ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to express my special

thanks of gratitude to my teacher
([Link] mam) as well as our
principal ([Link] Nagariya)who
gave me the golden opportunity to do
this wonderful project on the topic
(FORMATION CAPACITY OF SOAP ),
which also helped me in doing a lot of
Research and i came to know about so
many new things I am really thankful
to them.
Secondly i would also like to thank my
parents and friends who helped me a
lot finalizing this project within the
limited time
 CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the project on “

FORMING CAPACITY OF SOAP
”submitted by “ Prateek Prajapati“ of
class 12 Science is a pursue and
sincere work of his intelligence and
deep study of the topic . He has been
working under my supervision during
the session 2020- 2021. The material
involve in this report is entirely his
contribution . The result are
satisfactory and has been checked by
 INDEX

1 Preparation of soap
2 what are fats and oil
3 what is soap
4 experiment
5 Procedure
6 Precaution
 PREPARATION OF SOAP
In cold process and hot process the
soap making it may be required the
cold process for making take place at
the sufficient temperature set of a
story the big used process can be used
right away because the early and fat
saponified quickly at the higher
temperature used in hot process soap
making . Cold process of making
required measurement of alkali and
mouse and computing the ration using
saponification charts to answer that
the finished product is mild and skin
friendly .

IN HOT PROCESS
Hot process in the hot process together
at 80-100c saponification which is the
soap maker can determine by taste or
by eyes.
 COLD PROCESS
Cold which is the news to calculated
the process soap makes up the
soapnification chart appropriate
amount of alkali.
Excess unreacted allegory in the shop
will the result enough so far easy
teacher the alkalies dissolve in water
that also heated .
Then if the solid at room temperature .
Once both substances to have cooled
to approximately 10 degrees
fahrenheit guide this twister interest
there are wearing level of traces.
WHAT ARE FATS & OIL

What are Fats?

Some compounds that are soluble in
organic solvents and mostly insoluble
in water are called fats.
They are solid at room temperature.
There are two types of fats that are
 solid at room temperature. They are
saturated fats and trans fats.
Saturated fat is also known as
solid fat. Saturated fat in fish and
poultry is less when compared to
animal fat or red meat. This fat can
increase your cholesterol levels.
Tropical oils such as cocoa butter,
coconut oil, palm oil also have
saturated fats. It is mostly found in
non-dairy products and snacks in
large quantity. Cakes, butter, cookies
are some examples of food containing
maximum saturated fats.
A fat is changed to increase its shelf
life. The process to make this change
happen is called hydrogenation. This
fat is harder at room temperature. The
importance of trans fat is that it makes
flakier pie crusts and crispier crankers.
It is found in cookies, chips, processed
food etc. Avoid eating or consume
fewer foods containing trans fats as it
increase your cholesterol levels.
What are Oils?
 Fats that are liquid at room
temperature are called oils.
Unsaturated fats belong to this
category. Consuming food containing
unsaturated fat helps improve
cholesterol levels. There are two types
of unsaturated fats. Monounsaturated
fats and polyunsaturated fats.
Monounsaturated fat is found in nuts,
vegetable oils and avocado.
Consuming food that is rich in
monounsaturated fats helps in
controlling cholesterol levels by
keeping high good HDL cholesterol and
lowering bad LDL cholesterol.
WHAT IS SOAP

Introduction:
Soap is a mixture of sodium salts of
various naturally occurring fatty
acids. Air bubbles added to a molten
soap will decrease the density of the
soap and thus it will float on water.
If the fatty acid salt has potassium
rather than sodium, a softer lather is
the result.
Soap is produced by a
saponification or basic hydrolysis
reaction of a fat or oil. Currently,
sodium carbonate or sodium
hydroxide is used to neutralize the
fatty acid and convert it to the salt.
General overall hydrolysis
reaction:
fat + NaOH ---> glycerol + sodium
salt of fatty acid
Although the reaction is shown as a
one step reaction, it is in fact two
steps. The net effect as that the
ester bonds are broken. The glycerol
turns back into an alcohol (addition
of the green H's). The fatty acid
portion is turned into a salt because
of the presence of a basic solution of
the NaOH. In the carboxyl group,
one oxygen (red) now has a negative
charge that attracts the positive
 sodium ion.
Types of Soap: The type of fatty
acid and length of the carbon chain
determines the unique properties of
various soaps. Tallow or animal fats
give primarily sodium stearate (18
carbons) a very hard, insoluble
soap. Fatty acids with longer chains
are even more insoluble. As a matter
of fact, zinc stearate is used in
talcum powders because it is water
repellent.
Coconut oil is a source of lauric acid
(12 carbons) which can be made into
sodium laurate. This soap is very
soluble and will lather easily even in
sea water.
Fatty acids with only 10 or fewer
carbons are not used in soaps
because they irritate the skin and
have objectionable odors
Cleansing Action of Soap:
The cleansing action of soap is
 determined by its polar and non-
polar structures in conjunction with
an application of solubility
principles. The long hydrocarbon
chain is of course non-polar and
hydrophobic (repelled by water). The
"salt" end of the soap molecule is
ionic and hydrophilic (water soluble).
Monolayer: When soap is added to
water, the ionic-salt end of the
molecule is attracted to water and
dissolved in it. The non-polar
hydrocarbon end of the soap
molecule is repelled by water. A
drop or two of soap in water forms a
monolayer on the water surface as
shown in the graphics on the left.
The soap molecules "stand up" on
the surface as the polar carboxyl
salt end is attracted to the polar
water. The non-polar hydrocarbon
tails are repelled by the water,
which makes them appear to stand
up.
Soap vs. oil vs. water:
Water alone is not able to penetrate
grease or oil because they are of
opposite polarity.
When grease or oil (non-polar
hydrocarbons) are mixed with a
soap- water solution, the soap
molecules work as a "bridge"
between polar water molecules and
non-polar oil molecules. Soap
molecules have both properties of
non-polar and polar at opposite ends
of the molecule.
The oil is a pure hydrocarbon so it is
non-polar. The non-polar
hydrocarbon tail of the soap
dissolves into the oil. That leaves the
polar carboxylate ion of the soap
molecules are sticking out of the oil
droplets, the surface of each oil
droplet is negatively charged. As a
result, the oil droplets repel each
other and remain suspended in
solution (this is called an emulsion)
to be washed away by a stream of
water. The outside of the droplet is
 also coated with a layer of water
molecules..

Effect of Hard Water:

If soap is used in "hard" water, the
soap will be precipitated as "bath-tub
ring" by calcium or magnesium ions
present in "hard" water.
The effects of "hard" water calcium or
magnesium ions are minimized by the
addition of "builders". The most
common "builder" used to be sodium
trimetaphosphate. The phosphates
react with the calcium or magnesium
ions and keeps them in solution but
away from the soap molecule. The
soap molecule can then do its job
without interference from calcium or
magnesium ions. Other "builders"
include sodium carbonate, borax, and
sodium silicate are currently in
detergents
 . EXPERIMENT

– Preparation of Soap
Soaps are carboxylate salts with very
long hydrocarbon chains. Soap can be
made from the base hydrolysis of a fat
or an oil. This hydrolysis is called
saponification, and the reaction has
been known for centuries.
Traditionally, soaps were made from
animal fat and lye (NaOH). (Lye was
traditionally made by pouring water
through wood ashes.) An example of a
saponification reaction is shown
 below. As you may remember, fats
and oils are triesters of glycerol and
three fatty acids. Esters can be
hydrolyzed to their alcohol and
carboxylic acid components in the
presence of acid or base. Fats, oils,
and fatty acids are insoluble in water
because their hydrophobic tails are so
long. If a base is used for hydrolysis,
the fatty acids produced are
deprotonated and are present as the
corresponding carboxylate salts.
Because these product carboxylate
salts are charged, they are much more
soluble in water than the
corresponding uncharged fatty acids.
Since the carboxylate salts also each
have a long nonpolar tail, they are also
compatible with nonpolar greases and
oils. Soap can emulsify fats and oils by
forming micelles around oil droplets.
The soap molecules surround an oil
droplet so that their nonpolar tails are
embedded in the oil and their charged
 “head” groups are on the exterior of
the droplets, facing the water. If the oil
droplets are small enough and if there
are enough soap molecules to
surround them, the oil droplets become
dispersed in the water and can then
easily be washed away. Therefore,
using lots of soap, hot water, and
agitation can help clean greasy dishes.
Hot water can melt solid fats, and
agitation can help break up the fats
and oils into smaller droplets. Using
lots of soap makes it more likely that
there will be enough soap molecules to
surround and emulsify all of the fat
droplets. Soaps are less effective in
hard water, which is water that
contains a significant concentration of
Mg2+ and Ca2+ ions. These ions form
precipitates with soap molecules, and
this precipitate is often seen as a gray
line on a bathtub or sink and is often
called “soap scum”. Since soap forms
a precipitate with these ions, it means
 that many of the soap molecules are
no longer present in the solution.
Therefore, soap will form fewer suds in
hard water. “Soft water” is water that
contains very few or no ions that
precipitate with soap. Soap will
therefore be much more effective in soft
water than in hard water. Detergents
are similar to soaps in that they have
a charged head group and a long
nonpolar tail group, but they are not
prepared from natural fats or oils.
Detergents are H2C CH OH OH C O - O
(CH2)16CH3 H2C CH O C (CH2)16CH3
O C (CH2)16CH3 O O C H2 O C O
(CH2)16CH3 + C H2 OH Glycerol
Sodium Stearate, a soap Glyceryl
tristearin, a fat + 3 NaOH 3 Na+ 80
useful because they do not form
precipitates with magnesium or
calcium ions, which means that they
work in both soft and hard water.
Shown below is a typical detergent
molecule, sodium lauryl sulfate (which
you may recognize from ingredient lists
of shampoos or other cleaning
products): After detergents started
being widely used, it was discovered
that they were not broken down in
sewage treatment plants. Many
streams and lakes became
contaminated with detergents and
large amounts of foam appeared in
natural waters. Biodegradable
detergents were then developed.
Shown below is an example of a
biodegradable detergent, sodium
laurylbenzenesulfonate. Many
commercial detergents also contain
phosphate compounds. This can be a
problem, because phosphate is a
nutrient for plants. Too much
phosphate in a pond, lake, or stream
accelerates the growth of algae, which
consumes too much of the dissolved
oxygen in the water. This disturbs the
ecosystem in the pond, and some
organisms will die. Therefore, you will
 see some detergents these days that
are labeled “phosphate free”. These
are better for the environment than
phosphate-containing detergents. In
this experiment, you will make soap
from a fat or an oil by heating it with
sodium hydroxide. You will precipitate
the soap by adding it to a concentrated
salt solution, and then you will collect
the solid soap using vacuum filtration.
You will then test the soap you made
for its pH and foaming ability. You will
test to see how well it emulsifies oil
and you will also test its behavior in
hard water. You will carry out the
same tests on a commercially prepared
soap solution and on a commercially
prepared detergent solution, and you
will compare your soap to the
commercial soap and detergent
– Saponification – Preparation of
Soap
[Link] a 150-mL beaker and record
the mass. Add about 5 g of a fat or
oil, reweigh, and record the mass.
Calculate the mass of fat or oil used
by subtraction. Record the type of
fat or oil you are using. 2. Add 15
mL of ethanol and 15 mL of 20 %
NaOH to the beaker. (Be very careful
when pouring the NaOH solution,
and don’t let it splatter.) Add a small
magnetic stir bar to the beaker and
heat and stir the mixture on a
magnetic stirrer-hotplate. Heat the
mixture (with constant stirring) for
30 minutes or so, until the solution
no longer has two separate layers.
The solution should be transparent
at this point. Important: as it is
heating, some of the solution will
evaporate. You must make sure that
the volume does not decrease too
much, so you will need to add more
liquid as the reaction progresses.
Add 5 mL portions of a mixture
containing equal volumes of ethanol
and water to the beaker in order to
maintain the same volume in the
beaker. Also, do not let the mixture
overheat or foam over, and do not
allow it to boil to dryness! If this
happens, you will need to start over.
Caution: the mixture of oil and
ethanol will be very hot, and may
splatter or catch fire. Have a watch
glass nearby to smother any flames.
Wear goggles at all times, because
NaOH can cause permanent eye
damage! 3. When the saponification
is complete, carefully remove the
beaker from the heat. Measure out
50 mL of a saturated NaCl solution
in a graduated cylinder and pour it
into a 400-mL beaker. (If a
saturated NaCl solution is not
available, you can make your own
 by mixing 30 g of solid NaCl with
100 mL of deionized water. Once the
salt has been dissolved, the solution
can be shared by two groups of
students.) 4. Pour the soap solution
into the salt solution in the 400-mL
beaker and stir with a stirring rod.
This process is called “salting out”.
It increases the density of the
solution and causes the soap to
precipitate and float on the surface
of the solution. 5. Place the beaker
in an ice-water bath until it reaches
the approximate temperature of the
bath. In a separate container, chill
about 20 mL of deionized water –
you will need it to rinse the solid you
collect in the funnel. 6. Collect the
soap curds by vacuum filtration with
an aspirator. To do this, collect a
ring stand, a clamp, a side-arm
flask, a piece of heavy-walled
rubber tubing, a 82 Büchner funnel,
and a piece of filter paper. Clamp
the flask to the ring stand, and then
attach one end of the tubing to the
side arm and the other end to an
aspirator on one of the sinks. Put the
Büchner funnel on the flask (make
sure it forms a seal – you may need
a rubber adapter) and the filter
paper on the funnel. (The filter paper
should lie flat and should just fit the
bottom of the funnel, covering all of
the holes – if it doesn’t, the filtration
won’t work, so get a different piece
of filter paper.) Moisten the filter
paper with a little deionized water
from a wash bottle. 7. Turn on the
water to start the vacuum. Swirl the
soap/salt mixture and pour it on the
filter paper. When the liquid has
been pulled through, rinse the soap
with two separate 10-mL portions of
chilled deionized water. (When you
do this, make sure to rinse the entire
surface of the solid, not just one
spot!) After the soap has been
 rinsed, pull air through it to dry it
further. 8. Use a rubber policeman to
transfer the soap to a clean, dry
watch glass or a small beaker.
(Important: the soap may still
contain NaOH, so avoid skin contact
with it. Use plastic gloves if
possible).
Procedure:

1 Dissolve caustic soda in 150 ml of

water .This solution is called lye .
Let this soda lye cool.
2 Warm the oil in the flame and mix
50g starch with it . remove the
flame allow to cool .
3 When the soda lime are in the
same temperature ,add soda lye to
the oil n thin stream stirring the
mass constantly well with the
wooden rod till the whole lye has
been added. A creamy pasty mass
is obtain .
4 Stirr the mass more till a semi-solid
mass is obtained .Transfer it into
an iron mould or a wooden frame .
5 Remove the flask take out the soda
slab. Cut it with the help of a wire
into cakes of desired size. Soap
from groundnut oil as well as
coconut oil are prepared by same
procedure .

Precautions
1 Comparison of the foaming
capacities of the two soap sample
2 take 0.1 g of each soap sample
in two test tube numbered into 1
and 2
3 Place the test tube in the test
tube stand and start stop watch
4 Comparison of the cleaning effect
of two soap sample
 4 Do not touch the NaOH solution
with bare hands as it may burn
the skin.

5 Do not breathe the fumes of

NaOH or let the fumes get in your
eyes. Keep the windows of the
laboratory open.

6 The mixture of oil and alkali

should be stirred thoroughly.

7 It is necessary to stir the soap

solution after adding common salt
to it, in order to precipitate out the
soap in solid form
Conclusions:

 The reaction between vegetable oil

and sodium hydroxide solution is
exothermic in nature because heat
is liberated during the reaction.
 The white suspension formed is
made up of soap and glycerol. The
process of formation of soap is
called saponification.
 Test using red and blue litmus
papers shows that soap
suspension is basic in nature and
not acidic in nature.
 The process of precipitation of
soap from the suspension is called
salting out