Research Summary

Electroplasticity~The Effect of
Electricity on the Mechanical
Properties of Metals
H. Conrad, A.F. Sprecher, W.O. Cao and X.P. Lu

INTRODUCTION
Investigations of the effects of an electric The effects of electric fields and currents on atomic mobility in metals
current on dislocation mobility and me- (electromigration) are rather well known. However, less is known regarding the
chanical properties at low homologous tem- influence of such fields and currents on dislocation mobility, which has been termed
peratures (T < O.5Tm) reveal a polarity effect electroplasticity. This article reviews some of the pertinent aspects of the subject of
and yield an electron wind force in some electroplasticity, including recent work by the authors. A more detailed review of the
agreement with theory. An external direct- effects of an electric current is given in Reference 1.
current electric field has been reported to ELECTRIC CURRENT AT LOW HOMOLOGOUS TEMPERATURES
influence the creep rate of unalloyed metals
at high homologous temperatures. During Soviet Work
superplastic deformation of the 7475 Al al- Troitskii and Likhtman2 in 1963 were the first to propose that directed electrons
loy, such a field has been found to decrease could influence dislocation mobility. Upon irradiating zinc crystals with 1-3 MeV
the flow stress, reduce strain hardening, electrons while being deformed in uniaxial tension at low temperatures, they found
increase strain-rate hardening, reduce grain that when the electron beam was parallel to the slip plane, the flow stress was less than
boundary cavitation and reduce grain when it was perpendicular to the plane. Also, the elongation to fracture was increased.
growth. The effects of the field were polarity Based on these results, they concluded that the mobility of dislocations might also be
dependent and extended to the center of 1-2 enhanced by the directed (drift) electrons associated with the passage of an electric
mm thick specimens. No significant effect of current. To evaluate this, Troitskii and other Soviet workers3-33 extensively studied the
the field on the flow stress occurred at low effects of high density (1()3-107 AI cm2) electric current pulses (-100 Ils duration) on the
homologous temperatures. This suggests that flow stress and other mechanical properties of metals and alloys. High current
the field influences atomic mobility through densities (j) were employed to enhance the effect of the electrons, and short pulse times
vacancy generation and/or migration. The (t ) were used to keep Joule heating to a minimum.
occurrence of an uneven electron density at P An example of the effect of current pulses on the load-elongation behavior of an
the interfaces between phases and at grain approximately 1 mm diameter zinc crystal deformed in uniaxial tension at 78K is given
boundaries has been proposed as afactor, but in Figure 1. A sudden drop in load occurred at each application of a current pulse, the
this idea needs further consideration. magnitude of the load-drop increasing with increase in voltage (current density). A
significant load drop resulted only when the crystal was being plastically deformed
(Region A); none occurred in the initial elastic loading of the crystal, nor following
appreciable stress relaxation (Region B).
Figures 2 and 3, illustrating polarity effects, offer strong support that a major
influence of the current resulted from the interaction of drift electrons with disloca-
tions. In Figure 2a, single crystal spheres (-2 x 10-2 cm radius) of copper, gold and
tungsten were first compressed slightly between parallel plates, establishing a contact
radius of -5 x 10-4 cm. They were then subjected to a single current pulse of 5 to 30A
(j -107 AI cm2) and 10 ms duration, which produced a difference in the contact areas
at the two electrodes. The influence of the magnitude of the current (I) on the difference
in contact area is presented in Figure 2b. For the n-type conductors gold and copper,
the contact area at the positive pole was larger than that at the negative pole, whereas
the reverse was the case for the p-type conductor tungsten.
A
P,g

Figure 1. Load VS. extension diagram for a

zinc crystal in uniaxial tension at 78K with a
strain rate of 1.1 x 10-4 S-1 showing load drops
resulting from the application of d.c. pulses
produced by discharging capacitors with the
voltages indicated (100V - 1.5 x 105 Alcm2). ~I
Regions A correspond to constant extension
rate, Regions B to stress relaxation (i.e., the
test machine was off). From Troitskii. 3

28 JOM • September 1990

 s.---------------------~
Figure 2. Electroplastic studies by Boiko et
4 Au
al.' 6.17 (a) Schematic of procedure employed.
E u
3
(b) Effect of electric current on the difference
in contact area at the two electrodes for gold,
~Q 2 copper and tungsten single-crystal spheres
compressed between two parallel plates.

-I

-2

-3~----------------------~
a b
10~---r--~r----r---'----,
figure) shows the effect of current polarity (j = 7.3 x 1()3 AI cm2, tp= 200 Jls)on 9 Zn 78 K
8
(1122\<1123> dislocation velocity (determined by etch pits)in zinccrystals as a function 7 111221<1123>
of applied mechanical stress. The current pulse produced an increase in dislocation 6 t p ' 200,...s
velocity for both the parallel and antiparallel directions; however, the increase is larger 5 j : 7.5-10 3 {y'
for the parallel direction, again indicating a vectorial effect of the current (Le., an
electron wind effect). The fact that an increase in velocity over that for j = 0 occurred E4
Vl

u
A/cm2

. /9 ••
I,

when the current was antiparallel to the dislocation velocity suggests a scalar effect of J ---....,., I
the current in addition to an electron wind. The scalar effect cannot be attributed to
macroscopic Joule heating, since the temperature rise resulting from the current pulse
~
-
>
(parallel) ~ /
,
'ej
I

2
was only of the order of 0.5K. t...
j (antiparaliel)
Work at North Carolina State University
Theoretical estimates of the electron wind force exerted by drift electrons on
I ~0----2LO----4LO~--6LO--~OO~--~'OO
dislocations are of two types: those based on consideration of the specific dislocation
resistivit y34- 37 and those based on kinetic or quantum mechanics considerations of the r( g/mm2)
interaction between conduction electrons and dislocations.38-40 For the former, the
Figure 3. Effect of a single current pulse (j =
electron wind force per unit length of dislocation is given by 0.75 X 10' Ncm2, t = 200!J.S) on the velocity
(1) of (1122}<1123> dislocations in zinc parallel
and anti parallel to the drift electron flow as a
while the latter gives function of the mechanically applied stress
('t). Data from Zuev et al. '8
(2)
where PoiND is the specific dislocation resistivity, e is the electron charge, ne is the
electron denSity, j is the current density, a is a constant ranging between 0.1 and 1.0
depending on the details of the Fermi surface and the calculations, b is the Burgers
vector, PF is the Fenni momentum and Vo is the dislocation velocity. Knowing the
electron wind force, one can obtain the electron wind push constant (Kew= Few /j) and
the electron wind push coefficient (Bew= [Link]/ve).l tp '" 1001" 17K 300K
4 1
Equation 1 yields Bew - 10-4 dyn·sl cm2, whereas Equation 2 gives Bew - 5 X 10-5 E i :~ 10- 5-
POl"l'C~Y ;;T.

Ti Nb AJ Cu
dyn·sl cm2 for the face-centered cubic (fcc) metals copper, silver and gold with ex = 0.25 10
(a common value39,40). Employing the free electron theory and isotropic continuum
elasticity, Brailsford41 obtains Bew of the order of 1O-5 dyn·sl cm2 for a free electron metal
similar to copper.
Monotonic StreSSing
A major objective of the work at North Carolina State University (NCSU) was to
perform careful experimental tests whereby the electron wind force (and other direct
effects of the drift electrons) could be separated from the usual side effects of the
current such as Joule heating, pinch, magnetostrictive and skin effects. Details regard- I
ing the experimental procedure are given in References 42 and 43. The experiments I
were similar to those of Troitskii in Figure 1, whereby the effects of a single, high- I
density (-lOS AI cm2 ) current pulse (-100 Jls) on the flow stress of metals was deter- I II ·
I IIIII
0 ••• [Link]
mined . The metals considered (Ag, AI, Cu, Ni, Nb, Fe, Wand Ti) varied in purity from (SINGlE PULSE)
10'
99.9-99.999 wt.%, were polycrystalline in form and represented a range of crystal l:I S.R.(Vp=IOOHZ)

structures, stacking fault energies and electronic properties.

/ I II I o CREEP

Examples of the effect of current density (j) at 300K on the ratio Ej I Ej=O where Ej is / I 11/
the strain rate with the current pulse and Ej=O is that prior to the pulse, are given in 10 ~[Link]..-[Link]----'--..[Link]

Figure 4. Included are results by Troitskii on zinc single crystals at 77K for a single d d d I~
J ( A/Cm' )
pulse on the flow stress and for multiple pulses (v = 100 Hz) on creep and stress
relaxation rates. The results of Figure 4 give p Figure 4. Log-log plot of the ratio of the plastic
strain rate (f.j) produced by an electric current
E; IEj=o = (j/jc)P (3) pulse to the applied strain rate (£;..,) prior to the
pulse for zinc single crystals at 78K and a
where jcis the critical current density (1Q3-1Q4 AI cm ) and p is an exponent of about 3.
2
number of polycrystalline metals at 300K.
For the various metals, jc was found to increase with electron density (n e), giving Test methods include constant strain rate test
jc= Cn; to yield the drop in flow stress for a single pulse
(dOf ) and stress relaxation (S.R.) and creep
where q - 2/3 at 300K and 2/5 at 77K, and C is a constant which decreases with tests with 100 pulses per second. From Conrad
temperature (see Figure 5). and Sprecher.'

September 1990. JOM 29

 10 5 Since the strain rates produced by a current pulse were <1 S-I , the electroplastic re-
300 K tp=IOOIlS sults were analyzed using the approach that the obstacles to dislocation motion shown
- Conrad and Sprecher in Figure 6 were overcome by thermally activated forces. This gives the following
77 K
expressions! for the resolved shear rate (y):
.. -
• Zn (0001) <1l20 >
AZn (Ilil) < 1l2J >
,-.. • T I Polycrystal [-(~H* A*b1:*)] (4)
Y= Yo exp
e
N

--<<J
kT
4 300K
10
'-' Slope

~
...

Slope 2/ 5

103~~~~~~~~~~~
10. 1 10 0 10 1
De (1022/cm 3 )
Figure 5. Log-log plot of the critical current where Yo is the pre-exponential factor including the entropy of activation, ~H* is the
density Uc) at 77K and 300K vs. the electron activation enthalpy, A * is the activation area, 't* is the resolved effective shear stress and
density (n.). From Cao et al. 43-45 kT has the usual Significance. The subscript j indicates the value with the current on;
omission of this subscript indicates the value prior to the application of the current. The
pre-exponential factor is defined by
Yo =No,mbsv* exp (~S* Ik)
where N D m is the mobile dislocation density, b is the Burgers vector,s is the average
distance the dislocation segment 0*) has moved per successful thermal fluctuation, v*
is the frequency of vibration of the dislocation segment and ~S* is the entropy of ac-
tivation. The change in activation enthalpy (MH*) is defined as
8~H* = ~U* - p~V - A*b't* - A*Few
where p is the pressure and ~V is the change in volume. For poly crystals, y = and Me
't* = cr* 1M where M (-3) is the Taylor orientation factor and and cr are the true uni- e
axial strain rate and stress, respectively.
The magnitudes of the parameters of Equation 4 derived from experimental data for
the fcc metals aluminum, silver and copper and for bcc niobium are presented in Table

Et> A 8
Figure 6. A schematic diagram of the effect of b
a drift electron flow on dislocation velocity. (a)
Specimen subjected to the combined action
of a mechanical stress (cr.) and an electric
current, with dislocations moving on the glide
plane with a velocity parallel (pos.) and an-
tiparallel (neg.) to e (e indicates direction of
drift electrons and E is the electric field) . (b)
Dislocation segment of length 21' overcomes a
obstacle (C) by combined action of total ap-
plied force and thermal fluctuations. (c) Force-
distance curve for overcoming the obstacle C.
t.G = t.H· - Tt.S· = Gibbs free energy of
activations. f: = 1:bl', f.w = F.)', x' = acti-
vation distance, A' = I'x', '. = (cr.-<Jj)/M, where
cr j is the long-range internal stress and M is the
orientation factor. From Conrad and Sprecher. 1
c x
Table J. Contributions to the Electroplastic Effectt
-(t. u.*-t.U)] [-(A*-A *)b't*]
cr* ex[ p) exp _.L)- : - : : : : - - -
A *F )
2cosh ( ~ exp [-<t.H.*-Mi)]
)
Metal Temp. (K) (MPa)* EO,j lEo kT kT kT
Al 300 9.5 8.8 X 103 5.7 X 103 1.94 0.54 1.48 1.55
Cu 300 27.0 5.8 X 103 2.8 X 103 2.60 0.69 1.17 2.10
Ag 300 26.5 5.0xl03 1.3 X 103 3.13 0.53 1.21 2.01
Nb 300 42.0 12.0 x 10' 2.0 X 103 898 0.0052 1.34 6.03
AI 78 27 26.9 x 10' 4.8 x 10' 11.65 0.47 1.03 5.64
Cu 78 40 29.1 x 10' 1.7 x 103 42.13 0.36 1.14 17.29
Ag 78 39 25.1 x 10' 1.7 x 10' 44.29 0.28 1.20 14.88
Nb 78 584 66.0 x 103 2.1 x 103 29 x 10 10 1.03 X 10-10 1.06 31.66

*
t Calculations based on j = 5.5 x lOS A/cm for fcc metals and j =4.2 X 105 A/cm2 for bee niobium:f4,45
2

0" for fcc rnetaJ sat£p= 0.8% and £;~ = 1.67 )( 1()-4 s - 1; forbccniobium atEp = 2% and Ej..() = 1.67 x 10-5 5-1•

30 JOM • September 1990

 10-2r-----r-----~----~----,_----_r----_r----~ Figure 7. Comparison of experimentally-de-
rived values of Bew with theoretical predictions
based on specific dislocation resistivity

• • • • • Nb
(Equation 1) and Fermi momentum (Equation
2 with a = 0.25). Data from Cao et a1 43-45

10-3
200
Specific Resistivity

~cu 150

;F r

~::
Free Electron ~200
Theory Prediction g
~
10-4 c;;, 150
0;
.~

E
~ 100
Fermi Momentum «
Copper (99.9%)
30Q"K, 50Hz
50 Rotating bending

N" Cycles to Failure

10-5~----~----~----~----~----~~----~----~
o 100 200 500 600 Figure 8. Stress (S) vs. cycles to fracture (N I)
curves as a function of grain size for tests with
and without current pulsing (j = 1.3 x 104 Aicm 2,
tp = 100 IlS, and vp = 2 Hz). From Conrad et
I. It is evident that for the fcc metals the greatest contribution is through the effect of al. 46
j on Yo ' the effects on the other parameters being much less. Therefore, the current is
considered to have significantly influenced one or more ofthe components of Yo . Since
No,m is generally of the order of one-tenth the total dislocations density (No), it is
expected that the increase in Yo from the effect of jon No,m is at most of the order of 10.
Moreover, the observed effect of j on the velocity of dislocations in zinc crystals by the 1,2
I

W'"V~
etch pit technique provides additional support that the effect of j onYo is not entirely

f1!
through its effect on N O •m ' This then leads to the conclusion that a significant effect of 1.0 r-
j is on one or more of the remaining three components-5, v* or ~S*. Additional work
is needed to ascertain the extent of the effect of current on these parameters. 0.8

~~'"
In the case ofbcc niobium, the current pulse has a significant effect on the strain rate E::t
through both Yo and ~U* (~U* = 2H k, where Hk is the kink energy).44 However, the

v·
;: 0,6
expected large increase in strain rate resulting from the current pulse due to a decrease
in Hk is countered by a significant decrease in A*, so that the total contribution to the
0.4 r-
strain rate given by the change in ~H* (Le., by o~H*) is less than the increase in Yo' I Cu (99,9%)
The values of Bew for the fcc metals silver, aluminum and copper and bcc niobium I G,S. , 45um
were determined experimentally as a function of temperature. Figure 7 compares 0.2 f- I cr, 2.2 t,
those experimental values with the values predicted by Equations 1 and 2. For the fcc
0 Ii I I
metals, the magnitude of the experimental values is in reasonable agreement with the 0 100 200
predicted values. However, the experimental Bew tends to increase with temperature, (J (MPa)
whereas no significant temperature dependence is included in the theory. In the case
a
of bcc niobium, the experimental values of Bew are about an order of magnitude larger
than those predicted. One reason for the difference may lie in the accuracy of the 1.0 I
experimental electronic parameters employed to calculate Few from Equations 1 and 2. Cu (99 9%) •
Cyclic Stressing 0.8 f- G S .45um W'h -

v~
Concurrent application of high-density electric current pulses (-1Q4 AI cm2 for 100 E
.2, 0,6 f- -
~s and 2 Hz) during rotating bending tests on polycrystalline copper produced a 2-3 r::
fold increase in fatigue life (Figure 8). Although the magnitude of the effect of
0.4 f- ,/ /' ~8 Without J
electropulsing does not appear to be large, it should be pointed out thatthe current was ,/ /'
"on" for only a fraction (2 x 10-4) ofthe total time ofthe test. Associated with the increase
in fatigue life was an increase in the linear density of persistent slip bands (PSBs) and 0,2 ~/ /'
a decrease in their width (Figure 9). Transmission electron microscopy observations /' icr ,2.2t,
revealed that the dislocations in the walls and cells were also somewhat less dense. In
oV' i I I I
0 100 200
addition to increasing fatigue life, the electropulsing reduced the amount of inter- (J (MPa)

granular cracking as compared to the amount of transgranular cracking. b

The experimental results indicated thatthe increased fatigue life from electropulsing
Figure 9. Effect of electropulsing on the char-
is due to an increase in the number of cycles for microcrack initiation and a decrease acteristics of persistent slip bands at fracture,
in macrocrack growth rate. The retardation in microcrack initiation and the reduction as a function of stress. (a) Width. (b) Linear
in grain boundary cracking were attributed to the increased slip homogenization density. 't, - 28 MPa is the plateau resolved
produced by the electropulsing. The decrease in fatigue crack growth rate was shear stress (stage B) in the fatigue of copper
concluded to result from the effect on crack closure of an observed increase in single crystals. The factor 2.2 is the Sachs
oxidation of the crack surface. orientation factor. From Conrad et al. 46

September 1990 • JaM 31

 Figure 10 (left). Fraction of stress relaxed in
1.0
1,000 seconds versus homologous tem- -0---0
perature for stress relaxation tests on poly- f
crystalline copper specimens tested with, and
without, the concurrent application of a con-
tinuous direct current of 1.6 x 102 AJcm2. Data
0 .8

Je l 60AJcm!
~~
(COOtinuOllsll.c.)
- DlAter C!JAR' H' HEAflHG

~o O.6
from Silveira et al.41·48
0.4

Figure 11 (right). Effect of a continuous direct 0.2

current of 2.5 x 103 AJcm2 on the steady state
creep rate of V3Si as a function of sto- °0~~0.~1--~0.2~~0~.3~~0~.4--~0.~5--~0.6~~0.7 00 60 40 20 0 20 40 60
ichiometry. From San Martin et aLSO Trrm V-EXCESS r"./IO·) Si-EXCESS

ELECTRIC CURRENT AT HIGH HOMOLOGOUS TEMPERATURES

Only a few studies have been carried out on the effects of an electric current on the
mechanical behavior of metals at high homologous temperatures, that is, where TITm >
I I 0.5. The investigations47-50 employed a continuous current, rather than current pulses.
7475 AI (I) Figure 10 shows the influence of a small continuous direct current of 1.6 x 1()2 AI cm2 on
10 do - i!·6~m
T _ 516'C the stress relaxation of polycrystalline copper, the effect of the current becoming
appreciable as the temperature approaches 0.5Tm •47,48 Similar behavior was noted for
aluminum. An increase in stress relaxation rate also occurred for an alternating current
of the same magnitude, but the effect was smaller than for the direct current. Further, the
direct current altered the dislocation arrangement in the copper specimens; the cell
structure was partially destroyed,49
Heating with a continuous direct current of 2.5 x 103 AI cm2 was found to increase
the creep rate of the intermetallic compound V3Si compared to indirect heating50
(Figure 11). Again, direct current gave a higher creep rate than alternating current.
No theoretical analyses have been published to date on the mechanisms by which
the current influences the deformation of metals at high homologous temperatures. It
is expected that vacancies and atomic mobility playa role in the behavior.
EXTERNAL ELECTRIC FIELD
Soviet Work

o I As a follow-up on the work by Troitskii on the effects of electric current pulses on

o 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 mechanical properties of metals, Kishkin and Klypin51 in 1973 presented results on the
10
p influence of an external electrostatic direct-current (d.c.) field on the creep rate of
Figure 12. Effect of an external electric field copper and cobalt. They reported that the application of an electric field (E =100 VI
(E) on the true stress-strain curves for the em) during the creep of these metals at high homologous temperatures produced an
superplastic deformation of 7475 AI at two
order of magnitude increase in the creep rate. They suggested that the increase in creep
strain rates . From Cao et al. 55
rate at the instant the electric field was applied was possibly associated with
electrostriction, while the continuation of the effect with time was related to the effect
of the field on dislocation motion. In a subsequent paper, Klypin52 reported that small
changes in creep rate occurred in copper at voltages as low as 0.01 V at 400°C and in
aluminum at 20°C for voltages of 2 to 6V. He concluded that these results reflected the
8
existence of a charged surface layer and its interaction with crystal defects,
7475 AI
T.520·C
E ., 2kWcm
Work at NCSU
Eo'" 1.1 X10·3 S· 1
6 It was found that an external field of 2 kV I cm had no significant effect on the stress-
strain curve of approXimately 1 mm thick, high-purity aluminum or a 7475 Al alloy at
4 room temperature. However, significant effects occurred for the 7475 Al alloy at about
520°C, a high homologous temperature. To investigate these effects, two lots of 7475
Al alloy were employed. Alloy I was a commercial alloy of nominal composition,
~2 whereas Alloy II had iron and silicon contents well below the nominal specification of
~ 0.08 wt. %. The general effects of the field were similar for the two lots.
~O~~+---~-t~~~~~~~E Figures 12-14 show that the application of an external d.c, electric field during the
.g superplastic deformation of the 7475 Al alloy decreased the flow stress (a) at all strain
(e) levels, reduced the rate of strain hardening (6 =dO'l de) and increased the strain rate
hardening exponent (m =dIn aldlnE ),53-55 Moreover (Figure IS), the concurrent ap-
-4
plication of the field during superplastic deformation significantly reduced the
amount of cavitation produced by the deformation, the degree of reduction increasing
with field strength. Also, the field retarded grain growth and influenced the size and
-6 composition of the dispersoid-free zone adjacent to the grain boundaries.55 Noteworthy
is that the effects of the electric field extended to the center of 1.8 mm thick specimens.
-8 Also, it was found that polarity had an influence on the effect of the field. In the case
on of the flow stress, connecting the specimen to the positive terminal of the power supply
decreased the flow stress by an amount which increased with E, whereas connecting
Figure 13. Changes in the rate of strain the specimen to the negative terminal gave an increase in the flow stress. 55 The electric
hardening when a continuous d.c. electric current flowing in the electrostatic circuit was of the order of 1 mA.
=
field (E 2 kV/cm) is turned on and off during These effects of an external electric field on the mechanical behavior of the 7475 Al
superplastic deformation of aluminum alloy alloy are not clear. Since they only occurred at high homologous temperatures, it is
7475. From Conrad et al. 53 concluded that diffusion plays a controlling role and that the effects of the electric field

32 JOM • September 1990

 0.55,.----r-----,..----r-----,..--......- - ,
are on the diffusion process, notably on the generation and/ or migration of vacancies.
If we assume that the effects of the electric field result entirely from a charged surface L~V1em
layer, then we must account for the fact that these effects extended to the center of 1.8
mm thick specimens. Starting with the relation x = VDt where x is the diffusion dis- 0.51
Il E_O~
tance, D is the diffusion coefficient and t is the time of the test, and taking the values
x =9 X 10-2 em and D =0.2 exp( -11,500/ RT) for vacancy diffusion in Al,56.57 one obtains
E
I 0,"'"7475 A,m l
t = 56s. Considering the strain rates employed, this time is short enough that any 0.47
~ t
T-52O"C
-I.I XIO"'" I
changes in vacancy concentration at the surface could conceivably diffuse into the • tit,. 25
interior and thereby influence mechanical behavior. An alternative explanation for the
fact that the electric field extends to the center of relatively thick specimens was 0 .6 0 .7 0 .8 0.9 1.0
proposed by Klypin. 58 He suggested the possibility of an uneven electron density at the t (1 0" S" )
interfaces between phases and at grain boundaries. The reduction in cavities produced Figure 14. The effect of an external electric
by the field might be a reflection of this, since the cavitation occurred mainly along field on the strain-rate hardening parameter
grain boundaries and at interfaces between phases. (m = din a/dinE las a function of strain rate
The observed effect of field polarity on the flow stress suggests that a deficiency of during the superplastic deformation of 7475
electrons in the specimen reduces the flow stress, whereas an excess of electrons AI. From Conrad et al. 53

.
increases it.
ABOUT THE AUTHORS . . . . . . . . . .
H. Conrad received his [Link]. in metallurgy
from Yale University in 1956. He is currently a
-, .,; ..
~ :.,.~/ professor of materials science and engineering

... .,....,. at NCSU in Raleigh, North Carolina. Dr. Conrad

, .~.

' .A' ... iii. , :- .\ is also a member of TMS.

A.F. Sprecher Jr., received his Ph.D. in ma-
-v-. terials engineering from NCSU in 1984. He is

., :...~ w currently a senior research associate in the

Materials Science and Engineering Depart-
ment of NCSU. Dr. Sprecher is also a member
ofTMS.
L-....J '--' W.O. Cao received his Ph.D. in materials
a 10 11m b 10 11m science and engineering from NCSU in 1989.
Figure 15. Effect of an electric field on the amount of cavitation during superplastic deformation He is currently a project engineer with Teledyne
of 7475 AI at 516°C. (a) E = 0, elongation = 334% and (b) E = 2 kV/cm, elongation = 455%. Allvac. Dr. Cao is also a member of TMS.
X.P. Lu received her B.E. in materials science
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS and engineering from Tsinghua University in
1958. She is currently a research associate at
This paper was prepared under sponsorship by the U.S. Army Research Office grant no. NCSU.
DAAL03-89K-0015. It is based on that originally presented at the U.S. Army Research Office
Workshop titled "High Intensity Electro-Magnetic and Ultrasonic Effects on Inorganic If you want more information on this subject,
Materials Behavior and Processing," North Carolina State University, July 17-18, 1989. please circle reader service card number 58.

References Prochnosti, 2 (]977), p. 86. Magnetic and Ultrasonic Effects on Inorganic Materials Behavior
22. G.V. Karpenko, O.A Kuzin, V.l. Tkachev and V.P. and Processing, ed. H. Conrad and I. Ahmad (Raleigh, NC:
1. H. Conrad and AF. Sprecher. Dislocations in Solids, ch. 43. Rudenko, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 227 (1976), p. 85. North Carolina State Univ., 1989).
ed. [Link]. Nabarro, (New York: Elsevier Science, 1989), p. 23. V.l. Spitsyn, O.A. Troitskii, E.V. Gusev and V.K. 42. A.F. Sprecher, S.L. Mannan and H. Conrad, Acta Metall.,
497. Kurdiukov, Izv. Akad. Nauk SSSR, Met., 2 (1974), p. 123. 34 (1986), p. 1145-1162.
2. O.A Troitskii and V.1. Likhtman, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 24. O.A. Troitskii, Sta/', 5 (]974), p. 450. 43. w.o. Cao, AF. Sprecher and H. Conrad, J. Phys. E. Sci.
148 (]963), p. 332. 25. K.M. Klimov, G.D. Shnyrev and l.l. Novikov, Dokl. Akad. Instrum. 22 (1989), p. 1026.
3. O.A Troitskii, Pis'ma v Zh. Eksp. & Teor. Fiz .. 10 (]969), p. Nauk SSSR, 219 (1974), p. 323. 44. W.D. Cao, kF. Sprecher and H. Conrad, "The
18. 26. V.l. Spitsyn, O.A. Troitskii, V.G. Ryshkov and AS. Electroplastic Effect in Nb," in High Temperature Nb Alloys,
4. O.A Troitskii and A.G. Rozno,Fiz. Tverd. Tela, 12 (] 970), p. Kozyrev, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 231 (1976), p. 402. (Warrendale, PA: TMS, to be published).
203. 27. V.I. Spitsyn et aI., Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 236 (1977), p. 45. W.D. Cao, AF. Sprecher and H. Conrad, unpublished
5. O.A. Troitskii, Fiz. Met. & Metanoved., 32 (197]), p. 408. 861. research (1989).
6. O.A. Troitskii, Probl. Proch., july (]975), p. 14. 28. O.A. Troitskii, V.l. Spitsyn, N.V. Sokolov and V.G. 46. H. Conrad,j. White, w.o. Cao, X.P. Lu and AF. Sprehcer,
7. V.1. Spitsyn and O.A. Troitskii, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 220 Ryshkov, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 237 (1977), p. 1082. "Effect of High Density Electric Current Pulses on the Fa-
(] 975), p. 1070. 29. O.A. Troitskii, V.1. Spitsynand V.G. Ryshkov, [Link]. tigue of Polycrystalline Copper," submitted to Mat. Sci Engr.
8. O.A. Troitskii, Fiz-Khim. Mekh. Mater., 13 (1977), p. 46. Nauk SSSR, 243 (1978), p. 330. 47. V.L.A Silveira, M.F.5. Porto and W.A. Mannheimer,
9. O.A Troitskii, V.1. Spitsyn and V.1. Stashenko, Dokl. Akad. 30. K.M. Klimov and 1.1. Novikov, Russ. Metall., 6 (1978), p. Scripta Met., 15 (1981), p. 945.
Nauk SSSR, 241 (1978), p. 349. 127. 48. V.L.A Silveira, RA.F.O. Fortes and W.A Mannheimer,
10. O.A Troitskii and V.I. Stashenko, Fik. Met. & Metalloved., 31. O.A. Troitskii, V.I. Spitsyn, N.Y. Sokolov and V.G. Proc. 7th Int. Am. Conf. on Materials Technology, Mexico, 1981
47 (1979), p. 180. Ryshkov, Phys. Status Solidi (a), 52 (1978), p. 85. (San Antonio, TX: Southwest Institute, 1981) p. 722.
11. O.A. Troitskii, V.1. Spitsyn and P.U. Kalymbetov, Dokl. 32. K.M. Klimov, AM. Morukhovich, AM. Glezer and B.V. 49. V.L.A. Silveira, RAF.O. Fortes and W.A Mannheimer,
Akad. Nauk SSSR, 253 (1980), p. 96, and Sov. Phys.-Dokl., 25 Molotilov, Russ. Metall., 6 (1981), p. 68. Beitr. Electronenm. Direkt. Oberft, 15 (1982), p. 217.
(]980), p. 5581. 33. O.A. Troitskii, Mater. Sci. & Eng., 75 (1985), p. 37. 50. A San Martin et aI., Scripta Met., 14 (1980), p. 1041.
12. O.A Troitskii and P. V. Kalymbetov,Fiz. Met. & Metal1oved., 34. [Link]. Nabarro, Theory of Crystal Dislocations (Oxford: 51. S.T. Kishkin and AA Klypin, Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 211
51(198]), p.1056,[Link].& Metal1ogr.,51(1981), p.I34. Clarendon Press, 1967) p. 529. Reprinted 1987 (New York: (]973), p. 325-327.
13. O.A. Troitskii and V.1. Stashenko, Fiz. Met. & Metalloved., Dover). 52. AA. Klypin, Problemy Prochnosti, 7 (july 1975), p. 20-26.
51(1981), p. 219,and Phys. Met. & Metallogr., 51(198]), p. 191. 35. AM. Roshchupkin, V.E. Miloshenko and V.E. Kalinin, 53. H. Conrad, W.o. Cao, X.P. Lu and A.F. Sprecher, Scripta
14. O.A Troitskii, V.1. Stashenko and V.1. Spitsyn, Izv. Akad. Fiz. Tverd. TeIa,21 (1978), p. 90-99, and Sov. Phys.-Solid State, Met.,23 (1989), p. 697.
Nauk SSSR, Met., 1 (1982), p. 164. 21(1979), p. 532. 54. W.D. Cao, X.P. Lu, AF. Sprecher and H. Conrad, "Super-
15. V.I. Stashenko, O.A. Troitskii and V.1. Spitsyn, Phys. 36. V.B. Fiks, Zh. Eksp. Theor. Fiz., 80 (1981), p. 2313. plastic Defonnation Behavior of 7475 Aluminum Alloy in an
Status Solidi (a), 79 (1983), p. 549. 37. H. Conrad, "Electromigration, Electroplasticity and Other Electric Field," Mat Sci. & Engr., in print.
16. Yu.1. Boiko, Ya.E. Geguzinand Yu.1. Kinchuk,Pis'ma v Zh. Effects of Electric Current on the Behavior of Metals," North 55. W.o. Cao, X.P. Lu, A.F. Sprecher and H. Conrad, "Super-
Eksp. & Teor., Fiz., 30 (1979), p. 168. Carolina State University Seminar, April 24, 1987. plastic Behavior and Microstructure of 7475 Al Deformed in
17. Yu.1. Boiko, Ya.E. Geguzin and Yu.1. K1inchuk, Zh. Eksp. 38. [Link],Zh. Eksp.&[Link].,5](]966),p.1676, an External Electric Field," in Superplasticity in Aerospace II
& Teor. Fiz., 81 (198]), p. 2175. and Sov. Phys.-/ETP, 24 (1967), p. 1135. (Warrendale, PA: TMS, to be published).
18. L.B. Zuev, V.E. Gromov, V.F. Kurilov and L.l. Gurevich, 39. M.1. Kaganov, [Link]. Kravchenko and V.o. Natsik, Usp. 56. P.G. Shewmon, Diffusion in Solids (New York: McGraw-
Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 239 (1978), p. 84. Fiz. Nauk, 111 (1973), p. 655, and Sov. Phys.-Usp., 16 (1974), p. Hill, 1963), p. 74.
19. V.l. Spitsyn,O.A [Link]. Glzunov, Dok1. Akad. 878. 57. RA johnson, DiffuSion (Metals Park, OH: ASM, 1973), p.
Nauk SSSR, 199 (1971), p. 810. 40. K.M. Nimov, G.O. Shnyrev and l.l. Movikov, Dokl. Akad. 25.
20. O.A Troitskii, 1.L. Skobtsov andA.V. Men'shikh,[Link]. Nauk SSSR, 219 (]974), p. 323, and Sov. Phys.-Dokl., 19 (1975), 58. AA Klypin, Metallov. i Termich. Obradbotra Metallo", 3
& Metal1oved., 33 (1972), p. 392. p.787. (1979), p. 12.
21. Yu.l. Golovin, V.M. Finkel and AA Sletkov, Problemy 41. A Brailsford, in USARO Workshop High Intensity Electro-

September 1990 • JOM 33