesses not served by a municipal treatment plant may have an

individual septic tank, which pre-treats the wastewater on site and infiltrates it into the
soil. Improperly designed or installed septic systems can cause groundwater pollution.
Globally, about 4.5 billion people do not have safely managed sanitation as of 2017,
according to an estimate by the Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and
[40]
Sanitation.  Lack of access to sanitation often leads to water pollution, e.g. via the
practice of open defecation: during rain events or floods, the human feces are moved
from the ground where they were deposited into surface waters. Simple pit latrines may
also get flooded during rain events. The use of safely managed sanitation services
[40]
would prevent this type of water pollution.
Industrial wastewater treatment
Main article: Industrial wastewater treatment
Dissolved air flotation system for treating industrial
wastewater.
Some industrial facilities generate wastewater that is similar to domestic sewage and
can be treated by sewage treatment plants. Industries that generate wastewater with
high concentrations of organic matter (e.g. oil and grease), toxic pollutants (e.g. heavy
metals, volatile organic compounds) or nutrients such as ammonia, need specialized
[41]:Ch. 16
treatment systems.  Some industries install a pre-treatment system to remove
some pollutants (e.g., toxic compounds), and then discharge the partially
[42][43]:Ch. 1
treated wastewater to the municipal sewer system.  Industries generating
large volumes of wastewater typically operate their own treatment systems. Some
industries have been successful at redesigning their manufacturing processes to reduce
or eliminate pollutants, through a process called pollution prevention.
To remove heat from wastewater generated by power plants or manufacturing
plants the following technologies are used:

 cooling ponds, man-made bodies of water designed for cooling

by evaporation, convection, and radiation
 cooling towers, which transfer waste heat to the atmosphere through evaporation or heat
transfer
 cogeneration, a process where waste heat is recycled for domestic or industrial heating
[44]
purposes.

Riparian buffer lining a creek in Iowa.

Agricultural wastewater treatment
Main article: Agricultural wastewater treatment

Non point source controls

Sediment (loose soil) washed off fields is the largest source of agricultural pollution in
[24]
the United States.  Farmers may utilize erosion controls to reduce runoff flows and
retain soil on their fields. Common techniques include contour plowing,
[45]
crop mulching, crop rotation, planting perennial crops and installing riparian buffers.
[46]:pp. 4–95–4–96

Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus) are typically applied to farmland as

commercial fertilizer, animal manure, or spraying of municipal or industrial wastewater
(effluent) or sludge. Nutrients may also enter runoff from crop
[46]:p. 2–9
residues, irrigation water, wildlife, and atmospheric deposition.  Farmers can
develop and implement nutrient management plans to reduce excess application of
[45][46]:pp. 4–37–4–38
nutrients  and reduce the potential for nutrient pollution.
To minimize pesticide impacts, farmers may use Integrated Pest Management (IPM)
techniques (which can include biological pest control) to maintain control over pests,
[47]
reduce reliance on chemical pesticides, and protect water quality.

Feedlot in the United States

Point source wastewater treatment
Farms with large livestock and poultry operations, such as factory farms, are
called concentrated animal feeding operations or feedlots in the US and are being
[48][49]
subject to increasing government regulation.  Animal slurries are usually treated
by containment in anaerobic lagoons before disposal by spray or trickle application to
grassland. Constructed wetlands are sometimes used to facilitate treatment of animal
wastes. Some animal slurries are treated by mixing with straw and composted at high
temperature to produce a bacteriologically sterile and friable manure for soil
improvement.
Erosion and sediment control from construction sites
Silt fence installed on a construction site.
Sediment from construction sites is managed by installation of:

 erosion controls, such as mulching and hydroseeding, and

[50]
 sediment controls, such as sediment basins and silt fences.
Discharge of toxic chemicals such as motor fuels and concrete washout is prevented by
use of:

 spill prevention and control plans, and

 specially designed containers (e.g. for concrete washout) and structures such as
[51]
overflow controls and diversion berms.
Control of urban runoff (storm water)
Main article: Urban runoff

See also: Green infrastructure

Retention basin for controlling urban runoff

Effective control of urban runoff involves reducing the velocity and flow of storm water,
as well as reducing pollutant discharges. Local governments use a variety of storm
water management techniques to reduce the effects of urban runoff. These techniques,
called best management practices for water pollution (BMPs) in the U.S., may focus on
water quantity control, while others focus on improving water quality, and some perform
[7]
both functions.
Pollution prevention practices include low-impact development techniques, installation
of green roofs and improved chemical handling (e.g. management of motor fuels & oil,
[52]
fertilizers and pesticides).  Runoff mitigation systems include infiltration
basins, bioretention systems, constructed wetlands, retention basins and similar
[53][54]
devices.
Thermal pollution from runoff can be controlled by storm water management facilities
that absorb the runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and
infiltration basins. Retention basins tend to be less effective at reducing temperature, as
 [7]:p.
the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.
5–58