Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept.

of ECE, KL University

KL University, Vaddeswaram, Dept. of ECE,

II B. Tech ECE: Communication Theory-I, 15-EC2205
Lecture Notes-1, AY 2017-18

Fundamentals of Electronics Communications

System
1.0 Introduction.

1.1 Important events in development of communications systems

1.2 Electronic Communications Systems

 Transmitter

 Communication Channel

 Receiver

 Noise

1.3 Modulation and Demodulation

 Need for Modulation

 Analog electronic communications system

 Types of Communications Systems

1.4 Propagation of electromagnetic waves

1.5 The Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum

1.6 Objectives of Communications System Design

1.7 Modulation Theorem / Frequency Translation Theorem

1.8 Distortion-less Transmission

1.9 Bandwidth and Power

1.10 Why ideal filters can’t be realized physically?

1.11 Energy, Power and their Spectral Densities

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

OBJECTIVES
 Define the fundamental purpose of an electronic communications system.

 Illustrate a basic electronic communication system and their elements.

 Explain the terms modulation and demodulation and why they are needed in

an electronic communications system.

 Describe the electromagnetic frequency spectrum and their propagation.

 Explore the concept of frequency translation theorem.

 Explain distortion less transmission of signals

 Define the signal bandwidth and power.

 Understand that why Ideal filters cannot be realized physically.

 Understand the concepts of Energy, Power and their Spectral Densities

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

1.0 Introduction: The fundamental purpose of an electronic communications system

is to transfer information from one place to another. Thus, electronic communication

can be summarized as the transmission, reception and processing of information

between two or more locations using electronic circuits. The original source

information can be in analog form, such as human voice or music, or in digital form,

such as binary coded numbers or alphanumeric codes. Analog signals are time

varying voltages or currents that are continuously changing, such as sine and cosine

waves. An analog signal contains an infinite number of values. Digital signals are

voltages or currents that change in discrete steps or levels. The most common form of

digital signal is binary, which has two levels. All forms of information however must be

converted to electromagnetic energy before being propagated through an electronic

communication system.

There are numerous forms of communication. We have wired communication,

wherein examples are telephone, broadband internet at home, local area networks at

office, just to name a few. We also have wireless communication such as mobile, WiFi,

Bluetooth, radio broadcast, TV broadcast, and many others. It seems that our lives

could not function properly without communication.

1.1: Important events in development of communication systems

1838: Telegraph (Cooke and Wheatstone)

1871: Telephone “Caveat” Some believe Antonio Meucci (not A.G. Bell) was the

inventor of the talking telegraph or telephone.

1900: Marconi sends wireless signal across Atlantic.

1920: Beginning of radio broadcasting.

1936: First public B/W TV broadcast.

1951: First public color TV broadcast.

1957: First earth satellite, Sputnik I.

1962: First communication satellite, Telstar I.

1966: Principles of fibre optic communications published (Kao and Hockham).

1973: Birth of Internet.

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

1979: First-generation cellular phone service.

1985: Fax machines gain popularity.

1990’s: HDTV, second-generation cellular systems.

2000’s: Third-generation cellular systems, satellite radio, “anytime, anywhere,
multimedia communications”.

2010’s: Online social networks, smart phones, LTE, wireless sensor networks
(WSNs)

A Chronology of Electrical Communication

Preliminary Developments:
Volta discovers the battery; the mathematical treatises by Fourier, Cauchy, and
1800-1837 Laplace; experiments on electrical and magnetism by Oersted, Ampere,
Faraday, and Henry; Ohm’s Law (1826); early telegraph systems by Gauss,
Weber, and Wheatstone
Telegraphy:
Morse perfects his system; Steinhill finds that the earth can be used for a
current path; commercial service initiated (1844); multiplexing techniques
1838-1866
devised; William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) calculates the pulse response of a
telegraph line (1855); transatlantic cables installed by Cyrus Field and
associates
1845 Kirchhoff’s circuit laws enunciated
1864 Maxwell’s equation predicts electromagnetic radiation
Telephony
Acoustic transducer perfected by Alexander Graham Bell, after earlier attempts
by Reis; first telephone exchange, in New Haven, with eight lines (1878);
1876-1899
Edison’s carbon-button transducer; cable circuits introduced; Strowger devises
automatic step-by-step switching (1887); the theory of cable loading by
Heaviside, Pupin, and Campbell
Wireless telegraphy
Heinrich Hertz verifies Maxwell’s theory; demonstrations by Marconi and
1887-1907 Popov; Marconi patents a complete wireless telegraph system (1897); the
theory of tuning circuits developed by Sir Oliver Lodge; commercial service
begins, including ship-to-shore and transatlantic systems
Oliver Heaviside’s publication on operational calculus, circuits, and
1892-1899
electromagnetics
Communication electronics
Lee De Forrest invents the Audion (triode) based on Fleming’s diode; basic
filter types devised by G. A. Campbell and others; experiments with AM radio
1904-1920 broadcasting; transcontinental telephone line with electronic repeaters
completed by the Bell System (1915); multiplexed carrier telephony introduced;
E. H. Armstrong perfects the superheterodyne radio receiver (1918); first
commercial broadcasting station, KDKA, Pittsburgh

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

Transmission theory
1920-1928 Landmark papers on the theory of signal transmission and noise by J. R.
Carson, H. Nyquist, J. B. Johnson, and R. V. L. Hartley
Television
Mechanical image-formation system demonstrated by Baird and Jenkins;
1923-1938 theoretical analysis of bandwidth requirements; Farnsworth and Zworykin
propose electronic systems; vacuum cathode-ray tubes perfected by DuMont
and others; field tests and experimental broadcast begin
1931 Teletypewriter service initiated
1934 H. S. Black develops the negative-feedback amplifier
1936 Armstrong’s paper states the case for FM radio
1936 First public B/W TV broadcast
1937 Alec Reeves conceives pulse code modulation
World War II
1938-1945 Radar and microwave systems developed; FM used extensively for military
communications; improved electronics, hardware, and theory in all areas
Statistical communication theory
1944-1947 Rice develops a mathematical representation of noise; Weiner, Kolmogoroff,
and Kotel’nikov apply statistical methods to signal detection
Information theory and coding
1948-1951 C. E. Shannon publishes the founding papers of information theory; Hamming
and Golay devise error-correcting codes
1948-1951 Transistor devices invented by Bardeen, Brattain, and Shockley
1950 Time-division multiplexing applied to telephony
1951 First public color TV broadcast
1953 Color TV standards established in the United States
1955 J. R. Pierce proposes satellite communication systems
1956 First transoceanic telephone cable (36 voice channels)
1957 First earth satellite, Sputnik I
1958 Long-distance data transmission system developed for military purposes
1960 Maiman demonstrates the first laser
1961 Integrated circuits go into commercial production
1962 Satellite communication begins with Telstar I
High-speed digital communication
Data transmission service offered commercially; wideband channels designed
for digital signaling; pulse code modulation proves feasible for voice and TV
1962-1966
transmission; major breakthroughs in the theory and implementation of digital
transmission, including error-control coding methods by Viterbi and others, and
the development of adaptive equalization by Lucky and co-workers
1963 Solid-state microwave oscillators perfected by Gunn
1964 Fully electronic telephone switching system (No. 1 ESS) goes into service
1965 Mariner IV transmits pictures from Mars to earth
1966-1975 Wideband communication systems

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

Cable TV systems; commercial satellite relay service becomes available;

optical links using lasers and fiber optics; the forerunner of the Internet,
ARPANET was created in 1969;
1973 Birth of Internet
Integrated-circuit communication modules; high-frequency power MOS
devices; digital signal processing with microprocessors; filter circuits using
1975-1985
switched capacitors and surface acoustic waves; rate distortion theory and
predictive coding applied to data compression
1979 First-generation cellular phone service
1983 TCP/IP became the official protocol of ARPANET/Internet
1985 Fax machines gain popularity
1990 HDTV, second-generation cellular systems
1985 to
Gigabit Networks, B-ISDN or ATM Networks, Digital TV
present
Third- and fourth-generation wireless systems (Advanced mobile
beyond 2000 communications)
International Mobile Telecommunications (IMT)-2000; Wireless ATM (WATM)
2010 Online social networks, smart phones, LTE, wireless sensor networks (WSNs)

1.2 Electronic Communication Systems:

Fig1.1 shows a simplified block diagram of an electronic communications system

that includes a transmitter, a transmission medium, a receiver and system and other

interference noise.

Fig1.1 Simplified block diagram of an electronic communications system

Transmitter: The transmitter is a collection of electronic components and circuits that

converts the electrical signal into a signal suitable for transmission over a given

medium. Transmitters are made up of oscillators, amplifiers, tuned circuits and filters,

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

modulators, frequency mixers, frequency synthesizers, and other circuits.

Communication Channel: The communication channel is the medium by which the

electronic signal is sent from one place to another.

Types of media include

 Electrical conductors

 Optical media

 Free space

 System-specific media (e.g., water is the medium for sonar).

Receivers: A receiver is a collection of electronic components and circuits that

accepts the transmitted message from the channel and converts it back into a form

understandable by humans. Receivers contain amplifiers, oscillators, mixers, tuned

circuits and filters, and a demodulator or detector that recovers the original

intelligence signal from the modulated carrier.

Noise: Noise is random, undesirable electronic energy that enters the communication

system via the communicating medium and interferes with the transmitted message.

Transceivers: A transceiver is an electronic unit that incorporates circuits that both

send and receive signals.

Examples are:
 Telephones
 Fax machines
 Handheld CB radios
 Cell phones
 Computer modems

1.3 Modulation and Demodulation: To transmit a message signal to a long distance

over a communication channel, we need to modify the message signal into a suitable

form for efficient transmission over the channel as shown in Fig 1.2. Modification of the

message signal is achieved by means of a process is known as modulation.

The transmission channel is best suited for high frequency signal transmission. The

high frequency signals are called carriers. Modulation is a scheme which alters some

characteristics of the high frequency carrier in accordance with the low frequency

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

message signal called the modulating signal. Modulation is performed in a transmitter

by a circuit is called a modulator. A carrier that has been acted on by an information

system is called modulated signal. Demodulation is a reverse process of modulation

and converts the modulated carrier back to the original signal. Demodulation is

performed in a receiver by a circuit called demodulator.

Fig 1.2. Illustration of Modulation process

 Need for Modulation: There are various reasons why modulation is necessary in

electronic communication systems.

(a) Ease of Radiation / Transmission: It is extremely difficult to radiate low

frequency signals from an antenna in the form of electromagnetic energy. For efficient

radiation of electromagnetic energy, the radiating antenna should be in the order of a

fraction or more of the wavelength of the driving signals. For many baseband signals,

the wavelengths are too large for reasonable antenna dimensions.

For example the speech signal is concentrated at frequencies in the range of 100

Hz to 3000 Hz. The corresponding wavelengths are calculated as below:

We know that the frequency of a signal and its wavelength is related by

C  f X

Where f is the frequency of the signal,  is the wavelength of the signal and

C = 3 X 108 m/s is the velocity of light.

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For 100 Hz,   C  3X10  3000 Km
f 100

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

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For 3000 Hz,   C  3X10  100 Km
f 3000

Hence the speech signals in the range of 100 Hz to 3000 Hz required the

wavelengths is 100 to 3000 Km, which is practically impossible. Instead by modulating

a high frequency carrier, we effectively translate the signal spectrum into the

neighborhood of the carrier frequency, the corresponding wavelength is much smaller

and practicable. For example a 10 MHz carrier frequency has a wavelength of 30

meters, and its transmission can be achieved with an antenna size on the order of 3

meters (  /10 ), which is practically possible.

(b) Multiplexing: Simultaneous Transmission of Multiple Signals: Modulation allows

multiple signals to be transmitted simultaneously between two points. Modulation

schemes enable one to multiplex a number of signals at the same time in a single

channel without any interference themselves. This multiplexing scheme is utilized in

long distance telephony, data telemetry etc.

(c) Reduction of Noise: The noise and other interference are two major limitations of

any communication system. These effects cannot be eliminated completely. However,

certain modulation schemes can suppress the noise and interference to some extent.

Ex: Spread spectrum.

(d) Narrow banding: The process of modulation (frequency translation) may be used

to change a ‘wideband’ signal into a ‘narrowband’ signal which may be more

conveniently processed.

For example an audio range extends from say 50 Hz to 104 Hz. The ratio of the

highest audio frequency to lowest is 200. Therefore the antenna size is either too

short or too long. Suppose that by modulation, the audio spectrum is translated into

the range from (105+50) to (105+104). Then the ratio of the highest frequency to lowest

is 1.01. Hence the modulation is useful to process the wide range of signals.

(e) Channel Matching: Modulation is used to make sure that the message signal

conforms to the limitations of its channel.

(f) Modulation is used to place the signals at desired frequency band (translation) for

signal processing purposes such as filtering, amplification, multiplications etc.

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

(g) In digital communication, Modulation is used to map digital information sequence

into waveforms.
 Analog electronic communication system: Fig 1.3 is a simplified block diagram
for an analog electronic communication system showing the relationship among the
modulating signal, the high frequency carrier and modulated wave. The information
signal (intelligence signal) combines with the carrier in the modulator to produce the
modulated wave. The information signal is up-converted from low frequencies in the
transmitter and down-converted from high frequencies to low frequencies in the
receiver. The process of converting a frequency or band of frequencies to another
location in the total frequency spectrum is called frequency translation. Frequency
translation is an intricate part of electronic communications because information
signals may be up- and down-converted many times as they are transported through
the system is called a channel. The modulated signal is transported to the receiver
over a transmission system. In the receiver, the modulated signal is amplified,
down-converted in frequency, and then demodulated to demodulated the original
source information.

Fig1. 3. A simplified block diagram for an analog electronic communication system

 Types of Communications Systems: Basically the electronic communication

systems are classified as analog communication and pulse (digital) communication as

shown in Fig1.4. An analog communication system is a system in which energy is

transmitted and received in analog form. With analog communications systems, both

the information and the carrier are analog signals. Pulse communication is a

technique, some parameter of each pulse (carrier) is modulated by a particular

sample value of the message signal. On the other hand the digital communication

covers broad range communication techniques, including digital transmission and

digital radio. Digital transmission is a true digital system where digital pulses are

transferred between two or more points in a communication system.

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

Fig 1.4 Types of Modulation techniques

1.4 Propagation of electromagnetic waves:

Fig1.5 Propagation of electromagnetic waves

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Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

Fig1.6 Various propagation of electromagnetic waves

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

1.5 The Electromagnetic Frequency Spectrum: The purpose of an electronic

communication system is to communicate information between two or locations

commonly called stations. This is accomplished by converting the original information

into electromagnetic energy and then transmitting it to one or more receiving stations

where it is converted back to its original form. Electromagnetic energy can propagate

as a voltage or current along a metallic wire, as emitted radio waves through free

space, or as light waves down an optical fiber. Electromagnetic energy is distributed

throughout almost infinite range frequencies. The following table illustrates the

International Telecommunications Union (ITU) band designations.

Fig1.7 Electromagnetic spectrum

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Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

Spectrum of Communication Systems

Transmission Propagation
Frequency Designation Applications
Media Modes
Infrared Wideband Data,
Optical fibers Laser beam
1 THz – 430 THz Multimedia and ATM
Super High Frequency Line-of-Sight (LOS) Satellite, Microwave
Waveguides
(SHF)3 GHz – 30 GHz Radio Radar and Navigational
Ultra High F’cy (UHF) Waveguides/
LOS Radio UHF TV, Mobile
300 MHz – 3000 MHz Co-axial cable
Very High F’cy (VHF) Mobile
Co-axial cable LOS Radio
30 MHz – 300 MHz VHF TV, FM
High F’cy (HF) CB Amateur Radio
Co-axial cable Skywave Radio
3 MHz – 30 MHz Civil Defense
Medium F’cy (MF)
Co-axial cable Groundwave Radio AM
300 kHz – 3000 kHz
Low F’cy (LF) Aeronautical
Wire pairs Groundwave Radio
30 kHz – 300 kHz Transoceanic Radio
Very Low F’cy (VLF)
Wire pairs Groundwave Radio Telephone and Telegraph
3 kHz – 30 kHz
Audio F’cy (AF)
Wire pairs
20 Hz – 20 kHz

1.6 Objectives of Communications System Design:

 Two primary resources in communications

 Transmitted power

 Channel bandwidth (very expensive in the commercial market)

 In certain scenarios, one resource may be more important than the other

 Power limited (e.g. deep-space communication)

 Bandwidth limited (e.g. telephone circuit)

Objectives of a communication system design

 The message is delivered both efficiently and reliably, subject to certain

design constraints: power, bandwidth, and cost.

 Efficiency is usually measured by the amount of messages sent in unit power,

unit time and unit bandwidth.

 Reliability is expressed in terms of SNR or probability of error.

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

1.7 Modulation Theorem / Frequency Translation Theorem:

It is often advantageous and convenient, in processing a signal in

communications systems, to translate the signal from one region in the frequency

domain to another region. This process is referred to as frequency translation

theorem. This frequency translation is achieved by Multiplication in time domain or

Frequency convolution property of FT and

illustrated below. This property defines that

multiplication of two signals in the time domain is

equivalent to the convolution of these two signals in the frequency domain.

Suppose that a message signal m(t ) is band limited to a frequency range B Hz

is multiplied with a high frequency sinusoidal signal called a carrier signal

c(t )  Ac cos ct as shown in Figure. The resultant multiplied signal usually defined

as a modulated signal is represented by s(t )  m(t )c(t )  Ac m(t )cos ct and its

spectrum is shown below.

The spectrum of modulated signal s (t ) is represented by

S ( f )  F.T. Ac m(t ) cos 2 f ct  1  M ( f  f c )  M ( f  f c ) 

2

Fig 1.8 Illustration of frequency translation

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

Fig(a) represents the message signal in time domain and frequency domain. The

highest frequencyis represented by B Hz in the figure.Similarly Fig(b) represnts the

time domain and frequency domain representation of c (t ) . Since the signal c (t )

consists of single high frequency component, it is represented by a single spike in the

frequency axis. The resultant multiplied signal is shown in Fig (c). It can be observed

in the frequency spectrum that the message signal is translated or shifted to into high

frequency range.

Reconstruction of Signal: The same principle of frequency translation technique

can be applied to retrieve the signal from the modulated wave s (t ) as illustrated

below:

s (t )c(t )  m(t )c 2 (t )  Ac2 m(t ) cos 2  ct

 1 Ac2 m(t ) 1  cos 2 ct 
2
 1 Ac2 m(t )  1 Ac2 m(t ) cos 2 ct
2 2

This product modulator output s(t )c(t ) consists of required message signal

1 2 A2
component Ac m(t ) , with magnitude c and undesired signal component
2 2

Ac2
m(t ) cos 2 ct which is a modulated the message signal with twice the frequency
2
of carrier wave. This undesired component is removed by low pass filter with cut off
frequency of message signal as shown in figure.

The low pass filtered signal v(t )  1 Ac2 m(t ) is the desired message signal. Hence
2
we conclude that by again applying frequency translation, we obtain the original
signal.

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

1.8 Distortion-less Transmission: An input signal f (t ) modifies according to the

characteristics of the system and gives a

response signal r (t ) . A system

attenuates all the frequency components equally; that is the system function H (ω)

should have a constant magnitude for all frequencies. The phase shift of each

component must also satisfy certain relationships. It is conceivable that even if all the

frequency components of a signal are transmitted through the system with equal

attenuation, but if they acquire different phase shifts in the process of transmission,

they may add up to an entirely different signal.

For a distortion less transmission, we require that the response be an exact
replica of the input signal. This replica may, of course have a different magnitude. The
important thing is the waveform and not its relative magnitude. In general, they may
also be some time delay associated with this replica. Therefore we may say that a

signal f (t ) is transmitted without distortion if the response is k f (t  t 0 ) . It is

evident that the response is the exact replica of the input with a magnitude k times

the original signal and delayed by t 0 seconds. If F ( s) is the transform of f (t ) ,

then from the time shifting property, L.T { k f (t  t 0 ) } = kF (s)e st0 .

Now we have F (s) H (s)  kF (s)e st0 ,

Therefore H (s)  ke st0

Therefore, to achieve distortion-less transmission through a system, the transfer

function H ( s ) of the system must be of the form mention as above.

For real frequencies s  jω , H (ω)  ke ωt0

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

The magnitude and phase characteristics of a distortion-less transmission

system is illustrated in the above figure. It is evident that | H (ω) | , the magnitude of

the transfer function is k , and that is constant for all values of ω . The phase shift for

a component of frequency ω should be  ωt 0 , which is proportional to the

frequency as shown in the figure. Strictly speaking  (ω)  n  ωt 0 ( n integral),

since the addition of excess phase shift of n radians may at most change the sign
of the signal.

1.9 Bandwidth and Power: In a given communication system, the fundamental

parameters and physical limitations that control the rate and quality are the channel

bandwidth and the transmission power.

(a) Signal Bandwidth: Signal bandwidth is defined as the maximum range of its

frequency components. Usually its range occupies from

minimum to maximum frequencies. The spectral components

of a signal extends from frequencies ω  0 to  . Any

practical signal have finite energy, resulting the spectral

components approaches to zero as ω  .

Therefore we neglect the spectral components that

have negligible energy and select band of frequency

components that contain most of the signal energy.

This band of frequencies that contains most of the signal energy is known as

bandwidth of the signal and is denoted by ωm . Usually the band is selected such that

it contains around 95% of total energy depending on the precision.

(b) Bandwidth of a System: The constancy of the magnitude | H (ω) | in a system

usually specified by its bandwidth. The bandwidth of

a system is arbitrarily defined as the interval of

frequencies over which the magnitude | H (ω) |

remains within 1 times (within 3 dB) its value at

2

the mid band. The bandwidth of a system whose | H (ω) | plot is shown in figure has

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

bandwidth of ω2  ω1 .

(c) Channel Bandwidth: The channel bandwidth is defined as the band of

frequencies allocated for the transmission of the message signal.

(d) Transmitted Power: The transmitted power refers to the average power of the
transmitted signal.

A general system design objective is to use these two resources channel

band-width and the transmission power as efficiently as possible.

1.10 Why ideal filters can’t be realized physically?

An ideal Low Pass Filter transmits all the signals frequencies below a certain

frequency ωc / 2 radians/second without any distortion. The signals of frequencies

of above ωc / 2 rad/sec are completely attenuated as shown below.

The frequency response (magnitude characteristic) of a LPF is thus a gate function

G (ω) . The corresponding phase function for distortion-less transmission is  ωt o .

The transfer function of such filter is evidently given by

H (ω)  | H (ω) | e j (ω)  G(ω)e jωto

Then the impulse response h(t ) = Inverse FT{ H (ω) } = Inverse FT{ G(ω)e  jωto },

ω  ω (t  t 0 ) 
That is h(t )  c Sa  c 
2  2 

A glance at Fig(b) shows that the impulse response exists for negative values of t .

This is certainly a strange results in view of the fact that the driving function (unit

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

impulse) was applied at t  t 0 . Therefore the response appears even before the

driving function is applied. Unfortunately it is not possible in practice to build such a

circuit with crystal ball properties. Hence we must conclude that although an ideal low

pass filter is very desirable, physically it is not realizable. One can similarly show that

other ideal filters (such as ideal high pass, band pass and band rejection filters) are

also unrealizable.

1.11: Energy, Power and their Spectral Densities: The energy, energy density
function, power and power density functions are briefly illustrated as below.

Signal Energy and Energy Spectral Density: The energy E x of a signal is defined

as the area under | x (t ) |2 is defined as below.


Ex   | x(t ) |2 dt


We can also determine the energy from its FT X ( f ) through Parseval’s theorem.

   
Ex   | x(t ) |2 dt   x(t ) x *(t )dt   x(t )   X *( f )e  jt df  dt
     
   
 X *( f )   e jt x(t )dt  df   X *( f )X ( f ) df   | X ( f ) |2 df
     

This is well known statement of Parseval theorem for energy signals.

The energy spectral density (EDS) is defined as x | X ( f ) |2 .


Then the energy is also defined in terms of EDS as E x 

x df . 
Signal Power and Power Spectral Density:

The power of a periodic signal is defined as the time average of the signal

energy averaged over the infinite time interval.

1 T /2
T  T T /2
Px  lim | x(t ) |2 dt

We can also determine the energy from its Fourier Coefficients X ( f ) through

Parseval’s theorem.
1 
T  T 
Px  lim | X T ( f ) |2 dt

This is well known statement of Parseval theorem for power signals.

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 Dr. M. Venu Gopala Rao, Professor, Dept. of ECE, KL University

The power spectral density (PDS) is defined as  x  | XT ( f ) |2


Then the Power is also defined in terms of PSD as Px    x df .

Questions

1. Discover the basic elements of electronic communication systems? Illustrate each

of them in brief.

2. Determine the wavelength of a signal having the frequency of 100 KHz. Find the
corresponding antenna height.

3. Explain the terms modulation and demodulation and why they are needed in an
electronic communications system.

4. Illustrate frequency translation technique for both transmission and reconstruction

of a message signal with necessary mathematical derivations and block diagrams.

5. Explain the following terms in the view of electronic communication systems.

(a) Signal bandwidth. (b) Bandwidth of a system

(c) Channel bandwidth. (d) Signal power and energy

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