Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Topic 2: Electric circuits

2.1 Potential difference and Electric current

Science understanding

1. Atoms contain positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons.

2. Objects become charged when electrons are transferred from one object to another or
redistributed on an object.

3. Two like charges exert repulsive forces on each other, whereas two opposite charges exert
attractive forces on each other.

• Describe electric forces between like and opposite charges.

• Explain various phenomena involving interactions of charge.

• Explain how electrical conductors allow charges to move freely through them, whereas insulators
do not.

4. Energy is required to separate positive and negative charges and this charge separation produces
an electrical potential difference that can be used to drive current in circuits.

5. The energy available to charges moving in an electrical circuit is measured using electric potential
difference (voltage). This is defined as the change in potential energy per unit charge between two
defined points in the circuit and is measured using a voltmeter.

• Describe how a voltmeter is used in an electric circuit.

• Explain the purpose of measuring potential difference in electric circuit.

6. Describe how electrical safety is increased through the use of

• fuses or circuit breakers

• residual current devices

7. Electric current is carried by discrete charge carriers. Charge is conserved at all points in an
electrical circuit.

• Distinguish between electron current and conventional current.

q
8. Electric current is the rate of flow of charge. • Solve problems involving I = . An ammeter is used
t
to measure the electrical current at a point in a circuit. It is placed in series with the electrical
component through which the current is to be measured.

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Electric charge
There are two types of charge: positive and negative.

Atoms contain positively charged protons and negatively charged electrons.

The nucleus is tiny and dense and located in the centre of the atom. It contains protons and neutral
neutrons. The nucleus is therefore positively charged. Electrons circle the nucleus.

A neutral atom contains equal numbers of protons and electrons.

Charging objects
Electrons are less tightly bound to the atom than protons. It is therefore possible to remove
electrons from one object and transfer them to another. In doing so, both objects become charged.

Positively charged materials lack electrons.

Negatively charged materials contain excess electrons.

Note: If the object is not charged, it is said to be neutral. This means that it has an equal amount of
positive and negative charge.

It is also possible to charge an object when the charge becomes redistributed on that object.

Possible activities

1. Charging by rubbing or friction

An ebonite rod is made of hardened rubber. Figure 2.1.1 shows an ebonite rod being charged
negatively by rubbing it with fur. Friction enables electrons to be rubbed off the fur. The ebonite rod
readily accepts the electrons

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

This occurs because different materials hold on to their electrons more tightly than others. In this
case, the ebonite rod holds onto its electrons more tightly than the fur. The characteristic of holding
on to its electrons is sometimes referred to as a material's electronegativity.

Once rubbed, the ebonite rod has excess negative charge and is therefore negatively charged. The
fur will have excess positive charge. The amount of positive charge on the fur is equal to the amount
of negative charge on the rod. This is an example of the law of conservation of charge.

In a similar way, a glass rod can be charged positively by rubbing it with silk. The same explanation
applies except that the electrons are transferred from the glass rod to the silk. The glass rod lacks
negative charge and is therefore positively charged.

Consider charging an ebonite rod negatively by rubbing it with fur and hanging it by a string from a
retort stand as shown in the figure 2.1.2. If another negatively charged ebonite rod is brought near
the hanging rod without touching it, the two rods repel one another. We say like charges repel. If a
glass rod is charged positively by rubbing it with silk and brought near the hanging rod, the two rods
attract. We say unlike or opposite charges attract. This is illustrated in figure 2.1.3.

An everyday example of charging by friction is dragging your feet across carpet. When you touch
another person, or a metallic object, a spark is produced. Charging by friction also occurs when
liquids or gases pass through tubes (e.g. a gas is sprayed from a pressurised can). o Helpful online
resources If you are not prepared to get zapped by dragging your feet across the carpet, then try the
PHET interactive tool:

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phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/john-travoltagellatest/john-travoltage_en.html [!]. ~

2. The electroscope
The electroscope is a device that detects the presence of charge. There is more than one style of
electroscope, as shown in Figure 2.1 .4 but they all work in the same way.

Figure 2.1.5 illustrates the method for charging an electroscope positively.

1. Start by touching the ball (sometimes called the cap) of the electroscope with your finger. This will
earth the electroscope. This is because charge can flow through you to or from the Earth to
neutralise any charge on the ball. The needle (or gold leaf, depending on the model) will lie un-
deflected.

2. Charge a glass rod positively by rubbing it with silk. As the glass rod approaches the ball, electrons
in the stem and needle (or the two gold leaves) are attracted towards the cap. The stem and the
needle both become positively charged as they lack negative charge. Since there has been a
separation of charge, we also say that a charge is induced (this explored further in the next activity).

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3. The stem and needle will repel one another. The greater the charge on the rod, the more
electrons are attracted to the ball. This means that the stem and needle will have a greater positive
charge and repel each other more strongly. The needle experiences a greater deflection.

4. Now touch the ball with the rod. The electroscope becomes positively charged by contact because
electrons are transferred from the ball to the rod.

5. Touch the cap with your finger. This will earth it again. In this case, electrons flow from the cap
and through you to Earth.

6. Repeat this activity with a negatively charged ebonite rod.

3. Charging by contact or conduction

If a negatively charged ebonite rod touches a neutral metal sphere (usually mounted on an insulated
stand), as shown in figure 2.1.6 the sphere becomes negatively charged by contact, as electrons
from the ebonite rod move onto the sphere.

If a positively charged glass rod touches the neutral metal sphere, it becomes positively charged by
contact, as electrons from the sphere move onto the rod.

You can check this using an electroscope. For example, if you want to check that the metal sphere is
positively charged, charge an electroscope positively by further touching it with a positively charged
glass rod. When the positive sphere approaches the ball, the needle will deflect.

Charging the electroscope negatively is not a good idea. You cannot confirm positive charge. If the
deflection of the needle is reduced it could indicate that the sphere is positively charged or that it is
neutral.

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4. The Van de Graaff generator

The Van de Graaff generator shown in figure 2.1.7 is electrostatic generator that is capable of
producing a large voltage by accumulating a large amount of electrical charge on a hollow metal
dome. It was invented by American physicist Robert J. Van de Graaff in 1929 and most schools have
a small version in their physics laboratories.

A motor drives a neutral rubber belt around the inside of the generator.

The belt scrapes past a knife edge or a sharply pointed metal comb at the top wheel (8). Electrons
are removed from the belt (due to friction) and transferred to the dome. The belt is now positively
charged and returns to the bottom wheel where another knife edge earths the belt so that it is
neutral. This process repeats many times and the dome accumulates a large amount of negative
charge.

Make your hair stand on end!

If you place your hand on the dome before starting the Van de Graaff and stand in a plastic tray,
negative charges are transferred to your body once the generator is switched on. Each strand of
your hair and your scalp become negatively charged by contact. They are repelled from one another
and your scalp, causing your hair to stand on end.

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5. Charging by induction
If a charged rod is placed near a neutral conductor, the charges in the conductor separate and
redistribute themselves. A charge is said to be induced.

Figure 2.1.8 shows that negative charges are attracted towards the positively charged rod. This
induces a negative charge on the side of the conductor closest to the rod and a positive charge on
the other side.

The conductor is attracted towards the rod because the force of attraction is greater than the force
of repulsion (electric forces decrease with distance - this is covered later in the topic).

Note: The object is still neutral. If the rod is removed, the charges on the conductor will return to
their original positions. .

If two neutral conducting spheres are placed in contact, they behave as one conductor. If you touch
them with your hand, they will be earthed. Two such conductors are shown in figure 2.1.9 .

If a negatively charged rod is introduced without touching the spheres, a charge will be induced on
the spheres. The sphere closest to the rod is charged positively by induction because electrons are
repelled to the other sphere. The other sphere acquires an induced negative charge. If the spheres
are separated without removing the rod they will have an equal and opposite charge. This is
illustrated in figure 2.1.10.

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

The charge on each sphere can be checked with an electroscope

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

6. Charging by induction for non-conductors

Charging by induction also applies to materials that are not metals. Instead of the charges moving,
rearrangement of the charges within the molecules occurs. One side of the object becomes slightly
more negatively charged than the other. The molecules are said to be electrically polarised to form a
dipole.

Figure 2.1.11 shows a positively charged rod near a non conducting material. Negative charges
within the molecules of the material are attracted to the side closest to the rod. The material is
attracted towards the rod because the force of attraction is greater than the force of repulsion
(electric forces decrease with distance).

This is why paper is attracted towards charged rods, combs or balloons as shown in figure 2.1.12.
Once the paper comes into contact with the rod it acquires the same charge as the rod and is
repelled from the rod.

The law of conservation of charge

The law of conservation of charge states that the total charge in a closed system remains constant.
That is, charge cannot be created or destroyed; it can only be transferred from one material to
another.

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Conductors and insulators

A material is a conductor if it allows charge to flow freely or redistribute itself evenly over the whole
surface.

Metals are good conductors because their structure consists of positive ions surrounded by a 'sea' of
free or delocalised electrons.

Solutions that conduct charge (called electrolytes) contain positive and negative ions that are free to
move.

A material is an insulator if it does not allow charge to flow freely. Any charge that is introduced to
the surface of a solid insulator is confined to a localised area. This is because electrons are held
tightly and are not free to move throughout the material. Electrons can accumulate on the surface
but cannot redistribute themselves.

Earthing a charged object

When a charged metal object is touched by your finger, the charges easily flow through your body to
or from the Earth. The Earth can store a large amount of charge. If the conductor is negatively
charged, excess electrons flow to Earth. If the conductor is positively charged, electrons flow from
the Earth toward the conductor and neutralise it. The concept of earthing a conductor was referred
to in some of the activities described earlier in this chapter.

Science as a human endeavour

At the end of 1749, Benjamin Franklin had noted many similarities between lightning and electricity.
He decided to study charges using lightning. In 1752 Franklin flew a kite in a thunderstorm with the
help of his son William.

The kite was attached to a wet silk string. An iron house-key was attached to the other end of the
string. A thin metal wire was attached to the key and inserted into a Leyden jar (an early form of a
capacitor designed to store charge).

Franklin attached a dry silk string to the key and flew the kite in an approaching thunderstorm.
Franklin observed that some loose threads of the silk string were repelling one another. After the
storm, he touched the key and received an electric shock. The negative charges stored in the cloud
moved onto the kite, down the wet silk string to the key, and then into the Leyden jar where the
charge was stored. Franklin I s experiment therefore showed that lightning was static electricity.

Franklin knew that if lightning actually struck his kite he was likely to be electrocuted and die. Several
other people repeated Franklin's experiment and were killed.

Questions
1 . Why did Franklin receive a shock when he touched the iron key?

2. Why was the silk string that Franklin held dry and the string that connected the kite to the key
wet?

3. It is reported that Franklin sheltered himself from the thunderstorm in a barn. Why would this
help keep him safe?

Answers

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

1. The iron key was a good conductor and became charged. The negative charge was attracted to the
positive charge in his body and 'jumped' across to give him an electric shock.

2. Water conducts charge well. The dry string acted as a good insulator and prevented the negative
charge reaching Franklin. The wet part of the silk string conducted charge well so that it flowed from
the kite, down the string, onto the key and into the Leyden jar.

3. The barn helped keep Franklin and the silk string he was holding dry. Getting wet would increase
his chances of being electrocuted because water conducts charge well.

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Electric force
Earlier we saw that like charges repel and that unlike or opposite charges attract.

Electric forces are non-contact forces. A positively charged object will exert a repulsive force upon a
second positively charged object; this force will push the two objects apart. The force acting on two
positive charges shown in Figure 2.1.13. The same concept apples for two negatively charged
objects.

However, a positively charged object will exert an attractive force upon a negatively charged object;
this force will draw the two objects together. The force acting on two opposite charges is shown in
figure 2.1.14.

Coulomb's Law
The electrostatic force of attraction or repulsion between two point charges is directly proportional
to the product of the two charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between
their centres.

The magnitude of the force between two charges is given by:

where q1 and q2 are the charges in Coulombs

r is the distance between the charges in metres

1
--= 9.00 x 109 Nm2C-2
4 π ε0

F is the force in Newtons

The force acts along the line joining the centre of the charges.

Proportionality

• F  q1 for q2 and r constant

• F  q1 q2 for r constant
1
• Fα for q1q2 for r constant
r2
Note: An attractive force becomes a repulsive force and vice versa if the sign of one of the charges is
reversed.

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Principle of superposition
The force acting on a point charge when more than two point charges are present is a vector sum of
the forces due to each of the other point charges present.

Worked examples

1. (a) Calculate the magnitude and direction of the force acting between a +4.0 µC charge and
a -2.0 µC charge placed 50.0 cm apart in a vacuum.

(b) Use proportionality to determine the new force if the charges are placed 1.00 m apart.

(c) Use proportionality to determine the new force if one charge is tripled.

(d) Calculate the force F acting on a -1.0 ~C charge placed midway between the original two
charges.

2. Two identical charges experience a repulsive force of 5.75 x 10 -27 N when placed 20.0 cm
apart in air. Calculate the magnitude of the charges. Identify the charges.

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Electrical discharges
An electric discharge is a flow of electric charge through a solid, liquid or gas.

Electric discharges have many applications, including vapour lamps, spark plugs, Geiger-Muller
tubes, corona discharges in photocopiers, electric arc furnaces and piezo igniters.

Vapour lamps
Vapour lamps (or electric discharge lamps) work by passing an electrical discharge through the
atoms of an ionised gas. An ionised gas is one in which electrons have been removed from the atom.
Free electrons are then accelerated through the lamp (usually consisting of a tube). The electrons
collide with the ionised gas particles and cause electrons held in energy levels (this will be discussed
later) to become excited (i.e. jump up to higher energy levels). When the excited electrons return to
a lower energy level they emit energy. The energy emitted is in the form of light. The colour of the
light emitted depends on the gas inside the tube. Vapour lamps often contain a mixture of gases.

Fluorescent lamps are a common example of a vapour lamp. They emit ultraviolet light. This is then
converted to visible light when it strikes the fluorescent coating on the inside of the lamp's tube.

Extra understanding A spark plug is essential to a petrol engine. The spark produced causes a
fuel and air mixture to ignite. This in turn causes pistons to move.

Piezo igniters produce a spark and are used to ignite a gas. They are commonly found in barbecue
lighters. They work on the principle that some materials, such as quartz create an electrical
discharge or spark when struck. Such materials are referred to as piezoelectric. When the button
mechanism is pressed on a barbecue lighter, a spring-loaded hammer hits a quartz crystal to
produce a spark.

Further investigate the application of electrical discharges in spark plugs and/or piezo igniters.

Helpful online resources View this video to see how a spark plug works:

blog.micksgarage.com/how-spark-plugs-work

View this video to see how a piezo barbecue igniter works:

www.youtube.com/watch?v=oegbv-1cKCA

Science as a human endeavour

Research innovative applications and limitations of semi-conductors (e.g. photovoltaic cells in solar
panels, LEOs) or superconductors (e.g. maglev trains, MRls).

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Potential difference
Energy is needed to separate positive and negative charges. This separation of charge produces an
electrical potential difference that can be used to drive current in circuits.

Consider electric charges in a circuit. The charges are static (still). The charges only move if a battery
is present or a power source is turned on. We say that the battery has a voltage (potential
difference) and supplies the charges with energy so that the charges can move.

The energy available to charges moving in an electrical circuit is measured using electric potential
difference or Voltage.

The electric potential difference ( V) is defined as the change in electrical potential energy or work
done per unit charge (q) between two defined points in a circuit.

Ep
∆V = or ∆ V = Wq
q
where ΔV is the potential difference in volts (V)

q is the charge in Coulombs (C)

Ep is the electrical potential energy in Joules (J) units JC-1 or Volts (V)

Worked examples 1. A proton of charge + 1.60 x 10 -19 C gains 8.5 x 10-18 J of electrical potential
energy.

Calculate the potential difference through which the proton is moved. V = Ep = 8.5 x10-18 = 53 V

2. The potential at a point A is 2.00 V and the potential at a point B is 10.0 V.

(a) State the potential difference between the points.

8.00V

(b) State the change in potential energy experienced by an electron moving from A to B. The charge
of an electron is -1.60 x 10-19 C . Will the electron lose or gain electrical potential energy? Justify your
answer.

Change in potential energy = Ep = qΔV = 1.60 x 10-19 X 8 = 1.28 x 10-18 J

The electron loses electrical potential energy (and gains kinetic energy) because it is moving
towards a point of higher potential.

Application of potential difference

X-rays

X-ray tubes like the one shown in figure 2.1.15 are used to produce medical images. Electrons
released from a heated filament are passed through a large potential difference of 100 000 V or
more.

The electrons accelerate across the X-ray tube towards a positive anode and strike a target metal. At
this point, the electrons lose kinetic energy and this energy is released as X-rays.

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Science as a human endeavour

Explore the application of potential difference in particle accelerators. How are they useful for
producing radioisotopes that can be used in medical imaging?

What are the social and economic impacts (for example, access and affordability) of such treatment
in different parts of the world?

Current
Electric current is defined as the charge flowing past a point in a conductor per second or the rate of
q
flow of charge. I =
t
where I is the current in Amperes q is charge in Coulombs (C) and t is the time over which the charge
is flowing. SI units: Ampere (A) 1 A = 1 Cs -1

Charge-carriers in a metal
Electric current is carried by discrete charge-carriers. Electrons are the charge-carriers in metals.

The sign of an electron is negative and the charge is e = 1.60 x 10 -19 C.

Electron current and conventional current

Conventional current refers to the direction that positive charges flow through a circuit. When
analysing electric circuits (and in other topics such as magnetism) we use conventional current.
While we now know that current involves the movement of electrons through a conductor,
conventional current is a convention that has remained. Electron current refers to the direction that
electrons flow through a circuit.

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Worked examples
(a) 3.50 x 102 C of charge passes through the element of a kettle in 1.5 minutes. Calculate the

(b) Calculate the number of electrons that flow through the element in this time.

Extra understanding Observe how the conductivity of metals, molten and aqueous ionic compounds,
and ionised gases provide evidence for a variety of charge carriers

Measuring potential difference

Voltmeters are used to measure the potential difference between two points in a circuit.

A voltmeter is connected in parallel with the component across which the potential difference is to
be measured.

Measuring current
An ammeter is used to measure the electrical current at a point in a circuit. Ammeters are connected
in series with the electrical component through which the current is to be measured.

Figure 2.1.17 illustrates how to correctly connect an ammeter and voltmeter in a circuit.

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2.2 Resistance
Science understanding

1. Resistance for ohmic and non-ohmic components is defined as the ratio of potential difference
across the component to the current in the component.

2. The resistance of a conductor depends on its length, area of cross-section, temperature, and the
type of material of which it is composed.

3. Resistance is constant for ohmic resistors, which conform to Ohm's Law.

4. Ohm's Law states that current is directly proportional to the potential difference, providing the
V
temperature of the conductor remains constant. • Solve problems involving R=
I
Charge-carriers (electrons) flowing through a conductor collide with each other and the positive ions
in the metal. The electrons transfer kinetic energy to the vibrating positive ions. The positive ions
vibrate faster and the conductor heats up. This gives rise to the concept of resistance.

Resistance is an indication of how hard it is for charge to flow through a conductor. The higher the
resistance, the harder it is for the charge to flow.

Conductors of charge have a low resistance. Insulators have a large resistance.

The electrical resistance of a component is defined as the ratio of the potential difference applied
across the component to the current flowing in the component.

V
R= where R is the resistance of the component in Ohms ( ) V is the potential difference across
I
the component in volts (V)

I is the current flowing in the component in Amperes (A)

SI units: Ohm () 1  = 1 V A-1

Wires with high resistances are used to make the heating elements of toasters, incandescent globes
and heaters. Electrons struggle to pass through the material, undergo many collisions and lose their
kinetic energy as heat.

Resistance increases as the temperature of the material increases. The charges in the material start
to vibrate and move faster, causing more collisions and further retarding the movement of charge.

Ohm's Law
Ohm's Law states that the current is directly proportional to potential difference providing the
temperature of the conductor remains constant. I  V

V
As an equation, Ohm's Law can be expressed as R=
I
Worked examples

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

1 a. A current of 0.235 A flows through a circuit when a potential difference of 12.0 V is applied.
Calculate the resistance of the circuit.

(b) A coil of wire has a resistance of 22 . Calculate the current that flows when a potential
difference of 6.0 V is applied.

(c) Determine the number of electrons passing a point in the conductor in half a minute.

Repres
enting Ohm's law graphically
V V
Since R= then V = IR or I =
I R
When these equations are compared to y = mx, it can be seen that the gradient of a V vs I graph
1
gives the value for resistance (R), and the gradient of an I vs V graph gives.
R
Figure 2.2.1 shows that the gradient is greater for a greater resistance. Figure 2.2.2 shows that the
gradient is smaller for a greater resistance.

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Science inquiry activity _

Verifying Ohm's law

Set up the circuit shown in figure 2.2.3.

The arrow through the energy supply means that the potential difference can be varied. The
rectangular box represents a resistor

Vary the potential difference using a power pack and record the potential difference and
corresponding current. You can use the table shown in figure 2.2.4 to record your data. Think about
the amount of data that should be collected so that a suitable graph of current against potential
difference can be plotted i.e. independent variable on the horizontal axis and the dependent variable
on the vertical axis.

Potential difference (V) Current (A)

Figure 2.2.4

Results

A straight line of best fit through the origin should result. This would verify Ohm's Law i.e. current is
V V
directly proportional to the potential difference. R= . So I = Comparing this to y = mx indicates
I R
that the gradient represents -1/R The resistance of the resistor connected in the circuit is given by
1/gradient

Accuracy is a measure of how close an experimental value is to a known value.

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Precision is indicated by the amount of scatter in a set of results. (Closeness of results)

Questions
Use the gradient of the graph to determine the resistance of the resistor in the circuit.

How accurate is your experimental value of the resistance?

What changes could you make to the procedure to improve the precision of the results?

Ohmic and non-ohmic conductors

Conductors that obey Ohm's Law (I  V) are said to be ohmic conductors.

Many conductors are ohmic over a reasonable range of current and potential difference but, due to
the heat created with larger currents, Ohm's Law is not followed for all values of current and
potential difference. This means that a conductor is an ohmic conductor if the temperature remains
constant.

Resistance is constant for ohmic resistors which conform to Ohm's Law.

When a conductor or device does not obey Ohm's Law it is said to be non-ohmic. A filament globe or
lamp heats up when it is turned on and the temperature increases with time. A typical graph of
current against potential difference is shown in figure 2.2.5.

Helpful online resources

Resistance in a wire: phet.colorado.edu/en/simulation/resistance-in-a-wire

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Resistivity and resistance

Charges flow through a conductor when a potential difference is applied. The resistance of a
conductor depends on several factors.

1 . Length (L)

Resistance is directly proportional to the length of a conductor (R  l). This means that the resistance
increases by the same factor as the length increases.

If the length doubles so does the resistance. This is because the electrons suffer twice as many
collisions.

2. Area of cross-section (A) Resistance is inversely proportional to the area of cross-section of a

1
conductor ( R= ). This means that the resistance decreases by the same factor as the area of
A
cross-section increases.

If the area of cross-section of a conductor doubles then the resistance will halve. This is because the
electrons suffer half as many collisions with in the conductor.

3. Type of material

Resistivity (p) of a material is the resistance of aim length of the wire with an area of cross-section of
1 m2.

Resistance is directly proportional to the resistivity of a conductor (R  ). This means that the
resistance increases by the same factor as any increase in resistivity.

If the resistivity doubles so does the resistance.

4. Temperature

As discussed earlier in the chapter, the resistance increases with temperature. Electrons gain kinetic
energy and move faster. As a result they suffer more collisions in the conductor.

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Resistivity (p) of a material is the resistance of aim length of the wire with an area of cross-section of
1 m2.

Worked examples
1. Copper has a resistivity of 1.7 x 10 -8 .m. Calculate the resistance of a 2.00 m length of copper
wire that has a diameter of 2.00 mm.

ρl
R= where A=π r 2
A

2. Given that a 50.0 cm length of wire with a radius of 3.0 mm has a resistance of 4.00, calculate the
resistivity of the material making up the wire.

If the resistance of a wire is R. State the new resistance, in terms of R, if the area of cross-section
decreases by a factor or 4.

a. R  1/A The resistance will be 4 times larger if the area of cross-section decreases by
a factor or 4.

New resistance is 4R.

Science inquiry activity

Design a practical to investigate one factor that affects the resistance of a conductor.

Electrical safety devices - circuit breakers and fuses

Fuses consist of a metal wire or filament enclosed in a glass or ceramic and metal casing. A fuse can
protect the appliances in your home. All the wiring of the home passes through a central fuse box. If
there is a power surge or an overload, too much current flows and the filament in the fuse quickly
melts. This will stop the flow of electricity to the appliances in a section of the home and save the
appliances from damage. The fuse will need to be replaced. Figure 2.2.6 shows a fuse. The filament
is clearly visible. Figure 2.27 shows a, fuse in a circuit board.

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Circuit breakers consist of a bimetallic strip or a solenoid. A bimetallic strip consists of two different
metal strips bonded together. The strips expand at different rates when heated. A solenoid consists
of a coil of wire which becomes magnetic when a current flows. Figure 2.2.8 shows a typical circuit
breaker.

If there is a power surge and too much current flows, the bi-metallic strip heats up and bends or, in
the case of an electromagnet, becomes strong enough to attract the metal lever at the contact. In
either case the circuit is broken and the current stops flowing. The inside of a circuit breaker is
shown in figure 2.2.8.

Once the problem is addressed, the switch is turned back on and the current can flow to the
appliance as normal. Both fuses and circuit breakers prevent the circuit from overheating. This will
prevent the dangers associated with fire.

pg. 25
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

2.3 Circuit analysis

Science understanding

1. Circuit analysis and design involve calculation of the potential difference across, the current in,
and the power supplied to, components in series, parallel and composite circuits.

2. The current is equal in each series component.

• Solve problems involving Vtot = V1 + V2 + …Vn and Rt = R1 + R2 + .. Rn for components in series.

3. The potential difference is equal across each parallel component.

1 1 1 1
4. • Solve problems involving Itot = I1 +I2 + …In and - = +¿ +... - 4.
Rt R1 R2 Rn
5. Undertake experiments to investigate current, resistance or potential difference in series
and parallel circuits using various circuit elements.

Electrical circuit symbols

To make drawing circuit diagrams easier and consistent, symbols are allocated to represent different
components in a circuit. Figure 2.3.1 is a summary of the common symbols that may be useful to this
course.

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Resistors in series and parallel

Resistors are connected end to end as shown in Resistors are connected across one another as
figure 2.3.2 shown in figure 2.3.3.
The current is equal in each series component The potential difference is equal across each
parallel component

The ideas presented above can be extended to any number of components.

pg. 27
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Worked examples
10
 Rt = =3.3 Ω
3
1 . Series circuit

(b) Calculate the current flowing through the

circuit.

V 6
I= = =1.3 A
R 3.3

(c) State the potential difference across the

10 resistor.
(a) State the effective resistance in the circuit.
Rt= 5 + 10 = 15  6.0 V

(b) Calculate the current flowing through the (d) Calculate the current flowing through the
circuit. 10  resistor.

V 3.0 V 6.0
I= = =0.20 A I= = =6.0 A
R 15 R 10
(c) Calculate the potential difference across (e) Calculate the current flowing through the
each resistor. 5.0  resistor

10  V = IR = 0.2 x 10 = 2.0 V V 6.0

I= = =1.2 A
R 5
5.0  V = IR = 0.2 x 5 = 1.0 V

(NB: 2.0 V + 1.0 V = 3.0 V)

3. A composite circuit
2. Parallel circuit
A composite circuit is a combination of series
and parallel circuits.

(a) Calculate the resistance of the circuit.

1 1 1
= + (a) Calculate the resistance of the circuit.
Rt R 1 R 2
Parallel branch
1 1 1 2+1 3
= + = =
Rt 5.0 10 10 10 1 1 1 1 1 3+2 5
= + = + = =
Rt R 1 R 2 10 15 30 30

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Rt = 6.0  The potential difference across the

15.0  resistor is 2.57 V.
Total Resistance = 6.0 + 8.0 = 14.0 
V 2.57
(b) Calculate the current flowing through the I= = =0.171 A
R 15
circuit.

V 6
I= = =0.429 A
R 14
(c) Determine the reading on the voltmeter. Helpful online resources

The potential difference across the 8.00  Computer interactive: Build some circuits
resistor is given by using the following interactive link.

V = IR = 0.429 x 8 = 3.43 V www.physicsclassroom.com/Physics-

lnteractives/Electric-Circuits
since V total = Vparallel + V8

then the voltmeter reads

6 - 3.43 = 2.57 V

(d) Determine the reading on the ammeter.

The potential difference is equal

across parallel components

pg. 29
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

2.4 Electrical Power

Science understanding
1. Power is the rate at which energy is transformed by a circuit component.
ΔE
• Solve problems involving P= and P = V x I and the use of Ohm's Law formula.
t
• Solve problems involving the cost of electrical energy, using kilowatt-hours.
2. Electrical circuits enable electrical energy to be transferred efficiently over large distances
and transformed into a range of other useful forms of energy including thermal and kinetic
energy, and light.
3. Solve problems Involving efficiency = useful energy output energy / input energy x 100

Power
All electrical devices have a power rating, e.g. a kettle with a power rating of 1200 W uses 1200 J of
electrical energy every second.

Power is the rate at which energy is transformed by a circuit component.

ΔE
P=
t
SI unit: Watt (W) 1 W = 1 JS -1

Other expressions for power P= w = qV = (/t)V =IV t t t

The cost of running electrical appliances

If electrical energy is charged by the kilowatt-hour then the cost of running an appliance is the
product of energy used in kilowatts and the price of the electrical energy per kilowatt-hour.

Energy in kilowatts = Power in kilowatts x t

Cost = Energy in kilowatts x cost per kilowatt hour

Or

Cost = Power in kilowatts x number hours x cost per kilowatt

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Efficiency
Electric circuits enable electrical energy to be transferred efficiently over large distances and
transformed into a range of other useful forms of energy including thermal, kinetic and light.

Efficiency is expressed as a percentage and can be calculated using the equation:

Useful energy output Useful power output

Efficiency = x 100= x 100
Total energy Input Total power Input

Worked examples 2. An electric fan is rated 2400 W, 240V.

1. An electric motor operates on 240 V and
(a) Calculate the current drawn by the fan
draws a current of 2.0 A.
while it is switched on.
(a) Calculate the power input to the motor.
P 2400
P=VI  I = = =10 A
P = VI = 240 x 2 = 480 W V 240
(b) If the motor delivers a maximum power of (b) Calculate the electrical energy used by the
300 W. Calculate the efficiency of the motor. fan in 3.0 hours.

power output 300 ΔE

efficiency = x 100= x 100 % P= Δ E=Pt=(2400)(3 x 60 x 60)=2.5 x 107 J
power input 480 t
(c) Electricity costs 15c per kilowatt hour
(kWh).

Determine the cost of running the fan for 3.0

hours.

Cost = P(kilowatts) x number hours x cost per

kilowatt = 2.4 x 3 x 15 = 1 08 cents = $1. 10

(d) Calculate the efficiency of the fan if 3.8 x

106 J of energy are lost to heat and sound
while the fan is operating over the 3.0 h
period.

Useful energy = 2.6 x 107 - 3.8 x 106

= 2.22 x 107 J

efficiency = useful energy / total energy

= (2.22 x 107)/ 2.6 x 107) = 0.85

i.e. an efficiency of 85%

pg. 31
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Science inquiry activity

Select an electrical appliance in your home, e.g. a heater.

Find out the power rating of the appliance and the average cost of electricity from your last
household bill.

Can you work out the average operating cost of the appliance for one day? One week? One year?

Science as a human endeavour - example

High voltage transmission lines

Power loss in transmission lines occurs due to the resistance of the conductors. It is lost or dissipated
as heat.

Let P represent the power to be transmitted, V the voltage with which the power is transmitted and
R the resistance of the transmission line, then the current I flowing through the transmission line is

P
I=
V

The power loss Ploss = I R. Since P and R are constant, then less power will be lost if high-voltage
2

lines are used. In other words, a small current is used to deliver the electrical energy over large
distances.

Extra understanding Research local and large-scale electricity generation and compare them in terms
of their efficiency, convenience and effect on the local and global environment

pg. 32
 Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Exercises
2.1 Potential Difference and Electric Current
Electric Charge.
1. Complete the following table

Sign of one charge Sign of second charge Description of force between

the charges
positive positive
positive attraction
negative repulsion

2. The electronegativity of wool is less than the electronegativity of brass but greater than that of glass.
State, with reasons, the sign of the charge acquired by brass and glass if they are individually rubbed
with wool.

3. Explain why a car will immediately attract dust after it has been polished.

4. A student wishes to use a Van de Graff generator to make her hair stand on end. Explain why the
student needs to stand in a plastic tray in order to be successful.

5. Rubbing a balloon on your hair charges it negatively.

Describe how an electroscope can be used to confirm the balloon is negatively charged.

6. A positively charged glass rod is brought close to a thin stream of water. Describe and explain what
you would observe.

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 Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

7. (a) Describe the difference between a conductor of charge and an insulator of charge.

(b) Explain why a copper rod can never be charged by friction while being held in the palm of your
hand.

pg. 34
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

8. This question requires a longer response.

In answering the question that follows you should:

• communicate your knowledge clearly and concisely

• use physics terms correctly
• present information in an organised and logical sequence
• include information that is relevant to the question.

Figure 1 shows a Van de Graaff generator with

several neutral metal pie plates resting on the
dome. Figure 2 shows the metal pie plates
lifting off the dome a short time after the Van
de Graaff generator is switched on. The top
plate lifts off first, followed by the others
beneath it.

Explain why the neutral metal plates lift off the dome in the manner described.

Electric force
1. Calculate the force F acting between a -6.5 x 10 -3 C charged sphere and a +7.5 x 10 -3 C
charged sphere placed 35 cm apart in a vacuum.

pg. 35
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

2. The diagram below represents two positive charges separated by a distance of 1.50 m in a
vacuum

1. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric force acting between the two charges.

(b) Draw vector arrows to represent the force acting on each of the charges.

(c) Use proportionality to determine the effect on the magnitude of the force acting between the
two charges when

(i) the +25.0 nC charge is replaced with a -75.0 nC charge.

(ii) the distance between the charges is halved.

(iii) the +25.0 nC charge is replaced with a -75.0 nC charge and the distance between the
charges is halved.

3. The magnitude of the electric force between a +5.0 µC charge and a +3.0 µC charge is 0.50
N. Show that the distance between the two charges is 0.52m.

pg. 36
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

4. Calculate the magnitude and direction of the electric force acting on charge Qc in the
situation below. Assume the charges are in a vacuum.

pg. 37
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

5. (a) The magnitude of the electric force between two charges placed 2.0 m apart in a vacuum
is 4.0 x 104 N. One of the charges is known to be 5.0 mC. Calculate the magnitude of the
other charge present.

2. The distance between the charges is changed such that the magnitude of the force increases to
6.4 x 105 N. Determine the new distance between the charges.

6. Calculate the electric force F acting on the -0.60 C charge in the situation illustrated below.
Assume the charges are in a vacuum.

4. (a) Explain what is meant by the term 'ohmic conductor'.

pg. 38
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

3. Explain why a conductor can't be ohmic if its temperature increases.

5. The filament of a heater has a resistance of 50 . Calculate the current flowing when 240 V
is applied to the filament.

pg. 39
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

6. A student collects data for Ohm's law and plots a graph of current against potential difference.

(a) Describe the graph that the student would expect if Ohm's law is confirmed.

(b) State the quantity represented by the gradient.

(c) State the units of the gradient.

(d) Describe how the resistance of the resistor used in the circuit can be calculated.

7. The graph shown below represents the data collected by student investigating the
relationship between the current through a component in a circuit and the potential
difference applied across the component.

pg. 40
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

(a) State the relationship between current and potential difference.

(b) Calculate the gradient of the line.

(c) Calculate the resistance of the circuit used to collect the data.

8. The graph shown below is a sketch that represents how the potential difference varies with
current across a typical filament globe.

pg. 41
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

(a) Describe how the resistance of the filament is determined from such a graph for a particular
value of current.

Explain whether the graph indicates ohmic or non-ohmic behaviour by the filament.

Resistance and resistivity

1 A particular wire has a resistivity of 1.8 x 10 --8 m, an area of cross-section of 4.5 x 10 --6 m2
and a length of 25 cm.

Calculate the resistance of this wire.

2. (a) Define the term 'resistivity of a conductor'.

(b) A conductor of length 1.5 m and area of cross-section of 2.0 x 10 -6 m2 has a resistance of 1.3 x
10-9  Calculate the resistivity of the conductor.

pg. 42
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

4. (a) Given the resistivity of copper is 1.70 x 10 --6 m, calculate the resistance of a 1.00 m length of
copper wire that has a radius of 1.50 x 10 -3 m.

5.

(b) Calculate the length of copper wire required to make a resistance of 1.00 

4. A student wishes to confirm the relationship between the resistance of a wire and its area of
cross-section.

Describe the graph that would need to be plotted and the graph that should result.

pg. 43
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

6. A 3.00 m length of wire has a resistance of 7.25 .

(a) State with reason the new resistance of a 9.00 m length of the same wire.

(b) State with reason the new resistance of the wire if its radius is doubled.

6. Two students conduct an experiment to investigate the relationship between the resistance (R)
and length m of a conductor. They measure the resistance of various lengths of nichrome wire. The
area of cross-section of the wire is 1.0 x 10 -5 m2.

The table below summarises the results of the experiment.

Length (m) x 10-2 Resistance ()

10 0.010
15 0.014
20 0.020
25 0.026
30 0.030

(a) State the dependent variable in this experiment.

(b) On the next page, plot a graph of resistance against length and draw a line of best fit for the
plotted data.

pg. 44
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

(c) Using the graph to

(i) Calculate the gradient of the line.

pg. 45
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

(ii) Write an equation for the line of best fit.

(iii) Calculate the resistivity of nichrome.

(c) Suggest one improvement that the students could make to the experimental procedure.

7. Describe how electrical safety is increased through the use of fuses and circuit breakers in a
circuit.

pg. 46
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

Circuit analysis
1 . The diagrams below show resistors in various arrangements. Calculate the total resistance of each
arrangement.

(a)

(b)

6. (a) Use the space below to sketch a 40  resistor connected in parallel with a 10  resistor.

(c) This combination of resistors is now connected to a potential difference of 8.0 V. State the
potential difference across the 10  resistor.

(d) Show that the resistance for this combination of resistors is 8.0 .

pg. 47
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

(e) Calculate the current flowing through the circuit and each of the resistors.

(f) State the potential difference across the 40  resistor.

(g) The 40  resistor is removed from the circuit. Calculate the current flowing through the
10  resistor.

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

7. Consider the circuit shown below.

a. Calculate the total resistance of the circuit.

b. Calculate the current flowing through the circuit.

c. Determine the reading on the voltmeter.

d. Determine the reading on the ammeter.

7. Consider the circuit shown below.

pg. 49
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

(a) Show that the effective resistance of the circuit is 9.2 .

(b) Calculate the current flowing through the circuit.

(c) Calculate the potential difference across the 5.0  resistor that is connected in series with the 2.0
 resistor.

(c) Determine the potential difference across the 4.0  resistor.

(d) Calculate the current flowing through the 4.0  resistor.

pg. 50
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

8. The diagram below shows two identical light globes in a circuit. The ammeter shows a
reading of 0.50 A.

Determine the resistance of each light bulb.

pg. 51
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

2.4 Electrical Power

1. Calculate the power rating of a light globe that operates at 50.0 V and draws 1.2 A of current.

2. Calculate the power rating of an electrical component in kilowatts if it has a resistance of 150 
and operates at a potential difference of 550 V.

3. An electric toaster has a power rating of 2.40 x 10 3 W.

(a) Calculate the electrical energy transformed in 95.0 s when toasting a piece of bread.

(b) The efficiency of the toaster is 30%. Calculate the useful heat energy supplied in the 95.0 s.

4. A 2.2 kW fan heater is used for 5.0 hours. Calculate the cost of running the heater if electricity is
charged at 18 cents per kilowatt hour.

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Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

5. The heating element of a kettle has a resistance of 450  and draws a current of 2.0 A

(a) Show that the power rating of the kettle is 1800 W.

(b) The kettle takes 3.0 minutes to boil 2.0 litres of water. Calculate the energy delivered in 3.0
minutes.

(c) Electricity is charged at 20 cents per kilowatt hour. Calculate the cost of boiling 2.0 litres of
water using this kettle.

(d) Calculate the efficiency of the heating element given that 1.0 x 105 J of the energy delivered
by the heating element is absorbed by the outer plastic casing of the kettle.

6. A current of 35 mA flows through a coil of wire.

(a) Calculate the charge passing a point in the coil every 20 µS.

(c) Calculate the resistance of the coil if a potential difference of 6.0 V is applied across the coil.

(d) Calculate the power dissipated by the coil every 20 µs.

pg. 53
Yr 11 Physics Assignment - Electricity

(e) Calculate the number of electrons passing a point in the coil every 20 µs.

7. A circuit regulates the voltage from 10.0 V to 6.0 V. The current flowing through a component is
0.50 A.

(a) Calculate the input power.

(b) Calculate the output power.

(c) Calculate the efficiency of the circuit

pg. 54