SURFACE J264

REAF.
JUN2004
VEHICLE
INFORMATION Issued 1971-09
REPORT Reaffirmed 2004-06

Superseding J264 SEP1998

Vision Glossary

1. Scope—The function of uniform terminology is to promote understandable and exact communication in the
area of vision. A great deal of effort has been expended to make these definitions suit this purpose. It is
recognized that this terminology, like other dictionaries, must be revised periodically to reflect current usage
and changing needs. The Driver Vision Subcommittee of the Human Factors Engineering Committee,
therefore, solicits suggestions for improvements and additions to be considered in future revisions.

2. References

2.1 Related Publications—The following publications are provided for information purposes only and are not a
required part of this document.

Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., and Thomas, J. P. (Eds.), Handbook of Perception and Human Performance:
Volume 1 Sensory Processes and Perception, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1986
Boff, K. R., Lincoln, J. E. (Eds.), Engineering Data Compendium, Human Perception and Performance:
Volume 1, Harry G. Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, 1988
Cornsweet, T. N., Visual Perception, New York: Academic Press, 1970
Schiff, W., Perception: An Applied Approach, Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980
Sekular, R., and Blake, R., Perception (3rd edition). New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994
Wyszecki, G., and Stiles, W. S., Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae.
New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1982

3. Definitions

3.1 Field of View

3.1.1 AMBINOCULAR FIELD OF VIEW—The total field of view that can be seen by either eye. It is the combination of
all of the right and all of the left monocular fields of view.

NOTE—The ambinocular field of view is larger than the binocular field of view.

3.1.2 BINOCULAR FIELD OF VIEW—The field of view that can be seen simultaneously by both eyes (i.e., only the
overlapping areas of the right and left monocular fields of view).

3.1.3 CENTRAL FIELD OF VIEW—(See Foveal Field of View.)

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3.1.4 DIRECT FIELD OF VIEW—The field of view which can be viewed directly, without any mirrors or other imaging
devices (e.g., periscopes or video monitors).

3.1.5 FIELD OF VIEW (VISUAL FIELD)—The extent of visual space over which vision is possible with the eyes in a
fixed position (i.e., while looking straight ahead, it is the entire region of space visible). The size of the visual
field is influenced by such individual factors as age, alcohol, anxiety, attentiveness, drugs, fatigue, gender,
and general health.

3.1.6 FOVEAL FIELD OF VIEW (CENTRAL FIELD OF VIEW)—The small, 1 to 2 degree region in the center of the visual
field where visual acuity is greatest.

3.1.7 INDIRECT FIELD OF VIEW—The field of view provided by imaging devices (e.g., mirrors, periscopes, or video
monitors).

3.1.8 MONOCULAR FIELD OF VIEW—The field of view that can be seen by one eye.

3.1.9 PERIPHERAL FIELD OF VIEW—The outer, non-foveal field of view. For practical purposes, anything beyond the
small (1 to 2 degree) central area of vision can be considered part of the peripheral field of view. This area is
characterized by (a) poor acuity, (b) poor color discrimination, and (c) optimal sensitivity to low levels of light.

3.1.10 PRIMARY LINE OF SIGHT—The line connecting the point of observation and the fixation point. (The point of
observation is the midpoint of a line connecting the centers of rotation of the two eyes.)

3.1.11 VISUAL FIELD—(See Field of View.)

3.2 Psychophysics

3.2.1 ABSOLUTE THRESHOLD—The minimum value required for the presence of a stimulus or stimulus attribute to
be detected. For example, the minimum intensity required for a light to be detected, or the minimum amount
of contrast required for a pattern to be detected. The more perceptible a stimulus is—or the more sensitive
the observer—the lower the absolute threshold will be. See threshold.

3.2.2 DIFFERENCE THRESHOLD—The least amount by which two stimuli must differ along a given dimension (e.g.,
intensity, color, length, weight, etc.) to be perceived as different. The more perceptible a difference is—or the
more sensitive the observer—the lower the difference threshold will be. See threshold.

3.2.3 JUST-NOTICEABLE DIFFERENCE (JND)—(See difference threshold.)

3.2.4 PSYCHOPHYSICS—The study of the quantitative relationship between physical aspects of a stimulus and the
perception of that stimulus.

3.2.5 SENSITIVITY—As a psychophysical expression, it is the reciprocal of the measured threshold. For example,
contrast sensitivity is the reciprocal of contrast threshold; a spectral sensitivity curve plots the reciprocals of
the thresholds obtained for each of the wavelengths.

3.2.6 STEVEN'S POWER LAW (POWER FUNCTION)—The mathematical relationship between physical magnitude and
perceived magnitude. S. S. Steven found that the perceived magnitude was a function of the stimulus
magnitude raised to a power (S = klb, where S = the perceived magnitude, k is a constant, and l is the actual
physical magnitude). The exponent's value, b, is specific to modality (vision, audition, taste, etc.) and
stimulus attribute of interest (brightness of a light versus redness of a light, for example).

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3.2.7 THRESHOLD—The smallest value of a stimulus which results in a change in perceptual states (e.g., 'seeing'
versus 'not seeing'). Thresholds are mathematically defined, usually as the point at which performance is
50%. (For example, the intensity of light which can just be seen 50% of the time.) See also absolute
threshold and difference threshold.

3.2.8 WEBER'S LAW—A psychophysical law which states that the relationship between the initial stimulus intensity
and the change in intensity required to perceive a difference (difference threshold) is a constant. Weber's
law is usually expressed as the equation ∆ l / l = k, where l is the initial intensity, ∆ l is the smallest detectable
change in intensity, and k is the constant.

3.3 Retina

3.3.1 BLIND SPOT (OPTIC DISC)—The area of the retina where the fibers of the optic nerve leave the eye. This area
contains no photoreceptors and is therefore insensitive to light.

3.3.2 CONES—The type of photoreceptor responsible for color vision and resolution of fine detail (acuity). Cones
only function at high light levels (referred to as photopic vision). Most people have three types of cones, each
containing a different photopigment. Abnormalities in one or more of the cone types will result in a deficiency
of color vision. The type of vision provided by cones is analogous to a picture taken with slow, high
resolution, color film. Cones are the only type of photoreceptor found in the fovea. Although there are some
cones in the peripheral areas, their number falls off rapidly as you move away from the center of the retina.

3.3.3 FOVEA—The small, central area of the retina (1 to 2 degrees visual angle), with the highest density of
photoreceptors. When a viewer focuses on an object, it is imaged on the fovea. Foveal vision is chromatic
and has the greatest visual acuity.

3.3.4 OPTIC NERVE—The nerve bundle which transmits retinal sensations from the eye to the brain.

3.3.5 PHOTOPIGMENT—A light sensitive molecule contained within the photoreceptors of the eye. There are four
different types of photopigments (one found in rods, and three different types for cones). Each photopigment
absorbs light of various wavelengths to a different degree.

3.3.6 PHOTORECEPTORS—Specialized nerve cells (rods and cones) found in the retina of the eye that contain light-
sensitive materials (called photopigments).

3.3.7 RETINA—An outgrowth of the brain forming a thin lining at the back of the eyeball and containing the light-
sensitive rods and cones which are the peripheral end organs of the optic nerve.

3.3.8 RODS—The most light-sensitive type of photoreceptor. Rods form an achromatic (color blind) part of the
visual system, which is functional even at low light levels (scotopic vision). However, acuity is very poor. The
type of vision created by rods is analogous to a picture taken with fast but coarsely grained photographic film.
Rods are located throughout the retina, except in the fovea and the blind spot, and are primarily responsible
for peripheral vision.

3.4 Sensitivity to Light

3.4.1 GLARE—The light or reflection from a relatively bright light source (compared to the luminance levels in the
rest of the visual field.) Depending on the relative intensity of the glare source and the physical condition of
the observer:

a. Glare can result in annoyance, discomfort, visual fatigue, reduced visual ability, and even temporary
"blindness;"
b. The effect of glare can be magnified by the scattering of light inside the observer's eyes (this problem
becomes more prevalent with increasing age).

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[Link] Discomfort Glare—Glare of sufficient magnitude so as to cause annoyance or discomfort.

[Link] Disability Glare—Glare of sufficient magnitude so as to cause a reduction in visual ability.

3.4.2 LATERAL INHIBITION—Lateral inhibition refers to antagonistic interactions between neighboring neural regions.
In terms of vision, stimulating one area of the retina with light may cause adjacent areas to be less
responsive. Essentially, excitation in one cell causes an inhibitory message to be sent to other neighboring
cells. Lateral inhibition occurs throughout the visual pathway, and is believed to play a key role in such
diverse phenomena as contrast effects, Mach bands, and color perception.

3.4.3 MESOPIC—Refers to the low and intermediate levels of light (0.001 to 100 candelas/meter2), that fall between
photopic and scotopic levels, or the type of vision available under these lighting conditions. Both rods and
cones contribute to mesopic vision.

3.4.4 PHOTOPIC—Refers to daylight levels of illumination (>100 candelas/meter2), or the type of vision which is
available when the eyes are adapted to these light levels. Photopic vision is mediated by the cones. Peak
spectral sensitivity for photopic vision occurs at approximately 555 nm. Overall spectral sensitivity of
photopic vision is lower than that observed for scotopic vision. Photopic vision becomes fully dark adapted
(i.e., reaches maximum sensitivity) after 5 to 6 min in the dark.

3.4.5 SCOTOPIC—Refers to exceptionally low light levels (<0.001 candelas/meter2), or the type of vision available
when the eyes are adapted to these low levels of illumination. Scotopic vision is mediated by the rods, and is
characterized by reduced contrast sensitivity, poor acuity, and achromatic vision. Peak spectral sensitivity for
scotopic vision occurs at approximately 505 nm. Overall spectral sensitivity of scotopic vision is higher than
that observed for photopic vision. Dark adaptation of the scotopic system takes at least 20 min, and may
continue for 30 to 40 min.

3.4.6 SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY—The sensitivity of the visual system to various wavelengths of light. Spectral
sensitivity curves plot sensitivity (1/absolute threshold) as a function of wavelength. The spectral sensitivity
function is different depending on which aspect of the visual system is tested (for example, photopic versus
scotopic).

3.5 Constancy and Contrast Effects

3.5.1 ADAPTATION—A change in sensitivity as a result of continued or repeated exposure to stimuli of similar nature
or magnitude. Adaptation may result in increased sensitivity (as is the case with dark adaptation), or in
decreased sensitivity (which can result in aftereffects, such as successive color contrast).

3.5.2 AFTEREFFECT—The effect of a past stimulus on the present perceptual experience. Aftereffects are brought
about by prolonged or repeated exposure to a particular stimulus or stimulus quality (such as color or
constant motion in one direction). This adaptation results in reduced sensitivity to that particular quality,
giving rise to illusory perceptions which are in the opposite or complimentary direction. For example, after
viewing a bright green slide for several minutes, you may see a reddish patch on an otherwise white wall;
viewing something that has a constant downward motion (such as a waterfall) may cause stationary objects
to appear to move upwards.

3.5.3 AFTERIMAGE—A visual sensation which persists for a short time after exposure to some intense stimulus.
Afterimages may be positive or negative, either reproducing or being complementary to the preceding
experience.

3.5.4 CONSTANCY EFFECTS—The general tendency for perceptions to remain constant under a variety of condi-
tions. In short, perceptions remain constant although the actual physical stimulation is different (compare to
contrast effects).

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3.5.5 CONTRAST EFFECTS—Perceptual effects that result from the interaction of two or more areas of stimulation so
that the presence of one affects the appearance of the other. For example, a particular gray patch may
appear to change color, or to be lighter or darker, depending on its surrounding area. Contrast effects are
varying perceptions to the same physical stimulus (compare to constancy effects). See color contrast and
lightness contrast.

3.5.6 LIGHTNESS CONSTANCY—The tendency for the perceived lightness of an object to remain constant despite
variations in the level of illumination. For example, when viewing an object indoors there will be much less
light reflected back to the eye than when the same object is viewed in natural sunlight. However, the
brightness of the object will remain constant.

3.5.7 LIGHTNESS CONTRAST—A perceptual phenomenon where the apparent brightness or lightness of an area is
influenced by the lightness of adjacent areas. For example, the same gray patch will appear lighter when
surrounded by a black area, but will appear darker when surrounded by white. An example of lightness
contrast is the perception of black in a television image. The actual image cannot be any darker than the
lightness of the screen when the television is turned off. It is assumed that lateral inhibition is primarily
responsible for this effect.

3.5.8 MACH BANDS—A perceptual phenomenon which results in the enhancement of contrast at borders where
there is an abrupt change in luminance. Mach bands are the illusory bands that appear at the border—a thin
'darker' band on the dark side, and a thin 'lighter' band on the light side. It is assumed that lateral inhibition at
the level of the retina is primarily responsible for this effect.

3.5.9 MOTION AFTEREFFECT (WATERFALL ILLUSION)—The perception that a stationary object is moving. This occurs
after prolonged viewing of movement in one direction. The aftereffect produces apparent movement in the
opposite direction.

3.5.10 SIMULTANEOUS CONTRAST—A contrast effect that results from the interaction of two or more adjacent areas,
presented simultaneously, such that the presence of one affects the appearance of the other. See contrast
effects, lightness contrast, color contrast, and successive contrast.

3.5.11 SIZE AFTEREFFECT—A change in the perceived size of an object after viewing an object of a different size.

3.5.12 SIZE CONSTANCY—The tendency for the perceived size of an object to remain constant despite changes in
the size of the retinal image of the object as viewing distance changes.

3.5.13 SUCCESSIVE CONTRAST—A contrast effect in which there is a change in the appearance of an object or area
as a result of what was viewed immediately before it. Successive contrast usually refers to a type of color
contrast where viewing a colored stimuli results in an afterimage in the complimentary color. See color
contrast.

3.5.14 TILT AFTEREFFECT—A temporary change in the perceived orientation of lines after prolonged exposure to
lines of a similar, but not identical, orientation.

3.6 General Perception

3.6.1 APPARENT MOVEMENT—An illusion of motion brought about by certain patterns of stationary stimuli; motion
pictures are a familiar example.

3.6.2 BRIGHTNESS—The subjective experience of light intensity.

3.6.3 CRITICAL FLICKER FREQUENCY (CFF)—The highest perceptible rate of temporal changes in light intensity
(flicker). When this rate is exceeded, separate flashes of light blend together perceptually, and appear as a
constant light. The human CFF is around 60 Hz.

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3.6.4 DARK ADAPTATION—Adjustment of the eyes to low levels of illumination which results in increased sensitivity
to light. Photopic vision (mediated by the cones) reaches its maximum sensitivity after about 5 min, whereas
the scotopic sensitivity (mediated by the rods) may continue to increase for 30 to 40 min.

3.6.5 LIGHT ADAPTATION—An adjustment of the visual system to an increase in illumination, the result of which is
reduced sensitivity to light.

3.6.6 OPTICAL ILLUSION—An image which causes a misinterpretation or perceptual error.

3.6.7 PARALLAX—The apparent relative movement of objects in the field of vision as the point of view is shifted
laterally. Objects nearer to the observer than the point fixated seem to move against the direction of the shift;
objects beyond the point fixated move with the shift. Also refers to the apparent difference in rate of
movement of two objects actually moving at the same velocity but at different distances from the observer.

3.6.8 PARALLAX (BINOCULAR)—The apparent displacement or difference in apparent location of an object as seen
from two different points not on a straight line with the object, for example, a pointer apparently displaced on
a scale when the head is moved in relation to it. (Also operates monocularly.)

3.6.9 VISUAL PERCEPTION—The integrated conscious response and interpretation of the total visual stimulus
situation. This response may be modified or interpreted in terms of stored physiological and psychological
remnants of past experience which are brought to bear in that situation.

3.7 Pattern Recognition

3.7.1 CONTRAST—The difference in luminance (lightness or brightness) between two areas. Providing sufficient
contrast is the most important element for ensuring pattern recognition (i.e., being able to read a display, or
recognize a symbol). When reporting contrast values, it is advisable to specify the equation used to
determine those values. See contrast ratios for the various equations used to quantify contrast.

3.7.2 CONTRAST RATIOS—Equations used to quantify the luminance differences between two areas. All of the
following equations are nonequivalent, valid, and common. It is advisable to specify which equation was
used when reporting contrast values.

a. Contrast = (light – dark)/light

b. Contrast = (light – dark)/dark
c. Contrast = (dark – light)/light
d. Contrast = (dark – light)/dark
e. Contrast = light/dark
f. Contrast = (light – dark)/(light + dark) (Michelson or modulation contrast)

3.7.3 CONTRAST SENSITIVITY FUNCTION (CSF)—The relationship between the minimum contrast required and the
nature of the pattern to be detected. Specifically, it is the reciprocal of the contrast required to detect the
presence of a pattern as a function of the pattern's spatial frequency. (See multichannel model.) It has been
found that an individual's CSF is a better predictor of performance on visual tasks (such as recognizing street
signs) than traditional measures of acuity.

3.7.4 FORM PERCEPTION—(See Pattern Recognition.)

3.7.5 LANDOLT RING (LANDOLT C)—Similar in appearance to the letter C, Landolt rings are used to test visual
acuity. The thickness of the ring and the break in its continuity are each one-fifth of its overall diameter. The
ring is rotated so that the gap appears in different positions and the observer is required to identify the
location of the gap.

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3.7.6 MULTICHANNEL MODEL—A model of visual processing that assumes the visual system performs a Fourier
transform on incoming images, thereby reducing complex patterns into their simple (sinusoidal) spatial
frequency components.

3.7.7 PATTERN RECOGNITION—The detection, discrimination, and recognition of the spatial characteristics of stimuli
(e.g., the size, shape, and visual textures).

3.7.8 SNELLEN ACUITY (SNELLEN FRACTION)—One of several measures of visual acuity. The assessment uses
standard charts of letters of various sizes. Acuity is expressed as the distance at which a given individual
can read the letters correctly, compared to the distance a standard 'normal' person could read the same
letters. For example, a person with 20/40 vision can barely read at a 20 ft distance what the 'normal' person
can read at 40 ft.

3.7.9 VERNIER ACUITY—One of several measures of visual acuity. It is defined as the smallest detectable misalign-
ment between two vertical lines placed one above the other. Vernier acuity is usually expressed in seconds
of arc of visual angle.

3.7.10 VISUAL ACUITY—The ability to clearly perceive spatial detail. Traditional assessments of acuity, such as the
Snellen chart and Landolt rings, employ high contrast patterns of various sizes. The test then establishes
the smallest pattern or critical detail of a pattern that can be detected, and compares this to a standard,
'normal' observer. Visual acuity is a function of the brightness, contrast, and other characteristics of the
objects viewed, as well as the state of adaptation, location of the retinal image, and other characteristics of
the observer.

3.8 Color Vision and Perception

3.8.1 ACHROMATIC—Lacking hue (color), achromatic objects can vary in luminance (brightness) from white through
any gray to black. Examples of achromatic objects include black and white TV images and gray scales.

3.8.2 BEZOLD-BRUCKE EFFECT—When luminance is increased, all chromatic colors, except a certain invariable
blue, yellow, green, and red, appear increasingly like blue or yellow and decreasingly like green or red.

3.8.3 CHROMA—Short form for Munsell chroma, an index of saturation of the perceived color.

3.8.4 COLOR CONSTANCY—The tendency of an object's apparent color to remain unchanged despite changes in
the spectral composition of the light falling on and reflected by the object. For example, when an object is
viewed under fluorescent lights versus sunlight, the wavelength composition of the light being reflected back
to the eyes is very different. Yet, over a wide range of situations, the color of the object does not appear to
vary.

3.8.5 COLOR CONTRAST—A perceptual phenomenon in which a change in color appearance is brought about by
the interaction of two different areas, at least one of which is colored. In the case of a color-achromatic pair,
the colored area induces a complimentary hue or tint in the achromatic area. For example, a bright green
patch may make an adjacent gray patch appear slightly reddish. Simultaneous color contrast occurs when
the areas in question are adjacent; successive color contrast occurs when the areas in question are
presented sequentially. Successive color contrast is a type of aftereffect.

3.8.6 COMPLIMENTARY COLORS—Any two colors that, when mixed together in appropriate proportions, produce
gray or white.

3.8.7 HUE—The dimension of color perception most commonly denoted by such names as red, yellow, green, blue,
etc. The most closely related physical characteristic to hue is wavelength.

3.8.8 MONOCHROMATIC—Referring to a single hue or color.

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3.8.9 MUNSELL SYSTEM—A system of classifying and designating color attributes of object in terms of perceptually
uniform color scales for the three variables: hue, value, and chroma. ("Color-Order Systems," in 3.12.3.)

3.8.10 NEGATIVE AFTERIMAGE—An afterimage which is the opposite of the initial stimulus. This includes images of
complimentary colors and lightness reversals. For example, the afterimage produced by a red stimulus will
appear green; the afterimage produced by a blue stimulus will appear yellow; the afterimage of black blocks
separated by white grid lines will be white blocks separated by black grid lines.

3.8.11 POSITIVE AFTERIMAGE—Brief afterimage with approximately the same hues as the original. (Also called
homochromatic afterimage.)

3.8.12 PURKINJE SHIFT—It is the gradual change in the perceived relative brightness of different colors as
illumination changes from daylight to twilight. For example, red objects appear much darker than other
colored objects at night, but may appear as bright or brighter than the same objects during the day. On the
other hand, green and blue objects which appear darker than other objects during the day may appear
brighter at night. This reversal of relative brightness is what is referred to as the Purkinje shift. The shift is a
result of the change in spectral sensitivity associated with the transition from cone (photopic) vision to rod
(scotopic) vision.

3.8.13 SATURATION—The dimension of color perception which is most closely related to the purity of the light.
Narrow-band light tends to appear saturated. On the other hand, the more white light which is added to the
mixture, the less saturated the stimulus will appear.

3.8.14 TRICHROMATIC—Refers to a 'three-color' system or a type of color vision arising from three different cone
types. Normal human color vision is trichromatic.

3.9 Color Vision Deficiencies

3.9.1 COLOR DEFICIENCY—A term used to describe a variety of impairments of color vision. These range in
severity from anomalous trichromatic vision (slightly abnormal color vision), to dichromatic vision (partial
color blindness), to monochromatic vision (complete color blindness). The most common form of color
deficiency is anomalous trichromatism; the rarest is monochromatism.

For both anomalous trichromats and dichromats, the most common problem is some form of red-green
deficiency, while blue-yellow deficits are rare. Considering all types of color deficiencies, the total incidence
rate of color deficiencies is still fairly low. The highest rates occur for Caucasian males (8 to 10% of this
population has some form of color deficiency). Across population groups, males are up to 10 times more
likely to be color deficient.

There are several steps one can take to prevent problems for individuals with color deficiency. First and
foremost, provide ample luminous contrast. Second, avoid using red and green, or blue and yellow in pairs.
Finally, whenever possible employ mid-spectrum colors while avoiding deep reds and deep blues.

3.9.2 ANOMALOUS TRICHROMATISM—The most frequent but least severe form of color deficient vision. Anomalous
trichromats, like individuals with normal color vision, have three cone types. However, one of the cone types
function abnormally. It should be noted that not all anomalous trichromats demonstrate impaired color
discrimination. There are two major types of anomalous trichromatism: protanomaly and deuteranomaly.
Both of these are red-green color deficiencies.

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[Link] Protanomaly—A type of anomalous trichromatism. Protanomaly is caused by abnormalities in the cones
sensitive to long wavelengths of light, and results in a mild form of red-green color deficiency. Color
discrimination is usually impaired from red to yellowish-green, with the extent of the problem varying for
different individuals. In addition, protanomalous individuals—like protanopes—are not able to see longer
wavelengths of light (deep reds).

[Link] Deuteranomaly—The most common type of anomalous trichromatism. Deuteranomaly is caused by

abnormalities in the cones sensitive to medium wavelengths of light, and results in a mild form of red-green
color deficiency. Color discrimination is usually impaired from red to yellowish-green, but the extent of the
problem varies for different individuals.

3.9.3 DICHROMATISM (PARTIAL COLOR BLINDNESS)—A deficiency in color vision caused by the absence of one of
the three cone types. There are three major types of dichromatism: protanopia, deuteranopia, and tritanopia.
Both protanopia and deuteranopia are red-green deficiencies, while tritanopia is a blue-yellow deficit. The
most common form of dichromatism is deuteranopia; the rarest is tritanopia.

[Link] Protanopia—One of the three major forms of dichromatism (partial color blindness), caused by the
absence of cones sensitive to long wavelengths of light. Like deuteranopia, protanopia is a red-green color
deficiency, resulting in an inability to discriminate colors from medium wavelengths ("green") through long
wavelengths ("red"). Unlike deuteranopes, protanopes have a shortened visible spectrum, and are entirely
unable to see deep, saturated reds.

[Link] Deuteranopia—The most common of the three major forms of dichromatism (partial color blindness),
caused by the absence of cones sensitive to medium wavelength of light. Like protanopia, deuteranopia is
a red-green color deficiency, resulting in an inability to discriminate colors from medium wavelengths
("green") through long wavelengths ("red"). Unlike protanopia, there is no shortening of the visible
spectrum at the red end.

[Link] Tritanopia—The rarest of the three major forms of dichromatism (partial color blindness), caused by the
absence of cones sensitive to short wavelengths of light. Tritanopes are unable to discriminate colors from
short wavelengths ("blue") through medium wavelengths ("yellow").

3.9.4 MONOCHROMATISM (COMPLETE COLOR BLINDNESS)—The most severe form of color deficient vision, mono-
chromatism is exceptionally rare. Monochromats demonstrate a complete inability to discriminate colors.

3.10 General Vision

3.10.1 ACCOMMODATION—The process by which the eye changes focus from an object at one distance to an object
at another distance.

3.10.2 AMETROPIA—The refractive condition which, with accommodation relaxed, parallel rays do not focus on the
retina; a condition representing the manifestation of a refractive error, specifically myopia, hypermetropia, or
astigmatism, hence, a deviation from emmetropia.

3.10.3 ASTIGMATISM—Asymmetrical curvature of refractive surfaces of the eye which result in inaccurate focusing of
parallel rays of light on the retina.

3.10.4 BLINDNESS—Generally legally defined in the United States as visual acuity for distant vision of 20/200 or less
in the better eye, with best correction or visual acuity of better than 20/200 if the widest diameter of field of
vision subtends an angle no greater than 20 degrees. (Some states include up to 30 degrees.) (A measure
of 20/200 visual acuity means that a person can see at a distance no greater than 6.5 m [20 ft] what one with
normal sight can see at 65 m [200 ft].)

3.10.5 BLINK RATE—The frequency with which the eyelids cover the eye under specified conditions.

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3.10.6 CONVERGENCE—Process of varying the rotation of the eyes, as the object observed approaches the viewer,
to allow image to be formed at corresponding regions of the two retinas; that is, the turning of the two eyes
toward each other so that their respective lines of sight meet at a common point in space, the point of the
object being focused on.

3.10.7 DIOPTER—The amount of accommodation exerted by the eye is expressed in diopters, the unit used for
designating the refractive power of a lens. The power of a lens in diopters is the reciprocal of its focal length
in meters (D = 1/F). A one-diopter lens focuses parallel rays at a point 1 m away from it.

3.10.8 EMMETROPIA—The refractive state of the eye when, with the lens of the eye at rest (least convex), parallel
rays are brought to focus on the retina (no refractive error).

3.10.9 FARSIGHTEDNESS—(Also known as hyperopia or hypermetropia.) A condition in which objects are focused
behind the retina. Because of this refractive problem, individuals with hyperopia may have difficulty focusing
on near objects.

3.10.10 HETEROPHORIA—A term used to denote a tendency to imperfect coordination of the various muscles which
move the two eyes so as to maintain binocular single vision.

3.10.11 HYPEROPIA OR HYPERMETROPIA—(See Farsightedness.)

3.10.12 INTERPUPILLARY DISTANCE (IPD)—The distance between the centers of the pupils at the described point of
fixation.

3.10.13 IRIS—The circular pigmented ring of color that gives the eye its characteristic color and controls the size of
the pupillary opening.

3.10.14 MYOPIA—(See Nearsightedness.)

3.10.15 NEARSIGHTEDNESS—(Also known as myopia.) A condition in which objects are focused in front of the
retina. Because of this refractive problem, individuals with myopia may have difficulty focusing on far
objects.

3.10.16 OCULAR DOMINANCE—Visual perceptions of most people tend to be more or less dominated by the vision of
one of the eyes.

3.10.17 OPHTHALMOLOGY—The branch of medicine dealing with the structure, function, and diseases of the eye.

3.10.18 PRESBYOPIA—The age related decline in the ability to bring near objects into focus, which is due to
changes in the lens of the eye and its ability to accommodate (i.e., change shape).

3.10.19 PURSUIT EYE MOVEMENTS—Smooth, voluntary eye movements, made while tracking moving objects.
These movements are typically of much longer duration and considerably lower velocity than saccades.

3.10.20 SACCADIC EYE MOVEMENTS (SACCADES)—Rapid, abrupt movements of the eyes, which function to change
fixation from one location to another. Saccades are high velocity movements (20 to 600 degrees/s), of
short duration (20 to 100 ms).

3.10.21 STEREO ACUITY—The ability to perceive binocularly the solidity and relative distances of objects. Stereo
acuity is defined arbitrarily as the degree of binocular perception of apparent depth induced by
stereoscopic means. This is differentiated from the discrimination of real depth or the relative distances of
objects viewed as they are actually oriented in space relative to each other.

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3.10.22 STEREOPSIS—The capacity for three-dimensional vision. It is a function of the two eyes acting in unison,
but each receiving slightly different views of solid objects. However, other cues besides binocular vision
may contribute to stereopsis, permitting some degree of depth to be perceived monocularly.

3.10.23 VIEWING ANGLE—The angle between the observer's line of sight when looking straight ahead and the line
of sight when viewing a particular object (or area); it is the extent the eyes or head must rotate to look
directly at that object.

3.10.24 VISIBILITY—The clarity with which an object can be seen. Also the characteristic of an object and its
surroundings, including background and media through which light must be transmitted, indicating its
probability of being seen. The visibility of an object is a function of many factors, including its size,
illumination and contrast, as well as the visual abilities of the person viewing the object.

3.10.25 VISUAL ANGLE—The angle subtended by an object of vision at the nodal point of the eye. The magnitude of
this angle determines the size of the corresponding retinal image, irrespective of the size or distance of the
object.

3.11 Light Measurement

3.11.1 ANGSTROM (A)—Unit of wavelength equal to 10−10 m (one ten-billionth meter).

3.11.2 BLACKBODY RADIATOR—An ideal surface which completely absorbs all incoming light, and emits light that
varies in spectral distribution (i.e., color) with changes in temperature.

3.11.3 CIE (COMMISSION INTERNATIONALE DE L'ECLAIRAGE)—An international organization that has developed many
of the photometric and colorimetric standards.

3.11.4 CIE STANDARD ILLUMINANT—Standard light sources with specific spectral power distributions used for light
measurement. The most common CIE standard illuminants are A (which is representative of incandescent
light) and D65 (which is representative of normal sunlight).

3.11.5 CIE STANDARD OBSERVER—The concept of standard observer is used to define visual response functions
intended to be representative of a "normal" observer. It does not refer to any specific observer. Rather, it is
based on data averaged from many observers under specific experimental conditions. This approach was
used by the CIE in developing the photopic and scotopic luminous efficiency functions (which are the basis of
photometric measurement), as well as the 1931 RGB colorimetric system. Many subsequent colorimetric
functions, including the 1931 CIE XYZ, CIE L*a*b* and CIE L*u*v*, are mathematical transformations based
on the same standard observer data as the 1931 RGB system.

3.11.6 DOMINANT WAVELENGTH—The wavelength of the monochromatic stimulus that will match a given sample of
color when mixed with a suitable proportion of white and adjusted appropriately in intensity.

3.11.7 ILLUMINANCE—Illuminance is the amount of light (or luminous flux) striking a given area of a surface.
Specifically:

Illuminance of a surface (in lux) = Luminous Flux (in lumens) ⁄ Solid Angle (in steradians)

The SI unit of measurement for illuminance is the lux (lx), where 1 lux = 1 lumen per meter squared. Other
units of measurement include the phot (ph), the milliphot (mph), and the footcandle (fc). Illuminance is
irradiance evaluated with regard to its visibility to a standard human observer.

3.11.8 LIGHT—Light is radiant energy evaluated with respect to its ability to stimulate the sense of sight of a human
observer. In other words, it is visible electromagnetic energy (electromagnetic energy with wavelengths in
the range of approximately 400 to 700 nm).

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3.11.9 LUMINANCE—Luminance is the intensity of emitted or reflected light from a surface, in a given direction, per
unit area. The SI unit of measurement for luminance is the nit (nt), where 1 nit = 1 candela per meter
squared. Other units of measurement include the stilb (sb), apostilb (asb), lambert (L), millilambert (mL),
and footlambert (fL). Luminance is radiance evaluated with regard to its visibility to a standard human
observer.

3.11.10 LUMINOUS—Emitting or reflecting light (see light). Pertaining to electromagnetic radiation as perceived by
the eye; that is, with the contributions at wavelengths weighted according to the luminous efficiency
function V(λ). The term is often used to differentiate between the total energy and that energy which is
perceived by the eye. For example, radiant transmittance or reflectance refers to the total amount of
electromagnetic energy transmitted or reflected, whereas luminous transmittance or reflectance refers to
only the radiation seen by the eye.

3.11.11 LUMINOUS EFFICIENCY FUNCTION—V(λ)—The function describing the relative sensitivity of the eye to
radiant energy of different wavelengths.

3.11.12 LUMINOUS FLUX—The rate of light flow per unit time, usually expressed in lumens. Luminous flux is radiant
flux evaluated with regard to its visibility to a standard human observer.

3.11.13 LUMINOUS INTENSITY—The light producing power of a source (the amount of light leaving a source) within a
given area. Specifically:

Luminous Intensity (in candelas) = Luminous Flux (in lumens) ⁄ Solid Angle (in Steradians)

Luminous intensity is radiant intensity evaluated with regard to its visibility to a standard human observer.

3.11.14 NANOMETER (nm)—A unit of length equal to one billionth (10−9) of a meter.

3.11.15 PHOTOMETRY—The prediction of apparent brightness, based on the measurement of radiant energy
corrected for its perceptibility to humans. Photometers use special filters that seek to replicate human
spectral sensitivity. Photometers attempt to measure perceived brightness (a psychological quality), as
opposed to radiometers which measure actual physical intensity.

3.11.16 RADIANT ENERGY—Radiant energy is electromagnetic energy, which includes gamma rays, X-rays,
microwaves, UV radiation, infrared radiation, radar, TV and radio signals. In addition, a very narrow band
of electromagnetic energy (wavelengths of approximately 400 to 700 nm) constitutes the visible spectrum
(i.e., light). For example, radiant transmittance refers to the total amount of electromagnetic energy
transmitted, whereas luminous transmittance refers to only the radiation seen by the eye.

3.11.17 RADIOMETRY—The measurement of radiant energy.

3.11.18 SI UNITS—The standard international units of measurement as determined by the International System
(Systeme Internationale d'Unites). For illuminance, the SI unit is the lux (lx), where 1 lux = 1 lumen per
meter square; for luminance, the SI unit is the nit (nt), where 1 nit = 1 candela per meter squared (cd/m2).
The SI photometric base unit is the candela.

3.11.19 ULTRAVIOLET RADIATION—The radiation beyond the violet end of the visible spectrum with wavelengths less
than 400 nm. It is divided, for convenience, into: UVA—transmitted by glass, 400 to 320 nm; UVB—
sunburning region of sunlight, 320 to 280 nm; UVC—transmitted by quartz, 280 nm.

3.11.20 WATT—The SI unit of measurement of radiant flux. Radiant flux is the radiant energy emitted per unit time
(as compared to lumens, which is a measure of luminous flux).

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3.11.21 WAVELENGTH—Wavelength is the straight line distance between a point on one wave to the corresponding
point on the next wave. When measuring light, wavelength is usually expressed in nanometers (10−9 m) or
angstroms (10−10 m). The wavelength of visible radiation (light) is most closely related to the perceptual
attribute known as hue.

3.12 Colorimetry

3.12.1 CIE CHROMATICITY COORDINATES—The proportions of CIE tristimulus values required to define a color. They
are designated as x, y, and z, and are the ratios of the tristimulus values X, Y, and Z in relation to their sum
(X+Y+Z). Specifically:

x = X/(X+Y+Z)
y = Y/(X+Y+Z)
z = Z/(X+Y+Z)

The x and y chromaticity coordinates are the x and y axes of the 1931 CIE chromaticity diagram. The z
coordinate is never plotted. Since x+y+z must equal 1, z is redundant given x and y.

3.12.2 COLORIMETRY—The prediction of color appearance, based on the measurement of radiant energy corrected
for its effect on human color vision. Colorimeters use special filters to mimic the spectral sensitivity of the
different cone types found in the eye. Colorimeters attempt to measure perceived color, as opposed to
spectroradiometers which measure the actual wavelength composition of light.

3.12.3 COLOR-ORDER SYSTEMS—A systematic method for ordering colors. Color-order systems employ a set of
material standards representative of the whole set of colors under consideration, and provide a notational or
consistent naming practice to facilitate color identification and communication. The most common color-
order system is Munsell.

3.12.4 COLOR SPACE (COLOR SCALE)—A mathematical model used to quantify and predict color perception. The
models are usually 3-dimensional, and are most commonly based on data from color-matching studies. The
first color scale to be used widely in industry was the 1931 CIE XYZ system. The current industry standards,
CIE L*a*b* and CIE L*u*v*, are transformations of the 1931 system. Both CIE L*a*b* and CIE L*u*v* were
attempts to provide a color space of uniform perceptual units, such that equal distances within the color
space—∆E—would correspond to equal changes in color perception. However, two important limitations of
these color spaces are often overlooked. First, they were designed to predict small differences (just-
noticeable differences) in color appearance; they were not intended to predict large differences across the
color space. Second, both CIE L*a*b* and CIE L*u*v* assume opaque colored objects. However, by
industry convention CIE L*a*b* is used for surface color (opaque) objects, while CIE L*u*v* is used for
displays and other self-luminating stimuli.

[Link] CIE L*a*b* (1976 CIELAB)—A three-dimensional model of color appearance, used widely in industry to
measure and predict the appearance of colored objects. CIELAB is a transformation of the 1931 XYZ
System. (See Color Space.) L*, a*, and b* represent the coordinates of the CIELAB three-dimensional
model, where L* is principally a luminous factor.

[Link] CIE L*u*v* (1976 CIELUV)—A three-dimensional model of color appearance, used widely in industry to
measure and predict the color appearance of displays. CIELUV is a transformation of the 1931 XYZ
System. (See Color Space.) L*, u*, and v* represent the coordinates of the CEILUV three-dimensional
model, where L* is principally a luminous factor. CIE L*u*v* values are NOT equal to CIE L'u'v' values.

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[Link] CIE RGB System (1931 RGB System)—This is the first model of color perception developed by the CIE,
and is based on the color-matching behavior of the CIE standard observer (see Color Space). RGB stands
for the three primaries used by this system for color-matching—red (700 nm), green (546.1 nm) and blue
(435.8 nm). However, when using the RGB primaries there exist some colors which require 'negative'
amounts of one of the primaries (i.e., at least one of the primaries will have a negative tristimulus value). In
order to overcome this, the CIE developed the 1931 XYZ system which is a mathematical transformation of
the RGB system.

[Link] CIE XYZ System (CIE 1931 standard colorimetric system, or 1931 XYZ System)—This is the first model
of color perception to be used widely in industry, and is based on the color-matching behavior of the CIE
standard observer (see Color Space). It is a transformation of the 1931 RGB system, with these notable
differences:

a. For all color-matching solutions, the tristimulus values are always positive,
b. The XYZ primaries of the system are imaginary—they do not correspond to any actual wavelength,
and
c. The Y primary is defined so that it represents luminance only, while X and Z have no luminance.

3.12.5 SPECTROPHOTOMETER—A device for measuring reflected or transmitted radiant energy as a function of
wavelength. It cannot be used for measuring emitted light. (For emissive displays, such as a CRT, a
spectroradiometer should be used.) Spectrophotometers compute relative values of a sample (such as a
paint chip) by comparing the sample plus background illumination to the background alone. In addition, most
spectrophotometers provide for the calculation of photometric and colorimetric parameters as part of their
data output.

3.12.6 SPECTRORADIOMETER—A device for measuring the absolute values of emitted radiant energy as a function of
wavelength. A spectroradiometer can also be used as a spectrophotometer (to provide measures of
reflected or transmitted energy), but the reverse is not true. In addition, most spectroradiometers provide for
the calculation of photometric and colorimetric parameters as part of their data output.

3.12.7 TRISTIMULUS VALUES—The relative proportion of three reference lights of different colors required to match a
given colored light. The CIE tristimulus values are designated as X, Y, and Z.

3.13 Photometric Measurement Units

3.13.1 LUMINOUS INTENSITY AND LUMINOUS FLUX

[Link] Candela (cd)—The candela is a unit of luminous intensity or power of a light-producing source. One
candela is defined as the luminous intensity of 1/60th of 1 cm2 of a blackbody radiator operating at the
freezing point of platinum (2046 ° K). The candela is the photometric base unit in the SI system of units
(also known as candlepower).

[Link] Candlepower—Candlepower is another name for luminous intensity when expressed in candelas.

[Link] Lumen (lm)—The lumen is a measure of luminous flux, and is derived from the candela. It is the luminous
flux emitted by a point source of uniform intensity of one candela within a steradian (unit solid angle).

[Link] Troland—A unit of retinal illumination equal to that produced by viewing a surface having a luminance of
1 cd/m2 through a pupil having an area of 1 mm2. Originally called photon by Troland and later renamed in
his honor to differentiate it from a photon of light energy.

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3.13.2 ILLUMINANCE

[Link] Footcandle (fc, fcd)—The footcandle is a unit of illuminance equal to 1 lumen per square foot. The
preferred (SI) unit of illuminance is the lux (or lumen per meter squared). 1 fc = 10.76 lux.
1 lux = 9.290 x 10−2 fc.

[Link] Lumens per Meter Squared (lm/m2)—See lux (1 lm/m2 ≡ 1 lux).

[Link] Lux (lx) Lux—or lumens per meter square—is the SI (Systeme Internationale d'Unites) photometric unit of
illuminance. A one candela light source 1 m from a surface produces one lux of illumination on that
surface. (Illuminance is the amount of light striking a surface.)

[Link] Milliphot (mph)—The milliphot is a unit of illuminance. 1 mph = 10 lux. 1 lux = 10−1 mph.

[Link] Phot (ph)—The phot is a unit of illuminance. 1 ph = 104 lux. 1 lux = 10−4 mph.

3.13.3 LUMINANCE

[Link] Apostilb (asb)—The apostilb is a unit of luminance equal to 10−4 lamberts or (1/π) nit. The preferred (SI)
unit of luminance is the nit (or candelas per meter squared). 1 asb = 3.183 x 10−1 nit. 1 nit = 3.142 asb.

[Link] Candelas per Meter Squared (cd/m2)—See nit (1 cd/m2 ≡ 1 nit).

[Link] Footlambert (fL)—The footlambert is a unit of luminance equal to (1/π) cd/ft2. The preferred (SI) unit of
luminance is the nit (or candelas per meter squared). 1 fL = 3.426 nit. 1 nit = 2.919 x 10−1 fL.

[Link] Lambert (L)—The lambert is the luminance of a perfectly diffusing surface emitting or reflecting 1 lm/cm2 of
surface area. The preferred (SI) unit of luminance is the nit (or candelas per meter squared). 1 L = 3.183
x 103 nit. 1 nit = 3.142 x 10−4 L.

[Link] Millilambert (mL)—The millilambert is a unit of luminance equal to 10−3 lamberts. The preferred (SI) unit of
luminance is the nit (or candelas per meter squared). 1 mL = 3.183 nit. 1 nit = 3.142 x 10−1 mL.

[Link] Nit (nt)—The nit is the SI (Systeme Internationale d'Unites) photometric unit of luminance. Luminance is
the amount of light being emitted or reflected from a surface. One nit is equivalent to one candela per
meter squared (cd/m2).

[Link] Stilb (sb)—The stilb is a unit of luminance. The preferred (SI) unit of luminance is the nit (or candelas per
meter squared). 1 sb = 104 nit. 1 nit = 10−4 sb.

3.14 Optics

3.14.1 ABSORPTANCE—The ratio of the absorbed radiant or luminous flux to the incident flux.

[Link] Internal Absorption Factor—The ratio of the direct luminous flux absorbed by a transparent body during a
single passage from the first surface to the second surface (difference between the flux leaving the first
surface and that reaching the second surface) to the flux leaving the first surface.

3.14.2 ANGLE OF INCIDENCE—The angle formed between the incident light ray and the perpendicular to the surface
at the point of incidence. (See Figure 1.)

3.14.3 ANGLE OF REFLECTION—The angle formed between the reflected ray and the perpendicular to the surface at
the point of reflection. (See Figure 1.)

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a. The angle between the incoming beam of light and the perpendicular to the surface is the angle of
incidence.
b. The angle between the reflected light ray and the perpendicular to the surfac is the angle of
reflection.
c. The angle between the refracted light and the perpendicular to the surface is the angle of refraction.

FIGURE 1—ANGLE OF INCIDENCE, REFLECTION, AND REFRACTION

3.14.4 ANGLE OF REFRACTION—The angle formed between the refracted ray and the perpendicular to the surface at
the point of refraction. (See Figure 1.)

3.14.5 BREWSTER'S ANGLE—If the electric vibration of the incident waves is parallel to the plane of incidence, and if
the angle of incidence is such that the angle between the reflected and refracted beams equals 90 degrees,
the entire beam is transmitted, and none of it is reflected.

3.14.6 CHROMATIC ABERRATION—Imperfection of an image produced by variations in the index of refraction of the
elements of an optical system.

3.14.7 GLOSS—A property of a surface, associated with its spectral reflectance, that gives the surface a shiny or
lustrous appearance. Measurement is based on the specular reflectance at a specified incident angle
(typically 20, 60, or 85 degrees), with higher incident angles used for lower gloss specimens. A surface with
a gloss value of 100 has a specular reflectance of 4%, the same as black glass.

3.14.8 INVERSE SQUARE LAW—The illumination (E), at a point in a plane perpendicular to the line joining the point
and the source, is directly proportional to the luminous intensity (I) of the source in the direction of the point,
and inversely proportional to the square of the distance (D) from the point to the source. For a point source,
E = I/D2.

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3.14.9 LUMINESCENCE—Light emission that cannot be attributed merely to the temperature of the emitting body, but
results from such causes as chemical reactions at ordinary temperatures, electron bombardment,
electromagnetic radiation, and electric fields. Particular aspects of luminescence are referred to as
fluorescence and phosphorescence.

3.14.10 NEUTRAL FILTER—Optical filter that does not alter the chromaticity of the light it transmits.

3.14.11 NEUTRAL WEDGE—Neutral optical filter with continuous graduation from low to high density.

3.14.12 OPAQUE—Having the property of obstructing the transmission of light so that objects lying beyond are not
visible. The color properties of an opaque object (such as color paper) are primarily determined by its
spectral reflectance. (Compare to translucent and transparent.)

3.14.13 PHOSPHORESCENCE—One form of luminescence. The ability of certain substances to continue to emit light
long after the source of excitation energy has been removed.

3.14.14 PHOTOELECTROLUMINESCENCE—The use of light or other electromagnetic energy to create an electric

current which, in turn, induces electroluminescence.

3.14.15 POLARIZATION—The process by which the electric field (E) component of light waves is oriented in a
specific, uniform plane. Polarization is useful in selectively controlling light transmission (e.g., visual
displays, sunglasses, etc.), and is used in various optical measurement devices.

3.14.16 RAYLEIGH EQUATION—Ratio of red to green required by each observer to match spectral yellow.

3.14.17 RAYLEIGH'S LAW OF SCATTERING—When heterogeneities of a transmitting medium have average

dimensions somewhat smaller than the wavelength of the incident energy. The fraction of the incident flux
scattered is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the wavelength.

3.14.18 REFLECTANCE—The ratio of the reflected radiant or luminous flux to the incident flux, under specified
geometric and spectral conditions.

[Link] Total Reflectance—The ratio of the reflected radiant or luminous flux, reflected at all angles within the
hemisphere bounded by the plane of the specimen, to the incident flux. Total reflectance is equal to the
sum of diffuse and specular reflectance.

[Link] Diffuse Reflectance—The ratio of the flux reflected by a specimen to the incident flux, the reflected flux
being measured at all angles except the specular angle. (See Figure 2.)

[Link] Specular Reflectance—The ratio of undiffused reflected flux to incident flux. (See Figure 2.)

[Link] Reflectance Factor—The ratio of flux reflected by a surface in a given direction to the flux reflected in the
same directions by a perfect reflecting diffuser under the same conditions of illumination.

3.14.19 REFRACTION—Deflection of radiant energy from a straight path in passing from one medium to another.

[Link] Index of Refraction—Ratio of sines of angles of incidence and refraction in transparent material. The ratio
of the velocity of light in a vacuum to the velocity of light in a substance, at a specified wavelength.

3.14.20 RESOLVING POWER—The capability of an optical system to separate the images of two closely situated
points in the object space.

3.14.21 SNELL'S LAW—Ratio of sines of angles of incidence and refraction is reciprocal of ratio of refractive indices
of initial and final media.

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Light which is reflected from a surface at the same angle as the angle of incidence, but on the opposite side of
the perpendicular to the surface is called specularly reflected light. Light reflected at any other angle (dotted
lines) is referred to as diffusely reflected light.

FIGURE 2—REFLECTED LIGHT

3.14.22 SOLID ANGLE—The solid angle, in steradians, of a surface seen from a point is numerically equal to its
projected area on a sphere, centered at that point, divided by the square of the radius of the sphere. A
sphere subtends 4π steradians at its center.

3.14.23 SPECTRAL DISTRIBUTION—Relative distribution of radiant energy or flux in the spectrum.

3.14.24 SPECTRUM—Spatial arrangement of components of radiant energy in order of their wavelengths.

3.14.25 SPECULAR—Pertaining to flux reflected from the surface of an object, without diffusion, at the specular
angle. For example, a silvered mirror reflects specularly.

3.14.26 SPECULAR ANGLE—The angle between the perpendicular to the surface and the reflected ray that is (a)
equal in value to the angle of incidence, (b) lies in the same plane as the incident ray and the
perpendicular, and (c) lies on the opposite side of the perpendicular to the surface.

3.14.27 STERADIAN—Unit of solid angle, subtended at the center of a sphere of 1 m radius by 1 m2 area on that
sphere.

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3.14.28 TRANSLUCENT—Transmitting and diffusing light so that objects beyond cannot be seen clearly. (Compare to
opaque and transparent.)

3.14.29 TRANSMITTANCE—The ratio of transmitted radiant or luminous flux to incident flux, under specified
geometric and spectral conditions.

[Link] Total Transmittance—The ratio of the flux transmitted at all forward angles to the incident flux. Total
transmittance is equal to the sum of diffuse and regular transmittance.

[Link] Diffuse Transmittance—The ratio of the flux which is scattered in passing through a surface or medium to
the flux which is incident at that surface or medium. (See Figure 3.)

[Link] Regular Transmittance—The ratio of undiffused transmitted flux to incident flux. (See Figure 3.)

Light which is transmitted through a medium at the angle of refraction (solid line) is called regularly
transmitted light. Light which is transmitted at any other angle (dashed lines) is called diffusely transmitted
light.

FIGURE 3—TRANSMITTED LIGHT

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[Link] Luminous Transmittance—Ratio of the luminous flux transmitted by the object to the luminous flux incident.

[Link] Transmittance Factor—The ratio of flux transmitted by a specimen to the flux transmitted by the perfect
transmitting diffuser under the same geometric and spectral conditions of measurement.

3.14.30 TRANSPARENT—Having the property of transmitting light without appreciable scattering so that objects
beyond are entirely visible. The color properties of a transparent object (such as a glass filter) are
determined primarily by its spectral transmittance. (Compare to opaque and translucent.)

3.15 Visual Displays

3.15.1 CRT (CATHODE RAY TUBE)—A display which produces light by high-energy electrons striking a phosphor
inside a glass sealed vacuum tube. An electron beam is emitted from a cathode at the rear of the tube,
accelerated, focused, and then positioned by magnetic deflection onto the phosphor coated viewing screen
at the front of the tube. Advantages of CRT displays include high brightness, built-in light source, full color,
wide viewing angle, high spatial resolution, outstanding color purity, and simple manufacturing.

3.15.2 EMISSIVE DISPLAYS—Displays in which electrical energy is converted into luminous energy. Examples
include EL, LED, PDP, VF, and CRT. Alternatively, nonemissive displays, such as LCD and EC, require an
external light source.

3.15.3 FLAT PANEL DISPLAYS—Displays having a very narrow depth, typically less than 15 mm. Individual pixels are
electrically addressed, usually via a matrix of row/column lines, where one line is used for timing and the
other for data input.

[Link] Electrochromic (EC)—A display in which the optical absorption properties, or color, of certain materials is
changed by an externally applied electrical field or current. Typically these displays exhibit vivid color
contrast between the electrochemical states, and only consume power when the state is changed.

[Link] EL Display (Electroluminescent)—Electroluminescence is the emission of light when an electric field is

applied directly to a polycrystalline phosphor. EL can be used in segmented displays for alphanumeric
characters, where each segment is a separate EL lamp. It can also be used for video-quality images using
'thin-film' technology.

[Link] LCD (Liquid Crystal Display)—A display in which a liquid crystal material is sandwiched between two
sheets of glass which have been coated on the inside with a transparent conductive material. The crystals
are aligned, and have a spiral twist of 90 degrees (twisted nematic or TN) or greater (super-twisted nematic
or STN). When an electric field is applied, the crystals change their orientation, which in turn changes their
light transmission properties. The liquid crystal material, by changing the alignment of the crystals, serves
as a spatially addressable light filter. If the addressing matrix uses a transistor to regulate voltage at each
pixel, it is called an active matrix LCD. Since the liquid crystal panel is a light filter (not a light emitter),
LCDs require an external light source. The light must first be passed through a polarizing filter before
entering the glass substrate.

[Link] LED (Light Emitting Diodes)—An LED is a single crystal semi-conductor diode which emits light when
excited by a low voltage DC source. Usually LED displays are made up of several segments which can
form alphanumeric characters. However, they can also consist of a single LED lamp (e.g., LED
annunciators), or arrays of LEDs can be placed together to form large area flat-panel alphanumeric
displays. The most common color is red, but other colors are available. LED technology cannot support
video- or vector-quality displays.

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[Link] PDP (Plasma Display Panel)—These displays consist of gas sealed between two layers of glass. Both
layers of glass contain conductors, to which voltage can be applied. This results in ionization of the gas,
which then glows. The ionized gas, or plasma, produces a brightness that is directly proportional to the
current passing through the gas. The most common color is a bright, neon orange, produced from neon-
argon plasma. Multi-colored PDPs usually generate ultraviolet light from the plasma, and then use it to
excite colored phosphors. Plasma panels are typically dot matrix and can be used for video-quality
displays.

[Link] VF Display (Vacuum Fluorescent)—A flat panel technology in which electrons, emitted in a vacuum from a
series of filament wires and controlled by a grid, bombard a phosphor. This is similar to CRTs, except VF
uses low voltage phosphors, and addresses the phosphors via a grid rather than magnetic deflection. VF
can be used for segmented, alphanumeric displays, but it does not support video-quality images. The low-
voltage phosphors required for automotive applications emit a blue-green color, but other phosphors,
requiring a higher excitation voltage, are available.

3.15.4 HEAD-UP DISPLAY (HUD)—A virtual display appearing in the area seen through the windshield.

3.15.5 PIXEL—Short for picture element, it is the smallest addressable element in an electronic display.

3.15.6 STROBOSCOPE—Device for presenting a rapid series of exposures of a related sequence of visual stimuli. An
illusion of continuous motion may be produced. Also used to stop apparent motion of a moving object.

PREPARED BY THE SAE DRIVER VISION STANDARDS COMMITTEE

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APPENDIX A

TABLE A1—INDEX OF GLOSSARY ITEMS

Item Sect.# Content Area
Absolute Threshold 3.2.1 Psychophysics
Absorptance 3.14.1 Optics
Accommodation 3.10.1 General Vision
Achromatic 3.8.1 Color Vision & Perception
Adaptation 3.5.1 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Aftereffect 3.5.2 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Afterimage 3.5.3 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Ambinocular Field of View 3.1.1 Field of View
Ametropia 3.10.2 General Vision
Angle of Incidence 3.14.2 Optics
Angle of Reflection 3.14.3 Optics
Angle of Refraction 3.14.4 Optics
Angstrom (A) 3.11.1 Light Measurement
Anomalous Trichromatism 3.9.2 Color Vision Deficiencies
Apostilb (asb) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Apparent Movement 3.6.1 General Perception
Astigmatism 3.10.3 General Vision

Bezold-Brucke Effect 3.8.2 Color Vision and Perception

Binocular Field of View 3.1.2 Field of View
Blackbody Radiator 3.11.2 Light Measurement
Blind Spot (Optic Disc) 3.3.1 Retina
Blindness 3.10.4 General Vision
Blink Rate 3.10.5 General Vision
Brewster's Angle 3.14.5 Optics
Brightness 3.6.2 General Perception

Candela (cd, candlepower ) [Link] Photometric Measurements

Candlepower [Link] Photometric Measurements
Candelas per Meter Squared (cd/m2) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Central Field of View 3.1.3 Field of View
Chroma 3.8.3 Color Vision and Perception
Chromatic Aberration 3.14.6 Optics
CIE (Commission Internationale De L’eclairage) 3.11.3 Light Measurement
CIE Chromaticity Coordinates 3.12.1 Colorimetry
CIE L*a*b* (1976 CIELAB) [Link] Colorimetry
CIE L*u*v* (1976 CIELUV) [Link] Colorimetry
CIE RGB (1931 RGB System) [Link] Colorimetry
CIE Standard Illuminant 3.11.4 Light Measurement
CIE Standard Observer 3.11.5 Light Measurement
CIE XYZ (CIE 1931 standard colorimetric system, or 1931 [Link] Colorimetry
XYZ System)
Color Constancy 3.8.4 Color Vision and Perception
Color Contrast 3.8.5 Color Vision and Perception
Color Deficiency 3.9.1 Color Vision Deficiencies
Colorimetry 3.12.2 Colorimetry
Color-Order Systems 3.12.3 Colorimetry

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 SAE J264 Reaffirmed JUN2004

TABLE A1—INDEX OF GLOSSARY ITEMS (CONTINUED)

Item Sect.# Content Area
Color Space (Color Scales) 3.12.4 Colorimetry
Complimentary Colors 3.8.6 Color Vision and Perception
Cones 3.3.2 Retina
Constancy Effects 3.5.4 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Contrast 3.7.1 Pattern Recognition
Contrast Effects 3.5.5 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Contrast Ratios 3.7.2 Pattern Recognition
Contrast Sensitivity Function (CSF) 3.7.3 Pattern Recognition
Convergence 3.10.6 General Vision
Critical Flicker Frequency (CFF) 3.6.3 General Perception
CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) 3.15.1 Visual Displays

Dark Adaptation 3.6.4 General Perception

Deuteranomaly [Link] Color Vision Deficiencies
Deuteranopia [Link] Color Vision Deficiencies
Dichromatism (Partial Color Blindness) 3.9.3 Color Vision Deficiencies
Difference Threshold 3.2.2 Psychophysics
Diffuse Reflectance [Link] Optics
Diffuse Transmittance [Link] Optics
Diopter 3.10.7 General Vision
Direct Field of View 3.1.4 Field of View
Disability Glare [Link] Sensitivity to Light
Discomfort Glare [Link] Sensitivity to Light
Dominant Wavelength 3.11.6 Light Measurement

Electrochromic (EC) [Link] Visual Displays

EL Display (Electroluminescent) [Link] Visual Displays
Emissive Displays 3.15.2 Visual Displays
Emmetropia 3.10.8 General Vision

Farsightedness 3.10.9 General Vision

Field of View 3.1.5 Field of View
Flat Panel Displays 3.15.3 Visual Displays
Footcandle (fc, fcd) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Footlambert (fL) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Form Perception 3.7.4 Pattern Recognition
Fovea 3.3.3 Retina
Foveal Field of View (Central Field of View) 3.1.6 Field of View

Glare 3.4.1 Sensitivity to Light

Gloss 3.14.7 Optics

Head-Up Display (HUD) 3.15.4 Visual Displays

Heterophoria 3.10.10 General Vision
Hue 3.8.7 Color Vision and Perception
Hyperopia or Hypermetropia 3.10.11 General Vision

Illuminance 3.11.7 Light Measurement

Index of Refraction [Link] Optics
Indirect Field of View 3.1.7 Field of View
Internal Absorption Factor [Link] Optics

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 SAE J264 Reaffirmed JUN2004

TABLE A1—INDEX OF GLOSSARY ITEMS (CONTINUED)

Item Sect.# Content Area
Interpupillary Distance (IPD) 3.10.12 General Vision
Inverse Square Law 3.14.8 Optics
Iris 3.10.13 General Vision

Just-Noticeable Difference (JND) 3.2.3 Psychophysics

Lambert (L) [Link] Photometric Measurements

Landolt Ring (Landolt C) 3.7.5 Pattern Recognition
Lateral Inhibition 3.4.2 Sensitivity to Light
LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) [Link] Visual Displays
Light 3.11.8 Light Measurement
Light Adaptation 3.6.5 General Perception
LED (Light Emitting Diodes) [Link] Visual Displays
Lightness Constancy 3.5.6 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Lightness Contrast 3.5.7 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Lumen (lm) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Lumens per Meter Squared (lm/m2) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Luminance 3.11.9 Light Measurement
Luminescence 3.14.9 Optics
Luminous 3.11.10 Light Measurement
Luminous Efficiency Function 3.11.11 Light Measurement
Luminous Flux 3.11.12 Light Measurement
Luminous Intensity 3.11.13 Light Measurement
Luminous Transmittance [Link] Optics
Lux (lx) [Link] Photometric Measurements

Mach Bands 3.5.8 Constancy and Contrast Effects

Mesopic 3.4.3 Sensitivity to Light
Millilambert (mL) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Milliphot (mph) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Monochromatic 3.8.8 Color Vision and Perception
Monochromatism (Complete Color Blindness) 3.9.4 Color Vision Deficiencies
Monocular Field of View 3.1.8 Field of View
Motion Aftereffect (Waterfall Illusion) 3.5.9 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Multichannel Model 3.7.6 Pattern Recognition
Munsell System 3.8.9 Color Vision and Perception
Myopia 3.10.14 General Vision

Nanometer (nm) 3.11.14 Light Measurement

Nearsightedness 3.10.15 General Vision
Negative Afterimage 3.8.10 Color Vision and Perception
Neutral Filter 3.14.10 Optics
Neutral Wedge 3.14.11 Optics
Nit (nt) [Link] Photometric Measurements

Ocular Dominance 3.10.16 General Vision

Opaque 3.14.12 Optics
Ophthalmology 3.10.17 General Vision
Optical Illusion 3.6.6 General Perception
Optic Nerve 3.3.4 Retina

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 SAE J264 Reaffirmed JUN2004

TABLE A1—INDEX OF GLOSSARY ITEMS (CONTINUED)

Item Sect.# Content Area
Parallax 3.6.7 General Perception
Parallax (Binocular) 3.6.8 General Perception
Pattern Recognition 3.7.7 Pattern Recognition
PDP (Plasma Display Panel) [Link] Visual Displays
Peripheral Field of View 3.1.9 Field of View
Phosphorescence 3.14.13 Optics
Phot (ph) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Photoelectroluminscence 3.14.14 Optics
Photometry 3.11.15 Light Measurement
Photopic 3.4.4 Sensitivity to Light
Photopigment 3.3.5 Retina
Photoreceptors 3.3.6 Retina
Pixel 3.15.5 Visual Displays
Polarization 3.14.15 Optics
Positive Afterimage 3.8.11 Color Vision and Perception
Presbyopia 3.10.18 General Vision
Primary Line of Sight 3.1.10 Field of View
Protanomaly [Link] Color Vision Deficiencies
Protanopia [Link] Color Vision Deficiencies
Psychophysics 3.2.4 Psychophysics
Purkinje Shift 3.8.12 Color Vision and Perception
Pursuit Eye Movements 3.10.19 General Vision

Radiant Energy 3.11.16 Light Measurement

Radiometry 3.11.17 Light Measurement
Rayleigh Equation 3.14.16 Optics
Rayleigh's Law of Scattering 3.14.17 Optics
Reflectance 3.14.18 Optics
Reflectance Factor [Link] Optics
Refraction 3.14.19 Optics
Regular Transmittance [Link] Optics
Resolving Power 3.14.20 Optics
Retina 3.3.7 Retina
Rods 3.3.8 Retina

Saccadic Eye Movements (Saccades) 3.10.20 General Vision

Saturation 3.8.13 Color Vision and Perception
Scotopic 3.4.5 Sensitivity to Light
Sensitivity 3.2.5 Psychophysics
SI Units 3.11.18 Light Measurement
Simultaneous Contrast 3.5.10 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Size Aftereffect 3.5.11 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Size Constancy 3.5.12 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Snell's Law 3.14.21 Optics
Snellen Acuity (Snellen Fraction) 3.7.8 Pattern Recognition
Solid Angle 3.14.22 Optics
Spectral Distribution 3.14.23 Optics
Spectral Sensitivity 3.4.6 Sensitivity to Light
Spectrophotometer 3.12.5 Colorimetry
Spectroradiometer 3.12.6 Colorimetry
Spectrum 3.14.24 Optics

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 SAE J264 Reaffirmed JUN2004

TABLE A1—INDEX OF GLOSSARY ITEMS (CONTINUED)

Item Sect.# Content Area
Specular 3.14.25 Optics
Specular Angle 3.14.26 Optics
Specular Reflectance [Link] Optics
Steradian 3.14.27 Optics
Stereo Acuity 3.10.21 General Vision
Stereopsis 3.10.22 General Vision
Steven's Power Law (Power Function) 3.2.6 Psychophysics
Stilb (sb) [Link] Photometric Measurements
Stroboscope 3.15.6 Visual Displays
Successive Contrast 3.5.13 Constancy and Contrast Effects

Threshold 3.2.7 Psychophysics

Tilt Aftereffect 3.5.14 Constancy and Contrast Effects
Total Reflectance [Link] Optics
Total Transmittance [Link] Optics
Translucent 3.14.28 Optics
Transmittance 3.14.29 Optics
Transmittance Factor [Link] Optics
Transparent 3.14.30 Optics
Trichromatic 3.8.14 Color Vision and Perception
Tristimulus Values 3.12.7 Colorimetry
Tritanopia [Link] Color Vision Deficiencies
Troland [Link] Photometric Measurements

Ultraviolet Radiation 3.11.19 Light Measurement

VF Display (Vacuum Fluorescent) [Link] Visual Displays

Vernier Acuity 3.7.9 Pattern Recognition
Viewing Angle 3.10.23 General Vision
Visibility 3.10.24 General Vision
Visual Acuity 3.7.10 Pattern Recognition
Visual Angle 3.10.25 General Vision
Visual Field (Field of View) 3.1.11 Field of View
Visual Perception 3.6.9 General Perception

Watt 3.11.20 Light Measurement

Wavelength 3.11.21 Light Measurement
Weber's Law 3.2.8 Psychophysics

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 SAE J264 Reaffirmed JUN2004

Rationale—This document has been reaffirmed to comply with the SAE 5-Year Review policy.

Relationship of SAE Standard to ISO Standard—Not applicable.

Application—The function of uniform terminology is to promote understandable and exact communication in

the area of vision. A great deal of effort has been expended to make these definitions suit this purpose.
It is recognized that this terminology, like other dictionaries, must be revised periodically to reflect current
usage and changing needs. The Driver Vision Subcommittee of the Human Factors Engineering
Committee, therefore, solicits suggestions for improvements and additions to be considered in future
revisions.

Reference Section

Boff, K. R., Kaufman, L., and Thomas, J. P. (Eds.), Handbook of Perception and Human Performance:
Volume 1 Sensory Processes and Perception, New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1986

Boff, K. R., Lincoln, J. E. (Eds.), Engineering Data Compendium, Human Perception and Performance:
Volume 1, Harry G. Armstrong Aerospace Medical Research Laboratory, Wright-Patterson Air Force
Base, Ohio, 1988

Cornsweet, T. N., Visual Perception, New York: Academic Press, 1970

Schiff, W., Perception: An Applied Approach,. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1980

Sekular, R., and Blake, R., Perception (3rd edition), New York: McGraw-Hill, Inc., 1994

Wyszecki, G., and Stiles, W. S., Color Science: Concepts and Methods, Quantitative Data and Formulae,
New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1982

Developed by the SAE Driver Vision Standards Committee

Sponsored by the SAE Motor Vehicle Council