The

Nature
of Fashion
Moving towards a
regenerative system
Contents
4 Foreword

section 1
5 Catch and Release
The Existing Fashion Cycle
The Problem with Plastics
Designing for Nature’s
Dynamic Equilibrium

section 2
12 Moving to a
Regenerative System
Why Act Regionally: The Biology
The Transition to 100% Biodegradable
Fibers: Primary Production

section 3
20 Recommendations
Next Steps
Levers for Change

24 Appendices

28 Acknowledgments

29 Endnotes

THE NATURE OF FASHION

2
This report was conceived in a different world.
It was a world where consumption was continuing
faster than ever before, driven by the availability
of cheap petroleum. It was a world of fast
fashion, where the price of apparel had ignored
inflation and remained unchanged for 30 years,1
and where fashion waste was dumped by the
truckload every second.2 It was a world that
most of us knew must cease, yet almost all of us
continued to participate in. Due to COVID-19, with
its social and economic fallout, a different reality
has emerged.

All the old rules have been put on hold, making

now the perfect time to write the new ones.
Foreword
We live in a biosphere, a physical network of living As we spoke with industry experts and reviewed
beings that spans the entire globe.3 Within this the mass of recent research and conclusions
web, materials are constantly being dispersed. articulating how to make fashion responsible,
Some organisms use energy from the sun to sustainable, regenerative, and circular (Appendix
concentrate life’s building blocks, only for them A), we realized that many of the suggested circular
eventually to become dispersed once again.4 economy solutions do not align, and cannot align,
The process is driven by the fundamental laws with biological principles and the laws of physics.
of physics. In fact, without this cadence, there Those insights informed this report. It deals only
would be no life.5,6,7 The circular economy seeks to with system boundaries and explains how energy
replicate nature’s cycling, and one of its premises and materials cycle at the highest level—the
is that infinitely reusing our industrial materials biosphere—and how fashion might embrace
can make commerce compatible with nature.8 But its existing reliance on natural ecosystems to
everything we do, all of our industry and economic more deeply emulate those cycles. With that
activity, still exists within the natural system. The understanding, we hope to continue this research
same laws of physics that drive natural material in the future and expand on how biomimicry at the
cycles make it impossible to isolate the technical systems level can further inform the evolution of a
ones.9,10,11 Our man-made material loops always, circular fashion economy.
inevitably, leak.
By realigning ourselves with what occurs in nature,
It’s safe to say that no one ever looked at a barrel we can design a next-generation textile production
of oil and thought, “That would make a nice- model that recognizes its connections to the
looking dress.” And yet, for nearly 80 years, we biosphere. In section one of this report, we explore
have collectively looked past the ill-effects of the material flows that underpin natural systems
petroleum and focused solely on the versatile, low and show that the first thing we must learn from
price-point clothing that polyester makes possible. nature is how to design for decomposition and
Recent years have seen growing interest from dispersal. We identify some important elements
the fashion industry to move towards a circular of ecosystem functioning, compare them to the
economy, an economy that is regenerative by flawed industrial system we have today, and
design. Biomimicry, the practice of emulating explain why we should think of fashion systems
nature’s strategies and processes in human as inside natural ones (rather than as having
design, is one of the schools of thought that separate biological and technical loops). In section
originally inspired the development of the concept two, we show how the fashion industry, relying on
of a circular economy, an economy that ideally advances in regenerative agriculture, cellulosic
would function as a natural system. What a circular fibers, fermentation, and gasification can work with
economy looks like and the ideas on how to get existing technology and nature to jump-start the
there are continually evolving, informed by experts transition right now. In section three, we propose a
all over the world. As the Biomimicry Institute, set of specific recommendations designed to give
we hope to add to the evolution by answering philanthropists and investors guidance on the next
the question: What would the fashion industry steps to take.
look like if it acted like a natural ecosystem?
This report shows what we learned and makes We believe an industry based on these
some observations that should inform the guidelines can enhance ecosystems to boost
development of new business models—and the biodiversity, build soil, support communities,
sunsetting of others—for a circular fashion industry. and clean up existing pollution.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

4
 “We have not been
successful at recycling.
After 40 years of trying,
we have not been able to
make it work.” 12

Dame Ellen MacArthur,

Founder and Chair of Trustees,
section 1 Ellen MacArthur Foundation

Catch and Release

Sometimes it helps to take a broad view to fungal mycelium networks in the soil collect
address a narrow problem, like what we humans discarded carbon and nutrients and cycle them
should wear. back to a “user” who finds them valuable in
sustaining life.17,18 In addition to this global
Natural materials cycle endlessly. This constant net, natural cycles rely on three main types of
flow of materials underpins all life on Earth. organisms—primary producers, consumers, and
But cycles in nature are vast and open, and decomposers—to function in a dynamic state of
compounds like DDT (banned 20 years ago) finding balance, or equilibrium. These three types
and the toxic PFASs used to make our clothing of organisms reflect how carbon moves from
stain-repellent continue to find their way into one species to another, and between organisms
the tissues of polar bears thousands of miles and the environment. “Photosynthetic organisms
from their point of manufacture.13,14,15 Nature convert the energy of the sun to chemical energy
cannot distinguish between good molecules and in carbon molecules, and consumers gain energy
bad, nor can their movement be stopped. The by eating those molecules. Thus, the carbon
essence of the second law of thermodynamics cycle also traces the transfer of energy through
is that disorder increases over time. This means ecosystems.”19
nature disperses.16 * Dispersal is embraced in
nature by utilizing universal building blocks, These are the elements of the natural cycle and,
particularly carbon. Trees and berry bushes, the by extension, all natural ecosystems. It is a “catch
herbivores that consume them, and decomposers and release” system powered by the sun that has
like bacteria and fungi all run on the same basic worked for billions of years. There is no human
framework of fats, sugars, starches, and proteins. approximation of this effort that comes close to
When a bird eats a berry and poops, or dies, working as well.
those remains decompose and return to the soil
as nutrition for the next tree, which combines The goal of this section is to more deeply
these nutrients with energy from the sun and understand how matter and energy are
carbon dioxide from the air to start the cycle inextricably linked and highlight the valuable
again. We have all observed this, but its elegance roles of the three stars of our biological show—
is difficult to emulate. producers, consumers, and decomposers. In
doing so, we build upon the work of Cradle
Aiding this process, nature works with a global to Cradle, the Circular Economy, Doughnut
net to catch such valuable building blocks and Economics, and the many luminaries who apply
prevent them from being lost, or aggregating nature’s laws as the guard rails of human industry.
in the wrong place. Ocean currents and
* We recognize there is disagreement around the applicability of the second law of thermodynamics to macroscale materials. We have written
this report from the perspective that thermodynamic and informational entropy are two aspects of the same underlying physical law and that

5
all increases in disorder are explicable using some combination of the two.
THE NATURE OF FASHION
 SECTION 1: NATURE’S DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

Figure 1. Represented as a diagram, flows of energy and matter

Nature’s Dynamic Equilibrium in nature look more like a whirlpool than a simple loop.
Nature achieves dynamic equilibrium through an open,
dissipative system. Equilibrium is maintained because
the materials in the system are benign and cycle
continuously, and because the whole is powered by
constant in-flows of free energy from the sun.

Natural cycles have three main parts:

Primary Producers
Photosynthetic plants and algae combine
free solar energy with disordered
material building blocks from soil, air
and water to create highly ordered,
energy-dense structures.
Consumers
Includes all herbivores and carnivores,
which break down energy-dense
structures and use the stored energy and
materials to construct their own tissues,
creating physical waste and dissipating
energy.
Decomposers
Bacteria and fungi break down material
to basic building blocks, using up
remaining energy and making the
THE
BIO S P H E RE physical building blocks available for use
by primary producers.

THE EXISTING FASHION CYCLE recycled waste imports from G7 countries by

50%.22 The ban also applied to textile waste.23
Humans are mimics. It’s part of our success, and “Now all this trash is building up in Japan [and
we have designed industrial systems that attempt elsewhere] and there’s nothing to do with it; the
to imitate the way that nature cycles materials. incinerators are working at full capacity,” says Eric
Yet there is a gulf between the best of human Kawabata, the Asia-Pacific general manager
endeavor and what nature achieves. Recycling for TerraCycle.24
has grown into a $200 billion industry,20 but
that is miniscule compared to the total global In the fashion industry, the production of virgin
consumption economy, which was worth an yarn and fabric is equivalent to primary production
estimated $86.6 trillion in 2019.21 There are in the biological cycle. Yet, in place of plants and
also increasingly serious structural challenges algae using photosynthesis to assemble basic
threatening the growth of the recycling industry. building blocks, the fashion industry mostly relies
For example, China recently implemented its on fossil fuels. At at least 60% of textiles are
National Sword policy, effectively reducing currently made using fossil fuel-based synthetic

THE NATURE OF FASHION

6
 SECTION 1: NATURE’S DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

fibers.25 Unlike nature’s material palette, synthetics The link between decomposition and primary
do not contribute beneficially to the biosphere after production is broken, meaning that nutrients
their short-term human use. As a result, synthetic that in a natural system would be “food” for
materials quickly exceed the carrying capacity of the primary production instead become pollution.27
biosphere wherever they end up. Current strategies As a result, synthetic materials quickly exceed the
for encouraging a more circular economy fail to carrying capacity of the biosphere wherever they
address this challenge. Synthetics, however, lack end up. Current strategies for encouraging a more
a desirable contributory function beyond human’s circular economy fail to address this challenge. At
short-term use. Like life, polyester is carbon-based the moment, the circular economy is also “optimised
and subject to entropy, but dissipated polyester to grow the circulation of materials, irrespective
is a hazard that is costly to collect and does not of whether this goal supports total systems
decompose naturally back to building blocks of use improvement and the ecological reality of genuine
in primary production. Instead, polyester and other biophysical limits,” say professors Kate Fletcher and
plastics undergo weathering and are broken down Mathilda Tham in the Earth Logic Fashion Action
by UV light into useless and toxic microfibers, which Research Plan.28 If the fashion industry does not
then accumulate in the environment.26 recognize the carrying capacity of the earth, there is
great risk that the benefits of material reuse will be
offset by increasing consumption.29

Figure 2. Unlike the natural system, the paths traced by fossil

Current Fashion System fuels-based energy and materials start and stop in the
biosphere, with very few closed loops. What exists is
restricted to its own channels, with almost no universality
and crossover except from the escape of toxic pollutants.

Fashion industry material flows lack

equilibrium in several important ways:
Raw Materials
60% of textile fibers are synthetics derived
from petrochemicals. Processing is
powered primarily by fossil fuels that
release greenhouse gas pollution.
Consumption
Includes the first use of clothing plus
reuse, remanufacturing, and recycling.
Synthetic fibers (virgin and recycled)
become waste, which accumulates in soil,
air, and water as pollution.
Waste and Recovery
Decomposers are mostly absent in this
system. Blended fibers prevent recovery.
Composting and thermal energy
recovery are rare exceptions that return
THE
BIO S P H E RE materials to basic building blocks.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

7
 SECTION 1: NATURE’S DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

In 2017, Textile Exchange asked over 50 textile,

apparel, and retail companies (including Adidas,
H&M, Gap, and Ikea) to increase their use
of recycled polyester by 25% by 2020. The
companies exceeded their commitment by moving
to 36% recycled content two years ahead of
schedule. With even more companies signing on to
the challenge, Textile Exchange expects one-fifth
of all polyester will be recycled by 2030.30 Problem
solved? Not exactly.

THE PROBLEM WITH PLASTICS Polyester textiles are responsible for about 35% of
the microfiber plastics that enter the oceans.36
Recycled polyethylene terephthalate, also known
as rPET, is obtained by melting down both post-
industrial and post-consumer plastic waste and humans have made over 8 billion metric tons of
spinning it into new polyester fiber. Eight soda plastic since 1950 (91% of which has never been
bottles yield enough fiber for one T-shirt,31 but recycled) and plastic production has been doubling
recycled plastics contain a mix of toxic chemicals, every 15 years.36 The fact that the rPET industry
from antimony to bleach to fire retardants, none of isn’t larger is an indication of other systemic
which was designed to go next to your skin.32 problems. Even if collection can be done at scale,
PET recycling relies on a mechanical sorting front-
Recycled polyester has two other main problems: end that struggles to manage the diversity of fibers
and fiber blends present in collected textiles (note:
• rPET is lower quality: “Most people believe see Section 2, Chemical Recycling).
that plastics can be infinitely recycled, but
each time plastic is heated it degenerates, Roland Geyer, lead author of the study,
so the subsequent iteration of the polymer “Production, Use, and Fate of All Plastics Ever
is degraded and the plastic must be used Made,”37 says, “Just making a bit more effort with
to make lower quality products,” says the recycling is not going to cut it.”38 National
Patty Grossman, co-founder of Two Sisters Geographic’s piece, “Is a world without trash
Ecotextiles, in an email to FashionUnited. This possible?” made a similar point:
means all PET recycling is really downcycling.33
“In 2015, [circular economy expert Mark De Wit]
• rPET is still plastic: Microfibers released explained, about two-thirds of the material we
during standard home washing range from scratched from the planet slipped through our
124 to 308 mg per kg of washed fabric, fingers. More than 67 billion tons of hard-won
depending on the type of washed garment; stuff was lost, most of it scattered irretrievably.
that corresponds to between 640,000 and Plastic trash drifted into rivers and oceans;
1,500,000 individual microfibers. The most so did nitrates and phosphates leaching from
abundant fraction of microfibers shed have fertilized fields. A third of all food rotted, even
dimensions that pass through wastewater as the Amazon was deforested to produce
treatment plants and pose a growing threat to more. Think of an environmental problem,
marine ecosystems.34 By weight, there will be and chances are it’s connected to waste. That
more plastic than fish in the oceans by 2050.35 includes climate change: It happens because
we burn fossil fuels and scatter the waste—
carbon dioxide—into the atmosphere.”39
Industry experts claim rPET progress is promising
and the technology is cost-effective today, but

THE NATURE OF FASHION

8
 SECTION 1: NATURE’S DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

The recycling industry relies on complex and costly acknowledges the reality of thermodynamics when
reverse logistics and sorting, and this is the point: he says his non-degradable plastics will “ultimately
nature doesn’t sort, it disperses. Over billions of meet their demise into the ground.”43 Thus, we
years of evolution, nature has become optimized return to natural models and recognize that the
for very efficient use of energy. “Surfing for free”40 goods we make ultimately need to be designed
using air, water, and soil is how nature moves for dispersal.
molecules. Because of that, one wonders why
we persist in the Sisyphean task of literally
trying to fight against physics.

Circular economy experts are working to

create perpetual plastics and emphasize
plastic recycling.41 Dr. Peter Christensen and
his colleagues from the U.S. Department of
Energy’s (DOE) Lawrence Berkeley National
Laboratory are one team working towards
this goal, and they have discovered a method
to return their newly developed plastic to its
constituent monomers:

Recycled plastics are low-value commodities

due to residual impurities and the
degradation of polymer properties with
each cycle of re-use. Plastics that undergo DURABLE MATERIALS IN NATURE
reversible polymerization allow high-value
monomers to be recovered and re- Designing for dispersal does not mean all
manufactured into pristine materials, which material must be as transitory as cherry
should incentivize recycling in closed-loop tree blossoms. “Durable” and “safely
life cycles. However, monomer recovery biodegradabale” can coexist in the same
is often costly, incompatible with complex material, and nature shows us how. Bones
mixtures and energy-intensive. Here, are stable in our bodies, for example, but
we show that next-generation plastics—
degrade in the low pH of soil. And trees
polymerized using dynamic covalent
in old-growth forests fall so rarely that,
diketoenamine bonds—allow the recovery of
monomers from common additives, even in
even though they decompose very slowly,
mixed waste streams.42 over decades, they don’t overwhelm
their environment to become pollution,
Unfortunately, there is a pervasive view that instead becoming food and habitat. Since
benign biodegradation is not compatible with so-called “infinitely recyclable” synthetic
high-quality recyclable plastics, and this has led polymers last for only 10 or so cycles (and
researchers to neglect biodegradability in their most plastics for only two to three cycles)
work. “Durability,” says Christensen, “trumps even a long-lasting synthetic polymer must
the idea [that plastic] should have a finite be designed to return safely to the soil,
lifetime.” Because closing the loop improves either slowly, like wood, or in response to a
the economics, there is a 10 times reduction chemical switch, like bone.
in production cost after just one cycle for a
closed loop process. However, Christianson

THE NATURE OF FASHION

9
 SECTION 1: NATURE’S DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

DESIGNING FOR NATURE’S

DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM
For the fashion
industry, embracing
One of the primary goals of the circular economy
is to keep materials in use for as long as possible, decomposition may be
slowing their egress to the environment. This the inspiration for the
innovative new solutions
is a laudable goal, with the caveat that the laws
of physics cannot be avoided: materials always
escape. Whether natural or synthetic, carbon-
based or metallic, industrial resource loops we so desperately need.
exist inside biological ones, not side-by-side.
but also storing embodied carbon, or energy. For
The outermost loop is always the biosphere:
the fashion industry, embracing decomposition to
air, water, and soil. It is time to recognize this
retrieve building blocks compatible with natural
dissipative flow and work with it, designing
primary production may be the inspiration for the
the majority of goods for ultimate biological
innovative new solutions we so desperately need.
degradation while staying mindful of the toll this
This is explored further in Section 2.
takes on the earth. To be sustainable, all industrial
processes must be carried out below the maximum
In a biomimetic fashion economy, the link between
rate at which they can occur without degrading the
decomposers and primary producers is paramount.
ecosystem in which they reside.
To be “closed loop,” the final degradation product
of any material must be of use for either natural
Nature has already solved the problem of the
or industrial primary production, but it needn’t be
dispersal of wastes (i.e. nutrients) created by the
constrained to the same starting point (i.e., an old
second law of thermodynamics through a material
shirt does not need to become a new shirt or even
recovery system that spans the entire globe.
textile). And because primary production always
Therefore, the fastest and most economical way
requires energy, that energy must be renewable.
for the fashion industry to transition to a circular
The second law also means no material loop can
economy is to work with nature. There is one huge
ever be completely isolated from the biosphere,
advantage that the industry has over others in this
and so, to avoid bioaccumulation, any material in
effort: textiles are all carbon-based. All textiles are
use must not pollute when it inevitably escapes.
dual-purpose, serving a useful purpose as clothing
This means there is no alternative to the
phasing out of non-compostable materials
like polyester, and new fibers, however
“recyclable,” should not be developed if there is
no natural decomposition for them.

In the future, all fashion industry loops (technical

and biological) could cross and mingle, enabled by
the use of universal building blocks. Such a system
requires the existing (and hard won) recycling
and circular economic infrastructure to enable
consumption to be highly efficient, extracting
all available usefulness from materials before
they are ultimately safely decomposed. No flows
begin or end in the soil, air, or water, and a stable
equilibrium is able to emerge.
Soil microbes aid in decomposition and play
a critical role in plant health.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

10
 SECTION 1: NATURE’S DYNAMIC EQUILIBRIUM

To create a fashion ecosystem consistent with the Next, we will point to the many indicators showing
laws of nature is, to quote Bill McDonough, “our natural and bio-based fibers are not only viable
new design assignment.”44 Concluding this section, but achieve several all-important functions of
we see that the laws of physics ensure polyester, nature: carbon sequestration, regional health, and
even when recycled, will ultimately be a pollutant. restoration of biodiversity and soil health.45,46

Figure 3. In the future, all fashion industry loops (technical and

Biomimetic Fashion Economy biological) could cross and mingle, enabled by the use
of universal building blocks. Such a system requires
the existing (and hard won) recycling and circular
economic infrastructure to enable consumption to be
highly efficient, extracting all available usefulness from
materials before they are ultimately safely decomposed.
No flows begin or end in the soil, air, or water, and a
stable equilibrium is able to emerge.

We can design a biomimetic flow of energy

and materials through industry:
Primary Production
Diverse feedstocks replace petroleum.
Fibercrops combine with biosynthetics
made via fermentation, all powered by
renewable energy.
Consumption
Materials are bio-available and recyclable.
Reuse, remanufacturing and recycling
capture the full value of materials and slow
the outflows to avoid overloading local
recovery infrastructure. Processing is
powered by renewable energy.
Decomposition
Recovery is distributed and scalable to
match the global fashion economy,
returning all textiles to their basic building
THE
BIO SP H E RE blocks.
Robust compost systems are supported by
chemical recycling and gasification.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

11
 “The industry’s answer to complex
sustainability issues has been to reinvent
certification schemes… which often don’t
deliver the intended results. So we switched
section 2 tactics and are investing in regenerative

Moving to a
agriculture…. We will still use certifications
where beneficial, but we are going to

Regenerative
measure success through biodiversity, soil
fertility, and thriving ecosystems.”47

System
Megan Meiklejohn, Sustainable Materials
& Transparency Manager, Eileen Fisher

The volume of natural fiber produced has remained needs to be a balance between efficiency and
remarkably static since the invention of polyester resilience.56 Currently, the fashion system (and the
fibers in the 1940s, despite the global population systems it relies on for material and capital inputs)
more than doubling.48 The gap in production is quite efficient but not very diverse. That makes
has been filled with synthetic fibers, largely the system extremely brittle. As diversity in the
manufactured from petrochemical feedstocks. system increases, so does resilience (see Fig. 5).
Meanwhile, producing natural fibers through And for natural ecosystems, which fashion relies
industrial means is also petrochemical-intensive on, as biodiversity increases, so does resilience,
and environmentally damaging,49,50 and processing primary productivity (more biomass), and ecosystem
and dying technologies all have considerable health.57,58 What emerges from nature’s lessons,
negative environmental impacts.51 In The Pulse of regardless of scale, is the prime directive not to
the Fashion Industry report, the fibers of the future foul one’s own nest. New levels of environmental
considered least environmentally damaging are restoration, biodiversity promotion, and the return of
recycled polypropylene and polyester,52 but as fair local jobs all become possible when we shorten
shown in Section 1, this is not a sustainable solution. the supply chain.
We are already exceeding planetary boundaries
for phosphorous and nitrogen flows53 (see Fig. 4)
and are at increasing risk to exceed several others
“Negative trends in
if existing practices continue, including a reliance nature will continue to
on natural fibers.54 Yet how can we be so bold as
to suggest moving to an entirely biological-based 2050 and beyond in all
system, which inevitably involves land use? of the policy scenarios
First, we need a shift in thinking away from the explored in the Report,
efficiencies of centralized manufacturing to the
resilience of decentralized, regional production, except those that include
where local impacts can be measured against
planetary boundaries.55 In both natural and human
transformative change…” 59

IPBES Global Assessment 2019

systems, for a system to be optimized, there

THE NATURE OF FASHION

12
 SECTION 2: MOVING TO A REGENERATIVE SYSTEM

Second, we need to embrace new technologies and waste generated on the cutting room floor
for fiber production, aligned with nature’s cycles, in (approximately 60 billion m2 annually, or 15% of
ethical and sustainable ways. These technologies total production).62 Many people and organizations
include fermentation and gasification, as well as are already addressing how to minimize waste in
new spinning technologies. these two sectors.

Third, by reducing waste, the amount of land Below we will focus on how decentralized
needed to produce bio-based textiles will production is possible and show that we already
decrease. We need to focus on waste in both the have what we need for the resurrection of
food and fashion industries, since both systems bioregional fashion, including opportunities for
are inextricably linked,60 relying on farmed utilizing waste for primary production. Bioregional
and forested land for production and typically fashion does not mean that all fashion must be
contributing to humanity’s exceeding the planetary locally constrained in terms of manufacture but
boundaries. Approximately one-third of all food rather that the inputs of fashion are bound by the
intended for human consumption is wasted,61 while carrying capacity of specific ecological zones and
fashion produces a huge amount of pre-consumer fashion is produced locally where appropriate.*
waste due to excessive inventory that is never sold

Figure 4.
The Planetary Boundary Framework

We are already exceeding the

planetary boundaries for phosphorus
and nitrogen, as well as genetic
diversity.63 If the fashion industry
continues on its current path, by
2030 fashion will increase its water
consumption, energy emissions,
and waste creation by over 50%
compared to 2015 levels, further
contributing to environmental stress.64
Illustration source: Steffen et al. (2015).

* The City Portrait, a tool for downscaling and applying Doughnut Economics regionally, could be used to assess options for thriving people and
the planet, locally and globally. See: [Link]

THE NATURE OF FASHION

13
 SECTION 2: MOVING TO A REGENERATIVE SYSTEM

WHY ACT REGIONALLY: THE BIOLOGY A patchwork of local fibers only makes sense in
the context of regenerative agriculture, making
Natural systems are synonymous with biodiversity. better use of already-cultivated land and restoring
In nature, the wider the variety of species at degraded land rather than developing new land or
a location, the healthier that ecosystem is.65 forests. This may mean sacrificing some efficiency
As ecosystems develop and become more in order to have greater resiliency. Yet when
complex, the number of interactions between the metric of appropriate feedstocks becomes
various species increases, and more niches—a soil health, then biodiversity and a cascade of
combination of a species’ physical habitat and environmental and social benefits will follow.69, 70, 71
functional role—become available.66 For example, a
mature forest contains trees of varying heights and THE TRANSITION TO 100%
sizes which form a photosynthetic canopy. Shrubs BIODEGRADABLE FIBERS:
take advantage of any sunlight not absorbed by PRIMARY PRODUCTION
the leaves above. Ferns and mosses benefit from
any remaining useful light, occupying distinct Despite fashion’s reliance on synthetic fibers,
microniches based on the precise microclimatic biological fibers continue to make up 38% of
conditions and available water, nutrients, and global fiber production, primarily in the form of
sunlight.67 A single ecosystem contains a vast cotton and man-made cellulosic fibers. Based
array of different possible niches with colonies of on our preliminary research, we believe fashion
different organisms overlaid and intermingled. Far can both meet global apparel needs, including
from reducing opportunities through competition, desired performance characteristics, and readily
as ecosystems develop and grow in complexity transition to 100% compostable fibers from three
and intricacy, there is a corresponding increase sources: natural fibers, cellulosic feedstocks, and
in the flow of energy through the system. When fermentation products. The exact proportions
the whole flourishes, there is greater abundance and investment required to make such a shift will
overall and more for all.68 require future research, together with industry and
economist partners (see Section 3). What follows

Figure 5.
Measuring Network Health Using the Balance of Resilience
and Efficiency

Healthy systems maintain a balance of

resilience factors (small, diverse, flexible &
densely connected) and efficiency factors (big,
streamlined & powerful) within a Window of
Vitality representing optimal network health.72
Goerner et al. (2015).

THE NATURE OF FASHION

14
 SECTION 2: MOVING TO A REGENERATIVE SYSTEM

is an indication of the fiber classes that could meet In part, regenerative agriculture means that
or exceed production currently filled by synthetics, animals must be integrated into cropping systems
including natural fibers, fibers from cellulosic in order to provide fertilizer and mimic the
waste, fermented fibers and, as transitional functions of wild grazing herds. Natural fibers
technologies, fibers produced through chemical grown using regenerative agricultural methods
recycling and gasification. can build soil, sequester carbon, enhance
biodiversity—both above and below ground—
support other ecosystem services, and contribute
SOURCE 1: Regenerative farm and fiber to bioregional economies all at the same time.
systems could account for 23 billion one- “[Regenerative agriculture] is something that could
pound garments (US alone) create and will create the future of sustainability,”
claimed Rachel Lincoln, Prana’s Sustainability
The most proven feedstocks for a sustainable Director, in an interview with Fashionista.73 In
fashion industry are the natural fibers that have addition to many fashion brands recognizing
been used by humans for millennia, including the benefits to ecosystems and the planet,
cotton, wool, flax, hemp, ramie, and abacá. regenerative practices also result in higher-quality
Research and development towards improving fibers and leathers, according to another interview
breeding, growth, and processing of these fibers with Géraldine Vallejo, Kering’s Sustainability
has been minor given the rise of synthetic textiles, Programs Director.74 As the culture moves towards
but they play an important role in a regional, fewer, higher quality goods, the higher integrity of
restorative, bio-compatible fiber system. these materials is important.

Figure 6.
Developing Locally-Appropriate Feedstocks

We can use this ecological principle to help

design scalable and resilient supply chains
if, instead of thinking about transporting
a limited array of fibers around the world,
we think in terms of a patchwork of local
industrial niches. No feedstock should be
extracted at a rate greater than the carrying
capacity of its region, and a diverse
cohort of different fibers is needed. Any
technology ultimately relies on natural
resources as a feedstock and, however
environmentally sound, there will be a hard
limit on the amount of that feedstock that
can be sustainably grown or extracted. A
diversity of feedstocks, adapted to place,
is crucial, as there is not a single new fiber
source that can or should scale to equal
petrochemical-based fiber production.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

15
 SECTION 2: MOVING TO A REGENERATIVE SYSTEM

Natural fibers already feature many performance

features, including odor wicking, great thermal “If we converted all
properties, and water shedding.75, 76 Recent global croplands and
pastures to regenerative
attention to natural fibers is expanding their
potential. Fibershed has shown that combining
wool with hemp, for example, allows for machine-
washable garments that resist shrinkage. Both
organic agriculture we
Seff and StexFibers have developed techniques could sequester more
to soften hemp fibers, allowing them to be used
in high-end textiles.77 Redirecting the human than 100% of current
ingenuity, knowledge, and capital that is currently
so focused on improving the performance of
annual CO2 emissions.” 78

synthetics to the processing and performance Rodale Institute

of natural and bio-based fibers could rapidly
accelerate development, allowing more regional
niches to be filled, and expand the desirability remained unchanged for decades, it is foolish to
of and demand for natural fibers by designers, dismiss natural fibers as too expensive without
brands, and consumers. exploring the potential of new developments.
An example is color-grown cotton.79 Its autumnal
Polyester currently has a cost advantage rooted in hues of amber, yellow, and khaki green are
oil subsidies, scale, and decades of invested R&D. frowned upon by cotton processors who want
By shifting those economic drivers and increasing to avoid cross-contamination of white fibers and
R&D, the industry can make natural fibers cost don’t want to clean their equipment between
competitive. There have been definitive innovation shipments. But colored cotton avoids toxic
inflection points where the price of natural fibers dyes and accompanying water use, and its non-
dropped dramatically (e.g., the invention of the transferable color only gets more intense with
cotton gin). As most natural fiber processing has each home washing. It is naturally soft and has a

THE BOUNTY OF INTEGRATED SYSTEMS It could be fairly easily assumed that [an] integrated
agricultural system would healthfully yield wool,
Although the fashion world has recognized hemp, wheat, lamb and dairy, and would generate
the need for a sustainable materials mix, it has an additional 112 million tons of natural fiber per
not made a hard commitment to phasing out year in this country (US) alone, without converting
synthetics, and has yet to invest in a systemic any additional land to agriculture. That could
exploration of how diverse bio-compatible equate to approximately enough fiber to produce
feedstocks could meet the textile twenty-three billion one-pound garments (assuming
industry’s needs.80, 81 weight losses to the fiber throughout the milling
process). [In the U.S.], we don’t consume that many
Fibershed, an NGO based in the U.S., has garments per year, which in turn means that we
been an active proponent of exploring the would have ample room within this scenario to
potential of natural fibers as part of integrated, reduce the acreage planted with hemp significantly
restorative farms and communities. Based on and still produce enough natural fiber to clothe
initial experiments, Rebecca Burgess, Fibershed’s everyone in the country with compostable, organic
Executive Director, has written: and non-toxic garments.82

THE NATURE OF FASHION

16
 SECTION 2: MOVING TO A REGENERATIVE SYSTEM

pleasant scent, adding to the list of attributes that vertical integration,” they ensure their commitment
don’t have to be added chemically. Considered to regenerative technologies is carried throughout
holistically, naturally colored cotton could be a the value chain. Circular Systems claims that six
business opportunity large enough to justify an initial crops alone—oil-seed hemp, oil-seed flax, banana,
investment in new processing and manufacturing pineapple leaves, rice straw, and sugarcane bark—
that could drive price parity with polyester. currently offer more than 250M tons of fiber per
year, or enough to meet 2.5 times the current
global fiber demand.84 The system also produces
organic fertilizer and, by removing plant waste that
SOURCE 2: Cellulose agricultural waste alone would otherwise be left to rot or be burned, they also
could meet 2.5 times the current reduce agricultural greenhouse gas emissions and
global fiber demand deaths from air pollution (5% of which are attributed
to biomass burning globally85). Other companies,
A second class of natural feedstocks for such as Spinnova and Bastcore, are also making
biodegradable fiber production is the wide variety holistic use of agricultural plants, and regional
of plant-based materials available as the starting development of similar technologies would go a
point for producing lyocell and viscose/rayon and long way towards addressing existing waste streams
other man-made cellulosic fibers. As with natural without the need for developing any new land.
fibers, however, scale and sourcing matter as much
as the fiber chemistry and production method, and Planting forests and other crops for natural fiber
unfortunately there are numerous examples (as production could also play a critical role in helping
tracked by Canadian NGO Canopy) of the cellulose restore the two billion hectares of degraded
for viscose manufacture being sourced from old land globally86 without competing with existing
growth and endangered forests in order to meet the agricultural land. Doing so would also help sequester
scale requirements for a global supply chain.83 If only carbon and restore other ecosystem services to the
there were an abundant, cellulosic waste stream... degraded lands.

Circular SystemsTM is taking a holistic approach with

AgraloopTM Biorefinery, winner of the 2018 H&M
Global Change Award. Their technology transforms SOURCE 3: Fermentation
agricultural waste into a new “natural” fiber, useful
for yarn, paper, and textile manufacturing. With Fermentation is a process where microbes such as
a platform of technologies and through “virtual bacteria or yeast are cultured in a process similar to
beer making. Biological building blocks produced
through fermentation are the final class of feedstock
for textile primary production. The fermentation
process is clean and well suited to bioregional
production, as microbes can be fed using a diverse
stream of non-cellulosic waste from other industries,
including the food industry. Fermentation is a
predictable, agile approach with potentially low
barriers-to-entry and quick start-up potential (as
shown by the prevalence of microbreweries). New
developments in this ancient technology mean
fermentation is gathering pace as a method for fiber
production, with a number of biotech startups having
reached a significant level of technological readiness
(Appendix C).

17
AgraloopTM BioFibreTM used to make clothing.
THE NATURE OF FASHION
 SECTION 2: MOVING TO A REGENERATIVE SYSTEM

In order to take advantage of the considerable current fashion industry does not design with
potential of fermentation to rapidly fill the shortfall decomposition in mind and therefore is largely
in fiber production left by a move away from missing its decomposers. The rapidly rising tide of
synthetic fiber, it is important to keep in mind ocean plastics is an expression of the trapping of
the certainty that materials produced using this once-valuable resources in useless forms caused
method will escape into the environment.* That by the absence of this key participant.
is, we must not use fermentation to produce
non-biodegradable fibers. Additionally, the Until all fibers are designed for benign
feedstock for fermented fibers is not yet a clear biodegradability, we need transitional technologies
sustainability advantage. “We have to remember to fill the decomposition gap.
that fermentation is tied to carbon, which currently
comes from sugar,” says Natsai Audrey Chieza,
founder and director of Faber Futures. “We have to
look at sustainability in terms of the input.”87 TRANSITION SOURCE 1:
Chemical Recycling
THE TRANSITION NEEDS
DECOMPOSITION Chemical recycling of fibers has seen significant
research and development in recent years, and
In nature’s dynamic equilibrium, decomposers the technology can handle a wide range of fibers/
are just as important as primary producers. In a blends. This process is closer to what nature does
world without decomposition, plants and animals in a few key ways. Unlike rPET, the products of
would lie where they fell at the end of their lives, chemical recycling are the same quality as virgin
with all the energy and nutrients in their tissues feedstocks, and they are also of use in primary
frozen forever in place. It would not take long for production across a variety of industries.88, 89, 90 It
the nutrients needed for new life to run down, is a technology that recreates the links between
and for the dynamism of nature to fall still. The decomposition and primary production and does

ALLBIRDS is a San Francisco-based sustainable

shoe company with a similar price point to
other sneakers. Allbirds produces the upper for
its shoes from Merino wool and the foam sole
through fermentation. Upon his first experience
using fermented micro-algae to create
polyurethane foams, co-founder Joey Zwillinger
said, “It clued me into the fact that there’s so
little focus paid to innovating around natural
and/or sustainable raw materials in a consumer
landscape. There was a big opportunity for
brand building and marketing sustainable, high
performance products.”91

* Fiber production via fermentation relies on genetically modified organisms, and it may be wise to consider the risks prior to wide adoption of
such technologies. In the case of the microbes used in fermentation to produce fibers, the risks are low: the organisms themselves are harmless
and usually highly attenuated, meaning they cannot survive outside the highly calibrated and supportive environment of the facility; the process
of purifying the target substance destroys and removes the organisms from the product; and any equipment used can be easily sterilized using
only steam and high pressure. These techniques are very well understood and have been in use safely in laboratories for over a century.
However, in some of the new processes, the organisms are integral to the product and are fixed to the fabric and killed in situ rather than
removed, and still others are considering products that include live microbes. In these cases, the precautionary principle is required.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

18
 SECTION 2: MOVING TO A REGENERATIVE SYSTEM

so to produce a more widely useful building block. In be subjected to a very high heat (without burning)
this context, the reverse logistics and sorting needed that converts it directly into carbon dioxide, carbon
is more limited, and the results are more useful than monoxide, and hydrogen gas.93 Unlike incineration,
those from conventional recycling. After interviewing the gas mixture (syngas) is of value in its own right as
experts across a broad spectrum of textile industries, a fuel, and it can also be used as a raw material for
GreenBlue concluded that new chemical recycling fermentation by methanotrophic bacteria.
technologies require relatively little energy input
and “have the potential to operate more efficiently Methanotrophic bacteria consume methane
as a distributed network of small-scale facilities near directly, using it as a food source, and they can also
sources of PET feedstock.”92 consume carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide. At
least two companies (LanzaTech and Kiverdi) have
already recognized the potential for gasification
and fermentation to generate a wide variety of
TRANSITION SOURCE 2:
substances of use to humans, including feedstocks
Gasification + Fermentation
for manufacture of compostable synthetic fibers.
Energy recovery through incineration converts Because the bacteria “eat” the gasses, they are not
synthetic fibers like polyester to carbon dioxide of vented into the atmosphere to contribute to global
use to natural primary producers in photosynthesis. climate change. This raises the exciting possibility
In this regard, it closes the loop and might be of fiber mills and waste dumps existing side-by-side,
considered a form of industrial decomposition. with virgin production of high-value fibers fed directly
However, nature’s dynamic system is an equilibrium by mined landfill waste, or by microplastics filtered
and to maintain it, the amount of cycling carbon must from the ocean. With such a process, there is no
remain constant. When we burn petrochemical-based risk of toxic leachates from rPET ending up close to
synthetic fibers, we release greenhouse gasses that people’s skin, and the new fibers produced can be
were previously safely locked under the ground. designed to safely biodegrade. Together, gasification
and fermentation by methanotrophic bacteria link
Until now, the importance of decomposition for decomposition to primary production and are able
closing resource loops has been missed, and so to bring an existing pollutant back into use.
there are relatively few sustainable technologies Combined, they could be a cost-effective and
available. An arguably even more interesting ecologically safe way to digest the existing
industrial decomposer than chemical sorting is mountain of waste polyester.
gasification, where any carbon-based waste can
That said, this is a transitional technology and does
not mean we can keep designing with fossil fuel-
based synthetic fibers due to their other negative
environmental and human health impacts, which
occur from the extraction stage through the use and
resulting microplastic shedding stage.

The above section shows, at a high level, how a

future fashion industry might structure production
in order to sustainably source biocompatible
materials at scale, and why doing so is so important.
It also highlights some transitional technologies
to help us deal with our existing textile pollution.
In section three, we propose a set of concrete
recommendations for how industry supporters can
facilitate the necessary changes to new modes of
Methanotrophic bacteria utilize the products production as rapidly as possible.
of decomposition as food.
THE NATURE OF FASHION
19
 “The more our world
functions like the natural
world, the more likely we are
to endure on this home that
is ours, but not ours alone.” 94

Janine Benyus, author and co-founder of the

Biomimicry Institute and Biomimicry 3.8
section 3

Recommendations

In this section, we offer next steps and practices, and how quickly can we scale benign
recommendations to the investors, funders, and fermentation from gasification waste and other
fashion brands that will enable a new fashion waste products? Relatedly, an equally important
ecosystem to thrive and flourish. exercise will be to define the boundaries of
synthetic biology, an area already getting significant
1. Conducting further ecosystem investment. We look forward to working with
research. Step one of defining the future of other biologists, along with conservation, land,
fashion is the difficult recognition that plastics do agriculture, and economic analysts to help define
not belong in the biosphere and how we might appropriate criteria for investors.
replace them with fibers that support a natural
equilibrium. But there are many ecosystem 3. Supporting existing efforts
lessons that have not yet been explored or in sustainable (responsible,
should be explored more deeply: adaptive cycles, regenerative) fashion. Even with
diversity and resilience, designing for durability the number of reports we read and leaders
and disassembly, cooperation, the role of we consulted, we only scratched the surface
interdependency, ecosystem succession, of analyses and progress being made by
and more. For a list of this work, see organizations that share our same goal. We hope
Ecomimicry95 and Appendix B. to join stakeholders and formulate pilot efforts
to test some of the more difficult aspects of this
report. There are many big brands, specifically in
2. Defining the criteria for net- athleisure, with a goal to be petroleum-free within
positive investments in the new the next decade.97 Putting the burden on customers
fashion economy. The need for new to demand this change is unfair (that said, we think
business models and ways to change price point the timing is right for an awareness campaign),
tolerance for customers are two of the biggest as designers shape the choices on the market.
issues identified in The Pulse of the Fashion Our hope is to support the brave brands willing to
Industry report.96 While our paper does not explore embrace the idea that nature has demonstrated it
new business models, per se, some investment can achieve any function that humans desire. By
indicators are identified below. How quickly and bringing biological intelligence to polymath teams
with what level of investment can we replace of green chemists, material scientists, mechanical
synthetics with cellulosic waste, what percentage of engineers, and natural fiber experts, we can
farmland can be quickly converted to regenerative support future-forward organizations.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

20
 SECTION 3: RECOMMENDATIONS

LEVERS FOR CHANGE ● Catalog of regional waste streams: Work

with local waste management and government
Here is a beginning list of priorities for bodies to inventory all locally produced
philanthropic support and for grant and impact cellulosic and sugar waste streams available
investment opportunities. One critical lever not for input into fiber production.
addressed here is the role of regulation and ● Create industrial symbioses: Co-locate new
government, but that topic has been well-covered bio-driven technology facilities near waste
by our colleagues in the conservation sector and streams (see Agraloop and Kiverdi, above,
other circular economy leaders. and John Todd’s Intervale Eco-Park102). Define
regional boundaries with tools from Doughnut
Economics103 and Biomimicry Factory as
Forest104, which evaluate a project based
LEVER 1: Invest in local cycles on intact reference habitats and planetary
boundaries.
Regional development is more than local ● Send the pattern, not the clothes (or even
manufacturing: it’s the full cycle of production, the machines): Invest in design commons and
consumption, and decomposition, using renewable peer production initiatives that design globally
energy, to become more resilient to external and manufacture locally (DGML)105,106 This
shocks. Global mass production has led to the distributed design scenario is already in place
near disappearance of smaller-scale regional to some degree with 3D printed footwear and
manufacturing. With the exception of 3D printing, in the built environment.
there has been minimal recent investment in ● Focus on the whole value chain: Creating
innovation in smaller machinery, yet these low incentives for regionally scaled processing
cost investments can yield economic and fiber infrastructure, such as non-toxic dye houses
security. While we have seen some large-scale and wet processing equipment that meets
investments in synthetic biology (e.g. Bolt Threads strict water regulations, is essential to creating
raised $200M in venture funding), simple, small- a regional fiber economy.107
scale proven investments are often difficult to fund
(e.g. replacement of local yarn-spinning equipment
costing $65K by Fibershed).98
LEVER 2: Build restorative and regenerative
New regional production should be appropriate agriculture systems
in scale, transparent in structure, and designed to
benefit its community in a way that lifts all boats.99 Transitioning to a sustainable fashion system
is inextricably linked to sustainable agriculture
● Repair and upgrade equipment: Somewhere and restoring degraded lands. The goal is not
between the 200-year-old cotton gin and to replace the 60% of synthetic textiles entirely
3D printed footwear100 is a real market with virgin natural fibers, but when bast fibers,
need for working with various feedstocks. cotton, rayon, or animal fibers are being produced,
Microfinancing for equipment purchases and to be sure they are produced in the context of
repairs is a cost-effective jump-start to support regenerative agriculture:
regional production. Engage regional university
engineers in making new degumming ● Conservation pays: a USDA-funded study
equipment, yarn spinners, and weaving by Delta Institute, Farmland LP, and Earth
machinery (that may end up informing next Economics demonstrated $21.4M in net
generation printers, as well). Look to biological ecosystem value ($12.9M direct benefits
models to inform new levels of efficiency and and $8.5M in avoided damage) on 6,000
performance fibers.101 acres over 5 years using regenerative farm

THE NATURE OF FASHION

21
 SECTION 3: RECOMMENDATIONS

management practices at scale.108 More studies

quantifying the value of regen agriculture
are needed.109 LEVER 3: Incentivize creation
● Restoring degraded lands pays: We’ve taken of new biomaterials
away the biodiversity repository necessary
for many degraded lands to heal on their own For any performance gaps not met by natural fibers,
without decades or more of time. Restoring what’s needed are new materials that can offer the
degraded lands has great potential to create same stretch, durability, repellency, and more that
fiber, food, and jobs. In Latin America and the petroleum-based products can. Innovation around
Caribbean alone, for example, restoration common performance needs like color and stain
projects could yield $23 billion over a 50-year repellency has already begun, and fermentation
period. More investment in restoration for is beginning to have an impact here as well,
sustainable fiber production is needed. with numerous companies well on their way to
● Cluster fiber research and demand: Bast, delivering alternatives to petrochemical-based dyes
fruit, and seed fibers have both woven and non- (Appendix C). We anticipate all performance needs
woven applications,110 and also serve as new can be achieved with bio-based feedstocks but
feedstocks for fuel and polymer composites.111 not before critical attention and definition is put on
Right now fiber research is pursued synthetic biology and nanomaterials.
independently of these other sectors, but
circular economy consortia can help aggregate ● Biomimetic biomaterials: Engage university
these efforts. For example, Ford, Nike, P&G, students in design and material science to
Heinz, and Coca-Cola have come together create new biomaterials based on biological
to form a pre-competitive Plant Technology models, like bull kelp which stretches without
Collaborative.112 breaking due to the orientation of its fibers.
● Fund new research: Create a series of ● “ComPost Modern” design challenge:
regional, small-scale funds to support fiber Fund and launch a global competition around
system entrepreneurs’ prototyping with decomposition and the system conditions
domestic fibers. necessary to make decomposition successful.
● Create new funding vehicles: Provide long- This is a largely overlooked aspect of closing
term financial support for farmers to implement materials loops that we believe holds great
regenerative farming and agroforestry and to promise for inspiring new technologies and
integrate diverse planting and animals into business models.
cropping systems, building soil and ● Advance the knowledge commons:
increasing biodiversity.113 Further invest in data commons initiatives
like ChemFORWARD114 and ZDHC115 that
enable researchers and practitioners to share
knowledge, collaborate, and co-create.

Bull kelp could be a model for creating a stretchy biomimetic biomaterial.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

22
In writing this report, we went all the way back
to the first of all principles: the laws that run the
universe. We looked hard at how natural materials
cycle, and why. At first, we were concerned that
we would need to suggest research into new
technologies and fibers that could take decades
to develop, but the more we looked into it, the
more excited we became. As we collated a list of
startups, new technologies, and ideas (Appendix
C), we realized that, far from needing further
research, we could recommend concrete actions
for all actors in the industry to take today.

And then, two-thirds of the way through the

project, we found ourselves in the midst of a
pandemic. The conclusions of this report are
unaffected by COVID-19—they are based on
the second law of thermodynamics and deep
observations of nature, and these things are
unaffected by human illness. But one thing has
been altered irrevocably: no one can ever claim
again that we cannot turn the global economy on
a dime when we have to. What might local food,
mask, and glove supply chains have looked like if
food and fiber were intercropped to buoy security
for both? If bacteria used to create silk-like fibers
could also create something more like latex? This
is the adaptability and resiliency that nature, albeit
on a human timeline, can help provide.

The time for acting is now.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

23
Appendix A:
List of Industry Publications
Buchel, S., Roorda, C., Schipper, K., Loorbach, D. 2018. The Transition to Good Fashion. Drift for
Transition.

Ellen MacArthur Foundation. 2017. The New Plastics Economy: Rethinking the future of plastics &
catalysing action.

Ellen MacArthur Foundation. A new textiles economy: Redesigning fashion’s future, 2017.
[Link]

Global Fashion Agenda. CEO Agenda 2020.

[Link]

Global Fashion Agenda & The Boston Consulting Group. 2017 Pulse of the Fashion Industry.

Metabolic. 2014. Textile Sector Analysis: Trends, Impacts, and an Outlook on Circular Economy.

Quantis. 2018. Measuring Fashion: Insights from the Environmental Impact of the Global Apparel and
Footwear Industries study.

The Business of Fashion and McKinsey & Co. 2020. The State of Fashion 2020.

THE NATURE OF FASHION

24
Appendix B:
Table of Intervention Points
Intervention Biological Functions Questions / Challenges
Category
Points and Research Areas
System Improve feedback, Cooperate and/or compete • Are the current feedback loops
share information, • Social groupings adequately drawn? Should they be
certify, establish chain of • Freeloaders & mimics cross-sector, geographic, with an
responsibility Feedback loops emphasis on air, water, and soil?
• Local vs long distance communication • Cooperation between whom?
• Calcium signalling Aggregating supply around the
• Single genetic code wrong materials, even if fully
• Bacterial plasmids disclosed, gets us nowhere.
• Immunity • When is certification/best practice
Demonstrate fitness guidance useful?
• Sex-linked morphology • Is there a role for IP?
• Why are so many initiatives not
working?

Materials Develop new textiles, Color • Do we need transparency if everyone

develop/use renewable Manage resources is using the same beneficial palette?
inputs, new manufacturing Heal • Do CHON/natural fibers equate to
and dyeing processes, Grow/build biodiversity, responsible land use,
additive manufacturing • Specialized vs modular/standardized and biosphere repair?

Cleaning up Recycling, implement Concentrate distributed resources (entropy!) • What are the priority areas for
the existing clothing collection at scale Use energy ecosystem repair (eg: what elements
mess • Trophic levels of a new fashion industry clean up
Manage waste pollution)?
• Plastic-eating bacteria • Is polyester in endless loops really
the best answer?
• If industry is using biorestorative
materials, is recycling necessary?

Resource Oversupply, increasing Respond to local conditions • When is being frugal better (eg:
use utilization, improving • Microclimates cactus in the desert vs cherry
efficiency, slowing • Efficiency vs resiliency blossoms)
resource loops, rental • General vs specific • Is durability always better? (eg:
models Manage supply durable vs. ephemeral elements in
• R vs K strategies nature)
• Durable vs ephemeral • Do we need greater efficiency if
• Resource cycling velocity energy is clean?
• Seasonality • When is slowing resource loops
better and when does accelerating
loops equate to faster regeneration?

Switching Role/impact of large Adaptive cycle/ecosystem dynamics • What is the influence of size and
systems multinationals vs small Adapt to new conditions responsiveness of stakeholders?
disruptors, industry • Pioneer species • Do we need to agree on the direction
associations, new business • Ecosystem succession (“broad stakeholder buyin”) for
models • Cambrian explosion change to happen?
Maintain existing ecosystems
• Keystone species
Make decisions
• Bee/consensus decision-making

THE NATURE OF FASHION

25
Appendix C
NATURAL FIBERS/DYES AND ● The Linen Project investigates and seeks
REGENERATIVE AGRICULTURE to reactivate the economic viability of flax
cultivation and small-scale linen production
in the Netherlands, with a view to broader
● BastCore’s wet process transforms coarse international relevance. [Link]
raw bast fiber into soft white cotton-like en/the-linen-project-2/
fiber for textile applications. BastCore is also
developing products that use the core or hurd ● With 100 global hubs, the mission of
of the hemp stalk, providing an additional the Savory Institute is the large-scale
economic benefit to farmers. regeneration of the world’s grasslands through
[Link] Holistic Management to address the global
issues of desertification, climate change, and
● Botanical Colors, based in the US, supplies food and water insecurity. [Link]
artisans and industry with the materials and
know-how to dye textiles in a way that uses ● Stex Fibers has developed a technique to
less water, is non-toxic and biodegradeable, soften hemp fibers, so they can be used for
and draws its incomparable color palette from high end textiles. The company has proven the
humble plants and natural sources. All colors basic technical concept at lab scale and built
are sustainably derived, many from agricultural a test unit at Industrial Park Kleefse Waard in
and food waste products. Arnhem, The Netherlands.
[Link] [Link]

● The Campaign for Wool encourages ● Stony Creek Colors makes clean and safe
collaboration between an international US-grown natural colorant for the textile
community of woolgrowers, major fashion and fashion industry and is best known for
designers, retailers, manufacturers, artisans Tennessee-grown natural indigo for denim.
and interior designers, in order to educate [Link]
consumers about the versatility and myriad
uses of wool.
CELLULOSIC FIBERS
● Cotton of the Carolinas is a t-shirt brand that
demonstrates the bioregional approach. Every
step in the production process happens within ● Algalife is a German-Israeli company that is
a 600 mile (1,000 km) radius. growing fibers and dyes using lab-grown algae.
[Link] [Link]

● Fibershed is a US-based NGO that develops ● Circular Systems Agraloop™ Biorefinery

regional fiber systems that build soil and converts food crop waste into high-value
protect the health of our biosphere. The natural fiber products in a cost competitive
organization also has an international Affiliate and scalable way. The process also yields an
Program. [Link] organic fertilizer that can be returned to the
fields. A 2018 Global Change Award winner.
● Green Nettle Textile is a Kenyan-based [Link]
company that converts nettle stalks into a
linen-like fabric, dyes it with natural plant dyes, ● Infinited Fiber technology can turn textile,
and employs thousands of artisans across the agricultural, and cardboard waste into new
globe. A 2019 Global Change Award winner. fiber. [Link]
[Link]
● Ioncell, a Finnish-based company, has a
● Organic Cotton Accelerator is an organization proven technology at lab scale to convert
that brings together stakeholders across the cellulosic waste into textile fibers. It is currently
industry and creates the conditions for organic at pilot phase and plans to reach proof of
cotton to thrive. concept by 2021. A 2016 Global Change Award
[Link] winner. [Link]

THE NATURE OF FASHION

26
 APPENDIX C

● Spinnova, another Finnish-based company, management, and stretch, that meet the
produces cellolosic fiber from wood and demands of today’s consumers. 2020 H&M
cellolosic waste streams without the need for Global Change Award Winners.
first dissolving pulp. The process saves water [Link]
and energy and requires no harmful chemicals.
[Link]
GASIFICATION + FERMENTATION

FERMENTATION
● Air Miners is an index of companies and
projects that mine carbon from the air.
● Based in the U.S., Allbirds is a successful shoe [Link]
company that produces the foam for the shoes’
soles through fermentation. ● Kiverdi breaks down carbon materials into
[Link] their fundamental elements and builds them
back up into a range of bio-based products.
● AMSilk’s Biosteel® fibers are functional silk Kiverdi can transform plastic or any carbon-
biopolymers that can be spun to produce based material into new biodegradable
a variety of performance characteristics. materials and packaging. It can also transform
Based in Germany, the company functions at CO2 into sustainable protein (and thus could
an industrial scale. [Link] contribute to a reduction in the amount of
industries/biosteel-fibers/ arable land needed for food production).
[Link]
● Faber Futures is developing a fermentation-
based dyeing method using bacteria such as ● LanzaTech’s carbon recycling technology
Streptomyces coelicolor. using bacteria to convert pollution from an
[Link] emission source like a steel meel or landfill
site into fuels and chemicals.
● Colorifix create’s color in the lab and then [Link]
ships a tiny quantity of live microorganisms to
local fermentation partners who then grow the
color, like beer, using by-products of the sugar OTHER TRANSITION TECHNOLOGIES
production industry. The process requires
no toxic chemicals, one-tenth of the water of
standard processes, and allows fiber dyeing to ● Recycling Revolution, a partnership between
take place at 37°C. [Link] H&M and HKRITA and its team of researchers
is exploring a hydrothermal approach to
● The Hong Kong Research Institute of recycling, dubbed The Green Machine, as well
Textiles and Apparel Limited (HKRITA) uses as a biological method to recycle blends.
enzymes to break down food waste, followed [Link]
by fermentation and polymerization to produce
biodegradable PLA fibers. ● SaXcell is a regenerated virgin textile fiber
[Link] made from chemically recycled domestic
[Link]?id=62 cotton waste. Sorting is currently done
manually. [Link]
● Spiber’s Brewed ProteinTM fermented
materials can be processed into fine ● Worn Again Technologies has developed a
filament fibers or spun yarns with a variety of chemical polymer recycling technology that
performance characteristics. After 15 years of offers innovative ways of handling blended
R&D, this Japanese company is now focused textiles. [Link]
on scaling up for mass production.
[Link]

● Werewool is developing a platform to design

fibers at the DNA level for sustainable textiles
with inherent properties such as color, moisture

THE NATURE OF FASHION

27
Acknowledgements
Funder / Partner

Special Thanks
The Biomimicry Institute would like to thank the following for sharing their time and
expertise with us, primarily through interviews and occasionally via correspondence:

Cees Anton, Director, Origame

Laura Balmond, Programme Manager for Make Fashion Circular,
Ellen MacArthur Foundation
Kevin Bayuk, Senior Financial Fellow, Project Drawdown; Co-founder, LIFT Economy
Jay Bolus, President, McDonough Braungart Design Chemistry
Lauren Bright, Senior Manager, Sustainable Product Innovation at Aro, Gap, Inc.
Caroline Brown, Managing Director, Closed Loop Partners
Sophie Buchel, Consultant and Researcher, Drift for Transition
Rebecca Burgess, Executive Director, Fibershed; Chair of the Board,
Carbon Cycle Institute
Dr. Peter Christensen, Chemist and circular economy expert
Dr. Lisa Dyson, Founder and CEO, Kiverdi
Stacy Flynn, CEO and founding partner, Evrnu
Dr. Jonathan Foley, Executive Director, Project Drawdown
Ricardo Garay, Agraloop Project Coordinator, Circular Systems
Pascale Gatzen, head, Fashion Design Masters Program, ArtEZ University of the Arts
Annie Gullingsrud, Chief Strategy Officer, Eon; Author, Fashion Fibers:
Designing for Sustainability
Douwe Jan Joustra, former Head of Circular Transformation, C&A Foundation
Sarah Kelley, Project Director, Special Project on Sustainable Fibers and Textiles,
Sustainable Agriculture and Food Systems Funders
Sibbe Krol, Senior Program Manager, Apparel & Electronics,
IDH The Sustainable Trade Initiative
Domenica Liebowitz, Founder and Creative Director, Averti
Megan McGill, Senior Programme Manager, Laudes Foundation
Curt McNamara, Adjunct Faculty, Minneapolis College of Art and Design; Chair, Natural
Systems Working Group, International Council on Systems Engineering
Megan Meiklejohn, Sustainable Materials & Transparency Manager, Eileen Fisher
Lewis Perkins, CEO, Apparel Impact Institute
Amina Razvi, Executive Director, Sustainable Apparel Coalition
Francois Souchet, Lead for Make Fashion Circular, Ellen MacArthur Foundation
Kirsty Stevenson, Senior Director for Global Sustainability, Gap, Inc.

Special acknowledgement to the authors of this report:

Eleanor Banwell
Megan Schuknecht
Beth Rattner
Natasja Hulst
Brian Dougherty, Celery Design

THE NATURE OF FASHION

28
Endnotes
1. U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Price Index for All Urban Consumers: Apparel in U.S. City Average [CPIAPPSL], retrieved from FRED,
Federal Reserve Bank of St. Louis; [Link] March 7, 2020.
2. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. (2017). A new textiles economy: Redesigning fashion’s future.
3. Steidinger, B.S., Crowther, T.W., Liang, J. et al. (2019). Climatic controls of decomposition drive the global biogeography of forest-tree symbioses.
Nature, 569, 404–408. [Link]
4. Mayumi, K. (2009). Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen: His Bioeconomics Approach to Development and Change. Development and Change, 40(6),
1235-1254. [Link]
5. England, J.L. (2013). Statistical physics of self-replication. The Journal of Chemical Physics, 139(12), 09B623_1. [Link]
uploads/7/8/0/3/7803054/[Link]
6. Schrodinger, E. (1944). What is life? The Physical Aspect of the Living Cell. [Link]
7. See [Link]
8. See [Link]
9. Mayumi, K. (2009) Nicholas Georgescu-Roegen: His Bioeconomics Approach to Development and Change. Development and Change, 40(6),
1235-1254.
[Link]
10. Georgescu-Roegen, N. (1971). The entropy law and the economic process. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press.
11. Georgescu-Roegen, N. (1975). Energy and economic myths. Southern economic journal, 347-381. [Link]
readings/energy%[Link]
12. See [Link]
13. See: [Link]
14. Bytingsvik, J., van Leeuwen, S., Hamers, T., Swart, K., Aars, J., Lie, E., ... & Jenssen, B. (2012). Perfluoroalkyl substances in polar bear mother–
cub pairs: a comparative study based on plasma levels from 1998 and 2008. Environment International. 49, 92-99. [Link]
pubmed/23010253
15. Boisvert, G., Sonne, C., Rigét, F., Dietz, R. and Letcher, R. (2019). Bioaccumulation and biomagnification of perfluoroalkyl acids and precursors in
East Greenland polar bears and their ringed seal prey. Environmental Pollution, 252, 1335-1343.
16. Ball, P. (2012) The unavoidable cost of computation revealed. Nature News. March 7. [Link]
computation-revealed-1.10186
17. See [Link]
18. Van Der Heijden, M., Martin, F., Selosse, M., and Sanders, I. (2015). Mycorrhizal ecology and evolution: the past, the present, and the future. New
Phytologist, 205(4), 1406-1423.
19. Morris, J. et al. (2019). Biology: How Life Works, 3rd edition, p. 3098.
20. See [Link]
21. See [Link]
22. See [Link]
23. See [Link]
24. See [Link]
25. Textile Exchange. (2019). Preferred Fiber & Materials Market Report 2019. [Link]
materials-report/
26. Boucher, J. and Friot, D. (2017). IUCN Primary Microplastics in the Oceans: A Global Evaluation of Sources. https:// [Link]/library/
node/46622
27. The Story of Stuff Project. (2017). The Story of Microfibers. [Link]
28. See [Link]
29. Ibid.
30. See [Link]
31. See [Link]
32. See [Link]
33. Ibid.
34. De Falco, F., Di Pace, E., Cocca, M. and Avella, M. (2019). The contribution of washing processes of synthetic clothes to microplastic pollution.
Scientific Reports 9(1), 1-11. [Link]
35. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. (2017). The New Plastics Economy: Rethinking the future of plastics & catalysing action. [Link]
[Link]/publications/the-new-plastics-economy-rethinking-the-future-of-plastics-catalysing-action
36. See [Link]
37. Geyer, R., Jambeck, J. and Lavendar Law, K. (2017). Production, Use, and Fate of All Plastics Ever Made. Science Advances 3(7). [Link]
[Link]/pmc/articles/PMC5517107/
38. See [Link]
39. See [Link]
40. McKeag, T. (2011) Surfing for Free: Optimizing Thermodynamic Pathways for Innovative Solutions. Proceedings: Biomimicry in Higher Education
Webinar. January 29.
[Link]
41. See [Link]
42. Christensen, P.R., Scheuermann, A.M., Loeffler, K.E., and Helms, B.A. (2019). Closed-loop recycling of plastics enabled by dynamic covalent
diketoenamine bonds. Nature Chemistry, 11(5), pp.442-448. [Link]

THE NATURE OF FASHION

29
 ENDNOTES

43. Interview with Dr. Peter Christensen, February 6, 2020.

44. See [Link]
45. See [Link]
46. See [Link]
47. Meiklejohn, M. (2020). Textiles and Apparel: Fabrics Weaving A Regenerative Future. ReGen Friends panel discussion, February 27, San
Francisco, CA.
48. See [Link]
49. Muthu, S.S. (2018). Assessing the Environmental Impact of Textiles and the Clothing Supply Chain, 2nd Edition. Woodhead Publishing,
Cambridge, MA.
50. See [Link]
51. Quantis. (2018). Measuring Fashion: Insights from the Environmental Impact of the Global Apparel and Footwear Industries study.
52. Global Fashion Agenda and Boston Consulting Group. (2017). The Pulse of the Fashion Industry. Exhibit 16, 42.
53. Ibid, p. 9.
54. See [Link]
55. See an example of this in the Amsterdam Doughnut Coalition analysis: [Link]
56. Goerner S, Fiscus D, & Fath, B.D. (2015). Using energy network science (ENS) to connect resilience with the larger story of systemic health and
development. Emergence: Complexity and Organization, 17 (3), 1-21.
57. Ibid.
58. See [Link]
59. See [Link]
60. See [Link]
61. See [Link]
62. Ditty, S. (2015). It’s Time for a Fashion Revolution. Fashion Revolution.
63. Steffen, W. et al. (2015). Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet. Science. 347: 6223. February 13.
64. Global Fashion Agenda and Boston Consulting Group. (2017). The Pulse of the Fashion Industry. Exhibit 3, 10.
65. Duffy, J.E., Cardinale, B.J., France, K.E., McIntyre, P.B., Thébault, E., and Loreau, M. (2007) The functional role of biodiversity in ecosystems:
incorporating trophic complexity. Ecology Letters, 10(6), 522-538.
66. Morris, J. et al. (2019). Biology: How Life Works, 3rd edition.
67. Ibid.
68. Duffy, J.E., Cardinale, B.J., France, K.E., McIntyre, P.B., Thébault, E., and Loreau, M. (2007) The functional role of biodiversity in ecosystems:
incorporating trophic complexity. Ecology Letters, 10(6), 522-538.
69. European Union. (2010). The factory of life: Why soil biodiversity is so important.
70. Wall, D., Nielsen, U. & Six, J. (2015). Soil biodiversity and human health. Nature, 528, 69–76.
71. Hatfield, J., Sauer, T., & Cruse, R. (2017). Chapter One-Soil: The Forgotten Piece of the Water, Food, Energy Nexus in Advances in Agronomy,
143, 1-46.
72. Goerner S, Fiscus D, & Fath, B.D. (2015). Using energy network science (ENS) to connect resilience with the larger story of systemic health and
development. Emergence: Complexity and Organization, 17 (3), 1-21.
73. See [Link]
74. Ibid.
75. See [Link]
76. See [Link] and [Link]
properties-of-cotton-fiber-end_846.html
77. See [Link]
78. See [Link]
79. See the work of Sally Fox, Foxfibre® naturally colored cotton: [Link]
cotton-by-going-back-to-its-roots/
80. Ellen MacArthur Foundation. (2017). A new textiles economy: Redesigning fashion’s future.
81. Global Fashion Agenda. (2020). CEO Agenda. [Link]
82. Burgess, R. with White, C. (2019). Fibershed: Growing a Movement of Farmers, Fashion Activists, and Makers for a New Textile Economy.
Chelsea Green Publishing. P. 159.
83. See [Link] and [Link]
84. See [Link]
85. Lelieveld, J., Evans, J.S., Fnais, M., Giannadaki, D. and Pozzer, A. (2015). The contribution of outdoor air pollution sources to premature mortality
on a global scale. Nature, 525(7569), 367-371. [Link]
86. See [Link]
87. See [Link]
88. See [Link]
89. See [Link]
90. GreenBlue. (2017). Chemical recycling. Making fiber-to-fiber recycling a reality for polyester textiles.
91. See [Link]
92. Ibid.
93. See [Link]
liquid-and-gaseous-biofuels
94. Benyus, J. (1998). Biomimicry: Innovation Inspired by Nature. New York: Quill.
95. Joustra, D. J., van Leenders, C. and Wijffels, B. (2014). Ecomimicry: Ten Perspectives from Nature. [Link]
ten_perspectives_from_nature_-_2014

THE NATURE OF FASHION

30
 ENDNOTES

96. Global Fashion Agenda and Boston Consulting Group. (2017). The Pulse of the Fashion Industry. [Link]
uploads/2017/05/Pulse-of-the-Fashion-Industry_2017.pdf
97. Anonymous attribution at this time, but the sentiment was shared by no fewer than three major brands.
98. Interview with Rebecca Burgess, March 12, 2020.
99. Wahl, D.C. (2016). Designing Regenerative Cultures, and “The Grace of Import Replacements” [Link]
the-grace-of-import-replacement/
100. See [Link]
101. Abbott, A. and Ellison, M., eds. (2008). Biologically Inspired Textiles. Woodhead Publishing.
102. See [Link]
103. See [Link]
104. See [Link]
105. See [Link]
106. Existing examples include: WikiHouse, a nonprofit foundation sharing templates for modular housing; L’Atelier Paysan, an open-source
cooperative fostering technological sovereignty for small- and medium-scale ecological agriculture; Farm Hack, a farmer-driven community
network sharing open-source know-how amongst do-it-yourself agricultural tech innovators.
107. Burgess, R. with White, C. (2019). Fibershed: Growing a Movement of Farmers, Fashion Activists, and Makers for a New Textile Economy.
Chelsea Green Publishing, 192-193.
108. Delta Institute and Farmland LP. ( Valuing the Ecosystem Service Benefits from Regenerative Agriculture Practices.
109. See also the work of Dr. Gretchen Daily and the Natural Capital Project: [Link]
110. See [Link]
111. Bhat, G. and Parikh, D.V. (2010). Biodegradable Materials for Nonwovens. Chapter 3 in Applications of Nonwovens in Textiles. Woodhead
Publishing Series in Textiles.
112. See [Link]
of-products-made-entirely-from-plants
113. Taylor, B. (2019). Healthy Soils To Cool the Planet: A Philanthropic Action Guide. Breakthrough Strategies Solutions. [Link]
[Link]/soilguide
114. See [Link]
115. See [Link]

PHOTO CREDITS

Cover: Robert Anasch on [Link]

Pg 5: mi_shots on [Link]
Pg 8: Patti Virtue, University of Tasmania
Pg 9: Jon Mowe on [Link]
Pg 10: Tanacha on [Link]
Pg 12: Olga Subach on [Link]
Pg 17: Courtesy of [Link]/agraloop
Pg 18: Courtesy of [Link]
Pg 19: NIAID on [Link]
Pg 20: Manu M. on [Link]
Pg 22: Peggy Foreman on [Link]

THE NATURE OF FASHION

31