PROPELLERS

INTRODUCTION
Since the first powered flight, propellers have been used to convert aircraft engine power into thrust. Although
many modern transport category aircraft are powered by turbojet or turbofan engines, most of the aircraft in use
today are propelled by one or more propellers that are driven by either a turbine or reciprocating engine.
Regardless of the engine type, the primary purpose of a propeller is to convert engine power to thrust. Therefore,
as an aircraft maintenance technician, you must have a thorough understanding of the basic principles, mainte-
nance, and repair of propeller systems.
PROPELLER PRINCIPLES
With few exceptions, nearly all early aircraft All modern propellers consist of at least two blades
designs used propellers to create thrust. During the that are connected to a central hub. The portion of a
latter part of the 19th century, many unusual and propeller blade that is nearest the hub is referred to
innovative propeller designs were tried on early fly- as the blade shank whereas the portion furthest
ing machines. These early propeller designs ranged from the hub is called the blade tip. The propeller
from simple fabric covered wooden paddles to elab- hub, or hub assembly, is bored out to create a hub
orate multi-bladed wire-braced designs. As the sci- bore which permits a propeller to be mounted on
ence of aeronautics progressed, propeller designs the engine crankshaft or to a reduction gear assem-
evolved from flat boards which merely pushed air bly. [Figure 12-1]
backward, to airfoils that produce lift to pull an air-
craft forward. At the time the Wright brothers began Each blade on a propeller acts as a rotating wing to
their first powered flights, propeller design had produce lift and pull an aircraft through the air.
evolved into the standard two-bladed style. Therefore, in addition to the basic nomenclature
just discussed, propeller blades share much of the
Development of propeller design with new materi- same nomenclature as aircraft wings. For example,
als has produced thinner airfoil sections and greater all propeller blades have a leading edge, a trailing
strength. Because of their structural strength, alu- edge, and a chord line. If you recall from your study
minum alloys are predominantly used as the struc- of airfoils, a chord line is an imaginary line drawn
tural material in modern aircraft propellers. through an airfoil from the leading edge to the trail-
However, you can still find several propellers that ing edge. The curved, or cambered side of a pro-
are constructed of wood. peller blade is called the blade back and the flat
side is called the blade face. A propeller's blade
Today, propeller designs continue to be improved angle is the acute angle formed by a propeller's
through the use of new airfoil shapes, composite plane of rotation and the blade's chord line. A pro-
materials, and multi-blade configurations. Recent peller's plane of rotation is always perpendicular to
improvements include the use of composite materi- the engine crankshaft. [Figure 12-2]
als to produce laminar flow symmetrical airfoils
and gull wing propeller designs. Propellers which allow changes in blade angle have
removable blades that are secured to a hub assembly
by a set of clamping rings. Each blade root has a
NOMENCLATURE flanged butt, or shoulder, which mates with grooves
Before you can fully understand the principles of in the hub assembly. The blade shank on this type
how a propeller produces thrust, you must be famil- of blade is typically round and extends out to at
iar with some basic terms and component names. least the end of the hub assembly; however, in some
Figure 12-1. The blades of a single-piece propeller extend from the hub assembly. Blades have a shank and a tip, while the hub
assembly has a hub bore and bolt holes that facilitate propeller mounting.
Propeller 12-3
s
 increase the flow of cooling air to the engine
nacelle. Mechanical clamping devices and bonding
agents such as a rubber-base adhesive or epoxy
adhesive are utilized to attach the cuffs to the
blades. [Figure 12-3]

To aid in identifying specific points along the length

of a propeller blade, most blades have several
defined blade stations. A blade station is simply a
reference position on a propeller blade that is a
specified distance from the center of the hub.

PROPELLER THEORY
Figure 12-2. All propeller blades have a leading edge, a When the propeller rotates through the air, a low
trailing edge, and a chord line. In addition, all propeller pressure area is created in front of the blade, much
blades are set at a specific angle that is defined by the
acute angle formed by the propeller's plane of rotation and
like the wing's curvature creates a low pressure area
the chord line. above the wing. This low pressure area, combined
with the constant, or high pressure area behind the
blade allow a propeller to produce thrust. The
cases, the shank may extend beyond the hub assem- amount of thrust produced depends on several fac-
bly and into the airstream. When this is the case, tors including, the angle of attack of the propeller
blade cuffs may be installed to improve air flow blades, the speed the blades move through the air,
around the blade shank. A blade cuff is an airfoil- and the shape of the airfoil. The angle of attack of a
shaped attachment made of thin sheets of metal, propeller blade is the angle formed by the chord line
plastic, or composite material. Blade cuffs mount of the blade and the relative wind. The direction of
on the blade shanks and are primarily used to the relative wind is determined by the speed an air-
craft moves through the air and the rotational
motion of the propeller. For example, when a pro-
peller rotates on a stationary aircraft, the direction
of the relative wind is exactly opposite to the rota-
tional movement of the propeller. Therefore, the
propeller blade's angle of attack is the same as the
propeller blade angle. [Figure 12-4]

Figure 12-4. With no forward velocity, the relative wind is

Figure 12-3. Some large turboprop propeller blades are fit- directly opposite the movement of the propeller blade. In
ted with blade cuffs to improve the airflow around the this case, a propeller's angle of attack is the same as its
blade shanks. blade angle.
72-4 Propeller
s
Figure 12-5. In forward flight, the airplane moves from point A to point B while the propeller moves from point C to point D. In this
case, the propeller's trailing edge follows the path from C to D which represents the resultant relative wind. This results in an angle
of attack that is less than the blade angle.
Figure 12-6. If the forward velocity of the aircraft remains constant, but a propeller's rotational speed increases, the propeller's
trailing edge will move a greater distance for a given amount of forward movement. This increases the angle at which the relative
wind strikes the propeller blade which, in turn, increases the angle of attack.
When the same aircraft begins moving forward, the Unlike a wing which moves through the air at a uni-
relative wind changes direction. The reason for this form rate, the propeller sections near the tip rotate
is that, in addition to rotating, the propeller is also at a much greater speed than those near the hub.
moving forward. The combination of the rotating and The difference in rotational velocity along a pro-
forward motion produce a resultant relative wind peller blade segment can be found by first calculat-
that is not directly opposite the movement of the pro- ing the circumference of the arc traveled by a point
peller blade. In this case, the angle of attack will on that segment. If you recall from your general
always be less than the blade angle. [Figure 12-5] studies, the circumference of a circle is calculated
with the formula:
Based on how forward motion affects the relative
wind acting on a propeller blade, it can be deter- 2irr
mined that for a given propeller speed, the faster an
aircraft moves through the air, the smaller the angle The circumference is then multiplied by engine rpm
of attack on the propeller blade. However, if pro- to find rotational velocity. For example, to deter-
peller speed is increased, the trailing edge of the mine the blade velocity at a point 18 inches from
propeller blade travels a greater distance for a given the hub that is rotating at 1,800 rpm use the follow-
amount of forward movement. Therefore, as pro- ing formula:
peller speed increases, the relative wind strikes the
propeller blade at a greater angle and the angle of Velocity = 2TTr x rpm
attack increases. [Figure 12-6]
= 2 XTT x 18 x 1,800 =
The most effective angle of attack for a propeller
blade is between 2 and 4 degrees. Any angle of 203,575
attack exceeding 15 degrees is ineffective because of
the possibility of a propeller blade stall. Typically, At a point 18 inches from the hub the blade travels
propellers with a fixed blade angle are designed to 203,575 inches per minute. To convert this to miles
produce an angle of attack between 2 and 4 degrees per hour, divide 203,575 by 63,360, the number of
at either a climb or cruise airspeed with a specific inches in one mile, and multiply the product by 60,
rpm setting. the number of minutes in one hour.
Propeller 12-5
s
Figure 12-7. As a propeller blade rotates at a fixed rpm, each Figure 12-8. The variation in airfoil shape and blade angle
blade segment moves through the air at a different velocity. along the length of a propeller blade compensates for dif-
ferences in rotational speed and allows for a more even dis-
tribution of thrust along the blade.
Allows the propeller to provide a fairly constant
angle of attack along most of the length of the blade.
The speed of the propeller at station 18 is 192.7 In addition to blade twist, most propellers are built
miles per hour. You can now compare this to the with a thicker, low speed airfoil near the blade hub
speed of the propeller at station 48. By applying the and a thinner, high speed airfoil near the tip. This,
formulas just discussed, you can determine that, at combined with blade twist, permits a propeller to
station 48, the propeller is moving at a speed of 514 produce a relatively constant amount of thrust along
miles per hour. [Figure 12-7] a propeller blade's entire length. [Figure 12-8]
To compensate for the difference in velocity along a FORCES ACTING ON A PROPELLER
propeller blade, each small section of the propeller
A rotating propeller is subjected to many forces that
blade is set at a different angle. The gradual
cause tension, twisting, and bending stresses within
decrease in blade angle from the hub to the tip is
the propeller. Of the forces that act on a propeller,
called pitch distribution. This is what gives a pro-
centrifugal force causes the greatest stress.
peller blade its twisted appearance. Blade twist
Centrifugal force can best be described as the force
72-6 Propeller
s
Figure 12-9. When a propeller is rotating, centrifugal force tries to pull propeller blades away from the hub.
Figure 12-11. Torque bending forces exert a pressure that tends to bend the blades opposite the direction of rotation.

which tries to pull the blades out of the hub. The Torque bending forces occur as air resistance
amount of stress created by centrifugal force can be opposes the rotational motion of the propeller
greater than 7,500 times the weight of the propeller blades. This force tends to bend the blades opposite
blade, [Figure 12-9] the direction of rotation. [Figure 12-11]

Thrust bending force, on the other hand, attempts to Aerodynamic twisting force results from the fact
bend the propeller blades forward at the tips. This that, when a propeller blade produces thrust, the
occurs because propeller blades are typically thin- majority of the thrust produced is exerted ahead of
ner near the tip and this allows the thrust produced the blade's axis of rotation. Therefore, aerodynamic
at the tip to flex the blade forward. Thrust bending twisting force tends to increase a propeller's blade
force opposes centrifugal force to some degree. angle. In some cases, aerodynamic twisting force is
[Figure 12-10] used to help change the blade angle on a propeller.
[Figure 12-12]

Figure 12-12. The majority of thrust produced by a propeller

To t^vrted a'nead ot tne'blade's axis o'r [Link] pro-
Figure 12-10. Thrust bending forces exert a pressure that duces an aerodynamic twisting force that attempts to
tends to bend the propeller blade tips forward. increase a propeller's blade angle.
Propeller 12-7
s
 blade, the most critical location is about six inches
from the blade tips.

Most airframe-engine-propeller combinations

have eliminated the detrimental effects of vibra-
tional stresses by careful design. Nevertheless,
some engine/propeller combinations do have a
critical range where severe propeller vibration
can occur. In this case, the critical range is indi-
cated on the tachometer by a red arc. Engine oper-
ation in the critical range should be limited to a
brief passage from one rpm setting to another.
Engine operation in the critical range for extended
periods can lead to structural failure of the pro-
peller or aircraft.

Figure 12-13. Centrifugal twisting force attempts to Propeller design typically allows for some degree of
decrease blade angle by aligning a propeller's center of vibrational stress. However, in situations where a
mass with its center of rotation. propeller has been improperly altered, vibration
may cause excessive flexing and work hardening of
the metal to the extent that sections of the propeller
blade could break off in flight.
Centrifugal twisting force opposes aerodynamic
twisting force in that it attempts to decrease a pro-
peller's blade angle. When a propeller rotates, cen-
PROPELLER PITCH
trifugal force tries to align the propeller's center of
mass with its center of rotation. A propeller's cen- In the strictest sense, propeller pitch is the theoret-
ter of mass is typically ahead of its center of rota- ical distance a propeller advances longitudinally in
tion; therefore, when a propeller rotates, centrifugal one revolution. Pitch and blade angle describe two
force tries to decrease its blade angle. At opera- different concepts, however, they are closely
tional speeds, centrifugal twisting force is greater related and the two terms are often used inter-
than aerodynamic twisting force and is used in changeably. For example, when a propeller is said
some propeller designs to decrease the blade angle. to have a fixed pitch, what is actually meant is that
[Figure 12-13] the blades on the propeller are set at a fixed blade
angle.
The final force that is exerted on a spinning pro-
peller is blade vibration. When a propeller pro- A propeller's geometric pitch is defined as the dis-
duces thrust, blade vibration occurs due to the aero- tance, in inches, that a propeller will move forward
dynamic and mechanical forces that are present. For in one revolution if it were moving through a solid
example, aerodynamic forces tend to bend the pro- medium and did not encounter any loss of effi-
peller blades forward at the tips producing buffeting ciency. Measurement of geometric pitch is based on
and vibration. On the other hand, mechanical vibra- the propeller blade angle at a point out from the pro-
tions are caused by the power pulses in a piston peller hub that is equal to 75 percent of the blade
engine. Of the two, mechanical vibrations are con- length.
sidered to be more destructive than aerodynamic
vibrations. The reason for this is that engine power
When traveling through air, inefficiencies prevent a
pulses tend to create standing wave patterns in a
propeller blade that can lead to metal fatigue and propeller from moving forward at a rate equal to its
geometric pitch. Therefore, effective pitch is the
structural failure.
actual amount a propeller moves forward in one
revolution. Effective pitch varies from zero when
The location and number of stress points in a blade the aircraft is stationary on the ground, to about 90
depend on the characteristics of the individual pro- percent of the geometric pitch during the most effi-
peller/engine combination. While concentrations of cient flight conditions. The difference between geo-
vibrational stress are detrimental at any point on a metric pitch and effective pitch is called slip.
12-8 Propeller
s
Figure 12-14. Geometric pitch is the theoretical distance a propeller would move forward if it were 100% efficient. Effective pitch,
on the other hand, is the actual distance a propeller moves forward in one revolution. Slip is the difference between geometric
and effective pitch.
Propeller slip represents the total losses caused by than tractor-type propellers. The reason for this is
inefficiencies. [Figure 12-14] that rocks, gravel, and small objects that are dis-
lodged by wheels are frequently thrown or drawn
If a propeller has a geometric pitch of 50 inches, in into a pusher-type propeller. On the other hand, it
theory it should move forward 50 inches in one rev- ■would be very difficult to install a tractor-type
olution. However, if the aircraft actually moves for- propeller on some amphibious aircraft.
ward only 35 inches in one revolution, the effective
pitch is 35 inches and the propeller is 70 percent Propellers also are classified by the method used to
efficient. In this case, slip represents 15 inches or a establish pitch. Typical classifications that are used
30 percent loss of efficiency. In practice, most pro- here include fixed pitch, ground adjustable, con-
pellers are 75 to 85 percent efficient. trollable pitch, constant speed, reversible, and
feathering.
PROPELLER CLASSIFICATIONS The simplest type of propeller is a fixed-pitch pro-
Propellers are typically classified according to peller. Fixed-pitch propellers are designed for a par-
their position on the aircraft. For example, tractor ticular aircraft to produce optimum efficiency at a
propellers are mounted on the front of an engine specific rotational and forward speed. A fixed-pitch
and pull an aircraft through the air. On the other propeller with a low blade angle, often called a
hand, pusher-type propellers are mounted on the climb propeller, provides the best performance for
aft end of an aircraft and push an airplane through takeoff and climb. On the other hand, a fixed-pitch
the air. Most aircraft are equipped with tractor-type propeller with a high blade angle, often called a
propellers; however, there are several seaplanes cruise propeller, is more adapted to high speed
and amphibious aircraft that are equipped with cruise and high altitude flight. It is important to
pusher propellers. A major advantage of the trac- note that with this type of propeller, any change
tor-type propeller is that lower stresses are from the optimum rpm or airspeed reduces the effi-
induced in the propeller as it rotates in relatively ciency of the propeller.
undisturbed air.
Ground-adjustable propellers are similar to fixed-
Both tractor- and pusher-type propellers effectively pitch propellers in that their blade angles cannot be
propel an aircraft through the air. However, in some changed in flight. However, the propeller is con-
instances one type of propeller may be better suited structed in a way that allows the blade angle to be
for a given airplane. For example, on land planes changed on the ground. This type of propeller is
that have little propeller-to-ground clearance, found mostly on aircraft built between the 1920s
pusher-type propellers are subject to more damage and 1940s.
Propeller 12-9
s
Controllable-pitch propellers have an advantage rial used in the construction of both fixed- and
over ground adjustable propellers in that the blade adjustable-pitch propellers. In addition, some com-
angle may be changed while the propeller is rotat- posite materials are now being utilized because of
ing. This allows the propeller to assume a blade their light weight and flexibility.
angle that provides the best performance for a par-
ticular flight condition. The number of pitch posi-
tions may be limited, as with a two-position con- WOOD
trollable propeller; or the pitch may be adjusted to Wood was the most reliable material for fabrication
any angle between a minimum and maximum of propellers for many years. Hardwoods such as
pitch setting. birch, maple, and several others possess the flexi-
bility and strength required for a propeller used on
Constant-speed propellers, sometimes referred to as low horsepower engines of small aircraft. The mol-
automatic propellers, are unique in that once a pilot ecular structure of wood allows it to absorb engine
selects an operating rpm, the propeller blades auto- vibration to a large degree and does not support res-
matically adjust to maintain the selected rpm. With onant vibrations. However, unless wood materials
this type of propeller, pitch control is provided by a are coated with a tough protective layer of resin or
controlling device known as a governor. A typical other material, they are susceptible to damage from
governor utilizes oil pressure to control blade pitch. gravel and debris during ground operations.
Constant speed propeller systems provide maxi-
mum efficiency by allowing the pilot to control the
propeller blade angle for most conditions encoun- ALUMINUM ALLOY
tered in flight. Today, the vast majority of propellers used are con-
structed of an aluminum alloy. Aluminum is more
Reversible-pitch propellers are a refinement of the desirable than wood because it allows thinner, more
constant-speed propeller. On aircraft equipped with efficient airfoils to be constructed without sacrific-
a reversible propeller, the propeller blades can be ing structural strength. In addition, the airfoil sec-
rotated to a negative angle to produce reverse thrust. tions on an aluminum propeller typically extend
This forces air forward instead of backward and per- close to the hub providing better airflow for engine
mits a shorter landing roll and improved ground cooling. Furthermore, aluminum propellers require
maneuvering. much less maintenance than wood propellers,
thereby reducing the operating cost.
Most multi-engine aircraft are equipped with a
feather able propeller. A feathering propeller is a
type of constant-speed propeller that has the ability STEEL
to rotate the propeller blades so that the leading Steel propellers and blades are found primarily on
edge of each blade is pointed straight forward into antique and older generation transport aircraft.
the wind. The only time a pilot selects the feather Because steel is a heavy metal, steel blades are nor-
position is if an engine fails. Placing the blades in mally hollow consisting of steel sheets attached to a
the feather position eliminates a great deal of the rib structure. The hollow area is then filled with a
drag associated with a wind milling propeller. foam material to help absorb vibration and maintain
a rigid structure.
PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION
Almost all propellers produced are made of wood, COMPOSITE
steel, aluminum, or some type of composite mater- Composite propeller blades are slowly gaining in
ial. In the early years of aircraft development all popularity. Some advantages of composite pro-
propellers were made of wood. However, since pellers include the fact that they are lightweight and
wood is fairly susceptible to damage, steel pro- extremely durable. In addition, composites absorb
pellers quickly found their way into aviation. vibration and are resilient, making them resistant to
Today, aluminum alloys are the predominant mate- damage and corrosion.
FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS
The simplest type of propeller is a fixed-pitch pro- quently operates from short runways, or high field
peller. As its name implies, the blade angle on a elevations generally perform better with a climb
fixed-pitch propeller is fixed and cannot easily be propeller. On the other hand, aircraft which are nor-
changed. Because of this, fixed-pitch propellers mally operated at sea level from airports with long
achieve their optimum efficiency at a specific rota- runways may be equipped with a cruise propeller.
tional and forward speed.
PROPELLER CONSTRUCTION
FIXED-PITCH CLASSIFICATIONS Almost all fixed-pitch propellers produced are
A typical fixed-pitch propeller installed on a light made of either wood or aluminum. Of the two, alu-
aircraft has a diameter between 67 and 76 inches minum is the most common, especially on produc-
and a pitch between 53 and 68 inches. The exact tion aircraft. However, there are still several classic
diameter and pitch required for a specific airplane and experimental aircraft that utilize wood pro-
is specified by the aircraft manufacturer. In some pellers.
cases, a manufacturer may authorize multiple pro-
pellers, each with a different pitch. In this case, a
propeller with the lower blade angle provides the WOODEN PROPELLERS
best performance for takeoff and climb and, there- A majority of fixed-pitch propellers were made from
fore, is often called a climb propeller. The low blade wood until World War II and wooden propellers are
angle allows the engine to develop its maximum still in limited use on small utility aircraft.
rpm at the slower airspeeds associated with Hardwoods such as ash and birch are typically used
climbout. However, once the aircraft reaches its to build a wooden propeller. However, other hard-
cruising altitude and begins to accelerate, the low woods that have been used include mahogany,
blade angle becomes inefficient. maple, cherry, oak, and black walnut. Whatever
type of wood is used, it must be free of grain irregu-
A fixed-pitch propeller with a slightly higher blade larities, knots, pitch pockets, and insect damage.
angle is called a cruise propeller. A cruise propeller
is designed to be efficient at cruising speed and high A wooden propeller is constructed of a minimum of
altitude flight. However, because of the higher five layers of wood that are kiln-dried and lami-
pitch, cruise propellers are very inefficient during nated together with a waterproof resin glue. Each
takeoff and climbout. layer is normally the same thickness and type of
wood; however, alternate layers of different wood
A standard propeller is often referred to as a com- types may be used. The reason laminated wood is
promise between a climb propeller and cruise pro- used instead of a solid block of wood is that a lami-
peller. Each aircraft manufacturer usually desig- nated structure is less likely to warp. Once the lay-
nates a standard propeller which is designed to pro- ers of wood are laminated together, they form what
vide the best all-around performance under normal is called a propeller blank.
circumstances.
During fabrication, the blank is rough-cut to shape
When an aircraft-engine combination is type certifi- and then allowed to season for a period of time. The
cated with a specified standard, climb, and cruise waiting period allows the moisture in the wood to
propeller, the aircraft operator may choose the type disperse equally through all of the layers. The
of fixed-pitch propeller which provides the best rough-shaped blank, referred to as a white, is then
performance for the flight operations most often finished to the exact airfoil and pitch dimensions
conducted. For example, an aircraft which fre- required. In addition, the center bore and bolt holes
Propeller 12-11
s
Figure 12-15. (A) 30 The first step in the manufacture of a wood propeller is to laminate planks together to form a propeller
blank. (B) he propeller blank is shaped and its hub is drilled to produce a "white." (C) 30 Once sanded smooth, a fabric
sheathing and varnish coating are applied for reinforcement and protection.
are drilled and a metal hub assembly is inserted holes are then drilled 3/16 inch deep into the tip of
through the hub bore to accommodate the mounting each blade. These holes allow moisture to drain
bolts and face plate. from behind the metal tipping and allow the wood
to breathe. [Figure 12-16]
Once a propeller white is finished and sanded
smooth, a cotton fabric is sometimes glued to the
last 12 to 15 inches of the propeller blade. The fab-
ric acts to reinforce the thin tip sections. Once
applied, the fabric is doped to prevent deterioration
caused by weather and the sun's rays. The entire
propeller is then finished with clear varnish to pro-
tect the wood surface. In some cases, wood pro-
pellers may be finished with a black or gray plastic
coating that provides additional protection against
chipping. In this case, the propeller is said to be
armor coated. [Figure 12-15]

Monel, brass, or stainless steel tipping is applied to

the leading edge and tip of most wooden propellers
to prevent damage from small stones. In order to
permit the metal edging to conform to the contour of
the leading edge, the metal must be notched. To
attach the edging to the blade, countersunk screws
are used in the thick blade sections while copper
rivets are used in the thin sections near the tip. Figure 12-16. Metal tipping is applied to propeller blade tips
Once in place, the screws and rivets are secured and leading edges to help prevent erosion damage. Three
small holes drilled in the tip of each blade release moisture
with solder. Using a number 60 drill, three small and allow the wood to breathe.
72-72 Propeller
s
ALUMINUM ALLOY PROPELLERS
Wood has given way to aluminum as the most
often used material for fixed-pitch propeller
fabrication. As mentioned earlier, propeller
blades can be made thinner and more efficient
without sacrificing structural strength when
using aluminum instead of wood. In addition,
aluminum has the strength and flexibility to
accommodate the high horsepower engines
available in today's small aircraft.

One of the biggest advantages of using aluminum

is that aluminum alloy blades are less susceptible
to damage from gravel and debris normally
incurred during ground operations. Another
advantage is that infrequent damage such as
small nicks and upsets are easily dressed out
with special files, making aluminum blades eas-
ier to repair than wooden blades. In addition,
fixed-pitch aluminum propellers may be re-
pitched to an approved blade angle by certified
propeller repair stations when desired by the air-
craft operator.

Although aluminum propellers offer several advan-

tages over wood propellers, there are areas where
aluminum propellers do not perform as well. For
example, aluminum propellers are much more sus-
ceptible to damage caused by resonant vibrations.
Because of this, aluminum propellers must be
vibrationally tested during the certification
process. In addition, aluminum propellers gener- F igu re 12-17. On McC auley fixed -pitch p rop ellers , th e
ally weigh more than a comparable wood propeller. builders name, model designation, serial number, type cer -
On a light aircraft the difference can equate to sev- tificate number, and production certificate number are
stamped around the propeller hub.
eral pounds.
Almost all propellers begin as a high strength alu-
minum forging. Once forged, the propeller is ground tical balance is obtained by attaching balance
to the desired airfoil shape by machine and manual weights to the side of the propeller hub. Once the
grinding. The final pitch is then set by twisting the propeller is balanced, the surfaces are finished by
blades to their desired angle. Once the blade angle anodizing and painting.
is set, the propeller is heat treated to relieve internal
stresses.
To help prevent excessive vibration, all new pro- PROPELLER DESIGNATION
pellers are balanced both horizontally and verti-
cally. Horizontal balance is typically achieved by The Federal Aviation Regulations require that all
removing metal from the blade tip while vertical propellers be identified with the builders name,
balance is achieved by removing metal from a model designation, serial number, type certificate
blade's leading and trailing edges. Some propeller number, and production certificate number if
models may be horizontally balanced by placing there is one. To comply with the FARs, most man-
lead wool in balance holes near the boss while ver- ufacturers of fixed-pitch propellers stamp all the
required information on the propeller hub.
[Figure 12-17]
Propeller 12-13
s
Of the information presented on a propeller, the
manufacturers model number provides the majority
of the information you will need to be familiar with
as a maintenance technician. For example, a
McCauley propeller designated as 1A90/DM 7651
has a basic design designation of 1A90. The "DM"
component of the designation indicates the type of
crankshaft the propeller will fit, the blade tip con-
tour, and other information pertaining to a specific
aircraft installation. The "7651" indicates the pro-
peller diameter is 76 inches, and the pitch of the
propeller at the 75 percent station is 51 inches.

As another example, a Sensenich propeller desig-

nated as M74DM-61 has a designated diameter of 74
inches. The "D" component of the designation iden-
tifies the blade design, while the "M" identifies a Figure 12-18. A Sensenich aluminum propeller has informa-
specific hub design along with mounting informa- tion stamped on the hub which identifies its hub design,
blade design, blade length, and pitch. In addition, the num-
tion. The "61" designates the blade pitch in inches ber 1 stamped on one of the blade roots identifies that
at the 75 percent station. [Figure 12-18 blade as blade number one.
ADJUSTABLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
The design and construction of adjustable pitch pro-
pellers permit the aircraft operator to change the
propeller blade angle. This offers the advantage of
being able to set the propeller blade angle to obtain
the maximum possible efficiency from a particular
propeller/engine combination. While a few of the
older adjustable pitch propellers could only be
adjusted on the ground by a maintenance techni-
cian, most modern adjustable pitch propellers per-
mit a pilot to change the propeller pitch in flight.
The first adjustable pitch propeller systems devel-
oped offered two pitch settings; a low pitch setting
and a high pitch setting. Today, however, nearly all
adjustable pitch propeller systems are capable of a Figure 12-19. To help ensure that the propeller blades are
range of pitch settings. not pulled out of the hub on a ground-adjustable propeller,
shoulders are machined into the base of each blade shank.
These shoulders fit into grooves that are machined into
each hub half.
GROUND-ADJUSTABLE
PROPELLERS
As mentioned in Section A, ground-adjustable pro-
pellers are constructed in a way that allows the
blade angle to be changed when the aircraft is on the
ground and the engine is shut down. This type of
propeller is seldom used today and is usually found
on older aircraft equipped with radial engines.

The hub of a ground adjustable propeller consists of

two aluminum or steel halves that are machined to
form a matched pair. The interior of each hub half is
machined out so that the shank of two propeller
blades can be held between the two hub halves. To
prevent centrifugal force from pulling the blades out
of the hub, the base, or butt, of each metal blade is
machined with shoulders which fit into grooves
that are machined into each hub half. If wooden Figure 12-20. Ground adjustable propellers utilize either
clamp rings or bolts to secure the hub halves and hold the
blades are used, the shoulders are cast or machined
blades tightly.
into a metal sleeve that is fastened to the blade
shank by lag screws. [Figure 12-19]
CONTROLLABLE-PITCH
Once the blades are inserted between the two hub PROPELLERS
halves, bolts are normally used to secure the hub
halves when steel blades are used. However, when Controllable-pitch propellers have an advantage
wood or aluminum alloy blades are used, either over ground adjustable propellers in that the
bolts or clamp rings may be used to hold the hub blade angle may be changed while the propeller is
halves together. [Figure 12-20] rotating. This allows the propeller to assume a
blade angle that provides the best performance for
Propeller 12-15
s
a particular flight condition. The number of pitch
positions may be limited, as with a two-position
controllable propeller; or the pitch may be
adjusted to any angle between a minimum and
maximum pitch setting.

TWO-POSITION PROPELLERS
One of the first controllable-pitch propellers that
became popular was the Hamilton-Standard coun-
terweight propeller. This propeller was developed
in the 1930's and permitted the pilot to select one of
two positions; low pitch or high pitch. The low
pitch setting was used during takeoff and climb so
the engine would turn at its maximum rpm and
develop its full rated horsepower. On the other Figure 12-21. When low pitch is selected, engine oil pres-
sure forces the cylinder forward. This motion moves the
hand, the high pitch setting was used during the counterweights and blades to the low pitch position.
cruise phase of flight to permit more efficient high-
speed flight while increasing fuel economy.
weights in and decreases the blade angle. Once the
The primary components of a two-position pro- blades reach their low pitch stop in the counter-
peller include the propeller hub, propeller blades, weight assembly, oil pressure holds the blades in
and a piston assembly. At the center of the this position. [Figure 12-21]
Hamilton-Standard two-position propeller hub is
the spider. A typical spider consists of two or three To move the blades to a high pitch position, the pro-
arms on which the blades are attached. The blades peller control lever is moved aft, rotating the selec-
are made from an aluminum alloy and have hollow tor valve to release oil pressure in the propeller hub.
ends which fit over the arms of the spider. Once the With the oil pressure removed, the centrifugal force
blades are inserted on the hub, counterweight acting on the counterweights causes them to move
brackets are attached to the base of each blade. outward, rotating the blades to their high pitch posi-
tion. As the blades rotate, oil is forced out of the
Like the ground-adjustable propeller, the Hamilton- propeller cylinder and returned to the engine sump.
Standard propeller consists of a two piece hub that The blades stop rotating when they contact their
encloses the spider and holds the propeller blades in high pitch stops located in the counterweight
place. To allow the propeller blades to rotate between assembly. [Figure 12-22]
the low and high pitch stops, each blade rides on a set
of roller bearings. In addition, a counterweight In most cases, the pitch stops on a two-position pro-
bracket is installed at the base of each propeller blade. peller can be adjusted. To do this, a pitch stop
adjusting nut is rotated until the desired blade angle
The blade angle on the Hamilton-Standard pro- is obtained.
peller is changed by using a combination of
hydraulic and centrifugal forces. Hydraulic force is
used to decrease blade angle while centrifugal force
acting on a set of counterweights is used to increase
blade angle. The hydraulic force used to decrease
blade angle is derived from engine oil that flows out
of the crankshaft and acts on a piston assembly that
is mounted on the front of the propeller hub. The
flow of engine oil into the piston assembly is con-
trolled by a three-way selector valve that is mounted
in the engine and controlled from the cockpit. When
this valve is moved forward to decrease propeller
blade angle, engine oil is routed into the piston
assembly to force the piston outward. The piston Figure 12-22. When high pitch is selected, engine oil pres-
assembly is linked to each counterweight bracket so sure is removed from the piston assembly allowing cen-
trifugal force to move the counterweights outward. This
that, as the piston moves out, it pulls the counter- rotates the blades to the high pitch position.
72-76 Propeller
s
Although the operation of a two-position propeller either pitch stop, a constant engine rpm will be
is fairly straight forward, there are some operational maintained. However, once the propeller blades
things you need to know. For example, prior to contact a pitch stop, the engine rpm will increase or
engine shutdown, the propeller should be placed in decrease as appropriate with changes in airspeed
the high pitch position. If you recall, this retracts and propeller load. For example, once a specific
the piston assembly, which, in turn, helps protect it rpm has been selected, and if aircraft speed
from corrosion and accumulations of dirt. decreases enough to rotate the propeller blades until
Furthermore, most of the oil is forced from the pis- they contact the low pitch stop, any further decrease
ton where it could congeal in cold weather. in airspeed will cause engine rpm to decrease the
same way as if a fixed pitch propeller were
installed. The same holds true when an aircraft
MULTIPLE-POSITION PROPELLERS equipped with a constant-speed propeller acceler-
As technology advanced, the two-position pro- ates to a faster airspeed. As the aircraft accelerates,
peller was improved to allow the operator to select the propeller blade angle increases to maintain the
any blade angle between the high and low pitch selected rpm until the high pitch stop is reached.
stops. This way, optimum engine/propeller effi- Once this occurs, the blade angle cannot increase
ciency can be maintained over a wider range of any further and engine rpm to increases.
power settings and airspeeds. For example, during
takeoff, the propeller blade angle is set at its lowest On aircraft that are equipped with a constant-speed
blade angle so the engine can generate its maxi- propeller, engine power output is controlled by the
mum power output. Then, once the aircraft is estab- throttle and indicated by a manifold pressure gauge.
lished in a climb, the blade angle can be increased The propeller blade angle, on the other hand, is con-
slightly to provide the best climb performance. In trolled by a propeller control lever and the resulting
cruise flight, the blade angle is further increased to change in engine rpm caused by a change in blade
obtain the best cruise performance. angle is indicated on the tachometer. By providing
the operator a means of controlling both engine
power output and propeller angle, the most efficient
CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS combination of blade angle and engine power output
can be maintained for a variety of flight conditions.
A constant-speed propeller, often called a variable- For example, during takeoff you want the engine to
pitch or controllable-pitch propeller, is the most develop its maximum power; therefore, the throttle
common type of adjustable-pitch propeller used on and the propeller control are advanced full forward
aircraft today. The main advantage of a constant- so the engine can turn at its maximum rpm on take-
speed propeller is that it converts a high percentage off. On the other hand, after the aircraft is estab-
of the engine's power into thrust over a wide range lished in cruise flight, the throttle can be retarded so
of rpm and airspeed combinations. The primary the engine runs at a more economical speed and the
reason why a constant-speed propeller is more effi- propeller blade angle can be increased to increase
cient than other propellers is because it allows the propeller efficiency for higher speed flight.
operator to select the most efficient engine rpm for
the given conditions. Once a specific rpm is
One thing you must keep in mind when operating a
selected, a device called a governor automatically
constant-speed propeller is that, for a given rpm set-
adjusts the propeller blade angle as necessary to
ting, there is a maximum allowable manifold pres-
maintain the selected rpm. For example, after
sure. Operating above this level may cause internal
selecting a desired rpm during cruising flight, an
engine stress. Therefore, as a general rule, you should
increase in airspeed or decrease in propeller load
avoid high manifold pressures with low rpm settings.
will cause the propeller blade angle to increase as
necessary to maintain the selected rpm. On the
other hand, a reduction in airspeed or increase in OPERATING PRINCIPLES
propeller load will cause the propeller blade angle
to decrease. -. i Most constant-speed, non-feathering propellers rely
on a combination of hydraulic and centrifugal
The range of possible blade angles for a constant- forces to change the propeller blade angle. They use
speed propeller is called the propeller's constant- high-pressure oil to increase the propeller blade
speed range and is defined by the high and low angle and the centrifugal twisting force inherent in
pitch stops. As long as the propeller blade angle is all spinning propellers is utilized to decrease the
within the constant-speed range and not against blade angle. On the other hand, most feathering pro-
Propeller 12-17
s
pellers utilize counterweights and centrifugal force most boost pumps are constant displacement pumps,
to pull the blades to high pitch and oil pressure to excessive oil pressure is produced at high engine
force the blades to low pitch. To help prevent con- speeds; therefore, a spring-loaded relief valve is pro-
fusion between the operation of feathering and non- vided to prevent damage to seals and other compo-
feathering propellers, the following discussion will nents. This way, when the oil pressure increases
focus on a typical non-feathering, non-counter- enough to overcome the spring pressure acting on the
weighted propeller assembly. relief valve, the valve opens and routes the excess oil
back to the inlet side of the boost pump.
The device that is responsible for regulating the flow
of high-pressure oil to the propeller is called the gov- The valve that is responsible for routing oil into and
ernor. A typical governor does three things; it boosts out of the propeller hub is called a pilot valve.
the engine oil pressure before it enters the propeller Although the design of a pilot valve varies between
hub, it controls the amount of oil that flows to the pro- manufacturers, they all perform the same basic
peller, and it senses the rotational speed of the engine. function; they direct oil into and out of the propeller
hub. A typical pilot valve is a shuttle-type valve that
A propeller governor is typically mounted either on alternately covers and uncovers oil passages allow-
the front of an engine near the propeller shaft or on ing oil to flow into or out of the propeller hub.
the engine accessory case. In addition, all governors
consist of three basic components; a gear-type boost In order for a governor to adjust the propeller blade angle
pump, a pilot valve, and a speed sensitive flyweight to maintain a constant rpm, it must be able to sense
assembly. [Figure 12-23] engine speed. The portion of a governor that senses
engine speed is referred to as the flyweight assembly. A
A typical governor boost pump is installed in the base typical flyweight assembly consists of a set of flyweights
of a governor and boosts the oil pressure to between mounted on a flyweight head that is driven by the same
180 and 300 psi depending on the system require- drive shaft that drives the boost pump. The pilot valve is
ments. The force needed to drive the boost pump is located inside the drive shaft and extends into the fly-
provided by a drive shaft that extends into the engine weight assembly where it rests on the toe of each fly-
where it mates with an engine drive gear. In some weight. This way, as the flyweights tilt in and out, the
cases, the drive shaft may be hollow to provide a pas- pilot valve is moved up or down. To allow the operator
sage for return oil to flow back to the engine. Since to select, or set, a desired blade angle, a speeder spring is
provided to adjust the amount of pressure acting on the
flyweights and pilot valve. [Figure 12-24]

Figure 12-24. The flyweight assembly in a typical governor

consists of a set of flyweights that are mounted to a flyweight
Figure 12-23. A typical propeller governor consists of a gear- head that is driven by the governor drive shaft. The pilot valve
type boost pump that increases the pressure of the oil before extends up through the drive shaft and rests on the toe of
it enters the propeller hub, a pilot valve that controls the each flyweight so that, as the flyweights move, the pilot valve
amount of oil flowing into and out of the propeller hub, and also moves. In addition, to allow the operator to select a blade
a flyweight assembly that senses engine speed and posi- angle, a speeder spring is provided so the amount of force act-
tions the pilot valve as needed to maintain a constant rpm. ing on the flyweights and pilot valve can be adjusted.
12-18 Propeller
s
When the engine is operating, the governor boost
pump and flyweight assembly are driven by the gov-
ernor drive shaft. When the propeller control in the
cockpit is in the full forward, low pitch position, the
speeder spring is fully compressed so that it holds the
pilot valve down and allows no oil into the propeller
hub. With no oil pressure acting on the pitch change
mechanism in the propeller hub, centrifugal twisting
force holds the blades in their low pitch position.
This propeller setting is typically used during takeoff
when the engine's maximum power output is needed.

When the propeller control in the cockpit is moved

aft, speeder spring pressure is decreased and centrifu-
gal force begins to tilt the flyweights outward. As the
flyweights move outward, the pilot valve is pulled up
and governor oil is directed to the propeller hub to
increase the propeller blade angle. As the blade angle
increases, engine rpm decreases causing a reduction
in the amount of centrifugal force acting on the fly- Figure 12-25. When a governor is in an under-speed condi-
weights. This allows the flyweights to tilt inward and tion, speeder spring pressure is greater than the centrifugal
lower the pilot valve until the flow of oil to the pro- force and the flyweights tilt inward.
peller hub is cut off. At this point, speeder spring pres-
sure and the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights weights tilt outward creating an over-speed condi-
are in balance and the governor is said to be on-speed. tion. [Figure 12-26]
Once a given rpm is selected, the governor automat- As the flyweights move outward, the pilot valve
ically adjusts the propeller pitch to maintain the moves up and boost pump oil is directed to the pro-
selected rpm. Therefore, any change in airspeed or peller hub to increase blade pitch. The increased
load on the propeller results in a change in blade pitch increases the load on the propeller and slows
pitch. For example, if a climb is initiated from level the engine. As the engine rpm decreases, the cen-
flight, aircraft speed decreases and load on the pro- trifugal force acting on the flyweights also decreases
peller blades increases. As this occurs, engine speed and causes them to tilt in ward and return the gov-
begins to decrease which, in turn, reduces the ernor to an on-speed condition.
amount of centrifugal force acting on the flyweights.
With less centrifugal force acting on the flyweights,
speeder spring pressure forces the flyweight to tilt
inward. When this happens, the governor is said to
be in an under-speed condition. [Figure 12-25]

As the flyweights move inward, the pilot valve

moves downward and oil is ported out of the pro-
peller hub and back to the engine. As oil is ported
from the propeller hub, centrifugal twisting force
moves the blades to a lower pitch. The lower pitch
reduces the load on the propeller and allows the
engine to accelerate. As the engine rpm increases,
the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights also
increases and causes the flyweights to tilt outward
and return the governor to an on-speed condition.

This same process can be applied when airspeed

increases or the load on the propeller decreases.
However, in either of these situations, engine rpm
Figure 12-26. When a governor is in an over-speed condi-
increases causing the centrifugal force acting on the tion, the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights over-
flyweights to increase. When this occurs, the fly- comes the force of the speeder spring to tilt the flyweights
outward.
Propeller 12-19
s
Changes in throttle settings have the same effect on McCAULEY CONSTANT-SPEED
the governor as changes in airspeed and/or changes PROPELLERS
in propeller load. For example, advancing the throt-
tle increases power output which, in turn, increases The McCauley constant-speed propeller system is
engine rpm. Therefore, to maintain the selected one of the more popular systems used on light and
rpm, the governor must increase the propeller medium size general aviation aircraft. For example,
blade. By the same token, pulling the throttle back most Cessna aircraft that use a constant-speed pro-
decreases power output and causes engine rpm to peller utilize a McCauley propeller system.
decrease. Therefore, in an attempt to maintain the
original rpm setting, the governor must decrease the Currently, there are two types of constant-speed
blade angle to unload the engine and propeller. One propellers that are installed on aircraft; the threaded
thing to keep in mind though is that, once the pro- series and the threadless series. Both use the same
peller blades reach the low pitch stop, the engine pitch change mechanism in the propeller hub; how-
rpm will decrease with further power decreases. ever, the method used to attach the propeller blades
to the hub does differ. For example, a threaded
As a safety feature to help protect the engine from series propeller uses a retention nut which screws
over-speeding, all governors incorporate an into the propeller hub and holds the blades in the
adjustable stop screw that limits how low the blade hub. This differs from the threadless-type blades
pitch on a given constant-speed propeller can go. In which employ a split retainer ring to hold each
addition, some governors incorporate a balance blade in the hub. [Figure 12-27]
spring above the speeder spring that automatically
sets the governor to produce a cruise rpm should the Both series of McCauley propellers are non-feath-
propeller control cable break. ering and non-counterweighted. Therefore, oil
Figure 12-27. (A) 50 McCauley threaded blades use retention nuts and threaded ferrules to secure the propeller blades to the
hub. (B) 50 The threadless design is the more modern of the two types of propeller blades and incorporates a split retainer ring to
hold each propeller blade in place.
72-20 Propeller
s
pressure is used to increase the propeller's blade Like other constant-speed propellers, the model
angle while centrifugal twisting force and an inter- designation codes of McCauley constant-speed pro-
nal spring are used to rotate the blades to low pitch. pellers are longer to provide additional information.
With this type of system, when a higher blade pitch Important parts of the designation that you should
is selected, high pressure oil is routed to the pro- be familiar with include the dowel pin location, the
peller hub where it pushes against a piston. Once C-number, and the modification, or change letter,
the pressure builds enough to oppose the spring after the C-number. The modification or change des-
inside the hub and the centrifugal force exerted on ignation indicates that a propeller complies with a
the blades, the piston slides back toward the hub. required or recommended alteration. [Figure 12-29]
This movement is transmitted to the propeller
blades through blade actuating links to actuating
pins located on each blade butt. [Figure 12-28]
The propeller blades, hub, and piston are made
from an aluminum alloy. On the other hand, the
propeller cylinder, blade actuating pins, piston rod,
and spring are manufactured from either chrome or
cadmium plated steel. To help prevent metal parti-
cles from wearing off the blade actuating links and
becoming trapped inside the propeller hub, most
actuating links are made of a phenolic material.
To prevent pitch change oil from leaking into the cen-
ter of the propeller hub and down the propeller blade,
O-ring seals are installed between the piston and the
cylinder, the piston and the piston rod, and the piston
rod and the hub. This way, the components making
up the propeller's pitch-change mechanism can be
lubricated with a grease and not depend on engine oil
for lubrication during operation.
Some models of McCauley propellers use dyed oil
permanently sealed in the hub. If red appears on the
hub or blades, it is an indication that the hub may
have a crack. In such case the propeller should be
removed for repair.

Figure 12-28. McCauley constant-speed propellers use oil

pressure to increase the blade angle and a combination of
Figure 12-29. The McCauley designation system provides
centrifugal twisting force and spring pressure to decrease
important information that must be known when deter-
the blade angle.
mining which propeller will fit a specific aircraft.
Propeller 12-21
s
Figure 12-30. A McCauley non-feathering governor ports high pressure oil to the propeller hub to increase blade angle and releases oil
pressure to decrease blade angle.
In addition to the designation code found on the instead of the 180 to 200 psi Hamilton-Standard.
propeller blades, several McCauley propeller hubs [Figure 12-30]
have a designation code of their own. In most cases,
the code consists of two groupings of numhers that Most McCauley governors use a control arm instead
indicate the year the huh was manufactured and the of a pulley to adjust the speeder spring pressure act-
number of hubs that were made in any one year. For ing on the flyweights and pilot valve. The end of the
example, a designation code of 72 1126 indicates control arm typically has between one and four
that the hub was manufactured in 1972 and there holes that permit either a rigid control shaft, a flex-
were a total of 1,126 hubs made in that year. ible control cable, or a combination of the two to be
connected to the arm.
McCAULEY GOVERNORS
For safety purposes, the governor control lever
McCauley governors use the same basic operating is spring-loaded to the high rpm setting. This
principles as the generic governors discussed ear- way, if the propeller control cable breaks, the
lier. That is, the governor directs high pressure oil to propeller blades will automatically go to low
the propeller hub to increase the propeller blade pitch allowing the engine to develop its maxi-
angle. If you recall, this is directly opposite from the mum power output. As another safety feature,
way the Hamilton-Standard system works. Another all McCauley governors incorporate a high rpm
difference between the McCauley and Hamilton- stop to prevent the engine and propeller from
Standard systems is that the McCauley governor over-speeding. In some cases, a McCauley may
produces an oil pressure of approximately 290 psi also have an adjustable low rpm stop. Both the
72-22 Propeller
s
Figure 12-31. Some McCauley governors incorporate both a
high and a low rpm stop. The high rpm stop screw is
adjusted to set a minimum blade pitch that allows the
engine to turn at its rated takeoff rpm at sea level when the
throttle is opened to allowable takeoff manifold pressure.

high and low rpm stops can be adjusted by a set

screw on the governor head. Depending on the
engine and governor combination, one turn of
the screw changes the rpm by 17, 20, or 25 rpm.
[Figure 12-31]

Like other governors, McCauley governors utilize

their own unique designation system. Some of the
information provided in the designation code Figure 12-32. The model, modifications, interchangeability,
includes the specific features of a given model, any and specific features of a McCauley governor are identified
in the McCauley designation code.
modifications that have been done, and ability to
interchange the governor with another. For a full
explanation of a given designation, it is best to con- head, the body, and the base. The head contains the
sult a McCauley propeller maintenance manual. flyweights and flyweight assembly while the body
[Figure 12-32] and base house the pilot valve and boost pump.

In most cases, a Hamilton-Standard governor has a

HAMILTON-STANDARD CONSTANT-SPEED designation code that is stamped on the governor
PROPELLERS body. The designation system indicates the design
As propeller technology advanced, the two-position of the head, body, and base. For example, a governor
Hamilton-Standard counterweight propeller system with a designation code of 1A3-B2H identifies a "1"
was transformed into a constant-speed propeller head design, an "A" body design, and a "3" base. In
system. To do this, a flyweight governor was devel- addition, the "B2H" indicates the modifications
oped and installed in place of a selector valve. made to the head, body, and base respectively.

The propeller used with the Hamilton-Standard HARTZELL CONSTANT-SPEED

constant-speed system is essentially the same coun-
PROPELLERS
terweight propeller used as the two-position pro-
peller discussed earlier. However, since a counter- Hartzell constant-speed propeller systems are
weight propeller is used, oil pressure provides the widely used in modern general aviation airplanes
force required to decrease blade angle while cen- and share the market with McCauley. Currently,
trifugal force acting on the counterweights is used to Hartzell produces two types of constant-speed pro-
increase the blade angle. pellers, a steel hub propeller and a Compact model.
The Hartzell steel hub propeller is similar to the
The governor used with a Hamilton-Standard con- Hamilton-Standard constant-speed propeller in that
stant-speed propeller is divided into three parts; the the pitch change mechanism is exposed. On the
Propeller 12-23
s
 STEEL HUB PROPELLER COMPACT PROPELLER

Figure 12-33. (A) 60 A Hartzell steel hub propeller has an

exposed pitch-changing mechanism. (B) 60 On the
other hand, the pitch changing mechanism on a Hartzell
compact propeller is contained entirely within the hub.

other hand, the pitch change mechanism on a

Hartzell compact propeller is housed inside the pro-
peller head. [Figure 12-33]

Regardless of the type of hub used, Hartzell typi-

cally stamps a model designation code on both the
propeller hub and the propeller blades. A typical
designation system identifies the specific hub or
blade model, any modifications that have been
made, mounting type, and any specific features.
[Figure 12-34]

STEEL HUB PROPELLERS

Hartzell steel hub propellers may or may not be
counterweighed. If the propeller has counter-
weights, oil pressure is used to decrease blade angle
while centrifugal force acting on the counterweights
is used to increase blade angle. On the other hand,
steel hub propellers that have no counterweights
use oil pressure to increase blade angle and cen-
trifugal twisting force to decrease the blade angle.

The central component of a Hartzell steel hub pro-

peller is a steel spider. A typical spider consists of
central hub and two arms. The two arms provide
an attachment point for each propeller blade and
house a bearing assembly that allows the blades to
rotate. Once the blades are placed on the spider
arms they are secured by two-piece steel clamps,
to provide a means of changing pitch, a steel cylin-
der is threaded onto the front of the spider and an
aluminum piston is placed over the cylinder. The Figure 12-34. Hartzell constant-speed propellers carry two
piston is connected to the blade clamps on each model designations numbers; one for the propeller hub and
the other for the propeller blades.
12-24 Propeller
s
Figure 12-35. In a Hartzell constant-speed, counterweighted Figure 12-36. The aluminum hub of a compact propeller
steel hub propeller, oil pressure forces an aluminum piston houses the entire pitch-change mechanism. Depending on
forward. This motion is then transmitted to the propeller the model, governor oil pressure may be used to increase
blades through a sliding rod and fork system. or decrease blade angle.

hlade hy a sliding rod and fork system. This way,

as oil is directed into and out of the propeller huh, Like other governors, Hartzell propeller governors
the piston moves in and out and the propeller utilize their own unique designation systems. For
blades rotate as appropriate. [Figure 12-35] example, a typical Hartzell designation code con-
sists of a three-character code that designates the
COMPACT PROPELLERS
governors basic body style and major modifications,
any major adjustments that were made to make it
Hartzell compact propellers are more modern than compatible with a specific system, and any minor
steel hub propellers and incorporate several fea- adjustments that were made that do not affect eligi-
tures that make the compact propeller hub smaller, bility. [Figure 12-37]
lighter, and more dependable. A typical compact
propeller hub is forged out of an aluminum alloy as
two separate halves. Each half is machined out so FEATHERING PROPELLERS
that the shank of each propeller blade can be held When an engine fails in flight, the propeller contin-
between the two hub halves and so the entire pitch ues to windmill, or turn, slowly as air flows over the
change mechanism can be contained. Once the blades. This creates a considerable amount of drag
blades and pitch changing mechanism are installed that can adversely effect an aircraft's flight charac-
between the two hub halves, bolts are used to secure teristics. To help eliminate the drag created by a
the halves together. [Figure 12-36] windmilling propeller, design engineers developed
Hartzell constant-speed propeller systems typically a way to rotate the propeller blades to a 90 degree
utilize either a Woodward governor or a modified angle. This is known as feathering a propeller and
Hamilton-Standard governor. Woodward governors eliminates the drag created by a windmilling pro-
are usually adjusted to produce approximately 275 peller because it presents the smallest blade profile
psi of oil pressure when installed on an engine with to the oncoming airstream. Today, all modern multi-
a normal engine oil pressure of 60 psi. On the other engine, propeller-driven aircraft are equipped with
hand, if a modified Hartzell governor is used, the feathering propellers. [Figure 12-38]
output pressure does vary between different mod-
els. Therefore, to determine the pressure setting for The operating principles discussed previously for
a given Hartzell governor, you must refer to the constant-speed propellers also apply to feathering
appropriate Hartzell maintenance manual. propeller systems. However, the propeller control
Propeller 12-25
s
 Figure 12-38. When a propeller is feathered, the blades are
rotated beyond their normal high angle to an angle that is
approximately 90 degrees to the plane of propeller rotation.
This presents the smallest possible blade profile to the
airstream and decreases aerodynamic drag.

Figure 12-37. In the sample designation above, an F-6-3A

propeller governor consists of a 4G8 governor with a major
adjustment to obtain compatibility and a minor adjustment
not effecting eligibility.
lever in the cockpit typically incorporates an addi- HARTZELL COMPACT FEATHERING PRO-
tional position that, when selected, rotates the pro- PELLERS
peller blades to their feathered position. In most
cases, the propeller control is pulled all the way aft The constant-speed operation of a Hartzell com-
to feather the blades. If a propeller is feathered from pact feathering propeller is the same as the con-
a low blade angle, the blades will move from a low stant-speed model with one difference; the feath-
angle through a high angle before they reach their ering propeller uses both governor oil pressure
feathered position. On the other hand, if a propeller and centrifugal twisting force to rotate the blades
is feathered from a high blade angle, the blades will to low pitch while some combination of a high-
move from their high pitch setting directly into the pressure nitrogen charge, an internal spring, or
feathered position. counterweights are used to increase blade angle.
For example, one type of Hartzell compact feath-
On most aircraft, feathering functions are indepen- ering propeller utilizes a high-pressure nitrogen
dent of constant-speed operation. In other words, charge and a mechanical spring to increase blade
the operator can override a constant-speed system angle and to feather the blades. The nitrogen
to feather the propeller at any time. In fact, in some charge is stored in the cylinder head and works in
systems the propeller can be feathered without conjunction with a spring that is also contained
engine rotation. within the propeller hub.

Most manufacturers of constant-speed propellers Another model of Hartzell compact propeller uses
also build feathering propellers. However, to help a combination of air pressure and centrifugal force
simplify this discussion only the Hartzell com- acting on counterweights to feather and increase
pact feathering propeller and the Hamilton- the angle of the propeller blades. With this type of
Standard hydromatic propeller will be discussed propeller, the high-pressure nitrogen charge is
in detail. again stored in the propeller hub while a counter-
12-26 Propeller
s
Figure 12-39. The Hartzell compact feathering propeller depicted above relies on governor oil pressure to decrease blade angle and a
combination of blade mounted counterweights and compressed nitrogen in the propeller cylinder to increase blade angle.
weight is mounted to the base of each propeller the hub so the nitrogen charge and either spring
blade. [Figure 12-39] pressure or centrifugal force can rotate the blades
to the feather position. The speed at which the
A safety feature inherent to both of these designs is blades rotate to the feather position depends on
that, if governor oil pressure drops to zero for any how fast the oil drains from the propeller hub and
reason, the propeller automatically begins to move to the amount of force exerted by the nitrogen charge
the feathered position. This feature helps prevent fur- and either spring pressure or centrifugal force.
ther damage to the engine from a windmilling pro- Based on this, a typical Hartzell propeller takes
peller and lowers aerodynamic drag on the aircraft. between 3 and 10 seconds to feather.

To prevent the propeller from feathering when the Unfeathering is accomplished by repositioning the
engine is shut down on the ground, most Hartzell propeller control to the normal flight range and
compact propellers utilize a latch stop called an restarting the engine. As soon as the engine begins
automatic high pitch stop. The latch mechanism is to turn over, the governor starts to unfeather the
comprised of spring-loaded latches fastened to the blades. Once partially unfeathered, the propeller
stationary hub which engage high-pitch stop-plates will start windmilling and accelerate the unfeath-
bolted to the movable blade clamps. As long as the ering process. In order to facilitate engine cranking
propeller rotates faster than 800 rpm, centrifugal with the blades feathered, the feathering blade
force allows the pins to overcome spring pressure angle is set at 80 to 85 degrees at the 3/4 point on
and disengage the latches from the high-pitch stop- the blade. This allows the oncoming air to assist
plates so that the propeller pitch may be increased the engine starter. In general, restarting and
to the feathering position. However, when the pro- unfeathering can be accomplished within a few
peller is rotating below 800 rpm, the latch springs seconds.
engage the latches with the high-pitch stops and
prevent the propeller blade angle from increasing. On aircraft where engine starting may be difficult,
the propeller system may incorporate an accumula-
To feather a Hartzell compact feathering propeller, tor in the governor to speed up the unfeathering
the propeller control is placed in the feather posi- process. The accumulator stores a quantity of oil
tion. This action dumps all the oil pressure from under pressure until it is needed to unfeather the
Propeller 72-27
s
 oil side of the accumulator is open to the flow of
pressurized oil and, therefore, the chamber fills
with pressurized oil. When the propeller control is
moved to the feather position, an accumulator valve
closes and traps oil in the accumulator. This way,
when the propeller control is moved out of the
feather position, the accumulator valve is opened so
the pressurized oil within the accumulator can flow
to the propeller hub. Once the oil reaches the hub,
it pushes on the piston enough to begin moving the
propeller blades out of the feathered position.

HAMILTON-STANDARD HYDROMATIC
PROPELLER
Figure 12-40. Some Hartzell and McCauley propellers use a
The second type of feathering propeller that will be
hydraulic accumulator to unfeather the propeller in flight. discussed in detail is the Hamilton-Standard hydro-
The accumulator enables the governor to provide pressur- matic propeller. This type of propeller is commonly
ized oil for unfeathering the propeller blades enough so the found on medium and large radial engine transport
propeller can windmill. aircraft built during the WWII era and, although
propeller. In some cases, an accumulator allows the they are not used much today, you should be famil-
operator to unfeather the propeller prior to pro- iar with its operating principles.
peller rotation. [Figure 12-40] A typical non-reversing, full-feathering, Hamilton-
A typical accumulator consists of a spherical con- Standard Hydromatic propeller is made up of three
tainer that is separated into two chambers by a major assemblies, the hub, or barrel, assembly; the
diaphragm. One side of the accumulator is charged dome assembly; and the distributor valve. All three of
with nitrogen while the other is filled with oil. these assemblies work as a single unit to permit con-
During normal engine and propeller operation, the stant-speed operation of the propeller. [Figure 12-41]
Figure 12-41. A Hamilton Standard Hydromatic propeller is made up of three major assemblies; the hub assembly, the dome
assembly, and the distributor valve.
12-28 Propeller
s
The hub assembly consists of two halves that house inboard or outboard side of the piston. For the
a spider and the propeller blades. The propeller purposes of this discussion, assume that governor
blades used with a hydromatic propeller differ from oil pressure is applied to the inboard side of the
those used in other constant-speed propellers in piston while engine oil pressure is applied to the
that the butt of each blade consists of a sector gear outboard side. In this configuration, governor oil
that meshes with pitch changing gear in the dome pressure is used to increase propeller blade angle
assembly. Each blade slips onto an arm on the spi- while engine oil pressure in combination with
der and then the spider/blade assembly is placed centrifugal twisting force decrease blade angle. A
between the two hub halves. To allow each blade to typical engine oil pressure is between 60 and 90
rotate freely within the hub, as well as hold the psi while governor boosted oil pressure ranges
blades in place, a combination of bearings and spac- from 200 to 300 psi.
ers are installed between the blade butt and the hub.
During constant-speed operations, the routing of
The dome assembly houses the primary compo- governor oil pressure is controlled by the pilot
nents of the pitch-change mechanism including a valve in the governor. For example, if the load on
piston, a rotating cam, and a fixed cam. When the the propeller or aircraft speed increases, the pro-
dome assembly is threaded into the propeller hub, peller will begin to rotate faster creating an over-
oil pressure acts on the piston to move it fore and aft speed condition. When this occurs, centrifugal
within the dome. As the piston moves, a set of cam force tilts the flyweights outward, raising the pilot
rollers mounted to the piston engage the rotating valve. With the pilot valve raised, governor
cam causing it to turn within the fixed cam. boosted oil pressure is routed to the backside of the
Attached to the rear of the rotating cam is a beveled piston. At the same time, the oil in front of the pis-
gear that engages each of the propeller blades so ton is routed through the distributor valve and
that, as the cam rotates, the blade angle of each pro- back to the inlet side of the governor. The differ-
peller blade also changes. ence in oil pressure between the front and back
sides of the piston cause the piston to move for-
The distributor valve acts as an extension to the ward. As the piston moves, it causes the cam
engine's crankshaft and is installed in the center of rollers to move forward. Since the cam rollers
the dome assembly. The purpose of the distributor engage a set of slots in the rotating cam, movement
valve is to direct both governor oil and engine oil of the cam rollers causes the rotating cam to turn.
into and out of the dome assembly. As the rotating cam turns, the beveled gear on the
back of the cam engage the gears affixed to the
blades and rotate the blades to a higher pitch.
GOVERNORS [Figure 12-42]
A Hydromatic governor includes all of the basic
governor components of the Hamilton-Standard As the blade angle increases, system rpm decreases
constant-speed governor previously described. and the flyweights begin to tilt back inward to lower
However, Hydromatic governors also contain a high the pilot valve. As this happens, the piston stops mov-
pressure transfer valve that disables the governor ing and the system returns to an on-speed condition.
constant-speed functions when the propeller is
feathered or unfeathered. In addition, an electric When an underspeed condition exists, the amount
pressure cutout switch is located on the side of the of centrifugal force acting on the flyweights
governor. The cutout switch automatically stops oil decreases and allows the flyweights to tilt inward.
pressure delivery once the blades have reached When this occurs, the pilot valve lowers and gover-
their full-feathered position. nor oil pressure from the back side of the piston is
■~vi-. ■ .' ■ K , ■."- ■■
ported back to the governor were it is then routed
OPERATING PRINCIPLES back to the engine. At the same time, engine oil
pressure continues to be exerted on the front side of
The hydromatic propeller differs from other con- the piston. Once the oil pressure on the back side of
stant-speed propellers in that no springs or coun- the piston decreases below that of the engine oil
terweights are used to change blade angle. pressure and the centrifugal twisting force acting on
Instead, engine oil pressure acts on one side of the the blades, the piston and cam rollers move aft. As
piston while governor oil pressure acts on the the cam rollers move aft, the rotating cam is turned
opposite side. Depending on the propeller model, the opposite direction causing the propeller blade
governor oil pressure can be directed to either the angle to decrease. [Figure 12-43]
Propeller 12-29
s
Figure 12-42. In an overspeed condition, governor oil pressure forces the piston in the dome assembly forward. When this hap -
pens, the cam rollers also move forward causing the rotating cam to turn. As the rotating cam turns, the beveled gear attached
to the back of the cam engages the sector gears on the propeller blades and rotates the blades to a higher angle.

Figure 12-43. In an underspeed condition, governor oil pressure is ported back to the engine through the governor. Once the pres-
sure behind the piston decreases below the engine oil pressure, the piston moves aft. As the piston moves aft, the rotating cam
turns and drives the propeller blades to a lower blade angle.
72-30 Propeller
s
As the blade angle decreases, system rpm increases piston starts to build rapidly. The increasing pres-
and the flyweights begin to tilt back outward to sure is sensed by the oil pressure cutout switch on
raise the pilot valve. As this happens, the piston the governor and, when the pressure builds to
stops moving and the system returns to an on-speed approximately 650 psi, the circuit to the feather but-
condition. ton holding coil is opened. This de-energizes the
feather relay and shuts off the electric oil pump.
FEATHERING With the engine stopped and the propeller feath-
ered, the oil pressure drops to zero.
Unlike most other feathering propellers that rely on
counterweights, springs, and/or compressed nitro-
To unfeather the propeller, the feather button is
gen, the hydromatic propeller requires high pres-
pressed and manually held in to prevent it from
sure oil to feather the blades. Therefore, in order to
popping back out when the pressure cutout switch
help ensure there is a supply of oil and a means of
opens. With the feather button depressed, the elec-
pressurizing it, a reserve of oil is maintained in the
tric oil pump starts pumping more oil to the inboard
oil reservoir and a separate electric oil pump is
side of the piston causing the pressure to increase.
installed in the propeller system.
Once the pressure becomes greater than the com-
bined spring pressure and oil pressure holding the
To begin the feathering sequence, a feathering but-
distributor valve in place, the distributor valve will
ton is depressed in the cockpit. When this is done,
shift and allow high pressure oil to flow to the out-
a holding coil holds the button in until the feather-
board side of the piston. At the same time, a passage
ing sequence is complete. At the same time, a sole-
is provided for oil to drain from the inboard side of
noid relay is energized to complete the circuit from
the piston to the governor inlet and back to the
the aircraft battery to the feathering motor. The
engine. The pressure differential between the front
feathering pump draws the reserve oil from the oil
and back side of the piston moves the piston and
reservoir and boosts its pressure to approximately
cam rollers inboard causing the blades to rotate to a
600 psi. From the pump, the oil is routed to the gov-
lower blade angle. [Figure 12-44]
ernor where it shifts a high-pressure transfer valve.
Once the valve shifts, the governor is effectively dis-
connected from the system and auxiliary oil passes Once the blade angle is decreased, the propeller
through the governor and governor oil passage to starts to windmill, allowing the engine to be
the inboard side of the piston. As the pressure restarted. At this point, the feather button is
builds behind the piston, the piston and cam rings released and the system returns to constant-speed
move outward causing the rotating cam to turn until operation. If the feather button is not released,
the propeller blades reach the feathered position. excess oil pressure actuates a dome relief valve in
the distributor valve. The relief valve off-seats and
When the rotating cam contacts the high pitch stop, releases oil pressure over 750 psi from the outboard
the blades are fully feathered and the piston stops side of the piston when the rotating cam contacts
moving. At this point, the oil pressure behind the the low blade angle stop.
Propeller 72-31
s
Figure 12-44. To unfeather a Hydromatic propeller, high pressure oil bypasses the governor and forces the distributor valve over
so the oil is directed to the outboard side of the piston. At the same time, a passage is provided for oil to drain from the inboard
side of the piston.
TURBOPROP PROPELLERS
OPERATING PRINCIPLES POWER SECTIONS
Since the advent of the turboprop, propeller and The combination of a turboprop engine's reduction
engine manufacturer's have worked together to cre- gear assembly and propeller is often referred to as
ate new designs and manufacturing techniques to the power section. Currently, there are two methods
improve the reliability and efficiency in which pro- used to drive a turboprop's power section. In one
pellers operate with turbine engines. Today, this design, the power section is driven directly by an
effort has led to the creation of a wide assortment of integral turbine through a fixed shaft. In the other
turboprop propeller designs that are used on many application, the power section is driven by a sepa-
aircraft ranging from relatively small, single-engine rate free, or power turbine that is not mechanically
utility airplanes, to large multi-engine transport cat- connected to the gas generator portion of the engine.
egory airplanes. In this section, basic design and In this case, the term power section generally refers
operational characteristics that are common to all to the power turbine, reduction gearbox, and the
turboprop engines will be discussed. Furthermore, a propeller. [Figure 12-45]
detailed description of a common turboprop pro-
peller system as it is used on two different turbo-
prop engines will be looked at in detail. By realizing PROPELLER GOVERNING
the methods in which this propeller system oper-
ates, you will be able to understand the basic oper- All turboprop engines utilize constant-speed, feath-
ating principles of most types of turboprop pro- ering propellers. In addition, the propellers used are
peller systems. all controlled by one or more governors. As a gen-
eral rule, turboprop engines use the same governing
principles to control propeller pitch and maintain a
constant rpm. However, propeller pitch changes are
PROPELLER SPEED REDUCTION used more extensively with turboprop engines to
produce changes in thrust. One reason this is neces-
Although reciprocating and turboprop engine sary is because, unlike a reciprocating engine, a tur-
propeller systems share many similarities, there boprop engine takes more time to react to fuel flow
are distinct differences between the two. Most of and power changes. With this delayed reaction
these differences are the result of the opera- time, turboprop aircraft cannot use varying engine
tional differences between reciprocating and rpm to effectively control the aircraft on the ground.
turboprop engines. For example, since turbo- Therefore, to facilitate ground handling characteris-
prop engines operate at high rotational speeds, tics, the gas generator speed is held relatively con-
all turboprop designs must incorporate a reduc- stant while propeller pitch is varied as necessary to
tion gear assembly that can convert the engine's produce the desired amount of thrust.
high speed, low torque rotational speed to a
more usable low speed and high torque.
Although there are reduction gear assemblies REVERSIBLE-PITCH PROPELLERS
used on some reciprocating engines, a turboprop
reduction gear system must perform under more In addition to providing constant-speed and feather-
extreme operational conditions. For example, it ing operations, most turboprop propellers are
is not uncommon for a turboprop to operate at reversible. A reversing propeller is essentially a vari-
rotational speeds in excess of 40,000 rpm. These able pitch, constant-speed propeller that is capable
speeds are far in excess of the 2,200 rpm that of operating with the propeller blades rotated
most turboprop propellers operate and, there- beyond the normal low pitch limits. By allowing the
fore, all turboprop engines must incorporate a propeller blades to rotate to a negative blade angle,
reduction gear assembly. the propeller's thrust is directed forward instead of
Propeller 12-33
s
Figure 12-45. One of the most popular turboprop engines in use today is a free turbine design that houses the reduction gear
assembly in the front section of the engine.
aft. This greatly reduces an aircraft's landing dis- the amount of fuel that flows to the engine. In other
tance by producing reverse thrust similar to that of a words, the farther back you move the power lever,
thrust reverser installed on a turbojet or turbofan the greater the engine power output and the more
engine. As an added benefit, a reversing propeller reverse thrust produced. On most aircraft, the Beta
also allows the aircraft operator to better control taxi plus power range is obtained by pulling the power
speeds and back the aircraft up. These benefits ulti- lever back beyond the Beta for taxi range until the
mately improve an aircraft's landing performance as reversing range is reached. To help you identify the
well as its maneuverability on the ground. reversing range, the power lever quadrant is gener-
ally either striped or a placard is provided.
When a reversible propeller is operated in the stan-
dard, constant-speed mode, it is said to be operated When operating an aircraft with reversible pro-
in its Alpha range. On the other hand, when the pellers, some cautions must be observed. For exam-
blades are rotated so they produce zero or negative ple, since a reversible propeller tends to stir up
thrust, the propeller is being operated in its Beta debris in front of the aircraft, it is possible for rocks
range. On some aircraft, the Beta range may be or other foreign objects to be ingested into the engine
divided into two ranges: a Beta for taxi range and a or damage the propeller blades. Therefore, as a gen-
Beta plus power range. The Beta for taxi range eral rule, propeller reversing should only be accom-
includes the blade angles that fall between the bot- plished on smooth, clean surfaces. In fact, some air-
tom of the Alpha range to a blade angle that pro- craft manufacturers may limit propeller reversing to
duces zero thrust. This range of blade angles is used a minimum forward speed. Another thing you
primarily for taxiing and allows the gas generator to should be aware of is that when reverse thrust is
operate at a high rpm while limiting the amount of used to back an aircraft up, it is difficult to see
thrust being produced by the propellers. This allows what's behind the aircraft. In addition, if an aircraft
the aircraft operator to better control the aircraft's is moving backward rapidly when the brakes are
speed on the ground without causing excessive wear applied, it is possible for the aircraft's nose to rise off
to the braking system. On most engines with a Beta the ground, causing the tail to strike the ground.
for taxi range, the power lever must be moved back
past a detent below the flight idle position. From a mechanical standpoint, a reversible pro-
peller is very similar to a typical constant-speed
The Beta plus power range represents the range of propeller. For example, depending on the make and
blade angles that produce negative thrust. This model of propeller, oil pressure may be used to
range is primarily used when an aircraft must be either increase or decrease blade angle. Opposing
landed in a short distance. When in the Beta plus the oil pressure can be a combination of spring pres-
power range, power lever movement also controls sure, centrifugal force acting on counterweights,
72-34 Propeller
s
and/or compressed nitrogen. About the only differ- the Mitsubishi MU-2, the Fairchild Merlin, and the
ence between a reversing and non-reversing pro- Aero Commander 690 aircraft. The TPE-331 is a
peller is the absence of permanently fixed low pitch fixed shaft turbine that, depending on the model,
stops. The reason there are no low pitch stops is produces between 665 and 1,100 shaft horsepower
because the blades of a reversible propeller must be when the gas generator is operating at approxi-
able to rotate through the low pitch limits to pro- mately 41,700 rpm. The TPE-331 is sometimes
duce reverse thrust. Based on this, the appropriate referred to as a constant-speed engine. This means
blade angle must be maintained by creating a that the engine operates at or near 100 percent rpm
hydraulic lock with the propeller governor that can throughout its operational cycle.
be changed as necessary. In other words, once a
desired blade angle is achieved, the amount of oil REDUCTION GEARING
pressure within the hub balances the sum of the The TPE-331 engine's propeller reduction gearing is
other forces acting on the propeller blades. housed on the front of the engine with a fixed shaft
Therefore, if the quantity of oil in the hub is not coupled directly to the gas generator's third stage
changed, or locked, at this point, the propeller blade turbine. The reduction gearing produces a propeller
angle will remain set. shaft rotational speed of approximately 2,200 rpm
As a backup to the primary pitch lock mechanism, which equates to a reduction ratio of about 14:1. To
some reversible propellers incorporate a secondary provide a degree of flexibility, the reduction gearing
method of locking the blade pitch. This way, if the can be situated either above or below the engine's
primary pitch lock should fail, the secondary pitch centerline to accommodate various airframe manu-
lock will prevent the blades from rotating to facturer's requirements. [Figure 12-46]
reverse pitch.
To prevent the propeller from driving the turbine
and compressor sections of a fixed shaft turbine
TURBOPROP FUEL CONTROL engine, the reduction gear portion of the engine
In most cases, the fuel control on a turboprop engine incorporates a negative-torque-sense (NTS) system
works in conjunction with the propeller governor to that automatically increases propeller pitch when
control the propeller blade angle. For example, at negative torque exists. This condition can occur
speeds above flight idle, both the fuel flow and pro- when the engine's power is rapidly decelerated and
peller blade angle are controlled by the power lever the propeller's pitch configuration causes the prop to
position according to a predetermined schedule. This windmill due to slipstreaming. In this situation, the
way, as more fuel is metered into the engine, the blade NTS changes the propeller's pitch enough to prevent
angle is automatically increased to maintain the most the propeller from driving the engine. Another ben-
optimum efficiency. On the other hand, at speeds efit of the NTS is that, if the engine fails, the NTS
below flight idle, propeller blade angle is controlled will sense that loss of engine torque and automati-
almost exclusively by the power lever. The reason for cally rotate the blades to their high-pitch position.
this is that, when a turboprop engine is running below Some engines may incorporate a separate thrust sen-
flight idle speed, governor control over propeller blade sitive signal (TSS) that automatically feathers the
angle is incapable of handling the engine efficiently. propeller in the event of an engine failure.

HARTZELL REVERSING PROPELLER PROPELLER

SYSTEMS The propeller commonly used on a TPE-331 engine
is a flange-mounted three- or four-bladed Hartzell
The following discussion focuses on the Hartzell steel hub, feathering and reversing propeller. With
reversing propellers used with Allied-Signal TPE- this type of propeller, the blades are moved to low
331 and Pratt & Whitney PT6 engines. Many of the pitch and reverse pitch with governor oil pressure.
operational characteristics of Hartzell propellers are On the other hand, the blades are moved to high
typical of propellers produced by other manufactur- pitch and the feather position by a combination of
ers for turboprop engines; therefore, a study of these spring pressure and centrifugal force acting on blade
propeller systems serves well as an overview of how counterweights. However, to prevent the blades from
most turboprop propeller systems operate. rotating into the feather position during shutdown, a
set of retractable pitch stops are incorporated. This is
ALLIED-SIGNAL TPE-331 typical on fixed shaft turboprop engines so the air
Hartzell propeller systems are used on many aircraft load on the propeller is minimized during subse-
equipped with TPE-331 model engines including quent engine starts. [Figure 12-47]
Propeller 12-35
s
Figure 12-46. The Allied-Signal TPE-331 is a fixed shaft turbine engine with a two-stage centrifugal compressor and a three-stage
axial turbine. Depending on the airframe/engine combination, the propeller reduction gearing may be installed either above
or below the engine drive shaft.
The Hartzell propeller's construction is similar to PROPELLER CONTROL
that of the feathering steel hub design installed on
reciprocating engines. However, installed in place In flight, engine power output is controlled by the
of the low pitch stops is a spacer or Beta tube, fuel control unit while propeller blade angle is con-
which acts as a reverse pitch stop. The Beta tube trolled by a propeller governor similar to the gover-
also serves as an oil transfer tube between the pro- nors used with other constant-speed propellers. The
peller pitch control unit and propeller dome. governor permits the operator to set a desired
engine rpm and then directs oil into and out of the
propeller hub to change the blade angle as engine
load or power output changes.

During ground operations (Beta mode), a conven-

tional fuel control and governor cannot properly
regulate engine power output and propeller blade
angle. Therefore, a separate underspeed governor
controls fuel flow to the engine while a propeller
pitch control mechanism is used to meter oil in and
out of the propeller hub to control the blade angle.
As a speed sensing device, the underspeed gover-
nor controls fuel flow to the engine to maintain a
set power output. On the other hand, the propeller
pitch control is needed because the governor does
not have the ability to select a reverse blade angle.
Figure 12-47. A Hartzell HC-B3TN-5 three-bladed propeller is COCKPIT CONTROLS
often used on TPE-331 engines. This particular propeller
relies on high pressure oil to move the blades to low and The controls for a typical TPE-331 turboprop instal-
reverse pitch, while spring pressure and centrifugal force
acting on counterweights increase propeller blade angle.
lation are similar regardless of the aircraft. A typical
72-36 Propeller
s
installation consists of two engine controls; a power
lever and a speed, or condition, lever. [Figure 12-48]

The power lever is mechanically connected to both

the propeller pitch control and the fuel control so
that fuel flow and propeller pitch can be coordinated
for fuel scheduling. In most cases, the power lever
has four positions: REVERSE, GROUND IDLE,
FLIGHT IDLE, and MAXIMUM. During flight, the
power lever functions to directly adjust the fuel con-
trol unit. On the other hand, during ground opera-
tions, the power lever bypasses the propeller gover-
nor and directly controls propeller blade angle
through the propeller pitch control unit. Figure 12-48. TPE-331 turboprop controls include a power
lever and a speed, or condition, lever.

The condition lever is connected to the primary and

underspeed governor through a mechanical linkage. During flight operations, the condition lever sets the
The primary function of the condition lever is to rpm on the propeller governor allowing the governor
control rpm and, in some installations, to manually to vary the blade angle so engine rpm remains con-
shut off the fuel and feather the propeller. In most stant. Furthermore, during ground operation in the
cases, the condition lever has three positions: CUT Beta range, the condition lever adjusts the underspeed
OFF, LOW RPM, and HIGH RPM. On installations governor on the fuel control unit. This action varies
where the feather valve is connected to the condition the fuel flow to maintain a fixed rpm in spite of blade
lever, propeller feathering is accomplished by mov- angle changes caused by power lever adjustments.
ing the condition lever fully aft. However, if the con-
dition lever is not mechanically linked to the feather In addition to the engine controls, most TPE-331
valve, a separate feather handle is incorporated. installations include an unfeathering switch, or but-
ton. As its name implies, this switch is used to
Figure 12-49. The schematic in this figure shows how each of the components in a TPE-331 turboprop propeller system operate to
control the propeller.
Propeller 12-37
s
unfeather the propeller when attempting to restart an angle, the following discussion will examine each
engine. When the unfeathering switch is activated, component as an engine is started and operated in
current energizes an electric unfeathering pump that both the Beta and Alpha ranges.
forces oil into the propeller dome to rotate the blades
out of the feathered position. [Figure 12-49] To begin, assume that a TPE-331 is sitting idle on an
aircraft with the propeller blades resting against the
SYSTEM OPERATION pitch stops. To start the engine, the power lever is
The two basic operating modes of the TPE-331 are placed in the GROUND IDLE position while the
the Beta mode and Alpha mode. If you recall, the condition lever is placed in the LOW RPM position.
Beta mode includes all ground operations including Once the engine starts, the propeller latches are
engine starting, taxi, and reverse thrust. In most retracted by easing the power lever toward the
cases, the Beta range includes all power settings reverse position. When this is done, the mechanical
from 65 to 95 percent N a. On the other hand, the linkage connecting the power lever to the propeller
Alpha mode includes all operations from flight idle pitch control (PPC) slides the follower sleeve in the
to full power or from 95 to 100 percent N a. To better PPC forward. This opens a port in the oil transfer, or
understand how each of the components within the Beta, tube allowing high pressure governor oil to be
TPE-331 operate to change the propeller blade ported to the propeller hub. [Figure 12-50]
Figure 12-50. When the power lever is moved toward the REVERSE position, the follower sleeve in the propeller pitch control
moves forward exposing an oil port in the oil transfer (Beta) tube. This allows high pressure governor oil to flow to the propeller
hub and decrease the propeller blade angle.
12-38 Propeller
s
Figure 12-51. When the propeller blades reach the Beta angle selected by the power lever, the port in the Beta tube becomes
blocked by the follower sleeve. This traps high pressure oil in the propeller hub and holds the blades in a set position.
Once the governor oil reaches the propeller hub, The Beta tube is attached to the propeller piston; there-
the oil pressure overcomes both spring pressure fore, when the propeller piston moves, the Beta tube
and the centrifugal force acting on the counter- also moves. Based on this, the propeller blade angle will
weights to force the propeller piston outward. As stop changing when the port in the Beta tube moves for-
the piston moves out, the propeller blades begin to ward enough to be blocked by the follower sleeve. This
move to a shallower pitch which, in turn, removes is referred to as the neutral position and represents the
the weight of the blades from the pitch stops. With point where the oil pressure within the propeller hub
the weight removed, centrifugal force retracts the balances both spring pressure and centrifugal force act-
pitch stops. ing on the counterweights. [Figure 12-51]
Propeller 12-39
s
Figure 12-52. When the power lever is moved forward in the Beta mode, the follower sleeve in the propeller pitch control unports
the Beta tube allowing oil to flow out of the propeller hub. This allows the combination of spring tension and centrifugal force
acting on the counterweights to rotate the blades to a higher pitch.
Once the propeller moves to a lower pitch and the trifugal force acting on the counterweights to force
pitch stops retract, the power lever is moved for- oil out of the propeller hub to increase the blade
ward to increase blade pitch. As the power lever angle. As the blade angle increases, the propeller
moves, a mechanical linkage pulls the follower piston and Beta tube move aft until the Beta tube
sleeve in the propeller pitch control aft, importing returns to its neutral position in the propeller pitch
the Beta tube. With the Beta tube oil port open, oil control unit. The result is a change in blade angle
is free to flow into the gear reduction case. This proportional to the degree of power lever move-
allows the combination of spring tension and cen- ment. [Figure 12-52]
72-40 Propeller
s
Figure 12-53. To feather a propeller on a TPE-331 engine, the feathering valve must be shifted so the oil within the propeller hub
can drain back to the engine case. Once the oil pressure is relieved, spring tension and centrifugal force acting on the blade
counterweights can rotate the blades to the feathered position.
Once the aircraft is in position for takeoff, the con- turn, increases engine power. With the governor
dition lever is moved to a high rpm setting and the attempting to maintain a constant rpm, an increase
power lever is moved to the FLIGHT IDLE position. in engine power causes the propeller governor to
With the condition lever in a high rpm position, the increase the propeller blade angle. On the other
underspeed governor is fully opened and no longer hand, a decrease in engine power causes the pro-
controls fuel flow. In addition, when the power peller governor to decrease the propeller angle.
lever is moved forward to the FLIGHT IDLE posi-
tion, the follower sleeve in the propeller pitch con- To feather the propeller on a TPE-331 engine, the
trol is slid far enough forward that it can no longer condition lever is moved full aft or the feather han-
cover the port in the Beta tube. This effectively dle is pulled. This action causes the feather valve to
eliminates the ability of the propeller pitch control shift and allow the oil in the propeller hub to return
to change the propeller pitch giving the propeller to the engine. With no oil pressure in the propeller
governor full control over the propeller blade angle. hub, spring tension and centrifugal force acting on
In this mode, the power lever is used to control fuel the counterweights can rotate the propeller blades
flow through the engine's fuel control unit and has to the feather position. [Figure 12-53]
no effect on propeller pitch changes.
To unfeather a propeller installed on a TPE-331
In the Alpha, or flight, mode, the propeller governor engine, an electric unfeathering pump is used. The
is adjusted by the condition lever to set the system pump is typically activated by a toggle switch that
rpm in much the same manner as that used with a is located in the cockpit. Once the pump is turned
conventional constant-speed propeller system. on, it pumps oil to the propeller hub where it forces
When the condition lever setting is fixed, the power the propeller piston forward. As the piston moves
lever operates the fuel control unit to control the outward, the blades rotate out of their feathered
amount of fuel delivered to the engine. Moving the position and into high pitch. As soon as the blades
power lever forward increases fuel flow which, in unfeather, the propeller will begin to windmill and
Propeller 12-41
s
Figure 12-54. A propeller commonly used with the PT6 is a Hartzell three-bladed, steel hub, feathering and reversing propeller. Oil
pressure moves the propeller's blades to low pitch, while the combined forces of a feathering spring and blade
counterweights move the blades to high pitch and the feather position.
aid in an air start attempt. In some cases, the A key difference between a free-turbine engine and
unfeathering pump can be used on the ground in the a fixed shaft engine is that, when a free-turbine
event the engine was shut down with a feathered engine is shut down, the propeller blades are placed
propeller. in the feathered position. This can be done on a
free-turbine engine because, during a normal engine
start only, the compressor and its turbine are rotated
PRATT & WHITNEY PT6 by the starter while the power turbine initially
The PT6 engine is a free-, or power, turbine engine remains motionless. This design greatly reduces the
that produces more than 600 horsepower at a gas load on the starter motor and eliminates the need for
generator speed of about 38,000 rpm. If you recall, a set of pitch stops.
in a free-turbine engine, there is no mechanical con-
nection between the power turbine and the gas gen-
PROPELLER
erator portion of the engine. Instead, the hot gasses
produced by the gas generator section of the engine One type of propeller that is commonly used with
flow through the power turbine causing the power the PT6 engine is the Hartzell HC-B3TN-3. This par-
turbine to rotate. The rotational force of the power ticular type of propeller is flange-mounted, has
turbine is then transmitted by a shaft to a reduction three-blades and a steel hub, and is reversible. With
gear assembly that rotates a propeller. In a typical this type of propeller, governor oil pressure is used
PT6 turboprop engine, the reduction gear assembly to rotate the propeller blades to a low or reverse
produces a propeller rpm of 2,200 when the gas gen- pitch, while a feathering spring and counterweights
erator portion of the engine is operating at 100 per- attached to the blades are used to rotate the blades
cent output. to high pitch and the feather position. [Figure 12-54]
12-42 Propeller
s
The Hartzell propeller used on the PT6 engine is As a precaution in the event the primary propeller
similar in construction to the Hartzell steel hub pro- governor fails to limit the propeller's speed to its
peller used on the TPE-331 engine. However, to pro- normal maximum rpm, many PT6 engines include a
vide blade angle information to the propeller gover- second overspeed governor. This governor func-
nor and fuel control when operating in the Beta tions in a similar manner as a conventional gover-
range, a feedback ring, or Beta slip ring, is installed nor in that it uses a speeder spring and flyweight
on the rear of the propeller assembly. arrangement to prevent the propeller from over-
speeding. The one major exception is that the
speeder spring tension cannot be controlled from
GOVERNOR the cockpit nor is it field adjustable. Adjustments
The PT6 engine utilizes a primary and an overspeed can only be made by the manufacturer or an
governor. In addition, some engines utilize a fuel approved repair facility. [Figure 12-56]
topping governor. The primary governor is generally
mounted in the 12 o'clock position on top of the The operation of the overspeed governor is fairly
gear reduction case and works essentially the same straightforward; a speeder spring applies a predeter-
as a conventional propeller governor. The primary mined amount of pressure to a set of flyweights. As
components contained within the primary governor- the engine accelerates, centrifugal force pulls the
include a gear-type oil pump, rotating flyweights, a flyweights outward which, in turn, raises a pilot
speeder spring, and a pilot valve. In addition, valve. If the engine exceeds its maximum rated
depending on engine model, these governors incor- speed, the centrifugal force acting on the flyweights
porate either a Beta valve or a Beta lift rod that con- pulls the flyweights out far enough to raise the pilot
trols the blade angle when the propeller is operated valve so oil can escape from the propeller hub. This
in the Beta range. [Figure 12-55] allows spring tension and centrifugal force acting
Figure 12-55. The primary governor used on a PT6 engine is
similar to most governors in that a set of flyweights are
used to sense engine speed and move a pilot valve as nec- Figure 12-56. As a backup to the primary governor, many
essary to maintain a preset engine speed. However, to per- PT6 engines incorporate an overspeed governor that pre-
mit the governor to control the blade angle in the Beta vents the propeller and engine from exceeding their maxi-
range, a separate Beta valve is also incorporated. mum rpm.
Propeller 12-43
s
on the propeller blade counterweights to increase The propeller control lever is connected to the pri-
the blade angle and slow the engine. mary propeller governor and adjusts the tension
applied to the governor's speeder spring in the same
To check the overspeed governor's operation, an manner as a conventional constant speed governor
electrical test solenoid is typically incorporated in arrangement. Full aft movement of the propeller
the governor. This solenoid is activated by momen- control lever causes the oil pressure to be dumped
tarily closing a toggle switch located in the cockpit. from the propeller piston, thereby allowing the pro-
During a ground runup, this switch is depressed peller to feather.
while the engine is run at a high rpm. If the over-
speed governor is functioning properly, the pro- The fuel cutoff, or condition, lever is typically uti-
peller's maximum rpm will be somewhat less than lized only on reversing propeller installations and
the normal amount. Care should be taken, however, has two functions. First, it provides a positive fuel
to make certain that this test switch is not released shutoff at the fuel control unit allowing the engine
while the power lever is advanced or a real over- to be shut down. Secondly, the condition lever sets
speed situation may occur. the gas generator's low and high idle rpm. The two
positions for the condition lever are: LOW IDLE,
As an additional safeguard to prevent propeller which provides approximately 50 percent gas gen-
overspeed conditions, a fuel topping governor may erator rpm, and HIGH IDLE, which allows the
also be installed on some PT6 engines. This gover- engine to obtain approximately 70 percent gas gen-
nor also senses propeller rpm and, in the event the erator rpm. The low idle is used during ground
propeller rpm exceeds the maximum limits of the operations, while the high idle is used during flight.
overspeed governor, the fuel topping governor [Figure 12-57 on page 12-44]
dumps a portion of the bleed air that is used in the
fuel control unit. In doing this, the fuel control is
tricked into thinking that the gas generator is not SYSTEM OPERATION
developing as much power as it really is and the
fuel control meters less fuel to the engine. Like most turboprop engines, the PT6 engine oper-
Ultimately, the gas generator's rpm reduces which, ates in either an Alpha mode or a Beta mode. In
in turn, reduces the propeller's rpm. most cases, the Beta range on a PT6 includes all
power settings between 50 and 85 percent. On the
other hand, the Alpha mode includes all opera-
FUEL CONTROL UNIT tions from 95 to 100 percent. To better understand
how each of the components within the PT6 oper-
The fuel control unit is installed on the rear of the ate to change the propeller blade angle, the follow-
engine and is linked through a cam assembly to the ing discussion will examine each component as an
Beta valve on the primary propeller governor and to engine is started and operated in both the Beta and
the Beta slip ring on the propeller. The purpose for Alpha ranges.
interconnecting the fuel control unit with the Beta
valve and Beta slip ring is to provide input to the
fuel control unit when operating in the Beta mode. To begin, assume that a PT6 engine is sitting idle on
an aircraft with the propeller blades in the feathered
position. To start the engine, the power lever is
COCKPIT CONTROLS placed in the IDLE position while the propeller con-
trol lever and condition lever is placed in the
The cockpit controls for the PT6 turboprop consist
FEATHER and FUEL CUTOFF positions respec-
of a power lever, a propeller control lever, and, in
tively. Once the starter is engaged and the N a tur-
most installations, a fuel cutoff, or condition, lever.
bine reaches a specified speed, the condition lever
The power lever is connected to a cam assembly on
is moved to the LOW IDLE position.
the side of the engine. From the cam assembly,
mechanical linkages go to the fuel control unit, and
the Beta valve on the primary governor. In the Alpha When the engine starts and you are ready to taxi, the
mode, the power lever controls engine power out- propeller control lever is moved to a HIGH RPM set-
put by adjusting the fuel control to schedule the ting and the power lever is adjusted as necessary to
proper fuel flow for the desired gas generator per- achieve a taxi speed. In situations where excessive
formance. However, in the Beta range, the power taxi speeds result when the power lever is in the idle
lever controls both the fuel control unit and the pro- position, the lever can be moved past the detent into
peller blade angle. the Beta mode. When in the Beta mode, the primary
Figure 12-57. The figure above illustrates the location of the components on a PT6 engine that are used to control the engine speed and propeller pitch.
Propeller 12-45
s
governor is in a underspeed condition with the pilot allowing oil to be released from the propeller pis-
valve in its lowered position. This allows the power ton. As oil leaves the hub, the propeller piston
lever to control fuel flow and propeller blade angle. moves aft to increase the blade angle. At the same
time, the feedback ring moves aft until the Beta
As the power lever is moved aft into the Beta range, valve is returned to the neutral position.
the Beta valve is pushed into the governor so that
governor oil is ported to the propeller. As the pres-
surized oil flows into the propeller hub, the pro- In the Alpha mode, the system rpm is high enough
peller piston moves outward to reduce the propeller for the primary propeller governor to operate in its
blade angle. As the propeller piston moves outward, constant-speed mode. In other words, when the
the feedback ring moves forward and the Beta valve power lever is moved forward to increase engine
is returned to the neutral position. [Figure 12- 58] output, the propeller governor increases the pro-
peller blade angle to absorb the power increase and
Once the propeller enters the reverse thrust portion maintain the selected rpm. On the other hand, when
of the Beta range, further movement of the power the power lever is moved aft, the propeller blade
lever aft increases the fuel flow to the engine. This angle is decreased by the governor to maintain the
provides a means of varying the amount of reverse selected rpm.
thrust produced during ground operations.
To feather the propeller on a PT6 engine, the pro-
When the power lever is moved forward in the Beta peller control lever is moved full aft. This action
range, the Beta valve is pulled out of the governor causes the pilot valve in the primary governor to
Figure 12-58. When the power lever is moved aft into the Beta range, the Beta valve is forced inward so that governor oil is
directed to the propeller. As the propeller piston moves outward to decrease the propeller blade angle, the feedback ring moves
forward and returns the Beta valve to its neutral position.
72-46
__________________________________________________________________________________________
Propellers

rise and allow the oil pressure in the propeller hub To unfeather the propeller, the engine must first be
to return to the engine. With no oil pressure in the started. Once the engine starts and the propeller is
propeller hub, spring tension and centrifugal force rotating, the propeller control lever is moved out of
acting on the counterweights attached to the base of the feather position so pressurized oil can rotate the
each blade can rotate the propeller blades to the blades out of the feathered position to the selected
feather position. blade angle or governor rpm setting.
AUXILIARY PROPELLER SYSTEMS
Several auxiliary systems are installed in aircraft The synchronizer master unit incorporates a master
to improve propeller performance and enhance motor which mechanically drives four contactor
the aircraft's all-weather capabilities. For exam- units that are electrically connected to an alternator.
ple, some aircraft incorporate an auxiliary system The alternator is a small three-phase, alternating
that is designed to reduce propeller noise and current generator driven by an accessory drive of
vibration. Other auxiliary systems may be utilized the engine. Therefore, the frequency of the voltage
to remove ice from propeller blades, thereby produced by the generator is directly proportional
improving performance during flight in freezing to the speed of the engine. When the system is acti-
precipitation. vated, the desired engine rpm is selected by manu-
ally adjusting the rpm control lever until the master
tachometer on the instrument panel indicates the
desired rpm. Once set, any difference in rpm
SYNCHRONIZATION SYSTEMS between an engine and the master motor will cause
the corresponding contactor unit to operate the
Anytime multiple engines and propellers are pitch-change mechanism of the propeller until the
installed on an aircraft, the potential for excessive engine speeds match.
vibration and noise exists. A contributing factor to
this problem is dissimilar rpm settings between the
propellers. Based on this, one way to reduce the
amount of noise and vibration produced is to match, ONE ENGINE MASTER CONTROL SYSTEM
or synchronize, the rpm settings on the engines.
Today, many twin engine aircraft are equipped with
Currently, there are several synchronization systems
a more modern propeller synchronizer system.
used on multi-engine aircraft including the master
These newer synchronizer systems typically con-
motor synchronization system, the one engine mas-
sist of a control box that includes a comparative cir-
ter control system, and the synchrophasing system.
cuit, a special master governor on the left engine, a
Synchronizing systems control engine rpm and
slave governor on the right engine, and an activator
reduce vibration by setting all propellers at exactly
in the right engine nacelle. Both governors incorpo-
the same rpm. Such a system can be used for all
rate a frequency generator that produces a fre-
flight operations except takeoff and landing.
quency proportional to the engine's rotational
speed. [Figure 12-59]
MASTER MOTOR SYNCHRONIZATION With this type of system, the frequency generators
built into the propeller governors generate a signal
An early type of synchronization system used on that is sent to the control box. A comparison circuit
WWII four-engine aircraft consisted of a synchro- in the control box compares the rpm signal from the
nizer master unit, four alternators, a master tachome- slave engine to the rpm signal from the master
ter, a tachometer generator and contactor unit for engine. If a difference in engine speed exists, the
each engine, an rpm master control lever, switches, control box sends a correcting signal to the actuator
and wiring. When activated, these components auto- to adjust the slave governor until the engine speeds
matically control the speed of each engine and syn- match. In most installations, the comparator circuit
chronize all engines at a selected rpm. has a limited range of operation. Therefore, the
12-48 Propeller
s
Figure 12-59. The basic units of a light twin propeller synchronization system are a control box, master governor, slave governor,
and actuator.
 slave engine must be within approximately 100 rpm
of the master engine for synchronization to occur.
[Figure 12-60]

SYNCHROPHASING
Synchrophasing systems are a refinement of pro-
peller synchronization systems in that they
allow a pilot to control the angular difference in
the plane of rotation between the propeller
blades. This angular difference is known as the
phase angle and can be adjusted by the pilot to
achieve minimum noise and vibration levels.
[Figure 12-61]

A typical synchrophasing system equips each

engine with a magnetic pickup device known as
a pulse generator. The pulse generator on each
engine is keyed to the same blade of its respec -
tive propeller for comparison purposes. As the
designated blade of each propeller passes the
pulse generator, an electrical signal is sent to the
phasing control unit. For example, consider a
twin engine aircraft with pulse generators keyed
to blade number one. Based on the electrical
Figure 12-60. This view of a propeller synchronizer system
shows the location of the various components when pulses from each pulse generator, the phasing
installed in a light twin-engine aircraft. control unit determines the relative position of
Propeller 12-49
s
Figure 12-61. Synchrophasing allows a pilot to adjust the phase angle between the propellers for minimum noise and vibration levels.
each propeller's number one blade. A propeller
manual phase control in the cockpit allows the
pilot to manually select the phase angle which
produces the minimum vibration and noise. The
pulses from each engine are then compared and,
if a difference exists, the phasing control unit
electrically drives the slave governor to establish
the selected phase angle between propellers.
[Figure 12-62]

PROPELLER ICE CONTROL

SYSTEMS
As aircraft use became more vital in the movement
of cargo and passengers, the necessity to fly in
nearly all weather conditions became more impor- Figure 12-62. The synchrophasing control panel is mounted
tant. However, before flight in bad weather could be in the cockpit so cockpit crew members can adjust pro-
peller blade phase angles in flight.
considered safe, auxiliary systems had to be devised
that could either prevent or remove ice formations
from an aircraft. Like the aircraft structure, pro-
pellers are susceptible to ice buildups and must be
equipped with a system to remove ice accumula- formation of ice whereas a de-icing system removes
tions. If allowed to accumulate, ice formations can ice after it has accumulated.
distort a propeller blade's airfoil shape causing a
loss in propeller efficiency and thrust. Furthermore,
ice usually forms unevenly on a propeller blade and FLUID ANTI-ICING
produces propeller unbalance and destructive
vibration. A typical fluid anti-icing system consists of a con-
trol unit, a tank that holds a quantity of anti-icing
fluid, a pump to deliver the fluid to the propeller,
Currently, aircraft propellers may use either an anti- and nozzles. The control unit contains a rheostat
icing or a de-icing system. The difference between which is adjusted to control the pump output. Fluid
the two is that an anti-icing system prevents the is pumped from the tank to a stationary nozzle
72-50 Propeller
s
Figure 12-63. A typical propeller anti-icing system consists of a fluid tank, a rheostat control, a slinger ring for each propeller, and a
fluid pump.
installed just behind the propeller on the engine cost. Some other anti-icing fluids are made from
nose case. As fluid passes through the nozzle, it phosphate compounds and are comparable to iso-
enters a circular U-shaped channel called a slinger propyl alcohol in anti-icing performance. Anti-icing
ring. A typical slinger ring is designed with a deliv- fluids made from phosphate compounds also have
ery tube for each propeller blade and is mounted on the advantage of reduced flammability, however,
the rear of the propeller assembly. Once the fluid is they are comparatively expensive.
in the slinger ring, centrifugal force sends the anti-
icing fluid out through the delivery tubes to each
ELECTRIC DE-ICE
blade shank. [Figure 12-63]
A typical propeller de-icing system is electrically
operated. An electrical propeller de-icing system
In order to disperse the fluid to areas which are more
consists of a power source, power relay, resistance
prone to ice buildups, feed shoes are typically
heating elements, system controls, and a timer or
installed on the leading edge of each propeller blade.
cycling unit. The resistance heating elements may be
Each feed shoe consists of a narrow strip of rubber
mounted either internally or externally on each pro-
that extends from the blade shank out to a blade sta-
peller blade. Externally mounted heating elements
tion that is approximately 75 percent of the propeller
are known as de-icing boots and are attached to each
radius. Feed shoes are molded with several parallel
blade with an approved bonding agent. System con-
open channels that allow centrifugal force to direct
trols include an on/off switch, loadmeter, and pro-
fluid from the blade shank toward the blade tip. As
tective devices such as current limiters or circuit
anti-icing fluid flows along the channels, the relative
breakers. The loadmeter is an ammeter which per-
wind also carries the fluid laterally from the chan-
mits monitoring of individual circuit currents and
nels over the leading edge of each blade.
visual verification of proper timer operation.

The most commonly used anti-icing fluid is iso- A typical electric propeller de-ice system supplies
propyl alcohol because of its availability and low aircraft electrical system power to the propeller hub
Propeller 12-51
s
Figure 12-64. Aircraft electrical power is used to operate this propeller de-icing system. When the timer closes the relay,
electrical current flows to the carbon brushes which, in turn, pass the current to the rotating slip rings on the propeller hub.
Flexible connectors carry the current from the slip rings to each heating element.
through a set of brush blocks and slip rings. The dangerous build-up of ice on blade areas which
brush blocks are mounted on the engine case just have no de-icing protection.
behind the propeller while the slip rings are
mounted on the back of the propeller hub assembly. hi addition to preventing runback, heating intervals
Flexible connectors on the propeller hub transfer are also carefully controlled to avoid excessive pro-
power from the slip rings to each heating element. peller vibrations. Ice accumulations must be removed
[Figure 12-64] from propeller blades evenly and in a balanced fash-
ion from opposite blades to prevent excessive vibra-
Electrical de-icing systems are usually designed for tion. This is accomplished through the use of timing
intermittent application of power to the heating ele- circuits that cycle power in a predetermined sequence
ments for removal of small ice accumulations. De- to the blade heating elements. Cycling timers energize
icing effectiveness diminishes if ice accumulations the heating elements for periods of 15 to 30 seconds
are allowed to become excessive. Furthermore, with a complete cycle time of two minutes.
proper control of heating intervals is critical in the
prevention of runback. Runback refers to a condi- The de-icing boots may be checked for proper
tion where melted ice reforms behind a blade's lead- warming sequences during pre-flight inspections by
ing edge. Heat should be applied just long enough to turning the system on and feeling the boots.
melt the ice face in contact with the blade. If the However, exercise caution and limit ground testing
applied heat is more than that required to loosen the to prevent element overheating. Electric propeller
ice, but insufficient to evaporate all the resulting de-icing systems are designed for use when the pro-
water, water can run back over the unheated blade pellers are rotating, and for short periods of time
surface and freeze again. Runback may result in a during ground runup.
PROPELLER INSPECTION, MAINTENANCE,
AND INSTALLATION
As an aviation maintenance technician, you will be considered to be a major repair. Major repairs to alu
required to inspect and perform routine mainte- minum propellers include shortening or straighten
nance on various types of propellers. Therefore, in ing of blades and repairs to deep dents, cuts, scars,
addition to being familiar with propeller mainte- and nicks. r
nance procedures, you must have a basic knowledge
of maintenance regulations that relate to propellers. Other major repairs listed in Appendix A of Part 43
It is important to note that as a certified mechanic include the repair or replacement of internal blade
with a powerplant rating, you are authorized to per- elements such as internal de-icer heating elements.
form only minor repairs and minor alternations to Also listed are controllable pitch propeller over-
propellers. hauls and repair of propeller governors. Given the
number of items that are considered to be either
major repairs or alterations to propellers, it may be
MAINTENANCE REGULATIONS difficult to differentiate whether a specific repair or
FAR Part 43, Maintenance, Preventative alteration is minor or major. Therefore, if you are in
Maintenance, Rebuilding, and Alteration, defines doubt about the status of a contemplated alteration
the different classes of maintenance for propeller or repair, you should contact your local Flight
systems. Appendix D lists the minimum require- Standards Office of the FAA.
ments for 100-hour and annual inspections of pro-
pellers and their controls. For example, as a mini- AUTHORIZED MAINTENANCE
mum during an annual or 100-hour inspection, pro-
peller assemblies must be checked for cracks, nicks, PERSONNEL
and oil leakage. In addition, bolts must be inspected Although you are restricted from performing major
for proper torque and appropriate safetying. When propeller alterations or repairs, you are responsible
equipped with anti-icing devices, those devices for minor repairs and alterations. In addition, you
must be inspected for improper operations and may install, adjust, and perform a 100-hour inspec-
obvious defects. Also, you are required to inspect tion of a propeller and its related components.
propeller control mechanisms for improper opera- Furthermore, an aviation maintenance technician
tion, insecure mounting, and restricted travel. holding an Inspection Authorization may perform
an annual inspection on a propeller. However, that
Appendix A of FAR 43 lists propeller major alter- person may not approve for return to service major
ations and repairs which must be performed by the repairs and alterations to propellers or their related
manufacturer or a certified repair station. Propeller parts and appliances. Only an appropriately rated
major alterations include changes in blade design, facility, such as a propeller repair station or the pro-
hub design, and governor or control design. Also peller manufacturer, may return a propeller or
included are installations of a propeller governors, accessory to service after a major repair or alter-
feathering systems, de-icing systems, and parts not ation.
approved for the propeller. On the other hand, pro-
peller major repairs include items such as retipping,
replacement of fabric covering, and inlay work on INSPECTION AND MAINTENANCE
wood propellers. Also included in fixed-pitch wood Specific inspection items and minor maintenance
propeller major repairs are replacement of outer tasks for which you are responsible depend on the
laminations and repair of elongated bolt holes in the type of propeller and its accessories. The following
hub. Any repairs to, or straightening of, steel pro- discussion provides generic information on typical
peller blades is considered to be a major repair. In inspection and maintenance procedures. However,
addition, repairs to, or machining of, steel hubs is the information provided here is only general in
Propeller 12-53
s
nature and, therefore, you should always consult
the appropriate aircraft or propeller maintenance
manuals and service bulletins for specific instruc-
tions and service limits.

WOOD PROPELLERS
A fixed-pitch wood propeller is simple in concept
and operation; however, the fine details of its con-
struction require close visual inspection. For exam-
ple, both annual and 100-hour inspections require
you to check for cracks, nicks, and properly torqued
or safetied bolts. While required visual inspections
Figure 12-65. The metal tipping on a wood propeller should
are mostly conducted with the propeller mounted be inspected for cracks in the leading edge and in the sol-
on the engine, there may be occasions when der covering the retaining screws. If a crack is found, a close
removal is necessary. For example, if excessive inspection should be made of the entire area near the crack.
vibration exists, you may have to remove the pro-
peller to check for elongated mounting bolt holes or
proper balance.
should be given to the metal sleeve and shank area.
To facilitate an inspection, a propeller should be The presence of cracks in these areas may indicate
cleaned. Wood propellers may be cleaned with broken or loose lag screws.
warm water and a mild soap, using brushes or a
cloth. If the aircraft operates near salt water, the pro-
peller should be flushed with fresh water often. If a REPAIRS
visual inspection after cleaning reveals defects Typically, small cracks parallel to the grain or small
which must be further examined or repaired, pro- cuts on a wood propeller may be repaired by work-
peller removal may be necessary. Removal of a wood ing resin glue into the crack. Once the glue is dry,
propeller is usually a simple matter of removing a the area is sanded with fine sandpaper and refin-
spinner, safety devices such as cotter pins or wire, ished with an approved varnish or other coating.
and the mounting bolts. In all instances, follow the Repairable tip fabric defects include cracks, bub-
recommended removal procedures outlined in the bles, paint chipping, and wrinkles that appear when
maintenance instructions for the aircraft and engine. the tip is twisted or flexed. If the tip fabric has sur-
face defects of 3/4 inch or less, and a breakdown in
Common defects found in wood propellers include the wood structure is not suspected, the defect may
separation of the laminations and dents or bruises be filled with several coats of lacquer. Once the lac-
on the surface. Other possible damage includes quer has dried, the defect should blend in with the
cracks or scars across the blade back or face, broken fabric surface. Defects larger than 3/4 inch should
sections, warping, and worn or oversize center bore be referred to a repair station.
and bolt holes. If a dent, bruise, or scar is found on
a blade surface, inspect the damage with a magnify- Typically, separated laminations are repairable
ing glass while flexing the blade to help expose any when they occur in the outside lamination.
cracks. However, the repair must be done by a certified pro-
peller repair station or the manufacturer. Additional
When inspecting metal tipping, look for looseness repairs that can be made by a propeller repair station
or slipping, loose screws or rivets, and cracks in the and a propeller manufacturer include large cracks
solder joints. If a crack is found in a solder joint near that require an inlay and restoration of elongated
the blade tip, it may be an indication of wood dete- bolt holes with metal inserts. In addition, broken
rioration. Therefore, the area near the crack should sections may be repairable, depending on the loca-
be inspected closely while flexing the blade tip. If tion and severity of the break. However, the deter-
no defects are found, the joint may be resoldered; mination of repairability and actual repairs must be
however, the blade tip should be inspected at closer done by a repair station or the manufacturer.
intervals for a recurrence of cracking. [Figure 12-65]
When repair work is done to a wooden propeller
When inspecting the wooden blades installed on a blade, a protective coating must be reapplied to the
ground-adjustable propeller, special attention wood. However, restoration of the protective coating
72-54 Propeller
s
could change the propeller blade's balance. Therefore, Removal procedures for a fixed-pitch aluminum
the propeller's balance must be checked after the blade propeller are the same as for a fixed-pitch wood pro-
has been reflnished. If an out-of-balance condition peller. However, the aluminum propeller may be
exists, it may be necessary to apply more protective heavier than a comparable sized wood propeller. If
coating on one blade than the other to achieve final so, obtain help when necessary to support the pro-
balancing. More information on propeller balancing peller during removal and prevent damage to the
procedures is provided later in this section. propeller or personal injury.
As with all propellers, there are some defects that Prior to an inspection, an aluminum propeller
cannot be repaired. For wooden propellers these should be cleaned with a solution of mild soap and
include: water using a soft brush or cloth to remove all dirt
and grease. Acid or caustic cleaning materials
1. crack or deep cut across the grain should never be used on aluminum propellers
2. A split blade because their use could lead to corrosion.
1. Separated laminations, except for the outside Furthermore, avoid the use of power buffers, steel
laminations of a fixed-pitch propeller wool, steel brushes, or any other abrasive that may
3. Empty screw or rivet holes scratch or mar the blades. If a propeller has been
4. Any appreciable warp subjected to salt water, it should be flushed with
5. An appreciable portion of wood missing fresh water until all traces of salt have been
2. An oversized crankshaft bore in a fixed-pitch removed. This should be accomplished as soon as
propeller possible after exposure to salt spray.
3. Cracks between the crankshaft bore hole and
bolt holes Once clean, aluminum blades are inspected for pit-
6. Cracked internal laminations ting, nicks, dents, cracks, and corrosion. Areas that
10. Oversize or excessively elongated bolt holes are especially susceptible to damage include the
leading edges and the blade face. To aid in the
STORAGE inspection process, you should inspect the entire
When a wood propeller is stored, it should be propeller with a four-power magnifying glass. In
placed in a horizontal position to keep the moisture addition, if a crack is suspected, a dye penetrant
evenly distributed throughout the wood. In addi- inspection should be performed. In many cases, a
tion, the storage area should be cool, dark, dry, and dye penetrant inspection will show whether visible
well ventilated. Do not wrap the propeller in any lines and other marks are actually cracks or only
material that seals it from the surrounding airflow. scratches, saving the time and expense of unneces-
The reason for this is an airtight wrapping around sary repairs.
wood propellers promotes wood decay. Inspect the hub boss for damage and corrosion
inside the center bore and on the surfaces which
ALUMINUM PROPELLERS mount on the crankshaft. Also, inspect the bolt
The properties of aluminum alloys make aluminum holes for cracks, excessive wear, and proper dimen-
propellers durable and relatively inexpensive to sions. Light corrosion can be cleaned from the hub
maintain. However, some types of damage can be boss with sandpaper. The affected area may then be
severe enough to cause blade failure. Therefore, alu- painted or treated to help prevent further corrosion.
minum propellers must be carefully inspected at Propellers with damage, dimensional wear, or
regular intervals. In addition, if any damage is dis- heavy corrosion in the boss area should be referred
covered that jeopardizes the integrity of a propeller, to a repair station for appropriate repairs.
it must be repaired before further flight.
REPAIRS
BLADE INSPECTION When an inspection reveals surface damage such as
A requirement for both annual and 100-hour inspec- nicks, scratches, or gouges on an aluminum alloy
tions includes checking for cracks, nicks, and prop- propeller blade, repairs should be made as soon as
erly torqued or safetied bolts. As with a wood pro- possible. By making prompt repairs, you help elim-
peller, most inspections of a fixed-pitch aluminum inate stress concentration points which, in turn,
propeller are conducted without removal. However, helps to prevent cracks and fatigue failure. Defects
if operational problems such as vibrations occur, it on a bladeis leading and trailing edges may be
may be necessary to remove the propeller for a dressed out by using a combination of round and
detailed inspection of the hub area. half round files. When a repair is complete, it
Propeller 12-55
s
should blend in smoothly with the edge and should
not leave any sharp edges or angles. In all cases, the
repair of surface defects on aluminum propeller
blades must be made parallel to the length of the
blade. In addition, the approximate maximum
allowable size of a typical repair on a propeller edge
is 1/8 inch deep by no more than 1 1/2 inches in
length. [Figure 12-66]

Repairs to the face and back of a blade are per-

formed with a spoon-like riffle file which is used to
dish out the damaged area. The maximum allowable
repair size of a typical surface defect on a blade face
or back is 1/16 inch deep by 3/8 inch wide by 1 inch
long. In addition, all repairs must be finished by
polishing with very fine sandpaper, moving the
paper in a direction parallel to the length of the Figure 12-67. Repairs on the blade face and leading edge
blade. Once sanded, the surface should be treated should blend into the blade profile to maintain smooth air-
flow over the propeller.
with Alodine, paint, or other approved protective
coating. [Figure 12-67]
bend is located. Once this is done, determine the
Damage in the shank area of a propeller blade can-
blade station of the bend by measuring from the cen-
not be repaired in the field and should be referred to
ter of the hub to the center of the bend. With the
an overhaul facility for corrective action. Since all
center of the bend located, mark the blade one inch
forces acting on the propeller are concentrated at
on each side of the bend and place a protractor tan-
the shank, any damage in this area is critical.
gent to the one inch marks to determine the bend
Furthermore, transverse cracks of any size render an
angle. [Figure 12-68]
aluminum alloy blade unrepairable.

Contrary to popular belief, bent blades can often be

repaired. To determine if a blade is repairable, begin
by measuring the thickness of the blade where the

Figure 12-68. A protractor is used to determine the amount

Figure 12-66. When making a repair to either the leading or
of bend in a propeller blade. Place the hinge over the center
trailing edge of a propeller, ensure that the repair will not
of the bend, set the protractor legs tangent to the blade one
exceed the propeller blade's minimum dimensions or
inch on each side of the bend centerline, and read the
change the profile of its leading edge.
amount of bend in degrees on the protractor.
12-56 Propeller
s
Figure 12-70. Cracks in the blade retention area of the hub
of a ground-adjustable propeller are critical defects. Dye-
penetrant inspection methods are used to detect such
cracks.
Figure 12-69. This chart shows the amount of bend damage
at a given blade station that can be repaired by cold bend- GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLERS
ing. Values that fall beneath the curve are repairable. For
example, a 10 degree bend at blade station 22 can be When inspecting a ground-adjustable propeller,
repaired by cold bending. However, a 15 degree bend at sta- inspect the blades in the same manner as discussed
tion 22 cannot be repaired. earlier paying particular attention to the areas
around the retention shoulders at the base of the
blades. The corresponding blade retention areas of
Many propeller manufacturers furnish charts that the hubs should also be closely inspected. A dye-
help a technician determine if a bend is penetrant inspection is recommended on the exter-
repairable. In most cases, the chart consists of a nal surfaces in these areas during routine, 100-hour,
graph with the blade station on one axis and the and annual inspections. Unless complete disassem-
degree of bend on the opposite axis. When reading bly of the propeller is necessary for other reasons,
this type of chart, any bend below the graph line is disassembly is not recommended at these inspec-
repairable while any bend above the line is unre- tion intervals. The reason for this is to reduce the
pairable. [Figure 12-69] wear and tear on the hub associated with disassem-
bly and reassembly. [Figure 12-70]
If the proper chart is not available, take the mea-
surements and contact a propeller repair station McCAULEY CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS
for a decision before sending the propeller to them
for straightening. Cold straightening repairs to a Constant-speed propellers require a more detailed
bent aluminum propeller must be accomplished inspection and, in general, more maintenance than
by an appropriately rated repair station or the fixed-pitch propellers. For example, oil leaking
manufacturer. from the propeller hub may indicate a defective pis-
ton-to-cylinder O-ring. On some models, the O-ring
Once a repair has been made to an aluminum pro- can be replaced in the field by a technician follow-
peller, the propeller should be cleaned with an ing the procedures outlined in the propeller or air-
approved solvent. This helps remove all traces of craft service manual. On other models, the propeller
dye penetrant materials used during an inspection must be returned to a propeller repair facility. Any
and subsequent repair. If the propeller was painted, seals, other than the piston-to-cylinder O-ring,
repaint the face of each blade with one coat of zinc which are found to be leaking require replacement
chromate primer and two coats of flat black lacquer by a propeller repair facility.
from the six inch station to the tip. The back of each
blade should have the last four inches of the tip Certain models of McCauley propellers have been
painted with one coat of zinc chromate primer and modified to allow for a continuous dye penetrant
two coats of a high visibility color. type of inspection. In this case, the hub breather
holes are sealed and the hub is partially filled with
If a high polish is desired, a number of good grades oil that is dyed red. The red dye in the oil makes the
of commercial metal polish are available. However, location of developing cracks readily apparent,
after completing the polishing operation, all traces indicating that the propeller should be removed
of polish should be removed. from service.
Propeller 12-57
s
HARTZELL CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS that the blades are latched in the low pitch posi-
Hartzell constant-speed propeller systems require tion. If insufficient pressure exists, follow the
the same types of inspection, maintenance, and manufacturer's instructions for servicing with
repair as other constant-speed systems. However, an nitrogen.
additional inspection is recommended to check a
steel hub for cracks. Magnetic particle inspection is
HAMILTON- STANDARD HYDROMATIC
the preferred method of inspection when checking
PROPELLERS
steel propeller hubs for cracks.
Hydromatic propellers are inspected, maintained,
If grease leakage is detected on a Hartzell propeller, and repaired in accordance with the same proce-
determine the cause and correct it as soon as possi- dures as other constant-speed systems. Inspections
ble. The most common causes of grease leakage are primarily involve a check for proper operation,
loose, missing, or defective grease fittings, or zerks. looking for oil leaks, and inspecting external oil
Other causes could be loose blade clamps, defective lines for signs of deterioration or abrasion.
blade clamp seals, and overlubrication of the blade-
to-hub joints. Oil leaks in the propeller are normally caused by a
defective gasket or loose hardware. If oil covers all
If a zerk fitting is loose, missing or defective, it of the propeller, the likely cause is a leaking dome
should be tightened or replaced as appropriate. plug. Oil leakage around the rear cone usually indi-
Loose blade clamps should be torqued to the speci- cates a defective spider-shaft oil seal. If oil appears
fied value for the particular model of propeller and on the barrel immediately behind the dome, the
resafetied. Check the blade angle to be certain that it dome gasket is leaking or the dome nut is loose. The
does not change during retorquing. dome plug seal and the dome-to-barrel gasket can be
replaced in the field.
When servicing a Hartzell constant-speed propeller,
special care should be taken when lubricating the Signs of leaking oil around the blade shank area or
blade-to-hub joints to prevent damage to the blade between the barrel halves could indicate loose hub
seals. First, remove one of the two zerk fittings from bolts or defective gaskets. Loose hub bolts can be
the hub. Next, grease the blade-to-hub joint through retorqued, but leaking gaskets must be replaced by
the remaining zerk. Some propeller models should an overhaul facility. The propeller is lubricated by
be serviced until grease comes out of the hole from engine operating oil, therefore it needs no other
which the zerk was removed. In contrast, other lubrication.
models require less grease. By following the recom-
mended procedures, you prevent pressure from
PROPELLER LUBRICATION
building up in the blade grease chamber and dam-
aging the blade seals. After lubrication, reinstall the All the adjustable pitch propeller systems just dis-
zerk fittings, replace the protective cap, and safety cussed require inspections and servicing at regular
the cap to the zerk fitting. intervals. Lubrication is, in many cases, one of the
required servicing procedures. The grease used to
lubricate a propeller must have the proper anti-fric-
HARTZELL FEATHERING COMPACT PROPELLERS tion and plasticity characteristics. In other words,
Inspection, maintenance, and repair procedures an approved grease reduces the frictional resistance
for a Hartzell feathering propeller system is the of moving parts and molds easily into any form
same as those for other Hartzell constant-speed under pressure.
systems. However, one additional check which
should be accomplished at each 100-hour and Propeller lubrication procedures are usually pub-
annual inspection is the nitrogen charge within lished in the manufactureris instructions along with
the propeller hub. If the charge is too low, it may oil and grease specifications. Experience indicates
not feather or respond properly to constant-speed that water sometimes seeps into the propeller blade
operation and it may have a tendency to overspeed bearing assemblies of some propeller models. For
or surge. On the other hand, the propeller system this reason the propeller manufacturer's greasing
may not reach full rpm and may feather upon schedule and recommended oil and grease specifi-
engine shutdown if the nitrogen pressure is too cations must be followed to ensure proper lubrica-
high. When checking the nitrogen charge, ensure tion of moving parts.
12-58 Propeller
s
STEEL AND COMPOSITE PROPELLERS example, a metal blade that is shortened because of
tip damage requires shortening of the opposite
Propellers made from steel or composite material blade to maintain balance.
may be cleaned and inspected in the same manner
as wood or aluminum propellers. However, manu-
facturers of composite propellers may also include Propellers are balanced both statically or dynami-
cleaning techniques and inspection items that are cally. A propeller is statically balanced when the
unique to composite materials. Manufacturer's propeller's center of gravity coincides with its axis
instructions take precedence over general cleaning of rotation. On the other hand, a propeller is dynam-
and inspection techniques. ically balanced when the centers of gravity of the
blades rotate in the same plane of rotation.
With these propellers, you are restricted to inspec-
tions and cleaning. As you recall, any repairs made
to correct defects in steel or composition propellers STATIC BALANCE
must be accomplished by an appropriately rated
repair station or the manufacturer. Static balancing is accomplished by using either the
knife-edge method or the suspension method. Of
the two static balancing methods, the knife-edge
BLADE CUFF INSPECTION method is simpler and more accurate.
If you recall, some propeller blades are fitted with
blade cuffs to improve airflow over the blade To balance a propeller using the knife-edge method,
shank and cooling airflow through the engine. a test stand consisting of two hardened steel edges
When this is the case, the blade cuffs must also be must be used. In addition, the test stand must be
inspected and checked for proper clearance. located in a room or area that is free from any air
Longitudinal clearance of constant-speed pro motion or heavy vibration.
peller blades or cuffs must be at least 1/2 inch
between propeller parts and stationary parts of the
aircraft. This clearance must be measured with the Before you check a propeller's balance, you should
propeller blades feathered or in the most critical first verify that the blade angles are all the same. If
pitch configuration. - the blade angles are correct you can check a pro
peller's balance by following the listed sequence of
operations: : .
GOVERNORS
As mentioned earlier, you, as an aviation mainte- 1. Insert a bushing in the propeller hub bore hole.
nance technician, are somewhat limited as to 2. Insert a mandrel or arbor through the bushing to
what you can do with propeller systems. Nowhere support the propeller on the balance knives.
is this more evident than with propeller gover- 3. Place the propeller assembly so that the ends of
nors. Inspection of governors is limited to check- the arbor are supported on the test stand. The
ing for oil leaks and security of mounting. propeller must be free to rotate.
Maintenance consists of properly rigging the gov-
ernor controls and verifying freedom of motion. V Once in the test stand, the propeller should be
Although you may remove and install propeller i checked for horizontal and vertical balance. To
governors on an engine, inspections and repairs check a two-bladed propeller assembly for vertical
which require governor disassembly must be balance, position one blade in the vertical position.
accomplished by a properly equipped and certi- Next, repeat the vertical position check with the
fied repair station. blade positions reversed from the first vertical
check. If the propeller is balanced vertically, it will
BALANCING remain in a vertical position regardless of which
blade is pointing up. On the other hand, if a vertical
Exact propeller balance is critical to proper engine imbalance exists, the propeller will have a tendency
and propeller performance. Any time maintenance to come to rest in a horizontal position. [Figure 12-
is conducted or a repair is made that adds or 71]
removes weight from a propeller, you must check
the propeller's balance. For example, if a wood pro- To check a two-bladed propeller assembly for hori-
peller is refinished, the new varnish can create an zontal balance, position the propeller in a horizon-
imbalance if it is unevenly applied. In another tal position with both blades sticking straight out. If
Propeller 12-59
s
 Figure 12-72. To check horizontal balance, the propeller is
positioned horizontally. Any rotation from this position
indicates a heavy blade.

two in the downward position, then blade number

three. A properly balanced three-bladed propeller
has no tendency to rotate from any of the three posi-
Figure 12-71. In a vertical balance check, the propeller tions. [Figure 12-73]
blades are aligned vertically and an imbalance condition
causes them to move to a horizontal position. In the suspension method for checking static bal-
ance, the propeller is hung by a cord. A disk is
firmly attached to the cord and a cylinder is
the propeller is horizontally balanced, it will attached to the propeller. Any imbalance is deter-
remain in a horizontal position. On the other hand, mined by the eccentricity between the disk and the
if a horizontal imbalance exists, one blade will tend cylinder.
to move downward causing the propeller to come to
rest in a vertical position. [Figure 12-72] Out-of-Balance Repairs

A two-bladed propeller that is properly balanced When a propeller assembly exhibits a definite ten-
will have no tendency to rotate in any of the test dency to rotate, certain corrections to remove the
positions. If the propeller balances perfectly in all imbalance are allowed. The addition of permanent
described positions, it should also balance perfectly fixed weights is permitted at acceptable locations
in all intermediate positions. When necessary, when the total weight of the propeller assembly is
check for balance in intermediate positions to verify under allowable limits. Likewise, the removal of
the check in the originally described positions. weight is permitted from acceptable locations when
the total weight of the propeller assembly is equal to
Static balancing of a three-bladed propeller requires the allowable limit.
placing the propeller in three basic test positions.
First, rotate the propeller until blade number one is The location for removal or addition of weight on a
pointing downward. Similarly, place blade number propeller is determined by the propeller manufac-
Figure 12-73. A three-bladed propeller is properly balanced when each blade can be placed in the six o'clock position with no tendency
to rotate.
12-60 Propeller
s
turer. The method and point of application of bal- Modern methods of checking dynamic balance
ance corrections must be in accordance with the require the propeller, spinner, and related equip-
manufacturer's instructions. Typically, vertical ment to be installed on the aircraft. With the engine
imbalance is corrected by adding a metal weight on running, electronic equipment senses and pinpoints
the light side of the hub 90 degrees from the pro- the location of an imbalance. In addition, the test
peller's horizontal centerline. On a wooden pro- equipment typically determines the amount of
peller, horizontal imbalance is corrected by adding weight required to correct the condition.
or removing solder at the propeller blade tips.
Horizontal balance correction on an aluminum pro-
peller often involves the removal of small amounts CHECKING BLADE ANGLE
of metal by filing.
At times, you may be required to check the blade
angle at a specific blade station. To do this, a uni-
DYNAMIC BALANCE versal propeller protractor is typically used.
[Figure 12-74]
A propeller exhibits dynamic balance when the cen-
ters of gravity of similar propeller elements, such as
the propeller blades, rotate in the same plane of The frame of a typical protractor is made of alu-
rotation. A dynamic imbalance resulting from minum alloy with three square sides at 90 degree
improper mass distribution is usually negligible if angles. A bubble spirit level mounted on one cor-
the blades on a propeller track within limits. One ner of the front of the frame swings out to indicate
reason for this is that the length of the propeller when the protractor is level. A movable ring is
assembly along the engine crankshaft is very short located inside the frame and is used to set the
compared to its diameter. Another reason is the fact zero reference angle for blade angle measure-
that the blades track the same plane perpendicular ments. The ring is engraved with vernier index
to the axis of the crankshaft. marks, which allow readings as small as one tenth
Figure 12-74. A universal propeller protractor such as this one is used to check propeller blade angle.
Propeller 12-61
s
of a degree. A center disk is engraved with a
degree scale from zero to 180 degrees, both posi-
tive and negative. In addition, the center disk
contains a spirit level to indicate when the center
disk is level.

Before measuring a propeller blade angle, deter-

mine the reference blade station from the aircraft
manufacturer's maintenance manual. Mark this
reference station on the blade with chalk or with
a grease pencil. Next, establish the reference
plane from the engine crankshaft centerline. Do
not reference the airframe attitude because some
engines are installed at an angle to help counter
the effects of torque. To zero the protractor, loosen
the ring-to-frame lock, align the zeros on the disk
and the ring, and engage the disk-to-ring lock.
Place the edge of the protractor on a flat surface of
the propeller hub that is either parallel to, or per-
pendicular to, the crankshaft centerline. Now,
turn the ring adjuster until the spirit level in the
center of the disk is level. The corner level should
also be leveled. Now, tighten the ring-to-frame
Figure 12-76. To measure the blade angle, the protractor is
held against the blade face and the disk adjuster is rotated
until the spirit level centers.

lock, and release the disk-to-ring lock. The pro-

tractor is now aligned with the engine crankshaft.
[Figure 12-75]

Once the protractor is zeroed, rotate the pro-

peller until one blade is horizontal and place the
protractor on the blade face at the reference sta-
tion mark. Stand on the same side of the pro -
peller facing in the same direction you were
when zeroing the protractor. If you desire to
measure from the other direction, you must zero
the protractor from that side. With the protractor
resting on the face of the blade, turn the disk
adjuster until the spirit level centers. Now read
the blade angle using the zero line on the ring as
the index. Accuracy in tenths of degrees can be
read from the vernier scale. To measure the angle
of another blade, rotate the desired blade to the
same horizontal position and repeat the process.
[Figure 12-76]

Figure 12-75. Before measuring propeller blade angle, the

If the face of the propeller blade is curved, use
protractor must be "zeroed" or adjusted to a reference. A masking tape to attach a piece of 1/8 inch drill rod
common reference is the propeller hub. 1/2 inch from the leading and trailing edges. Once
72-62 Propeller
s
 In most cases, a blade angle adjustment to a ground-
adjustable propeller can be made with the propeller
on the aircraft or on a propeller bench. To make the
actual adjustment, begin by placing a grease pencil
mark across the hub and blade to mark their rela-
tive positions. The mark provides visual identifica-
tion of the original blade angle setting and a refer-
ence mark for adjustment to the new blade angle.
Once the blades are marked, loosen the hub bolts or
clamps and rotate the propeller to a horizontal
position.

To change the blade angle, the hub halves must be

separated slightly once the clamps or bolts are
loosened. The blades may then be rotated in the
hub until the desired blade angle is set. To help
you rotate a given propeller blade, a propeller
blade paddle is typically used. If a blade binds, jig-
Figure 12-77. To compensate for blade curvature, small
gle the blade as it is being rotated to the new angle.
pieces of 1/4 inch drill rod are attached to the propeller [Figure 12-78]
blade to provide a level surface for the protractor.
Using the universal propeller protractor, check the
blade angle after tightening the hub clamps or bolts.
the rods are secure, measure the angle with the pro- While loose in the hub, the blades droop slightly
tractor resting on the rods. [Figure 12-77] and will move a small amount as the hub is tight-
ened. Because of this, you may be required to
If dissimilar blade angles exist on an aluminum repeat the procedure a few times until the blades
fixed-pitch propeller, the blades can be repitched by are set properly. Typically, an acceptable blade
a propeller repair station or the manufacturer. angle tolerance between the desired angle and the
Consult the propeller repair facility and provide actual angle is 0.1 degrees. Once the tolerance is
details on the amount of allowable pitch variation met, the propeller hardware can be properly
between blades. torqued and safetied.
BLADE ANGLE ADJUSTMENTS COUNTERWEIGHT PROPELLER
All propeller systems other than fixed-pitch pro- On a counterweighted propeller, the propeller
pellers require occasional blade angle adjustments. blade angles are adjusted by means of a set of stop
For example, ground-adjustable propellers are set to
one blade angle while controllable pitch propellers
require the setting of low and high blade angle lim-
its. The method used to make blade angle adjust-
ments depends on the propeller type. The following
examples represent the more commonly used meth-
ods for adjusting blade angle.

GROUND-ADJUSTABLE PROPELLER
To adjust the propeller blade angle on a ground-
adjustable propeller, you must first determine the
reference blade station that must be used. This
information is typically contained in the propeller
or aircraft maintenance manual. Once the reference
station is known, check the specifications for the
blade angle range approved for the aircraft. A typi-
cal range for a ground-adjustable propeller is from 7 Figure 12-78. A propeller blade paddle makes the task of
to 15 degrees. changing blade angles much easier.
Propeller 12-63
s
nuts on an index pin located under each counter- replaced. With everything secured, the blades
weight cap. To gain access to the index pin, remove should be moved through their full range of travel.
the clevis pin which safeties the counterweight cap Once this is done, position the blades in their high
and remove the cap. Pull the index pin out of its blade angle and measure the blade angle at the spec-
recess in the counterweight or push it out from ified reference station. A common reference station
behind the counterweight bracket with a small for a counterweighted propeller is the 42-inch sta-
tool. [Figure 12-79] tion. Next, move the blades to their low blade angle
stop and check these angles. Make small adjust-
Alongside the recess which holds the index pin is a ments to the stop nut positions as necessary to bring
scale calibrated with half degree marks and a the angles within acceptable limits.
numerical scale from zero to ten. This scale is used
to adjust and set the stop nuts on the index pin.
HARTZELL CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS
The propeller blade index number, also known as
the base setting, should be stamped in a lead plug Hartzell steel hub propellers can be adjusted for the
located near the index pin recess. This number indi- desired low blade angle by loosening the hub
cates the maximum blade angle for which the pro- clamps and rotating the blades. However, you
peller was adjusted during its last overhaul. The should realize that, anytime the low blade angle is
maximum blade angle is typically 25 degrees and is changed, the high blade angle will also change. The
used to calculate where the stop nuts on the index reason for this is because the piston within the pro-
pin should be positioned. For example, if the blade peller hub can only travel a fixed amount. Once the
index is 25 degrees and the aircraft specifications desired blade angle is obtained, the clamps are
specify a low blade angle of 17 and a high angle of retorqued and safetied.
22 degrees, the stop nut positions are determined by
subtracting the appropriate blade angle from the The low pitch setting on a Hartzell compact pro-
blade index. Therefore, to set the 17 degree low peller is adjusted with the adjusting screw on the
blade angle, the stop nut is positioned on the index hub cylinder. To make a blade adjustment, begin by
pin so that the edge toward the center of the pin will loosening the jam nut on the adjusting screw and
align with the 8 degree (25 -17 = 8) mark on the rotating the screw clockwise to increase the low
scale. On the other hand, to set the 22 degree high blade angle, or counterclockwise to decrease the
blade angle, the stop nut is positioned to line up its angle. When the desired angle is set, retighten the
edge with the 3 degree (25 -22 = 3) mark. jam nut. When changing the blade angles, always
refer to the aircraft specifications and the propeller
Once the stop nuts are set, the index pins are manufacturer's manual for instructions about spe-
installed in the counterweights and the caps are cific propeller models. [Figure 12-80]
Figure 12-79. The propeller blade angle of a counterweight
Figure 12-80. The low pitch setting for Hartzell compact
propeller is adjusted by positioning the stop nuts located
propellers is adjusted with the adjusting screw on the hub
on the index pins inside each of the counterweights.
cylinder.
12-64 Propeller
s
BLADE TRACKING
Propeller blade tracking is a procedure which
allows you to check the track of each propeller
blade tip as it travels through its arc of rotation. In
other words, by checking the tracking of a pro-
peller, you compare the positions of the propeller
blade tips relative to each other. This procedure is
normally accomplished when troubleshooting a
vibration problem or as a final check after balanc-
ing and reinstallating a propeller. Metal propellers
up to six feet in diameter on light aircraft must
track within 1/16 inch of each other. On the other
hand, the track of a wood propeller should not be
out more than 1/8 inch.

Before a propeller can be tracked, the aircraft

must be locked in a stationary position. This is
typically accomplished by chocking the wheels to
prevent aircraft movement. Once this is done,
place a fixed reference point on the ground that is
within 1/4 inch of the propeller arc. This may be
done by placing a board on blocks under the pro-
peller arc and taping a piece of paper to the board.
With the reference point in place, rotate the pro-
peller blade and mark the track of each blade. The
maximum difference in track for all of the blades
should not exceed the limits mentioned above.
[Figure 12-81]
Figure 12-81. A propeller can be tracked by placing a board
If the propeller track is off more than is allowed, the within 1/4 inch of the propeller arc. Rotate the propeller
reason should be determined and the condition cor- and mark the path each blade tip follows as it passes the
board.
rected. The easiest item to check is the torque of the
propeller retaining bolts. If all bolts are properly
torqued, the propeller should be removed to allow If excessive powerplant vibration is traced to the
an inspection for the presence of debris or damage. propeller, the problem could be one of several
In addition, it may be necessary to check the crank- things. For example, dissimilar blade angle settings
shaft for alignment. If no problems are found, the can lead to an uneven thrust distribution between
excessive out-of-track condition may be corrected propeller blades which, in turn, can lead to vibra-
by placing shims between the inner flange and the tion. Additional causes of propeller vibration
propeller. include propeller blade imbalance, improper blade
tracking, a loose retaining nut, loose hub hardware,
TROUBLESHOOTING or excessive crankshaft spline wear.
The origins of powerplant vibrations are sometimes In addition to vibration problems, a malfunctioning
difficult to pinpoint. To determine whether the pitch-changing mechanism may require trou-
vibrations are emanating from the engine or pro- bleshooting. For example, sludge in oil passages or
peller, observe the propeller hub, dome, or spinner. the pitch selector valve of a two-position propeller
With the engine running between 1,200 to 1,500 may cause slow or erratic responses to pitch-change
rpm, observe the hub or spinner for rotation on an commands. Furthermore, erratic or jerky blade
absolutely horizontal plane. If the propeller hub movement during pitch changes may be caused by
appears to swing in a slight orbit, or if the vibration trapped air in the cylinder. Cycling the propeller
becomes more apparent at higher rpms, the vibra- through its pitch-change operation several times
tion is normally caused by the propeller. If the pro- usually purges air from the system. In addition, the
peller hub oscillates, the difficulty is probably linkage from the cockpit pitch control lever to the
caused by engine vibration. selector valve may become loose and fail to activate
Propeller 12-65
s
the selector valve. Operations in a marine environ- bolt holes and dowel pin holes are machined into
ment can cause salt-water corrosion around the pro- the flange. Some flanges have threaded inserts
peller cylinder and piston, leading to sporadic and pressed into the bolt holes. [Figure 12-82]
unreliable pitch changes.
Before installing a propeller on a flanged shaft,
HAMILTON-STANDARD HYDROMATIC inspect the flange for corrosion, nicks, burrs, and
other surface defects. In addition, the bolt holes and
Troubleshooting procedures and solutions dis- threaded inserts should be clean and in good condi-
cussed for other systems are generally applicable to tion. Any defects found should be repaired in accor-
the feathering hydromatic system. If the propeller dance with the engine manufacturer's recommenda-
fails to respond to the cockpit propeller control tions. Light corrosion can typically be removed with
lever, but can be feathered and unfeathered, the very fine sandpaper; however, if a bent flange is sus-
cause is most likely a failure of the governor or gov- pected, a run out inspection should be performed. If
ernor control system. If the propeller fails to feather, you do have to remove corrosion, clean the flange
check the system for electrical faults or for open after sanding and check for smoothness. Once this is
wiring to the electrical components. done, apply a light coat of engine oil or antiseize
compound to the flange for corrosion prevention
If the propeller fails to unfeather after feathering and ease of future propeller removal.
normally, the distributor valve is not shifting. On
the other hand, if the propeller feathers and imme-
diately unfeathers, the problem may be a short cir- FIXED-PITCH PROPELLERS
cuit in the holding coil wiring or an open circuit in
the pressure cutout switch or its associated wiring. Before installing a fixed-pitch propeller on a flanged
The same problem occurs if the feather button is shaft, inspect the mounting surface of the propeller
short-circuited internally. to verify that it is clean and smooth. The attaching

Sluggish movement of the propeller may be the

result of a buildup of sludge in the propeller dome
or a worn out piston-to-dome seal inside the dome.
Sticking cam rollers may also interfere with smooth
pitch-change movement and feathering operations.

Erratic or jerky operation of the propeller is an indi-

cation of the wrong preload shim being used
between the dome and barrel assemblies. If this is
the case, the dome will have to be removed so the
proper shim can be installed.

PROPELLER INSTALLATION
The method used to attach a propeller to an engine
crankshaft varies with the design of the crankshaft.
Currently, there are three types of crankshafts used
on aircraft engines, the flanged crankshaft, the
tapered crankshaft, and the splined crankshaft. The
general installation procedures for all three types
are discussed in the following paragraphs. For spe-
cific instructions, you should refer to the aircraft
and engine maintenance manuals.

FLANGED SHAFT
Flanged propeller shafts are used on most horizon- Figure 12-82. (A) 166 On a flanged crankshaft with dowel
tally opposed reciprocating engines and some tur- pin holes, the propeller is mounted to the crankshaft
boprop engines. The front of the crankshaft is using bolts and nuts. The dowel pin holes are often
formed into a flange four to eight inches across, per- arranged so the propeller can mount in only one
position. (B) 166 Most installations utilize threaded inserts
pendicular to the crankshaft centerline. Mounting which are pressed into the crankshaft to eliminate the use
of nuts.
72-66 Propeller
s
Figure 12-83. When installing a propeller on a four-cylinder opposed engine, one of the blades should come to rest at the ten
o'clock position to help reduce vibration and facilitate hand propping.
Figure 12-84. When installing a propeller on a flanged crankshaft, it is important to follow the propeller manufacturer's
recommended sequence to avoid inducing stress in the propeller hub.

bolts should be in good condition and inspected for mounting the propeller, a front bulkhead is placed
cracks with either a dye penetrant or magnetic par- on the front of the hub boss before the bolts are
ticle inspection process. Washers and nuts should inserted. After the bolts are tightened and safetied,
also be inspected, and new fiber lock nuts used if the spinner is installed with machine screws. The
they are required in the installation. machine screws are inserted through the spinner
into nut plates on the bulkheads. If the spinner is
Most flanges that use dowel pins allow the propeller indexed, line up the index marks during installation
to mount on the shaft in only one position. If there is to avoid vibration. [Figure 12-86]
no dowel, install the propeller in the position speci-
fied by the aircraft or engine maintenance manual.
This is important because propeller position is critical CONSTANT-SPEED PROPELLERS
for maximum engine life in some installations. If no Some Hartzell steel hub propellers and all Hartzell
position is specified on a four cylinder horizontally compact propellers are designed to mount on
opposed engine, the propeller should be installed flanged crankshafts. However, before you mount a
with the blades at the 10 o'clock and 4 o'clock posi- constant-speed propeller on the crankshaft, you
tions when the engine is stopped. This reduces vibra- should lubricate the O-ring in the rear of the hub
tion in many instances and puts the propeller in the with a light coat of engine oil. Once this is done,
best position for hand propping. [Figure 12-83] you can carefully mount the propeller on the flange.
When doing this, pay particular attention to the O-
After attaching the bolts, washers, and nuts, tighten ring to keep it from being damaged.
all of the bolts finger-tight. Then, use an approved
torque wrench to tighten the bolts to a specified
value in the recommended sequence. A typical
torque value is 35 foot-pounds or higher for metal
propellers and approximately 25 foot-pounds for
wood propellers. In addition, a typical tightening
sequence requires you to torque the bolts in a cross-
ing pattern. [Figure 12-84]

When a skull cap spinner is used, a mounting

bracket is installed behind two of the propeller
mounting bolts. Once the mounting bracket is
installed, the skull cap is attached to the bracket
with a bolt and washer. [Figure 12-85]
Figure 12-85. Some small training aircraft with flange
mounted propellers utilize a skull cap spinner that requires
If a full spinner is used, a rear bulkhead is slipped a mounting bracket to be installed using two of the pro -
on the flange before the propeller is installed. After peller mounting bolts.
Propeller 12-67
s
Figure 12-86. A full spinner mounts to forward and rear bulkheads with machine screws. On some smaller aircraft, the spinner
may mount to only a rear bulkhead.
McCauley constant-speed propellers are also When installing a constant-speed propeller that can
installed on flanged crankshafts. Like Hartzell pro- be feathered, the installation and adjustment proce-
pellers, an O-ring in the rear of the hub must be lubri- dures are similar to that of other constant-speed
cated with a light coat of engine oil to allow its move- models. However, if the blades are left in a feathered
ment as the propeller is secured to the crankshaft position, they should be rotated to their low pitch
flange. A dry O-ring can tear and become pinched angle. For safety reasons, it is best to use a blade
during installation unless lubricated. [Figure 12-87] paddle on each blade.
Figure 12-87. McCauley constant-speed propellers are installed on flanged crankshafts with an O-ring seal to prevent oil leakage.
12-68 Propeller
s
Figure 12-88. On some low horsepower engines, the crank-
shaft is tapered and is threaded on the end for propeller
mounting.

Figure 12-89. A typical mounting hub for a wood propeller

TURBOPROPELLERS uses a face plate to distribute the compression load evenly
over the boss of the propeller hub.
When installing a constant-speed, reversing pro-
peller, use the same basic procedures that are used
for other flanged shaft propellers. One difference, polished out in accordance with the engine manu-
however, is the addition of the Beta tube. The Beta facturer's maintenance manual. In addition, the pro-
tube is installed through the propeller piston after peller hub components and mounting hardware
the propeller is installed, and is bolted to the for- should be inspected for wear, cracks, and corrosion.
ward part of the piston. Defective components must be replaced or repaired
as necessary.
TAPERED SHAFT
Before permanently installing the propeller, a trial
Tapered shaft crankshafts are found on older fit of the hub on the crankshaft should be done
engines that produce low horsepower. This type of using a liquid transfer ink such as Prussian Blue.
crankshaft requires a hub to adapt the propeller to Prussian Blue is a dark blue ink, or dye, which has
the shaft. To prevent the propeller from rotating on the consistency of a light grease. This dye visibly
the shaft, a large keyway is cut into the crankshaft reveals the amount of contact between two mating
taper and the propeller so that a key can hold the surfaces. To do a trial fit, begin by applying a thin,
propeller in place. [Figure 12-88] even coat of dye on the tapered section of the crank-
shaft. Once this is done, place the key in the keyway
When installing a wood propeller on a tapered and install the hub on the crankshaft and torque the
shaft, the propeller boss is installed over the adapter retaining nut. In practice, the hub, snap ring, and
hub and a faceplate is placed between the boss and retaining nut are never disassembled. If, however,
mounting bolts. This faceplate distributes the com- they were disassembled for inspection or repair,
pression load of the bolts over the entire surface of place the retaining nut against the hub and install
the boss. If a new fixed-pitch wood propeller is the puller snap ring. Once assembled, the retaining
installed, inspect the mounting bolts for tightness nut may be torqued. [Figure 12-90]
after the first flight and again after the first 25 flight
hours. [Figure 12-89]

Before installing the propeller on the crankshaft, the

shaft must be carefully inspected for corrosion,
thread condition, cracks, and wear in the keyway
area. If cracks are allowed to develop in the keyway,
they can spread rapidly and eventually cause crank-
shaft failure. It is good practice to inspect the key-
way with dye penetrant at every 100-hour or annual
Figure 12-90. A snap ring is installed inside a propeller hub
inspection. Any minor surface defects found during mounted on a tapered or splined shaft to aid in removing
the pre-installation inspection should be dressed or the propeller from the shaft.
Propeller 12-69
s
The hub should then be removed from the crank- inline engines. The splined shaft has grooves and
shaft and inspected for the amount of ink trans- splines of equal dimensions and a double width
ferred from the tapered shaft to the propeller. The master spline to ensure that a hub will fit on the
ink transfer must indicate a minimum contact area shaft in only one position. [Figure 12-91]
of 70 percent. If insufficient contact is found, the
crankshaft and hub should be inspected for the
cause. The mating surfaces can be lapped with a Before installing a propeller on a splined shaft,
polishing compound until a minimum of 70 percent inspect the crankshaft for cracks, surface defects,
contact area is achieved. After this is done, thor- and corrosion. If any defects exist, repair them in
oughly clean the hub and crankshaft to remove all accordance with the engine manufacturer's
traces of Prussian Blue and polishing compound. instructions. Crankshaft and hub splines are
inspected for wear with a go/no-go gauge which is
0.002 inch larger than the maximum space
Once the minimum contact area is achieved, apply allowed between the splines. The splines are ser-
a very light coat of oil or antiseize compound to the viceable if the gauge cannot be inserted between
crankshaft. Make sure that the key is installed prop- the splines for more than 20 percent of the spline
erly, then place the hub assembly and propeller on length. If the gauge goes in more than 20 percent
the shaft. Be sure that the threads on the shaft and of the way, the hub or the crankshaft is unairwor-
nut are clean and dry, then verify that the puller thy and must be replaced.
snap ring is in place before torquing the nut to the
proper value. Failure to tighten the retaining nut to
the proper torque results in play between the pro- To help ensure that the propeller hub is centered on
peller, front cone and rear cone. Any space between the crankshaft, a front and rear cone are installed on
the cones and the propeller produces galling and each side of the propeller hub. The rear cone is typ-
wear on their surfaces. Safety the retaining nut to ically made of bronze and is split to allow flexibil-
complete the installation. ity during installation and to ensure a tight fit. The
front cone, on the other hand, is made in two pieces
as a matched set. The two halves are marked with a
serial number to identify them as mates in a set.
SPLINED SHAFT [Figure 12-92]
Splined crankshafts are found on most radial
engines, some horizontally opposed, and some
In addition to the front and rear cones, a large
retaining nut is used to tighten and hold the pro-
peller in place. The retaining nut threads onto the
end of the splined shaft and presses against the front
Figure 12-91. The master spline on a splined propeller shaft Figure 12-92. Splined propeller shafts require front and rear
ensures that the propeller is correctly positioned when mounting cones to ensure that the propeller is properly
installed on the engine. aligned on the shaft.
72-70 Propeller
s
 Figure 12-94. Rear cone bottoming occurs when the tip of the
rear cone contacts the land on the rear seat of the hub before
the hub seats on the cone. Removal of a specified amount of
material from the cone's apex corrects this problem.

seat of the hub before the hub becomes seated on the

rear cone. One way to correct rear cone bottoming is
to remove up to 1/16 inch from the apex of the cone
Figure 12-93. With a splined shaft installation, the propeller
is held in place by a retaining nut that threads onto the end
with sandpaper on a surface plate. [Figure 12-94]
of the splined shaft and presses against the front cone.
Front cone bottoming occurs when the apex of the
front cone bottoms on the crankshaft splines, before
it has a chance to seat on the hub. Front cone bot-
cone to sandwich the propeller tightly between the toming is indicated by either the hub being loose on
front and rear cones. [Figure 12-93] the shaft after the retaining nut has been torqued, or
when there is no transfer of Prussian Blue to the
Like the tapered shaft, a trial installation of the pro- front hub seat. Correct front cone bottoming by
peller should be completed to ensure a proper fit. To using a spacer of no more than 1/8 inch thickness
do the trial installation, begin by applying a thin behind the rear cone. This moves the hub forward,
coat of Prussian Blue to the rear cone. Next, slip the enabling the hub to properly seat on the front cone.
rear cone and bronze spacer onto the crankshaft [Figure 12-95]
pushing them all the way back on the shaft. With
the rear cone in place, align the hub on the master Once a proper fit between the hub and splined shaft
spline and push the hub back against the rear cone. is ensured, reinstall the rear cone and permanently
Coat the front cone halves with Prussian Blue and
place them around the lip of the retaining nut.
Install the nut in the hub and tighten it to the proper
torque.

After the retaining nut is torqued, immediately

remove the retaining nut and front cone and note
the amount of Prussian Blue transferred to the hub.
A minimum of 70 percent contact is required. Then,
remove the hub from the crankshaft and note the
transfer of dye from the rear cone. As with the front
cone, a minimum of 70 percent contact is required.
If contact is insufficient, lap the hub to the cones
using special lapping tools and fixtures.

If no dye is transferred from the rear cone during the Figure 12-95. Front cone bottoming occurs when the apex
of the front cone bottoms on the crankshaft splines. This
transfer check, a condition known as rear cone bot- prevents a good seat between the front cone and propeller
toming may exist. This occurs when the apex, or hub. As a result, the propeller hub is loose, lacking a tight
point, of the rear cone contacts the land on the rear fit to the crankshaft.
Propeller 12-71
s
mount the propeller on the shaft. As you recall, the
position of the propeller on the hub in relation to
the master spline is predetermined. Some installa-
tions require a certain blade to align with the mas-
ter spline while other installations require the
blades be perpendicular to the master spline posi-
tion. Therefore, be sure to consult the engine main-
tenance manual for the requirements of a particular
installation.
PROPELLER SAFETYING Figure 12-97. If the propeller installation uses castellated
nuts with drilled bolts, safety the nuts with cotter pins.
Once a propeller is properly torqued, it must be
safetied. There is no one correct way to safety a pro-
peller installation because of the many different
types of installations. For this reason, the discus- bolts, the nuts are safetied to the bolts with cotter
sion of safetying methods is limited to the types pins. [Figure 12-97]
more commonly used.
The retaining nuts for tapered and splined shaft
A flanged shaft installation has the largest variety of installations are safetied in the same way. In addi-
safety methods because of its many variations. If the tion, a clevis pin is installed through the safety
flange has threaded inserts installed, the propeller holes in the retaining nut and crankshaft. The clevis
is held on by bolts screwed into the inserts. In this pin must be positioned with the head toward the
case, the bolt heads are drilled and safetied with center of the crankshaft. This allows centrifugal
0.041 inch stainless steel safety wire, using standard force to hold the clevis pin tightly in the hole
safety wire procedures. [Figure 12-96] against its flanged head. [Figure 12-98]
If threaded inserts are not pressed into the flange,
bolts and nuts are used to hold the propeller in
place. Some installations use fiber lock nuts which
require no safetying, but the nuts should be
replaced each time the propeller is removed. For
installations using castellated nuts and drilled

Figure 12-98. To safety the retaining nut on a tapered shaft

Figure 12-96. On propellers secured to a flanged hub with propeller installation, a clevis pin is installed through the
bolts, pairs of bolt heads are safety wired together to keep safety holes in the retaining nut and crankshaft. The clevis
the bolts from loosening. pin must be installed with its flanged head toward the cen-
ter of the crankshaft.
72-72 Propeller
s
OPERATIONAL CHECK arranged so that forward thrust is increased by for-
ward movement of the control, and decreased thrust
An operational check should be conducted once a is obtained by aft movement of the throttle.
constant-speed propeller has been installed and
safetied. To conduct this check, follow ground When running-up an engine and testing a newly
runup procedures for the aircraft you are operating installed Hydromatic propeller, it is necessary to
and position the aircraft for maximum safety. The exercise the propeller several times. This is done by
first time a newly installed propeller operates at moving the governor control through its entire
high rpm on an engine, it is always wise to be alert range of travel several times to free the dome of
to the hazards of possible propeller failure. entrapped air.
All adjustable propeller systems share common fea- Once all ground checks and adjustments are suc-
tures in regard to their control configuration. cessfully completed, a test flight should be con-
Propeller controls must be rigged so that an increase ducted. The test flight verifies the propeller system
in rpm is obtained by moving the controls forward response to dynamic loads and determines if any
and a decrease in rpm is caused by moving the con- other adjustments are necessary. After the test flight,
trols aft. Furthermore, engine throttles must be check for oil leaks and component security.