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University of Benghazi Electrical and Electronics

Faculty of Engineering Engineering Department

Linear Systems EE311

Lecture 1
Introduction to Linear Systems:

Outlines of Lecture 1

• Signals and Systems

• Signal Energy and Power
• Some Useful Signal Operations
• Classification of Signals.
• Some Useful Signal Models.

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Signals and Systems

• Signal: is a set of information or data such as voice or video
signals. The signal is a function of the independent variable
time.
• System: the system process the signal, it may modify it or
extract some additional information. Or it is an entity that
processes a set of signals (inputs) to yield another set of
signals (outputs).

System
Input Output
(Process)
x(t) y(t)

Signal Energy
The signal energy is the measure of the signal strength. It is defined
as the area under 𝑥 2 , which is always positive. For real signal:
∞
E= −∞
𝑥 2 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡
This definition can be generalized to a complex valued signal x(t) as

∞
E= −∞ | 𝑥 𝑡 |2 . 𝑑𝑡

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Signal Power
For the energy to be finite,
the amplitude must → 0 as
|t| → ∞. Otherwise the
energy signal measure
becomes meaningless. The
signal power is then used.
For a signal 𝑥(t) , the power
is defined as
1 T 2
P = lim −𝑇
𝑥 𝑡 . 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇
Figure 1.1: Examples of signals: (a) a signal with
finite energy and (b) a signal with finite power.
For a complex valued signal:

1 T
P = lim |𝑥 𝑡 |2 . 𝑑𝑡
𝑇→∞ 2𝑇 −𝑇
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Example 1.1
Determine whether the signals in Figure 1.2 are power or energy
signals.
• A)The signal in fig(a) the amplitude
goes to zero as t goes to infinity.
Therefore the energy is given by:
 0 
Ef  

f 2 (t )dt   (2) 2 dt   4e t dt  4  4  8
1 0

The signal in Fig (b) does not tend to zero as t approaches infinity. The
signal is periodic therefore the power exists.
1 1
1 1 1
Pf  
2 1
f 2 (t )dt   t 2 dt 
2 1 3

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EXAMPLE 1.2
Determine the power and the rms value of
a. x(t) = C cos (ω0t + θ)

This is a periodic signal with period T0 = 2π/ω0.

The rms value is C/√2.

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EXAMPLE 1.2
Determine the power and the rms value of
b. x(t) = C1 cos (ω1t + θ1) + C2 cos (ω2t + θ2) ω1 ≠ ω2

and the rms value is

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EXAMPLE 1.2
Determine the power and the rms value of
c. x(t) = D e j ω0 t
• In this case the signal is complex

Recall that |ejω0t| = 1 so that |Dejω0t|2 = |D|2, and

The rms value is |D|.

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1.2 SOME USEFUL SIGNAL OPERATIONS

1. Time Shifting:

and

• X(t − T) represents x(t) time-shifted by

T seconds. (we replace t with t − T)
 If T is positive, the shift is to the right
(delay).
 If T is negative, the shift is to the left
(advance).
• Example:
 X(t − 2) is x(t) delayed (right-shifted) by
2 sec.
 X(t + 2) is x(t) advanced (left-shifted)
by 2 sec. 11

EXAMPLE 1.3
An exponential function x(t) = e−2t shown in Fig. 1.5a is delayed by 1 second. Sketch and
mathematically describe the delayed
function. Repeat the problem with x(t) advanced by 1 second.

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1.2 SOME USEFUL SIGNAL OPERATIONS

2. Time Scaling:
If f(t) is compressed in time by a factor
(a>1), then the resulting signal is:
ϕ( t )=f(at)
If the signal is expanded in time by a
factor (a<1), then the resulting signal is:
ϕ( t )=f( t / a)

If f(t) is compressed in time by factor of 2,

then what happens to f(t) at some instant
t happens to ϕ(t) at t/2.

ϕ( t /2)=f(t) and ϕ( t )=f(2.t)

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EXAMPLE 1.4 : Sketch and describe mathematically signal time-

compressed by factor 3.

Solution:
• The signal f(t) can be described by:

• Replacing t by 3t in f(t) we get:

•

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EXAMPLE 1.4 : Sketch and describe mathematically the signal

ttime expansion by a factor of 2..

Solution:
• The signal f(t) can be described by:

• Replacing t by t/2 in f(t) we get:

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1.2 SOME USEFUL SIGNAL OPERATIONS

3.Time Reversal (Flipping/Mirroring
Signals):
• Time reversal is [the reflection of x(t)
about the vertical axis], To time-reverse
x(t), we rotate it 180° about the vertical
axis, to give us the signal
φ(t) = x(-t)

• Thus, to time-reverse a signal we

replace t with −t,

• Recall also that the reversal of x(t)

about the horizontal axis results in −X(t).
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Example 1.5
For the signal in Fig 1.13, describe the signal mathematically, and
sketch and describe mathematically f(-t).
Solution:

The inverted signal is obtained by replacing

t with –t in f( t ):

1.2 SOME USEFUL SIGNAL OPERATIONS

4. Combined Operations
The general case is f(at-b), there are two possible sequences of
operation:
• Time-shift f(t) by b to obtain f(t-b).
Then time-scale the shifted signal f(t-b) by a to obtain f(at-b).
• Time-scale f(t) by a to obtain f(at).
Then time-shift f(at) by b/a (replace t with t-b/a) to obtain
f(a(t-b/a))=f(at-b).
• If a is negative we need time inversion.

Example, the signal x(2t − 6) can be obtained in two ways.

1- delay x(t) by 6 to obtain x(t − 6), and then time-compress by factor 2
(replace t with 2t) to obtain x(2t − 6).
2- Alternately, first time-compress x(t) by factor 2 to obtain x(2t), then
delay this signal by 3 (replace t with t − 3) to obtain x(2t − 6).
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Classification of Signals
• There are several classes of signals. Here we shall consider
only the following classes, which are suitable for the scope of
this course:
1. Continuous-time and Discrete-time Signals.
2. Analogue and Digital Signals.
3. Periodic and Aperiodic Signals.
4. Energy and Power Signals.
5. Deterministic and Random Signals.

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• Continuous-time Signals:
is defined in every point in the time axis
• Discrete-time Signals:
is defined only at specific points in the time axis, usually at equally
spaced intervals.
• Analogue Signals:
A signal whose amplitude can take on any value in a continuous
range is an analogue signal. This means that an analogue signal
amplitude can take on an infinite number of values.
• Digital Signals:
A digital signal, on the other hand, is one whose amplitude can take
on only a finite number of values.

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Fig (a) analog, continuous-time (b) digital, continuous-time,

(c) analog, discrete-time, (d) digital, discrete-time.
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Periodic and Aperiodic Signals

A signal f(t) is said to be periodic if for some positive constant T0
f(t) = f(t+T0) for all t

- Where, the smallest value of T0 satisfies the periodicity condition

and is called the fundamental period.
-Thus, a periodic signal remains unchanged when time-shifted by
one period T0.

• A signal is aperiodic if it is not periodic

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Energy and Power Signals

• Energy Signals: A signal x(t) is said to be an energy signal if
the total energy, E, dissipated by the signal over all time is both
nonzero and finite. Thus:
0<E<∞

• Power Signals: A signal x(t) is said to be a power signal if the

average power delivered by the signal over all time is both
nonzero and finite.
0<P<∞

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Deterministic and Random Signals

• A Deterministic Signal: is a signal whose physical
description is known completely, either in a mathematical
form or a graphical form.

• A Random Signal: is a signal whose values cannot be

predicted precisely but are known only in terms of
probabilistic description, such as mean value or mean-
squared value, is a random signal.

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Causal and Non-causal signal

• The causal signal does not start before t = 0.

f(t) is a causal signal if:

• f(t) =0 for all t<0

• f(t) is a anticausal signal if

• f(t) =0 for all t>0

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1.4 Some Useful Signal Models

1. Sinusoidal Function:
It is the most important periodic
function, which is represented as:
f(t) = A cos (𝜔𝑡 + 𝜃)
2. Unit Step Function u(t):
The unit step function u(t) is defined
1 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
as: u(t) =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
3. Unite Ramp Function r(t):
• The unit ramp is defined as
𝑡 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 ≥ 0
r(t) =
0 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 < 0
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Example
• The signal e−at represents an everlasting
exponential that starts at t = − ∞. The
causal form of this exponential can be
described as e−at u(t).
• The rectangular pulse signal can be
represented using the unit step function
as follows:
• x(t) = u(t-2) - u(t-4)

EXAMPLE 1.6
Describe the signal shown in Figure

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EXAMPLE 1.7
Describe the signal in Figure by a single expression valid for all t.
• Over the interval from −1.5 to 0,
the signal can be described by a
constant 2, and over the interval
from 0 to 3, it can be described by
2e−t/2. Therefore

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1.4 Some Useful Signal Models

4. The Unit Impulse Function δ(t):
δ(t) = 0 t ≠ 0
∞
δ(t) = −∞ 𝛿(𝑡) . 𝑑𝑡 = 1

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1.4 Some Useful Signal Models

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1.4 Some Useful Signal Models

5. Exponential Signals est :
This signal is the most important signal. s (complex frequency
domain) is complex and given by:

Therefore

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1.4 Some Useful Signal Models

5. Exponential Signals est :

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The complex frequency domain

The absolute value |ω| (radian

frequency) indicates the
frequency of the oscillation of
est. σ (neper frequency)
represents the decrease or the
increase rate of est. the
complex plane is divided into
two parts: LHP (left half-plane)
the signal is exponentially
decaying. RHP (right half-
plane) the signal is
exponentially growing.

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Even and Odd functions

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