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Indira Gandhi National Open University
·.~ School Of Tourism HospitalityService Management ·TS-l
FOUNDATION
-COURSE IN TOURISM

Tourism Phenomenon 1
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"Education is a liberating force, and in our

age it is also a democratising force, cutting
across the barriers of caste and class,
smoothing out inequalities imposed by birth
, and other circumstances. "
- Indira Gandhi
 Indira Gandhi
National Open University
TS·l
School of Tourism Hospitality Foundation Course
Service Sectoral Management
in. Tourism

Block

1
TOURISM PHENOMENON

UNIT 1
Understanding Tourism-l 5
UNIT 2
Understanding Tourism-2 19
UNIT 3
Historical Evolution and Development 29
, Some Useful Books For This Block . 47
Activities For This Block 47
Illustrations 49
r .

Expert Committee

Mr~ Alito Sequiera Mr. [Link] Mr. Pradeep Sankhala

[Link] Sociology Joint Secretary Managing Director
Go. University Federation of Indian Hotel Dynamic Tours Pvt. Ltd.
Goa and Restaurant Associations New Delhi
Dr. A.R. Khan New Delhi Mr. Rabindra Selh
History Faculty Mr. K.T. Surcsh Consultant
IGNOU Coordinator, Equations Wel00mgroup
Mr. Ashish Kumar Singh, IAS Bangalore New Delhi
Ex-Director, Kerala Institute Ms. Neena Rao Prof. Rakesh Khurana .\
of Travel and Tourism Studies Head, Dept. of Tourism Director, All India Management Association .
Trivandrum College of Vocational Studies New Delhi
Dr. A. Shreekumar New Delhi Mrs. S. Kothari
Dept. ofManagement Prof. Pandav Nayak Otief Communications Officer
Go. University Director (SOSS) Dept. of Tourism, Govt. of India
Goa IGNOU New Delhi
Ms. Jyotsana Patwardhan Mr. Pawan Khanna Mr. S.N. Naqvi
Garware Institute Managing Director Deputy Director General
Bombay University Rainbow Travels Dept. of Tourism, Govt. of India
Bombay New Delhi New Delhi
Prof. Kapil Kumar (Conllenor)
History Faculty
IGNOU

Programme Coordinator: Prof. Kapil Kumar

Course Team
Prof. Kapil Kumar Mr. Ajay Mahurkar
Dr. A.R. Khan Dr. Swaraj Basu
History Faculty
Dr. Ravindra Kumar IGNOU

Block Preparation Team

Unit No. Resource Person IGNOU Faculty

lto3 Ms. Neena Rao Prof. Kapil Kumar .

Head, Dept. of Tourism
Secretarial Assistance
College of Vocational Studies,
New Delhi Mr. Anil Madan
l¥ock Coordinator

lI/fr. Ajay Mahurkar

Shri Y. N. Sharma Sh. Yashpal

AR (P) MPDD SO (P) MPDD
IGNOU, New Delhi IGNOU, New Delhi
March, 2016 (Reprint)
© Indira Gandhi National Open University, 1994
ISBN ·81·7263·548·6
All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form, by mimeograph or any
other means, without permission in writing from the Indira Gandhi National Open University.
Further information on the Indira Gandhi National Open University courses may be obtained
from the University'S office atMaidam Garhi, New Delhi-I 10068.
Printed and published on behalf of the Indira Gandhi National Open University,
New Delhi by the Registrar, MPDD.
Printed at : Chandra Prabhu Offset Printing Works Pvt. Ltd., C-40, Sector- 8, Noida 201301 (U.P.)

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 TS - 1: FOUNDATION COURSE IN
TOURISM
Tourism,both as a phenomenon and as an industry, has made rapid advances in recent
years. The growth potential that the Tourism Industry possesses has now been
recognisedfor special attention by both - the Government as well as the Private Sector.
It is, however, to be noted that in India the educational system potential of tourism has
remained an underdeveloped discipline. Simultaneously, not much effort has gone in
creating awareness among the masses about tourism or in promoting research on the
various effects of tourism. As a discipline, it has failed to harness 'human resources and
has succeeded only partially in creating mass awareness and local participation. The
National Action Plan for Tourism recognises the potential of Tourism Industry by
admitting that it is capable of generating employment (direct and indirect) for about
13-14 million persons annually. Significantly, this number has been predicted to touch
"double the present level before the turn of the century". The relevance of training
manpower in the diverse areas of Tourism Industry is here for all to see. At the same
time it also has to be appreciated that such manpower is not required just at top or
middle management levels. All the personnel involved in diverse activities at various
levels need an equally professional approach with skills and knowledge to handle the
operations at the positions they hold.
Efforts are needed not only to train the local population in destination areas but also to
create awareness among them towards tourism and ,its impact.
The Foundation Course in Tourism (TS-l) is the first step in this direction. The Course
has been designed and developed by academics in collaboration with experts from
_ different branches of Tourism Industry. This has been done keeping in view the diversities
- of the disciplines constituting the area of Tourism Studies. The idea is to: '
.• familiarise you with varied aspects of tourism,
.• create awareness about tourism,
• map out the various skills required for a career in tourism, and
-. list simultaneously the career opportunities in this sector,
For those who are already employed, directly or indirectly, in the Tourism System this
course offers an opportunity to understand how their actions affect others and how
are they, in turn affected by others. Hence, a person working in one .area of tourism
can acquaint himself with other areas.
The Foundation Course has been divided into nine Blocks having thirty five Units in all.
The contents have been so designed as to give you a broad idea of tourism - both as a
phenomenon as well as an Industry.
You may note that along with the print material we are also producing some educational
audios and videos for this course. For your use they will be available at the study
centre.
In case you have any problems/queries please do not hesitate in writing to us.
BLOCK 1 TOURISM PHENOMENON
Scholars keep debating the nature of tourism. Whether tourism is an industry or an
activity? Whether it is a system or a phenomenon? Well this is an introductory Block
which attempts to familiarise you with the Tourism Phenomenon - something difficult
to describe because of the diversities involved. .
Unit-I defines tourism and tourist along with certain other concepts. It also mentions
the various forms and types of tourism.
Unit-2 emphasises on the role of motivation in tourism. It discusses the various
approaches along with the emerging trends in tourism.

Unit-3 deals with the historical evolution and development of tourism keeping in view
the global as well as Indian scenario. .
Why is such an information necessary for a tourism professional is another aspect dealt
within the Units. At the end of the Block we have:
• a reading list. You may read these books if they are available to you from other
sources for further increasing your knowledge.
• given certain activities. You must do them for they not only introduce you to
certain skills but will also form part of the assignments.

We hope you are ready to go through the Block.

Acknowledgement: We are thankful to the World Tourism Organisation for providing

us with literature on Tourism. We have used this for the benefit of our students. The
Department of Tourism, Govt, of India, Haryana Tourism Deptt., Kerala Tourism Deptt .•
Jammu & K. Tourism Deptt. and the T.e.I. Ltd provided us photographs to be used for
the benefit of learners. We are grateful for this cooperation .

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 UNIT 1 UNDERSTANDING TOURISM-l

Structure

1.0 Objectives
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Tourism Phenomenon
1.3 What is Tourism?
1.4 Concepts
1.4.1 Defining Tourism
1.4.2 Tourism Products and Services
1.4.3 Tours
1.4.4 Tourists
1.4.5 The Tourist Destination
1.5 Tourism: Forms and Types
1.6 Future Trends
1.7 Let Us Sum Up
1.8 Keywords
1.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

1.0 OBJECTIVES
.'

After reading this Unit you will be able to:

• define tourism,
• understand the Tourism Phenomena,
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• explain the characteristics of tourism,
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• appreciate why and how it is a constantly changing activity,
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• list the concepts of tourism, !
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• define a tourist, tourist product and destination,
• know what a tour is, and
• explain the different forms and types of tourism along with certain future trends.

- 1.1 INTRODUCTION·

Tourism and tourist are words which are commonly heard or mentioned in everyday life.
Pick up any newspaper and you will find some reference to tourism i.e. in relation to
government policy, tourist jlJrivals, products, destination, impact on economy, hostility or
hospitality of the local people etc. But how often have you attempted to understand the
meaning of tourism or asked the question who IS a tourist? Well, this Unit attempts to
define for you the words "tourism" and "tourist"- both technically as well as
conceptually. Then it goes on to comprehend the concepts related to tourism and its
characteristics. It also takes into account the different forms and types of tourism along
with explaining to you the terms like tourist destination and tourist product, etc. A
knowledge of these aspects is a must for a tourism professional as well as for anyone '
interested in pursuing Tourism Studies.

1.2 TOURISM PHENOMENON

Tourism is concerned with pleasure, holidays, travel and going or arriving somewhere.
These 'are the motivations that make people leave their "normal" place of work and
residence for short-term temporary visits to "other" places"

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Tourism Phenomenon Tourism is concerned with consuming goods and services. For example, you need 'some
mode of transport, some form of accommodation to stay and so on. However, the only
reason for the consumption of such services and goods is that we have a pleasurable
experience or that we enjoy ourselves. A part of the enjoyment is in the fact that these
goods and services are different from what we typically consume everyday. Another
aspect of our enjoyment is that we:
• look at a set of different landscapes, cultures and life styles, and
• see different people and hear other languages, etc.
Because we are "going away" what we look at and experience becomes something out
of the ordinary-something unique. In fact, we do anticipate the new experience and this
leads us to view it with greater interest and curiosity. However, few of us realise that in
the production of this pleasant experience many professionals and experts help to
develop and construct our viewing. How this experience has changed and developed
depends on a variety of factors like which:
• historic period we are looking at,
• social groups we belong to,
• society we live in.
The tourist gaze is, therefore, based on a "difference" i.e. the difference between the
practice of tourism and other non-tourism social practices, like paid work and domestic
life or like the difference between taking a bus to go for work and taking a bus to a
tourist destination.
Tourism, as a significant social phenomena, involves a temporary break with normal
routine to engage with experiences that contrast with everyday life, with the mundane.
Almost all travel types---the explorer, the pilgrim, the monk, the merchant, the student,
the missionary, the hermit, the refugee, the conqueror, the cure seeker etc.-can be cited
as prototypes of the modem tourist.

1.3 WHAT IS TOURISM?

Well, the term tourism comprises several social practices. All these have the minimal
common characteristic - that they are different and they are a 'departure' from normal
life. These minimal characteristics help us to define tourism, which according to the
WTO W.T.O. is the movement of people away from their normal place of residence and work
is for a period of not less than 24 hours and not more than 1 year.
World Tourism
Organisation Tourism infact is a leisure activity because it coexists with its opposite, that is regulated
based at and organised work. This shows us that in modern societies work and leisure are
Madrid, Spain organised as separate and regulated areas of social practice. They are located in specific
places and periods of time. Tourism involves-the movement of people to, and their stay
at various destinations. This involves a journey and services like transport,
accommodation, catering and viewing etc. The journey to and stay at a site is outside
the normal place of work and residence for a short period. There is a clear intention
when "going away" to "return home". We must remember that tourism sites are not
connected with paid work and they preferably offer some contrast with sites where a
person's work and residence are located.
A substantial proportion of the population engages in going away on holiday. Hence,
new socialised forms of the provision for goods and services are developed in order. to
cater to the mass character of tourism practices.. The tourist is, therefore, different from
the traveller, because travel has an individual character where as tourism has a mass
character. Tourism is directed at places chosen for the anticipation (often built on day
dreaming and fantasy) of intense pleasure because such places are different to what we
normally encounter. Such anticipation is sustained through a variety of experiences
which influence our daily lives like film, T.V., fiction, magazines, records, videos etc.
which construct and reinforce our image of a tourist destination.
The tourist's gaze is directed towards a landscape, a town or an event by pointing out
those features that separate it from everyday life. Whilst many features are viewed

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because they are out of the ordinary. there is much more emphasis on the visual Understandloa Tourlsm-l
elements because we have seen it before through photographs. post cards. films etc.
Infact, we recapture the site through personal experience. Tourism. therefore. also
involves the recognition and collection of signs that represent a reality of another time
and another place. For example camel rides in the desert for a person who resides in
the hills.· .
A number of tourism professionals emerge and develop these signs. They attempt to
create new and newer objects for the consumption of the tourist's gaze. What they
produce and why it becomes an object of tourism, or why it becomes popular depends
. on the competition between the travel trade for the attention of the tourist on the one
hand, and on the other, the changing class, gender and generational distinctions of taste
within the group of potential visitors. For example, one may stay in a five star hotel or
a Yatri Niwas: one may take a pilgrimage or a beach holiday; one may go on a
package tour or take a trekking holiday alone.
Finally, tourism has also become a status symbol in modem society and thought to be
necessary to ones health. Today 40% of free time is devoted to travel in developed
countries. 429 million tourists spent U;S. $ 429 billion in 1990 and by the year 2000
tourism services will probably be the largest sources of employment in the world. These
statistics reflect the fact that many new tourist sites are opening all over the world and
tourism is now a global phenomena. .

I Check Your Progress 1

1) Define tourism. Why is it different from travel?

2) Why is tourism called a phenomenon in modem society?

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1.4 CONCEPTS

Film, pleasure and entertainment are concepts popularly associated with tourism. Many
writers like Boorstin and Baudrillard have said that because tourists travel in guided
groups isolated from the host environment and people, because they are encapsulated in
planes, hotels and air-conditioned buses, they remain in an "environmental bubble". Such
tourists look for western facilities wherever they go and therefore they participate in
"pseudo-events" because they do not encounter the real world on the street. level. As a
consequence tourist entrepreneurs and the local people produce displays for gullible
tourists. These, over time and with the help of the media; become images which are the
basis of illusions associated with the sites where tourism occurs. Thus, there is a
paradox in understanding tourism-which is defined by its opposite, work and routine;
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Tourism Pheaomenon yet it is engaged in reproducing the familiar (like hotels etc.) which insulate the tourist
from the strangeness of the destination or the host environment.
The mass society tourist is located in a very secure and protected environment where his
. senses are necessarily restricted. The tourist never learns to decipher the complex and
alien cultures which cannot be simplified and massproduced easily. Hence, we end up
with a monotonous image of a uniform concept of tourism -as hotel, beach and local
colour.
But tourism is not only a mass phenomenon. Cohen maintains that there are a variety of
tourist types and modes of tourist experience. Hence, it is necessary to:
• defme the tourist,
• understand how tourism emerges from a basic division between the ordinary/
everyday and the extra ordinary.
• explain [Link] of the tourist product.
• list types of destinations and identify their attractions, and
• explain what is a tour.

1.4.1 Defining Tourism

Over the years the definition of tourism has undergone a change alongwith the historical
changes. According to Hunziker and Krapf tourism is "the sum of the phenomena and
relationships arising from the travel and stay of non-residents, in so far as it do not lead
to permanent residence and is not connected to any earning activity". This definition
emphasises travel and stay, but excludes day trips, business trips etc., and the
overlappirig of these boundaries with other practices.
The League of Nations in 1937 recommended that tourism covers the social activity of
those who travel for a period of 24 hours or more in a country other than the one a
person usually lives in. However, the limitation of this defmition was that it excluded
domestic and emphasised only on international tourism.
The Rome Conference on Tourism in 1963 adopted the recommendation to replace the
term "tourist" with the term "visitor" and defined tourism as a visit "to a country other
than ones own or where one usually resides and works", for the following reasons:
i) Tourism - the activity of temporary visitors staying at least 24 hours for leisure:
business, family, mission or meeting.
ii) Excursion - the activity of a temporary visitor staying less than 24 hours but
excluding people in transit.
This definition also excluded the domestic tourist, although it did recognise the day
visitor.
The Tourism Society of Britain in' 1976 proposed to clarify the concept of tourism by
saying that "Tourism is the temporary, short-term movement of people to destinations
outside the places where they normally live and work and their activities during their
stay at these destinations, including day visits and excursions."
AlEST in 1981 refined this concept and held that "Tourism may be defmed in terms of
particular activities selected by choice and undertaken outside the home environment.
Tourism mayor may not involve overnight stays away from home".
These defmitions indicate that tourism has expanded in its range and scope. The concept
of tourism has broadened to include all forms of the phenomenon of leisure activity.
Today we may define Mass Tourism as the quest of someone who travels to see
something different and is' dissatisfied when he fmds that things are not the same as at
home.
This definition reflects the orientation of global tourism, which is concentrated in
Western societies where 60% of international tourist arrivals are received and from
where 70% of the tourists originate. Because the control of tourism is centered in the
West, the concepts associated with tourism are 'necessarily influenced by the social
practices of these societies rather than the travel heritage of the non-western cultures and
developing societies.'

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The movement of tourists from the place of origin to the destination is further described Understanding Tourlsm-l
as:
• International Tourism, when the travel is from one country to another. and
• Domestic Tourism, when the travel is within the country i.e. trips taken by a tourist
within his/her own country or where the origin and destination are in the same
country.
In International Tourism you will come across two other terms:
i) Inbound: This refers to tourists entering a country.
ii) Outbound: This refers to tourists leaving their country of origin for an other.
However, these terms apply in the case of outward travel only at its beginning. We must
remember that on the journey back a tourist is only returning to the place of residence
and he cannot be termed as inbound tourist But at the same time an outbound tourist
can also be an inbound tourist For example you decide to go to Cuba. From the point
of view of India you will be described as an outbound tourist but Cuba will describe
you as an inbound tourist.

INTERNATIONAL TOURISM

Tourist

I:: I---+-----=---~~-----+---I=- I
Outbound Inbound

K (Returning Home)

DOMESTIC TOURISM
Tourist

1= I__~ K__~ I~I

1.4.2 Tourism Products and Services

In relation to tourism, very often you will come across terms like tourism products and
services. Here we attempt to defme them.
The purchase of a tour is a speculative investment by the tourist, who anticipates the
pleasure the consumption of such a product will result in. Tourist consumption and
anticipation are related to services that after the basic necessities and comforts are
provided, leisure activities are also organised. However, it has often been said that
selling tours is similar to selling dreams. For example, a tour is more than buying a
mere collection of services like an aircraft seat, a hotel bed, meals and the opportunity
to see the Taj Mahal. The tourist is buying, temporarily, a strange environment including
unique climatic and geographical features and intangible benefits like bargain, luxury
service, hospitality, atmosphere, a culture and heritage.
The tourist product is therefore both, a physical as well as a psychological construction"
which is challenged to transform dreams into reality. The problem in meeting such a
challenge is that different cultures have different priorities and codes but the global
tourism professional requires a universal-Ioften termed as western) standard of
satisfaction. Apart from the problem of quality control there is always the element of
chance which can destroy the most well organised tour. This can be due to natural or
man-made reasons, accidents or sudden and unforeseen circumstances. Risks are higher
in tourism services because these services are considered luxuries and often not given
the same attention as essential services. Local people often express hostility to tourism
because they see it as an expression of Five Star culture. extending the gap between
their life style and that of the tourist.
For the producer of the service there are also risks. Travel services are consumed en route
and at the destination. They cannot be tested, seen, sampled or compared in advance.
9

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Tourism Phenomenon They depend on a reputation earned by the satisfaction of previous users and on
advertising. Services are also created in a particular historical and social context and are
affected by a work culture. Moreover, the supply of services is fixed and created in
advance and the risk of underconsumption has to be borne by the producer because
travel services cannot be stored. For example. an unused aircraft seat or an empty hotel
room cannot be carried over to another day or time or place. It has a value where and
when it is offered. for use. Thus. the carrying capacity and' demand for a service have to
be carefully assessed and estimated. For example. it is often claimed that one of the
constraints for tourist movement in India is the shortage of airline seats. To makeup for
this air taxis were introduced. However. they have displaced 20 per cent of Indian
Airlines traffic rather than meeting the shortage or generating new demand. This creates
a crisis situation for both. Indian Airlines as well as air taxi operators along with a loss
of 6.5 crores in foreign exchange.
In tourism demand is often irrational and trends also change rapidly. But the building up
of services often requires a lead time. Once a capacity is offered, the hotel and transport
service for example, it often lasts longer than the demand for it This requires great
ingenuinity on the part of the producer to ensure that the service remains profitable.
In developing countries the risks cannot be carried from one tourist season to another.
Apart from the demand-supply constraints and socio-political factors, operators and
providers of service are also affected by weather conditions (like hot weather and the
monsoons). They are also constrained by a lack of capital to invest in marketing. In
many cases they depend to a large extent on the informal sector or what is termed as
the tout or broker. The tourist views the activities of such persons with suspicion and
considers their method a harassment. However, the small scale operator depends heavily
on the oral application and direct contact of the informal services of touts and brokers
for his profitability.

Economic
Social Destination
Political (Supply)
I Tourist
(Demand)
I Environment

Information
Transport
Accommodation
Catering I Intermediaries
Tours/Excursions
Entertainment
I (Formal/Informal)
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1.4.3 Tours
Tours and their characteristics is closely linked to the motivation (See Unit 2) of the
tourist. Motivation or purpose of a visit is usually:
• Holiday or vacation, including a visit with friends and relations,
• Meetings and conferences, including other business activities,
• Health and sports,
• Religion and Culture, or
• Special interests. including study tours, etc.
The purpose of visit determines the nature of the tour in the following ways:
i) Are you free to choose your destination?
ii) Is price a constraint?
ill) Is time a constraint?
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iv) Is quality a determining factor? C/J

v) What facilities and services do you require? ..•.

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 Tours can be within national boundaries or in any place in the world. Such a decision Understanding Tourlsm-l
will have an impact on the economy of both, the country of origin and the tourists'
destination site. Tours also focus on unique natural or geographical features like the
coastline, islands, mountains, health resorts, countryside, etc. At such locations the
provision of tourist [Link] the pressure of tourists are bound to have impacts on
the environment, economy, local social practices and on the people.

Destination

~~ l~_IMP
A_C_T~<
__ !__ ~>_AREAS ~l ~~l _
_ EconO_IDY I I Fnvirooment 1 _Poop_le I I Culmre 11 ~ Practices 1

The time period a tour includes will depend on factors like:

• holiday period,
• price,
• attractions and activities,
• single destination or multi-destination,
• packaged itinerary or individual travel, and
• inclusive arrangements or special interest tours, etc.
In the case of an independent or tailor-made tour the visitor buys services individually.
This he does either by making reservations in advance, directly or through a travel agent
or on an ad hoc basis during the tour. The latter is called a walk-in arrangement which
depends on availability. A package or inclusive tour is an arrangement in which
transport and accommodation are purchased at an inclusive price. This means that the
prices of the individual components of the services required by the tourist cannot be
determined by the buyer. ,
I Packages are assembled by tour operators who buy the individual elements in advance
from the producers and the wholesalers. Because these services are bought in advance in
large numbers, the tour operator buys at a special discount price (20% to 30% lower
than the market price). He then sells individual and group tours either directly or
through travel agen,s who are performing the retail function. For this travel agents earn
a commission (2% to 10%).
Tourist services are also accordingly diverse to suit all the aspects of demand. For
example:
1) Transport services can be scheduled (run according to a time-table) or chartered
(according to demand).
2) Accommodation can be in the formal (hotel) sector or the subsidiary sector
(guesthouse. camp site. apartment on rent etc).
3) Catering can be on a meal plan which includes a variety of options. For example,
American Plan including 3 meals, Modified American Plan including breakfast and
lunch or dinner and European Plan including breakfast only.
4) Local transfers and sight-seeing can be organised by coach, taxi, etc. For those
who like to do things on their own, the rent-a-car option is also available.

1.4.4 Tourists

The tourist, apart from being a holiday maker or businessman. can also be in terms of
region, nationality. soda-economic class, age and sex. Behavioural aspects like stage in
the life cycle, personality and educational levels also help the producer of services to
design products that fit specific target grout s or market iegments. This is termed as
profiling the tourist ( ee T·2 Iock-;' ~ ich denni anal refinement helps us to
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collect data on what .he tour' st ~ r al» !c;() .rg f ( at the destmation. Such data also
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 Tourism Phenomenon helps us to understand tourism and to see how travel and tourism related practices differ
between different markets. Such information helps the industry to design products and
develop strategies appropriate to the needs of the market. Such data also enables
activists, who may be local activists or networking with international groups to control
the form of tourism being developed at a particular destination and to:
• intervene in the type of development being planned, an~
• maximise the benefits from tourism and to minimise negative impacts.

1.4.5 The Tourist Destination

A destination is both a site and an event, and these two factors are the attractions. In a
site attraction, a location exercises appeal like the Shimla hills, the Kerala coastline or
the Kbajuraho temple complex. With an event acting as a pull. tourists are drawn toa
particular place because of what is happening at that location; Where both site and event
are attractions. like the Konark Dance Festival or the Elephant March or Boat race in
Kerala, the success of such a destination multiplies.
Destinations can be spread over a wide geographical area. The attraction to a destination
lies in the image it has or the attractions it offers. (You will read in detail about
destinations in Unit 18).

I Check Your Progress 2

1) Explain why tourism is difficult to defme. How would you define Tourism?

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2) Is the tourist product similar to other products?

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3) What are the essential features of a tour? Why is a package tour a popular
phenomenon?

••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••••••••••••••• 0/' ••••••• ~ •••••• 0 0 ••••••••••.••••••••••••••••••••••.•••••••.•.•••••••

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 Understanding Tourism-l

1.5 TOURISM: FORMS AND TYPES

Today people are feverishly participating in tourism. This may include short trips during
the week, weekend breaks or longer journeys during holidays. Old age pensioners have a
dream of retiring to a place where the weather is good and the prices low. Without any
outside pressure, millions of people flock to destinations of their own free will. Long
lines of cars, crowded buses and trains and jumbo jets go all over the world. As a result
the beaches become too small, shops and restaurants too crowded, porting facilities and
the environment degraded and worn down with years of being admired and used, and
the world shrinks. For an increasing number of people work is no longer the main
purpose of life and this encourages tourism. Modem tourism is one of the most striking
phenomena of our times and tourism offers us an opportunity to learn, to enrich
humanity and to identify what may be termed as goals for a better life and a better
society. But conservationists want to change things. They want to arrest the spread of
the "landscape eaters" who have transformed the countryside with their mass migration.
Forms and types of tourism emerge within the context of changing social values. For
example, in modem society, the value of 'being' has been superseded by the value of
'having'. Possession, property, wealth, egoism and consumption have become more
important than community, tolerance, moderation, sensibility and modesty. As a result,
in all parts of the 'Yorld:
• economy is characterised by increasing concentration of wealth, division of labour
and specialisation,
• environment is being treated as if resources are renewable,
• the limits of eco-system are stretched without considering the negative aspects, and
• peoples' rights are constantly eroded to meet the needs of the power system, etc.
Forms of tourism emerge from different fields of tension such as: work/rest, awake/
asleep, exertion/relaxation, income/expenditure, job/family, freedom/necessity, risk/
security. Similarly, dirt, noise, rush, pollution and trouble etc. are all key expressions of
such tension. The possibility of going away is very important in such a context.
The desire for tourism is therefore determined socially. Governments promote tourism,
people talk about their holidays, unions sponsor holidays, health insurance covers visits
to spas, tax rebates are given for holiday homes and corporations reward employees with
travel instead of bonus money. Seasonal pressures strengthen the urge to get away from
home. Annual vacations; the media, literature and fashion all strengthen the holiday
mania. The tourism industry whets the appetite with tantalising offers of entertainment
and pleasure. The commercialisation of recreation functions within the well-established
principles of a free market economy. In the past, in the erstwhile socialist countries
holiday homes and limited foreign travel were subsidised for workers. In India we still
have a transport subsidy called the Leave Travel Concession and most companies
provide holiday homes for their workers, but tourism is primarily a private enterprise. A
study of tourist brochures indicates the successful design of a tourist visit:
1) Create a holiday mood by emphasising informality, abandonment, serenity, freedom,
pleasure. -
13

I
Tourism Phenomenon 2) Show time, standing still, romanticism and relaxation, peace and space.
3) Show something beautiful that is not available at home. And typical holiday
symbols like the sun, a beach umbrella, a palm fringed coastline etc.
4) Show people from other cultures, always beaming, happy, friendly and idle.
All four ingredients from the tourism mix. However, in todays context the different
types of tourism are as follows:

1. Rest and Recuperation

Taking a rest from everyday life; relieve the stress of societies that have shifted from
manual to sedentary work. Tourism as diversion or compensation to holiday destinations
is what may be called holiday or vacation travel which is focused on resorts and beach
holidays, both domestic and international.

2. Escape
Tourism as a mass flight from everyday reality to an imaginary world of freedom. This
flight takes place within the movements from centres to peripheries or in other words a
North-South migration.

3. Communication
Spending quality time with family and friends, make new friends and acquaintances.
This is mass tourism, in herds, enjoying the facilities of tourism enclaves.

4. Culture and Education

Such Tourism is based on sight-seeing tours to experience and see other countries of the
world though not necessarily in depth.

S. Freedom
Tourism frees you from home and work and is directed towards facilities and comforts
rather than experience. "

6. Health
Visit spas, go to saunas, undergo cures for chronic ailment, visit health 'clubs for
workouts or do yoga i.e. travel for health.

7. Special Interest Tours

Is organised as per the special interests of the tourists ranging from medical, historical,
archaeological and other interests to golf or fishing.
8. Adventure and Wild Life
Far away from modem civilisation, with bearers and porters and mules, camels,
elephants or jeeps, mixing trekking and hiking and camp life with the luxury of a rust
class hote1.

9. Convention Tourism
To mix leisure with work, holding convention or meetings at tourist destinations.
Different forms of tourism also give rise to different types of tourists.
1) [Link] tourist who is dressed in funny clothes and views everything through
the lens of a camera.
2) The naive tourist who is inexperienced in travel, always asks unnecessary questions
and has no ,language skills.
. 3) The organised tourist who feels at home with a guide and a group of fellow
tourists.
4) The ugly tourist who behaves as if he owns the world.

14·
 5) The uncultured tourist who is a beach bum and spends his time lazing and eating, Understanding Tourlsm-l

6) The rich tourist who can afford anything, likes to show prosperity and enjoys being
waited upon.
7) The exploiting tourist who spends a holiday at the cost of people and takes
advantage of their culture, hospitality and poverty.
8) The polluting tourist who demands that for his comfort everything can be flattened
or destroyed. '
9) The alternative tourist who explores the few untouched corners of the world thus
opening the way to mass tourism.

I WANT
TO
REST TOUR CULTURE
..l ...L EDUCATION

BUT
ESCAPE ,..-- I-- FREEDOM
WHY?

COMMUNICATION HEALTH

SPECIAL ADVENTURE BUSINESS

INTEREST WILDLIFE LEISURE

, 1.6 FUTURE TRENDS

A recent B.B.C. programme entitled "Wish you weren't here" underlines the concern
today at what the Golden Hordes have done to the world environment and fragile
communities and cultures. There was a time when the UN promoted tourism because of
its economic benefits, because:
1) A transfer of wealth from the rich to the poor was possible.
2) Regional imbalances could be overcome in areas where there were no other
developmental resources.
3) Provide employment to people with low educational and skill levels.
4) Give rise to economic growth with the circulation of the tourist dollar.
After four decades of organised Mass Tourism, today the option for the future is
Sustainable Tourism, or tourism controlled by the local people at their pace and in
answer to their needs. The essential aspect of Sustainable Tourism is the concept of
carrying capacity, that is, a control on the number of tourists as well as the type of
tourism to be developed. Carrying capacity is a concept that has to keep in mind the
needs of:
a) the environment
b) the level of development-both economic and social
c) culture
d) population and its needs in the present and in the future
e) tourism vs. other forms of economic activity.

Here we give you some of the projections made by the WTO in relation to future
trends.

1S

I
 DEVELOPMENT OF INTERNATIONAL TOURISM ARRIVALS AND

.
RECEIPTS (l) WORLDWIDE 1950-93
RECEIPTS US $'" J$O '\
,

1(]() .-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-----.---.-.-.---.-.-.-.-.-~-~: •••• ~ - (100

¥OO .-.:.- -tt.t.-.- -_-_._-,_._.__-
arrivals •• •
_.-.!._,_._._._~.uo
.200
J(]()

soa
-.-.---.-.-----.-.-

---- --:;i;.- •••••.•

!--••
••. - .-------.-.~-.-.-.-~---.-.-,

•• receipts j 150

lOO

.'...
100 --_._ .••• _-_.---._ .. ---._--.-.-.- _ _.' 10
- - -
o 0
'PlO 60 61 70 7$ 80 8f 8.2 83 8/1 85 86 87 88 8f1 90 fit fI.2 fI.1

(1) Excluding International fore receipts

Source: WfO

FINAL RESULTS OF INTERNATIONAL TOURJSM IN 1992

~ un,_ ~ro ~.3 3.7 aaS.5 i4\.P5.6 12.9 102

:£ASlAStA [Link] ~UQG 5a.'9.24 13.7 ..i2 1l5Aa6 .a9.~ ll:5.n :2...6

b3t~ 80.~ m..836 3.7 .;2,4 35a,B1'5 !l35.1M1 ~a~ ".2;$

~1'£i£A'S'1f t7,:~1 ~,~OI lIS.7 ~lO:3 '1\.;398 ~;V-9 26.'2 -11<6:5

'S'tlflm A'Sil -S.- 3;2;7!P 17.'Iil '3.11 :2;0'111 lH9.68 ;5.'S .·)1••11

::s.<iW(Cfl: \WIt!:i>

....
~l~
. .-":. .
TOUHIST ACTIVITY~ FOHECAS'lYl . ()9(J-201 () .~' ,

TOURIST ARRIVALS WORLDWIDE TOURIST ARRIVALS REGIONAL

GROWTH RATES 1990·2000
I A'.0it pdlp.t. ~
IIM4IGI
937
1
6
5
••
3
2
I
o~~~~~~~~~~~
Iltb,"ii
~./!.I ,1
2000 )o,e
 Understanding Tourlsm-l ,,
I Check Your Progress 3
1) How are we socially oriented or directed towards participation in tourist activity?

............... , ": .

......................................................................................................... ,

2) Differentiate between different forms of tourism and link them to impacts on the
environment and culture.

3) What is Alternative Tourism?

.......................................... ; .

4) What is Sustainable Tourism?

17

•• <

I
 1/ ,I

Tourism PbenomenoD ..........................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................
-

1.7 LET US SUM UP

You have seen that tourism is defined in different ways. It is crucial to note that the
tourist has the understanding of coming back to the place of residence after being at the
destination and having enjoyed the tourist products, attractions and services. There are
different forms of tourism and so also the types of tourists with their own behavioural
characteristics. Over the years different concepts have emerged in tourism. Tourism
products and services play a vital role. While looking at the future trends a variety of
factors have to be accounted for. For example, now there is emphasis on the
Alternative or Sustainable Tourism as people are beginning to assert their rights and
demand controls.

1.8 KEYWORDS

Environmental Bubble: Isolated situation in which a tourist is placed e.g., in an

air-conditioned bus or a car tour where local weather conditions do not affect him/her.
Golden Hordes: The mass of tourists with money to spend.
Itinerary: Schedule.
Phenomenon: Happening encompassing different sectors of a group.
Psuedo-events: Happenings especially conjured up to meet the tourists preconceptions
e.g. creating an image that India is basically a land of fakirs and snake-charmers for
foreign tourist
Tourist Gaze: The way a tourist sees his/her tourist site.
Tourist Season: The time of the year when arrivals of tourists at a particular destination
are at a peak.

1.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS·

EXERCISES

I Check Your Progress 1

1) See Sec. 1.3. You may have to make a difference between the individual character
of travel and mass character of tourism.
2) See Sec. 1.3. You may have to look into the number of implications tourism has
forme economy, society etc.

I Check Your Progress 2

1) See Sub-sec. 1A.1. You may have to look into the changing character of tourism.
2) See Sub-sec. 1.4.2. You will have to have the difference between the speculative
nature of tourist products and the correct nature of other products.
3) S~ Sub-sec. 1.4.3. Tours are basically defined by their motivation.

I Check Your Progress 3

1) See Sec. 1.5. Different societies create different motivation for tourism.
2) See Sec. 1.5.
. 3) See Sec. 1.5.
4) See Sec. 1.6.

18
UNIT 2 UNDERSTANDING TOURISM-2

Structure

2.0 Objectives
2.1 Introduction
2.2 The Changing Trend
2.3 Purpose of Tourism
2.3.1 SWl,Sea, Sand and Sex
2.3.2 Leisure, Touring, Sightseeing,Culture
2.3.3 Visiting Friends and Relations
2.3.4 Business and Incentive Travel
2.4 Special Interest
2.5 Alternative Tourism
2.6 Other Determinants
2.6.1 Psychological i'
2.6.2 Socio-Political ~ F
~--':".-'-:. -e
2.6.3 Economic
2.6.4 Time
2.7 Let Us Sum Up
2.8 Keywords
2.9 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

2.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit, you will be able to:

• outline the reasons for the growth of tourism,
• define the different motivations that determine the increasing diversity of tourism,
• understand the origin and development of Mass Tourism and package holidays,
• analyse the factors that influence the demand for tourism, as well as the decision-
making process for individuals, arid
• determine the relationship between motivation, destination and tourist products.

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In Unit-l we discussed about the different types and forms of tourism. Tourism of today
is no longer what it was 50 years back and it will change further in the years to come.
A crucial role is played by motivation in this process of change.
/
In fact, motivation or the purposes of a tourist considerably effect the various
components of the Tourism Industry. Motivations not only determine tourists' behaviour
but are being critically analysed to determine the future rieeds of tourism. Hence it is
necessary for tourism professionals or learners of Tourism Studies to know why people
tour/travel. Tied with this is the question why people opt for a particular destination or
-why a specific destination attracts tourists? This Unit takes into account the various
motivations along with the changing trends in tourism.

2.2 THE CHANGING TREND

Tourism had transformed considerably from its earlier motivations, i.e. mainly business
and religion, by the 19th century. In Europe and America it is now a part of the life
style of not only the aristocracy but also the merchants and the professional class. It has
come within the reach of the industrial work force as well.
19

1
Tourism Phenomenon Between the two World Wars, in the industrialised countries, the mass of the people had
higher expectations and greater entitlements. This was because of increasing incomes
and holiday entitlements. Technology brought the means of transport (particularly the
automobile) within their reach and material conditions of life were much better than the
days of depression with the post war economic boom. In the 1960's the post war
economic boom began to spread much more widely and international tourism began to
reach mass markets around the globe. Such changes were bmmd to have an impact not
only on the nature of tourism but also on the numbers participating in touristic activity.

Mass Tourism, a phenomenon which we can see emerging in India today, was primarily
a domestic business up to the 1950's in most of the countries. International tourism
formed about 5% of tourist activity in the 1930's and 40's. By the 1970's foreign
holidays accounted for 20% of long vacations by Americans, Britons and Europeans.
The focus of Mass Tourism were the sea side resorts and spas ~ Europe and the
National Parks and natural beauty around summer camps in America. Travelling by rail
or by car, the middle class tourist used boarding houses or hospitality of friends and
relatives or holiday camps to make the budget for the holiday extend.

Private operators provided cheap accommodation, mass catering with a range of

amusement and entertainment possibilities at the site. Britain, France and Germany were
the leaders in this movement. This early idea of "packaging" soon spread to the up-
market hotels that began to include swimming, tennis and dancing in their facilities.
Tents, caravans and chalets came up for those who wanted a less regimented and more r
flexible holiday plan. The Club Mediterranee, a total resort concept that emerged from
the need of a group of young French families looking for a complete holiday, soon
spread to all regions of the world. A total resort required tremendous commercial ability
which the travel trade had acquired by the mid 20th century. As suppliers of the tourist
product they expanded their output and sharpened their marketing skills. From the
increasingly sophisticated market research emerged the revealing concept of motivation
and its diversity or changeability amongst different groups of tourists. Expertise in
dealing with motivation led to the development of different types of tourism which
involved large numbers of tourists.

A key role in this movement was played by the jet

aircraft By the 1970's wide bodied jets with a
capacity of 400 passengers reduced the cost of air
travel and the mass tourist emerged at resorts all over
the world.

Countries around the world began to notice the impact of tourism on the national and
global economy. Destinations began to make themselves up in the image of a particular
market segment Those destinations that catered to the largest numbers soon became
stereo-typed as "Tourist Ghettos" because they looked alike and offered facilities that
were standardised. Today, as new destinations are emerging, the international stereo-type
is giving way to ethnic types, which has an underlying uniformity with a viewer of local
culture and identity.

2.3 PURPOSE OF TOURISM

You may ask the questions What motivates a tourist? Why tourism? Or What is the
purpose of tourism? These are pertinent questions and the answers are particularly
relevant for those who are or intending to be tourism professionals.

2.3.1 Sun, Sea, Sand and Sex

This is known in American parlance as the 4 S formula. Sea bathing with access to a -I
beach (sandy) and good weather (Sun shine) is an expectation of tourists who want to C/J
escape from temperate to tropical climates. New fashion concepts also dictate the craze
for a sun tanned skin: over the pale complexion. The current health faddism also dictates
..•
o

the use for activity over indolence. Overcrowding, which appeals to those who like to Cl
o
o;7i
20
•
-'
 do things with a crowd, has pushed those who like privacy further away to destinations UnderstaodlDg Tourlsm-2
in Africa and Asia For example, you may hear such comments at a beach "Oh! how
peaceful it is, lovely. I hope it does not become crowded like the one back home".
Many analysts have described this form (4S) as "Tourism in a Ghetto". They do so to
emphasise the artificiality of a created reservation which is made to measure in the
touristic image Or touristic gaze. Included in this category are hotel complexes, ·holiday
tours and hill resorts. Natural and scenic beauty is merely a backdrop to playing the
same games, reading the same newspaper, watching the same T.V. shows and eating the
same food. Local serving personnel are perhaps the only unique ingredient of such tailor
made resorts and are considered sufficient to represent the country in which a particular
resort is located. The model of such a type is the "club med" which is often described
as the most honest touristic formula Although sneered at by the cultured critic because
it incorporates many actual motives and states quite openly that it aims at complete
relaxation - "it is the idea of paradise, a garden of Eden, in which people are free and
unconstrained and everybody can be happy in (their) own way". This is real life, and
such life is available in the most exclusive regions of the world in enclaves where the
tourist can abandon himself to pursue leisure undisturbed. In this holiday theatre based
on glamour, glitter, fun, entertainment, sport and buffets, a holiday becomes a reprieve
from daily life, which is unreal. The show opens up to lightening views of culture for
sight seeing and performances by local women and men. At times these remain meaningless
rituals to the tourists. Yet, they expose the performers to a state of corruption that is
often justified by the money it earns them.
For example Liz and Stewart join thousands of Western tourists who visit the East every
year. They are both 18 and have saved up the whole year for their 2 week vacation. ------=["7

They are determined to enjoy themselves and to relax. They plan to see ancient
monuments or visit bazaars to shop and spend lavishly on exotic bargains. They have
already spent a good amount on fashionable holiday wardrobes, cameras, personal :
stereos and designer sun glasses. They are both sociable and chatty and would like to
meet young men and women wherever they go. They are excited at the thought that
they will be away from family and other social controls. They also want to return with
an excellent suntan and lying on a beach or poolside will expose as much bare skin as
possible. However, some thing like this is possible. The people at the destinations they
visit might be poor, living much harder lives and working longer hours, perhaps in
tourism related services to earn a living. Many may be conservative and religious. They
may frown at certain activities that Liz and Stewart consider normal holiday behaviour ..•'
and their dress. codes will-be different. Many among them may object the freedom of
the men and women to socialise together. Yet, they may tolerate it or turn away their
eyes because for the local people, hospitality, which was once a source of honour has
now become a means of earning a living. They now view the tourist as wealthy and
extravagant
In recent times, the 4 S's formula has been expanded to include golf, a sport which is
extremely popular in the more affluent countries of the world, and particularly in Japan.
The Japanese have set targets for out bound tourists and in 1993, 15 million Japanese
took off for golfing holidays all over the world. Hawaii and Australia are the most
.ravoured destinations, mixing beach and golf facilities. The game is very expensive in
Japan and there is the space limitation too. Because of this demand all Asian countries
are now multiplying golf courses at every suitable location. Malaysia is setting a target
of 122 courses by 1994. Many tourism experts condone golf tourism as being
environmentally friendly. However, in Japan itself there have been several studies
• indicating that golfing greens pollute the underground water facilities. The colouring and
chemicals used to maintain the green areas are as harmful as industrial-effluents.
I

Studies in Thailand also indicate that culturally women caddies double as prostitutes to .1
earn an extra income, since most of them are from agricultural communities that are
very poor.

2.3.2 Leisure, Touring, Sightseeing, Culture

Such tourists like to wander-not content to remain in one place or complex, but
prefering to stay in a different place every night or so. This is a kind of cramming or
crash course of notable countries, monuments, people, places and culture. The
motivation is both self education and self esteem. The camera is an essential ingredient
of such tourists whose "touristic lens" view is considered to be more authentic than
21

..
I
TourIsm Phenomenon reality. Often the framing of the destination via the tourist gaze is the visible pressure
that motivates such tourists towards touristic itineraries.

The destinations visited by such tourists are more varied and widespread than the 4 S' s.
The linear or modal itineraries also require a much better transport network and capacity
and hotels have to provide their best services - particularly check-in/check-out and
room services for frequent guest/room changes. Although-the interest segments may
vary, the demand for services is invariably the same. A tendency develops to create
"circuits" on "milk run" routes on the basis of infrastructural strength as well as local
support to the daily turnover of tourists: Such tourists therefore also fall into the mass
package category.

2.3.3 Visiting Friends and Relations (VFR)

This form is a strong motivation for domestic tourism in India. You see this in every
day life. For example Venugopal wants to visit his friend at Delhi. He also decides to
see all the tourist attractions in Delhi. He may also utilize a day to go to Agra to meet
his classmate Nadim and also seethe Taj.

This segment is of great importance to the transport sector. But it is not considered
economically significant by the providers of accommodation, food and beverage services.
This is so because they stay and eat with their host i.e. a friend or relative. At times
when people have none of their own they try to fmd one through some one. These
tourists do not exercise freedom to choose their destinations, but do show an interest in
the tourist attractions that the town or city offers.

For example, a visit to a friend in Bombay also offers beaches, amusement parks,
pavement cafes, shopping and the Elephanta caves.
Gujarat Tourism has made an interesting "Roots" tourism itinerary for NRI Gujaratis on
visits to the family or friends. They have linked major cities of the state with the places
of interest both in the state as well as in neighbouring states.

The VFR tourist makes use of the surface infrastructure for tourism in much the same
way as the business traveller and often participates in linear or modal itineraries along
with domestic and international tourists. Tourists often use friends and relations as hosts
to visit areas of interest. In India we see an interesting combination of VFR and LTC to
subsidise the cost of transport and accommodation so that there will be enough money
to spend on sightseeing, leisure, recreation and shopping.

2.3.4 Business and Incentive Travel

Business travellers needs often overlap with those of the holiday maker.
The only difference is that business trips are not directed towards touristic centres
or resorts, rather their demand is directed to centres of trade and commerce or
diplomacy. They may demand special services like communication and secretarial
facilities, meeting and convention facilities, car rental and accommodation, with less
emphasis on recreational facilities although swimming pools and health clubs are popular
services today.

A special area of interest to tourist destinations is conferences, fairs and exhibitions.

Today there are many organisations that feel that their executives are more creative and
productive in a resort atmosphere. Hence, the number of corporate conferences is on the
increase. Public and Private Sector, associations and professional bodies (FHRAI, TAAI
and lA TO etc.), trade unions and political parties are also customers for convention-
cum-tourism complexes.

The needs for communication and specialisation have led to annual meetings of
associations and professional bodies not only to meet and discuss new ideas and
strategies but also to exhibit new products, new trends or product lines.

Fairs and exhibitions are a reflection of the health of an economy and give an
opportunity to the participants to sample some of the local tourism offers. An area of
emerging importance to the tourism industry is incentive travel or travel of a touristic
nature as a reward for some special achievement or contribution of an employee to the
fmn. Most employees consider a paid holiday as a desirable perk because their standard
of living ensures that there is no consumer durable that they don't have or can't have.
International travel is however something not more than 10% to 15% can afford.

22
Secondly, the firm's incentive is always of a higher quality and standard than what an Understanding Tourism-2
employee can afford on his own budget terms of services, distance and the length of
stay at a resort.
Most tour operators find the incentive tour market attractive because it includes up-
market rates with people who may not have the discriminating tastes of the upper crust
Such services often overlap with the mass tourists who are directed towards resorts or
on the sight seeing circuits. The Indian Association of Tour Operators (lATO) considers
the incentive tour market an important segment for a long haul destination like India.

I Check Your Progress 1 I

1) What do you understand by a total resort concept?

." .

............................................................
~ .

2) What is the 4S formula?

\

3) Why is VFR tourist insignificant for the accommodation industry?

23
Tourism Pbeuomeoon 4) How do Business and Conventions encourage tourism?

2.4 SPECIAL INTEREST

In contemporary culture there is a dissolving of the boundaries between high and low
cultures as well as between different cultural forms such as tourism, art, education,
photography, T.V., music, sport, shopping and architecture etc. All these forms lend
themselves to the area of Special Interest in tourism which deviates from Mass Tourism
because it does not consider people within a particular destination to be similar to each
other. With shared tastes and characteristics, special interests in the end are to be
determined by the providers of services. However, the increasing and changing power of
different social classes also determines the importance of these areas of cultural
production for Special Interest Tourism. As the collective power of the working class
declined and the service and middle classes increased after the post world war period
new forms of tourism were generated in the west; The new cultural economy that these
classes created related to
peoples consciousness, disposition, tastes and dislikes. Special
Interest Tourism rejects "natural" enjoyment as coarse, vulgar and servile and replaces it
with refined, disinterested and gratuous pleasures that emphasise culture and art as the
essence of the difference between the new power-elite and the old rich and the working
class.

Studies have shown that such tourists enjoy good work and market conditions as well as
educational credentials. They are primarily in the 30 to 40 age group. They share many
of the preferences of intellectuals, like an interest in the most legitimate aspects of
culture. Their interests include museums and folk art, sport, mountain climbing or
walking tours. Many writers describe their taste for "ostentatious poverty" which is seen
in their habit of dressing casually, liking bare and homely interiors and a cultivated
relationship with nature.

Special interest tourists need not be in the middle salaried category alone. In Media,
Advertising and Design areas, they have a very strong commitment of fashion, change
and style. Their morality seeks pleasure as an ethic, and as a taste for novelty. They
look down on the Candy Floss image of the traditional holiday camp and resort because
. for them it is in the bad taste. They go towards health food, vegetarianism, heritage and
natural pastures like walking, cycling, swimming and fishing. In Britain we have seen a
campaign for Real Holidays as against the rise of the package tour. The special interest
tourist equates Mass Tourism with mass production in things like beer, bread and ice-
cream, instead of real things, and wants a return to the authentic taste and flavour of the
individual way of doing things. The essence of the Real Holiday Campaign is that:

a) it involves a visit to a destination well away from the masses like Maldives, Bolivia
or Lakshadweep. Thus, it opens up the whole world to the possibility of tourism,
and

b) the real tourist will make use of the specialist agent or operator rather than a few
major companies who do not promote a discriminating independent form of travel.
The small niche product will promote not touristic trips but voyages of discovery.
Special interest tourists have a reading list of useful books on different countries. They
look for travel rather than tourism; they stress on individual choice, avoiding the
package maker; they need to be educated. They go to the countryside and invoke a
deferential past which has been constructed with elements which never perhaps existed
together historically. They function according to what could be termed as a Tourism Bill
24

•• 1

r
 . of Rights, which respects nature, the rights of the host populations and their customs . Understanding Tourlsm-2
. and culture.
For such tourists stately homes, areas or regions are rehabilitated as tourist attractions;
factories have been turned into museums; garden festivals and theme parks are created
in castles, industrial sites and ecological spheres. Craft demonstrations turn theme/
heritage sites 'into experiences where people can watch, learn and participate jn a
i . renaissance activity. In such cases they know that tourism has benefitted or saved what
might have otherwise been completely lost. Such tourists also participate in cleaning the
environment by holidays spent in clearing waste and debris on beaches and mountain
slopes, and protecting wild life.
Niche tour operators can also bring pressure, like their clients, on local governments to
insist on conservation. This is done to ensure that mass [Link] does not [Link] the
beauty of the destination, its natural attributes and customs. They promote traditional
hand made crafts as souvenirs, accommodation in the vernacular architecture and textiles
as well as local food and beverages. However, sometimes special interest tours and
tourists can also stereo-type what is classified as authentic or real or typical about a
destination. For example, Americans visiting Europe often feel like international refugees
in a slow queue towards an unseen goal. "Push, push, push. These monuments are all
the same. I haven't met a single local person.' How can I when we are on this schedule.
You'd think we'd have a night off, but no, we have to go to a performance." Such are
the phrases commonly heard. Often, in season, crowds are so large that tourists don't
get a good view of the spectacle and they really get to see the spectacle in their
photographs.

Check Your Progr~ss 2

1) Discuss the requirements of a special interest tourist.

.................................................... " .

••••••••••••• 't,. ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

2) Discuss the real holiday concept.

..........................................................................................................

2.5 ALTERNATIVE TOURISM

Alternative tourists like to do things differently. They want to be less with other tourists
and more with the living cultures. They aim to avoid using special 'tourist'
accommodation, transport and other services. They prefer to use or share the services of
the local population. In this way they hope to experience some aspect of their lives.
Many tourists choose alternatives because they are concerned about the negative impact
2S

I
A

r
 -
Tourism Phenomenon which Mass Tourism can have on a destination. Tour operators can specialise in such
forms by focussing on people and their culture rather than providing created comforts.
. Such trips can be of an extended duration and can cost less than the traditional two
week vacation, but they can also be high priced.
Travel is with "local friends" and the purpose is to come to ones own understanding of
political, social and religious traditions. Destinations are out-of-the way villages and
tribal hamlets, or palaces of ex-maharajas. Hotels and homes are characterised by
friendly atmosphere and cleanliness. Transport is crammed with locals going to market
with their wares on camels or donkeys, boats in backwaters or treks in the mountains.
India is a popular alternative destination. It is a "subtle mix of ancient and modem,
ritual and urban, ftlled with local colour and vitality".

2.6 OTHER DETERMINANTS

Besides the motives mentioned in the earlier sections there are also certain other
determinants of tourism.

2.6.1 Psychological
Is tourism desirable? Is it a good thing to have for the tourist and the destination?
Is it a justificable means to an end? As a break from work or as a medical need,
tourism provides relaxation in an environment that is completely different to the home
surrounding. In that sense it is a psychological break. Colleagues, neighbours and friends
howe~ influence our choices and pressure to conform is indeed great.
It is also fashionable to take a holiday at a certain time of the year or to a certain
destination. Fashion in tourism is close to fashion in clothes. There can also be security
in habitually taking the same holiday to a favourite hill or beach resort. In fact, tourism
buying can be as customary as any other brand loyalty.

2.6.2 Socio-Political
Many societies encourage tourism as a form of rejuvenation. Many states give a tourism
entitlement to their employees. In some countries trade unions include visits to spas for
over-worked or sick workers through a medical insurance scheme. Paid holidays also
encourage participation in tourism. The political system also encourages certain
preferences for holiday destinations as well as activities. This is done by choosing
tourist destinations for holding conventions or conferences. For example Nandi Hills
near Bangalore was the venue for SAARC heads meeting.

. 2.6.3 Economic
An important factor is disposable income or freedom from any money constraint.
Tourism is psychologically and socially desirable as a consumer objective and the
possession of the requisite means to satisfy the desire for tourism must be there.
In the West, when a person's income rises by one unit, they spend 1 ~ units on
tourism. This indicates a high propensity to travel. Where incomes are not high and
money is concentrated in a few hands, the propensity to travel is likely to be far less.
Business and incentive travel is also likely to be constrained by the money constraint
which can be affected by economic depressions or recession. Governments can
encourage outbound tourism by their tax policies and the permission to take foreign
exchange out of the country.
The price of tourism in relation to other consumer expenditures is also an important
consideration. Special offers can, along with discounts, often make tourism a more
attractive option than staying at home.

2.6.4 Time
Vacations are traditionally linked to tourism activity. Many institutions have increased
breaks in the calendar rather than just single holidays so that people can avail the
opportunity of free time to participate in leisure activity. These well regulated breaks in

26,
 Europe in spring, summer and winter have encouraged people to take not one but Uoderstandlng Tourlsm-2
perhaps two holidays in a year. In India also this is on the increase. For example people
with school going children tour mainly during summer or winter vacations in the
schools. The tour taken during the summer vacations may be longer when compared to
one during winter. Price and time have a great impact on tourism demand. The tourism
industry adjusts its tariffs with the seasons demand to encourage tourism as well as to
increase profits.
There are other pressures - business, family, religious, educational and social that
motivate tourists. Similarly, conferences and seminars, weddings, funerals or family
reunions, or visits to centres of pilgrimage are factors that are supplementary or secon-
dary feeders of tourism.
In India pilgrimage centres are a major attraction for domestic tourists. You must have
seen caravans of buses taking them to either Hazur Saheb, Ajmer Sharif or Vaishno
Devi.
In many cases facilities like accommodation, catering or special events and discounts
etc. also act as "pull factors" to encourage tourism or attract tourists.

I.. Check Your Progress 3

1) Why is Alternative Tourism considered the most positive motivation for tourism?

·2) What role can Governments play in encouraging tourism?

.........................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................
.
.........................................................................................................
.........................................................................................................

3) What .is the link between vacations and tourism?

..........................................................................................................

.........................................................................................................

......................................~ ' .
27

1
Tourism PhenomenoD

••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• 1•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••

2.7 LET US SUM UP

People travel and tour because of different motivations. People may travel to escape
from their daily environment or to seek information. It is possible that one may travel to
satisfy many motives at a time rather thri any single motive. A change in motivation or
say different motivations have brought in new trends in tourism like Special Interest or
Alternative Tourism. Knowing the motive/s of tourist helps the tour operator/tourism
professional to offer better services to the client and it is always better to ask for
motivation and accordingly suggest the destinr .ion.

2.8 KEYWORDS

Linear Itineraries: Schedules of tourists which include rapidly changing places of stay,
travel and sightseeing.
Niche Tour Operators: Specialised tour operators who share their clients concern for
conserving and preserving areas of tourism from the destructive efforts of mass tourism.
Roots Tourism: Tourism which brings people settled abroad to their places of origin.
Tourist Ghettos: Standardised tourist accommodation and accompanying facilities
facilitating mass tourism.

2.9 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES

I Check Your Progress 1

1) Sec Sec. 2.2. You may expand on the concept of a complete holiday destination,
marketed by tourist operators.
2) See Sub-sec. 2.3.1. The formula contains ingredients of an undisturbed tourist
enclave.
3), See Sub-sec. 2.3.3.
4) See Sub-sec. 2.3.4. It may bring high budget tourist at company expense.

f - Check Your Progress 2

1) See Sec. 2.4.
2) See Sec. 2.4. You may like to explain the concept as one which opens up new
offbeat areas of visit and interests involving help of specialist tour operators;

I Check Your Progress 3

1) See Sec. 2.5. You may like to point out the desire of such tourists to negate the
negative impacts of mass tourism.
2) See specially Sub-sec. 2.6.2. You may point out the schemes for tourism offered
by the Government.
3) See Sub-sec. 2.6.4.

•• A
 UNIT 3 HISTORICAL EVOLUTION AND
DEVELOPMENT

Structure

3.0 Objectives
3.1 Introduction
3.2 The Need for History of Tourism
3.3 Sources of Data
3.3.1 Statistical Records
3.3.2 Secondary Sources
3.4 Periodisation and Concepts
3.5 Ancient Period
3.6 Early Empires
3.6.1 Egyptian Civilisation and Phoenecians
3.6.2 The Persian Empire
3.6.3 Greeks
3.6.4 The Romans
3.6.5 India
3.7 Silk Route
3.8 Pilgrimage
3.9 Grand Tour
3.10 Transition to Modern Tourism
, 3.11 Modern Tourism in India
3.12 Let Us Sum Up
3.13 Keywords
3.14 Answers to Check Your Progress Exercises

3.0 OBJECTIVES

After reading this Unit you will be able to:

• understand broadly how the history of tourism came to be written.
• familiarise yourself with the main sources' used for writing the history of tourism.
and
• understand how modern tourism came into existence.

3.1 INTRODUCTION

The moment we mention of history. the general assumption is that we want to know
about the past But few ask this question why we intend to study the past? Well. we
study the past because our present has evolved out of it and to plan a better future we
have to critically analyse the past as well as the present. However. different methods.
approaches and interpretations are involved in this exercise. Ideological leanings and
interests also determine the course of history ,writing. For example. the trend that ,
dominated the European approach to the writing of history. for a long time.
emphasised on unique events in the life cycle of a particular region. They were viewed
from the point of view of the power controlling' the state. Therefore. the history of the
world was seen as a history of the rulers, princes and the aristocracy. There came
another stage when social scientists tried to re-orient methodology in history by
adopting the methods of the 'physical sciences. Hence. historical methods were
challenged to assert that all people have a history and different areas of the world have
different
r . histories. '\
'<.

I
Tourism Phenomenon Soon there developed the theory of Historical"Materialism to show that history
proceeded through an inevitable process of change from lower to higher forms
of social organisation. There existed a dialectical relationship betw~,n man and nature,
and man's use of nature as well as the manner in which he was to produce what he
needed for civilising his life. It was, therefore, possible to talk of a history of the people
rather than of the ruling class. In the present context the above mentioned
methodologies are also being questioned.
Here, we are not going into the debate on various methodologies by passing any value
judgements. The idea is to make you aware of the fact that there are different views,
methods and trends in history writing.
This Unit deals with the history of tourism over the years. It takes into account the
various sources that are used to analyse this history keeping in view the time period i.e.,
periodisation. The transition frcm travel to modem tourism has also been dealt with due
emphasis on the Indian situation. Why a tourism professional should study the history of
tourism is another aspect dealt with in the Unit.

3.2 THE NEED FOR HISTORY OF TOURISM

The history of tourism was for a long time the history of European tourism, the
assumption being that tourism was most developed in Europe. However, there emerged a
school of historians which integrated economics, statistics,' scientific methodology,
anthropology and sociology to develop an interdisciplinary approach to the history of
tourism. Yet, their methodology was limited in time as the statistical study of tourism is
of recent origin. But, they have identified sources that can be used to reconstruct the
history of a period for which the statistical basis may not exist. As a result we can
apply this method to develop the history of tourism on a global as well as national
scale.
The main-stream objective to study the history of tourism is to understand the
phenomenon in a particular society at a particular time. We do so in order to know the
factors that encourage tourism development as well as the factors that discourage
the growth of tourism. Moreover, a study of the history of tourism can'~elp us to
illustrate a dynamic model of tourism development. We can evaluate the role of
tourism as well as establish concepts that help us to understand its impacts.
We, therefore, do not only reconstruct the past or an event of characters but also
develop generalisations that are more useful in understanding the present nature of the
tourism phenomenon. The history of tourism also helps us in developing the theoretical
framework within which the data on tourism can be verified.
To avoid simple generalisations the data for the history of tourism has to be
carefully assessed. In early history we have archaeological evidence of inns, hotels,
villas and transport but such information is fragmentary and often covering periods of
thousands of years. Moreover, inter-disciplinary information was not always
available in all periods and in all countries. For example, the French pioneered the
history of tourism but looked only at the holiday pattern of the aristocracy. The British
looked at key events and factors like standard of living, free time, cheap transport, spas
and sea-side resorts and linked them to growth of industry, labour force, social
legislation and local customs. But today we look at tourism as a system. In this the
physical, economic, technical, environmental, socio-political and cultural factors are
studied to understand the links between the past and the present And all this is used for
future development
The history of tourism has made an important breakthrough in two areas:
1) Identification of sources of data.
2) Use of both written and oral history.
A critical examination ,pf the historical process always highlights new perspectives
within which a particular field of interest can be viewed. The establishment of the
history of tourism also helps in establishing the credibility of tourism as an academic
discipline (which in India is still in infancy).

30
 Historical Evolution and
3.3 SOURCES OF DATA Development

The sources for the history of tourism are very diverse and related to the time context
for their validity. For example, the sources used to know about the ancient period are:
1) Literary records
2) Inscriptions
3) Grafitti
4) Papyras receipts
5) Seals
6) Archaeological evidence including painted pottery
7) Diplomatic records
8) Archives, both private and public
9) Oral history and folk culture, both traditional and personal, etc.

3.3.1 Statistical Records

These are a primary source and are of recent origin. Statistics or numerical data began
to be collected only after it was recognised that tourism has an important economic
impact. Before 1914 tourism statistics did not exist, although secondary sources like
health, safety, police, migration, taxation and census records were used to make
assumptions on the development of tourism.
Since 1920 the statistical base of tourism has been increasing. In 1921, Britain began
to collect tourism statistics and by 1945 most countries were doing so. In India,
statistics of tourism only came into existence after the 1960s. Prior to that tourism
statistics relate to the Indian sub-continent as a whole. Colonial rule and the subsequent
partition of the sub-continent make it difficult to collate the statistics of tourism prior to
1947.
The volume of tourism statistics grew with the emergence of the International Union of
Official Tourism Organisations. The National Tourism Bodies as well as International
Tourism Organisations have achieved a great standardisation of the data, although its
reliability is often questioned. This is because there are at least 42 definitions of tourism
and tourist in use around the world. Prior to 1920 the data base of travel was taken
from railway records, postal authorities and wherever possible, passport and visa
authorities. From such records it was possible to:
• reconstruct the volume of people who travelled,
• the time of the year they travelled, and
• the places they visited.
The census reports and civil service commissions dealing with paid leave have also
contributed to information regarding the holiday pattern of the salaried employees. Thus,
there is a range of data from which information regarding tourism can be collected.
Since tourism is a multi-disciplinary activity, the sources of data are varied but such
data may not be comparable in all cases.
3.3.2 Secondary Sources
Under this category come the:
i) Personal documents that include diaries, journals and letters of educated travellers,
academics and intellectuals.
ii) Mass communications which include newspapers, journals, advertisements,
guide books, magazines etc. which have been used to inform and persuade the
public.
These resources have been studied to form a picture of tourism such as itineraries,
important events and holiday patterns. They can be used as cross-referencing
material.

31 I

..
I
Tourism Phenomenon
I Check Your Progress 1
1) What is the importance of statistical records in tourism?
~ .

2) Why should we study the past?

........................ ~ .
3) What is the objective behind studying the history of tourism?

3.4 PERIODISATION AND CONCEPTS

With the passage of time the class of people involved in tourism have changed. As
tourism becomes more democratised the nature of the facilities also become more
standardised if not universal.
Using the concept of the emergence of the Leisure class, to distinguish tourism from
other forms of travel, we can establish six periods in the history of tourism.

32

••
 1) Ancient Era Historical Evolution and
Development
2) Imperial Era
3) Pilgrimage
4) The Grand Tour Era
5) The Transition Era
6) The Modem Era
The following concepts were commonly used during all periods:
I. Motivation - the value of new experience and the transformation of travel from
survival to an improvement in the quality of life. This includes:
a) Curiosity - moving from the knownto the unknown.
b) Anticipation - What you hope to find, see and do. To look for something and
evaluate every new experience.
c) Leaving a mark for Posterity - What the world offers and why you have
experienced.
11. Holiday: The word has two sources - (a) Religious and (b) Secular
a) In Europe a day was set aside, at the end of a work cycle, for religious rituals
and this day was called a Holy day. In time, saints days and certain other
observances were added to the number of holidays when no work was done and
everyone celebrated.
b) The secular tradition was a part of the Imperial system when the state granted
public holidays to celebrate Imperial glory. On these holidays no work was
done and the people participated in feasting and fun. Public games and
spectator sports were the highlights on such occasions.
In time, the religious and secular combined and the day of rest became a part of all
societies.
Ill. Mode of Travel - was the state of the art in terms of transport networks and
routes, vehicles, cost of travel, documentation and safe passage, wayside facilities
and conveniences to the traveller.
IV. Tourism Impacts - the influence of tourism not only on the life-style of the
people but in bringing about changes in consumption and production as well as
wealth.

3.5 ANCIENT PERIOD

Inscriptions, seals and cave/rock paintings etc. are evidences of travel in the early
period. Such evidences suggest that travel was both difficult and dangerous. There was
no concept of a safe return. Overland and sea journeys were undertaken but travel was
slow, time consuming and route networks were not well developed. The cost of travel
was high because wayside facilities were rarely available. Human beings were still
subject to the power of nature and travel was seasonal. Yet, three significant developments
encouraged travel:
i) The creation bf specific paths and routes used primarily by traders and pilgrims, and
perhaps adventurers.
ii) Development of specialised vehicles for travel over land and on the water.
iii) Growth of urban centres and later cities along river banks and coastline. Such
centres are known to have been established in Mesopotamia, China and India. The
-i growth of cities indicated the need for political and economic contacts and the role
n of couriers, carriers and caravans became important.
As travel followed a pattern of networks, resting places and food resources were
provided along these routes. Soon we see the outpost growing into a market town or a
commercial centre that increased the range and scope of travel to distant parts of the
known world. With the increase in contacts between the different parts of the world, the
... 33 I

I
Tourism Pbenomenon nature of consumption and travel began to change. As a consequence specialisation
began to emerge. For example, wagons for goods and chariots for passengers.
With specialisation in vehicles there was an improvement of paths and routes, with
paving and distance markers as well as trees for shade. Better routes led to increased
knowledge of the fabled wealth and prosperity of distant lands. The consequence were
many, like emergence of wars of conquest or trade and commerce.

Check Your Progress 2

1) How did the concept of holiday emerge?

2) Discuss the developments that emerged in travel.

................................................................. , ' .

3.6 EARLY EMPIRES

In the West, tourism became established in the Egyptian empires and reached its zenith
in the Roman period. In the East the coastal empire in China and the Mauryan Empire
in India were known for providing extensive facilities to the traveller. Road networks
and transport were systematised into Imperial highways, secondary roads for trade and
village paths. Infrastructure for travel like caravan serais, inns, taverns and panthagar
were common, Wells' were dug, security pickets were placed at convenient distances and
dakchowkis were established.
By this time there was a distinction between travel and the phenomenon of tourism.
Whereas facilities along the roads were rough and often provided by tl,c state at no cost,
well-to-do-do travellers enjoyed special facilities. They were accompanied by kitchen
staff, servants to look after the luggage of the household, tents, animals, food and other
stores, water supply, etc. The evidence of such elaborate arrangements indicates a certain
sophistication in the ability to travel in style. The traveller not only enjoyed the journey
but had home comforts at the destination. The stranger was known to bring prosperity
and consume local services and products. All Asiatic cultures have the tradition of
courtesy to the stranger. Folklore, Iolktales, kathas and a variety of literary works do
talk of pardesi or athiti. It is perhaps the earliest reference to the traveller as a guest.
34
3.6.1 Egyptian Civilisation and Phoenicians Historical EvolutloD aud
Development
The Egyptian civilisation attracted many tourists. The light house of Alexandria was
considered one of the seven wonders of the Ancient world. Here we see the genesis of
nascent tourism related to curiosity and pleasure. Herodotous, the Greek traveller, has
written 'about journeys enlivened by women playing on castevets and men playing the
flute, while the rest of the company sang and clapped together during the voyage. On
arrival 'at the destination there was a celebratory feast, often with a sacrifice for thanks
giving. There was a lot of wine drinking and festivity at the end of the journey.
Grafitti and messages on the walls were symbolic or the fame of Egypt's monuments.
Between April and November many tourists travelled long distances to see the glorious
monuments of Egypt. They returned with souvenirs to show off to friends at home. But
tourism was seasonal and travel was taken when the weather was pleasant.
The real adventurers, however, were the Phoenicians who extended the boundaries of the
known world to the Atlantic in the West and Africa in the south from 11th century B.C.
onwards. They also developed overland facilities and used their maritime skills to bridge
rivers and develop trunk routes. They were also the first to use money as a form of
exchange, which helped the traveller to lighten his load. No longer was it necessary to
carry servants and supplies as it was possible to buy food and services along the way.

3.6.2 The Persian Empire

The Persians improved the travel infrastructure because their empire expanded over a
large area. They designed roads and developed carrier wagons with four wheels and
covered overhead. Along with merchants, who now travelled all along the
Mediterranean. the phenomenon of tourism also became established.

3.6.3 Greeks
New dimensions of tourism were developed by the Greeks who had extended the known
world east of Africa Their maritime expertise was based on the growth of the city states
along the sea coast This was because the mountains in the hinterland were not
conducive to the development of land routes. Their contributions to the development of
tourism were several:
1) They established the system of currency exchange as the currency of some city
states was accepted outside the Greek states.
2) The Greek language became the common language in the Mediterranean.
3) The Greeks hosted festivals to attract. travellers from all over the world. One
important festival was the Olympic games held to display creative athletic skills in
honour of the God Zeus.
4) The Greek theatre was 'also renowned and people came from far and near to see
Greek tragedies and comedies. These were a reflection of the manners and
philosophy of the time.
5) Scholars came to Greece to debate with its philosophers and to exchange medical
skills with physicians and men of science.
6) The city states became attractions Tor visitors. Athens was a renowned destination
then as now. It had hospitality facilities that provided food, accommodation and
entertainment like floor shows. dancing girls and gambling. '
~.
•.•....
7) The Greeks introduced the custom of hiring a proxeuros, a native guide who Jl:":~;~":',:
'l~ ,.,
advised tourists on where to go and how to travel safely.
II~dl;t:~~:.
3.6.4 The Romans Ijllt: I,:
:~
The Romans had a keen admiration for Greek manners and life style. However, they
refined most of the new developements introduced by the Greeks through their
remarkable sense of organisation. They had under their control (both politically and
culturally) the largest empire in the West. For a long period the Roman legions brouaht
peace and prosperity, to many lands and people. As a result not only the Roman elite
but also the trading middle class began to build villas along the coastline and in the
mountains as holiday homes. They were served by a slave economy and had the most
luxu rious artefacts from various corners of the world.
35

I
Tourism Phenomenon Tourism grew in this period for the following reasons:
1) Roman coins were the official currency all over the empire.
2) The empire was served by an excellent and planned network of roads, called the
Appian ways and waterways were also in popular use in all parts of the empire.
3) Greek and Latin became the official languages of the empire which stretched from
Scotland in the West to the Euphrates in the East
4) As the wealth and prosperity of Roman citizens increased they were motivated by
pleasure, curiosity as well as an interest in the cultures of the people they brought
under their control.
5) They developed spectator sports as a relief from boredom. Games and gladiatoral
contests were popular events.
6) Sight-seeing trips and excursions took the tourist to Greek temples, sanctuaries and
works of art. Egypt and Asia Minor (modern Turkey) were renowned for their
magnificent structures and became popular destinations. Unnamed scholars had
created an itinerary of the Seven Wonders of the World to which Roman visitors
were attracted.
7) Travel to mineral springs or what today we refer as health tourism, was also an
important activity. The springs were closely associated with shrines and drew
pilgrims as well.
8) Literary references made certain naturally beautiful places an attraction for the
educated travellers.

3.6.5 India
In India, during the early period a sophisticated agricultural economy made the export
of cash crops an important trade link. Manufacture of iron-ore into steel for weaponry
was another important item of trade by the later Vedic period. Tools and textiles were
other renowned Indian products. Contemporary Greek and Hebrew scholars have noted
the wonder of India and her fabled wealth.
Because of the predominance of trade routes over-land crossing between Asia and
Europe, trade tours were an important feature of Indian community life. Caravanserais
were therefore an important development in this period. From hymns and epic poems we'
learn that sporting events and ritual sacrifices were also popular festive occasions. The
Mahabharat gives an interesting account of such a fair, the kings who attended it and
what offerings were made.
The Arthashastra reflects the protection given to merchants and their high status in
Indian society. Insurance and safe passage for goods, regulation of prices, weights and
measures and the use of gold, silver and copper as rates of exchange also indicate a
well developed mode of trade and travel.
The royal capitals were the urban trading and industrial centres with a network of rural
settlements to support them. Trade overland and on inland waterways was well
developed. Military roads expedited the fast movement of merchant caravans bringing
luxury goods to the Royal Court. Brahamin villages evolved into centres of learning
attracting journeymen and scholars. At this time the Buddhist Sangha established the
tradition of the pilgrimage, when monks went from village to village and court to court
preaching the value of the middle path. Rest houses or panthagars-were provided for
the mendicant traveller. Monastries also attracted the monk, the merchant and the
layman.
Several expeditions crossed from Greece via Persia or Mesopotamia to India.
But travellers accounts are few. Greek accounts mention that in India chariot roads
were well laid out and horses, elephants and camels were a common mode of
transport. Trees for shade, wells, rest houses and security were also well organised.
The Arthashastra details the importance of the travel infrastructure for the state,
classification of routes and types of vehicles. This is an indication that there was a
well developed mode of travel in India for the military, the commercial traveller
and the civilian. Travel on inland waterways was also under state protection and
regulation.

36
 In cities, bazaars provided access to goods brought from the hinterland. Foreigners were Historical Evolution and
accommodated in serais at the city gates where all services were provided to them. Development
There was strict control over the movements of travellers. They had to carry a note for
safe passage from one territory to another. For their entertainment taverns and dancing
halls were allowed, but again inspectors ensured that the conduct of the travellers was
not unruly. Gambling was licensed and was a source of revenue for the state.
Travelling for pleasure on the rivers and to the hills was a tradition started by the royal
courts. But such movement attracted all those who had business at the court to move
with it from the heat and dust of the cities to the rural calm of the summer retreat. An
example worth citing here is that of the Mughal emperors. They had great love for
nature and travelled extensively. They contributed towards what today we call resort
development. The Shalimar and Nishat bagh at Srinagar are some examples. Infact
Jehangir travelled annually to Kashmir and in winter to the trans- Vindhya region.

Even today we can identify the travel culture in India's past by the kos-minars (mile
stones), baolis, sarais and a network of roads and paths that make all corners of this
vast country accessible,

Shalimarbagh

.1 Check Your Progress 3

1) Discuss the contributions made by Greeks for the development tourism.

2) Which of the following statements are right or wrong? Mark () or ( X).

i) Greeks hosted festivals to attract tourists.

ii) The Phoenicians could not learn the skills to bridge rivers.
iii) The custom of hiring a native guide was first started by Indians.

iv) Mughal emperors developed destinations.

3) Mention the facilities listed for travellers in the Arthashastra •

...............................................................................................................

...........................................................................................................
37
Tourism Phenomenon

3.7 SILK .ROUTE

Perhaps the most interesting link in the East/West movement of people was the Silk
Route. This began in 2000 B.C. and transformed overtime as modernisation and natural
causes dictated. The Silk Route is evidence of the fact that in Inter-continental travel
inconveniences are disregarded by travellers.

This is also because travel removes people's ignorance and superstitions.

The Silk Route is reported in travel records, annals and chronicles written for courts and
kings, and in the accounts of pilgrims. Meeting to exchange silk, muslin, fine glass, tea,
rice and spices, the participants in the emporium trade also exchanged ideas and
transplanted production process in different parts of the world. Like other forms of
travel, along the Silk Route:

• Stages of the journey were short.

• Travel was generally in winter because the extreme .topography and climate
made the route one of the most hazardous and yet in terms of wealth most
rewarding.

• Navigation was done by the stars when not following the courses of a stream or
river.

• Revenue was collected from the traveller as a resource for the state. Larger states
lured travellers with shelter and other facilities and lowered taxes to encourage
wealthy people to visit their bases, towns and cities because the traveller brought
wealth.

• Besides wealth and ideas new technology also formed its way along this East-West
axis. For example, irrigation, plants, flowers, printing, paper and gunpowder were
also introduced to different countries via the Silk Route.

• The experience of the traveller indicated a frame of mind which may be described
as touristic since it involved seeing new places, people and culture, increase
knowledge and feel the novelty of the world.

With the fall of the empires, there was a setback to trade and commerce. The mobility
of the individual was also much reduced. However, we find the pilgrim and the artisan
on his way- to the fair as the travellers. The sea-side resorts, the hill stations and spas
that were centres of pleasure and recreation fell into disuse by the early medieval
period. Yet, because of the development of touristic activities over the years a complex
character of tourism had certainly emerged:

1) Because of the complexity of motivations, needs and satisfaction, tourism emerged

as an amalgam of phenomena and practices and their relationships rather than as a
single or unique orientation.

2) These inter-relationships arise from the movement of people to and their stay
at various destinations which provide the dynamic element in the progress of
tourism.

3) That tourism gives rise to activities which are distinct from the resident and
working population.

4) That tourist movements are temporary and relatively short term in

character, with intention to return to the place of residence after the travel is
completed.

5) Destinations are chosen for a particular attraction which could be business,

vocational or pleasure related.

38

..
 Historical Evolutloo end
3.8 PILGRIMAGE Developmeot

We have seen that wish-fulfilment was an important catalyst that had historically
influenced travel. The human community, despite its highly developed capabilities was
always faced with problems that defied human solutions. From anthropological symbols
to the development of theology, we see the appeal of the supernatural that has been
greater than the laws of nature. The Pilgrimage (tirth yatra) was therefore a journey
. undertaken for betterment on the spiritual and material plane.
The key elements of the pilgrimage are belief and knowledge within a particular cultural
context. In traditional societies, a pilgrimage earned god's grace and moral leadership in
the community because sacred rituals and texts sanctified certain places associated with
divine revelation. This was true of all religions.
Oracles housed in hot springs, rivers and tanks, alongwith a veneration of nature were
early forms of the pilgrimage.
Different religions (Christianity, Islam and Judeaism) are similarly associated with
sanctuaries and relics of their martyrs and saints. Pilgrims visited distant shrines
associated with their beliefs. The pilgrimage was a release from poverty, war, sickness,
persecution and misery beyond the control of human beings. Pilgrims always travelled in
a throng and were on the road for a long period of time. They used the facilities of
merchants and sanctified the major fairs which were located close to shrines, sacred
rivers and tanks. Monastries also provided refreshment and rest to the pilgrim. In many
cases people went on pilgrimage not out of devotion but because they enjoyed travelling
through unknown lands in order to experience the novelties on the way.
The pilgrims added to our knowledge of geography, and a knowledge of what the world
had to offer. They were often adventurers and explores as well as being men of
knowledge and culture.
The pilgrimage continues to have both spiritual and social approval and in countries like
India the State continues to provide facilities to the pilgrim whose devotion is matched
by the desire"to see new places and meet other people in the course of gaining punya
(merit). In the age of imperialism many traditional beliefs were undermined, but the
pilgrimage provided a resource to those who wanted to preserve their cultural identity.
Political events between the two world wars brought about a new morality which
resulted in a secularisation of religion. When religion became a personalised experience,
Eastern religious experiences and community identity began to reach out and win
believers across the world. India too saw the emergence of cult figures who lead an
international group of followers (e.g. Mahesh Yogi, Rajneesh and Satya Sai Baba).
Metaphysical thought and meditation became an attraction, along with the tradition of
Bhakti and Kirtan (e.g. Hare Krishna movement). This reviewed the missionary thrust.
However, this time it was from the East to the West. This search .for meaning by an
alienated generation was seen as an early form of adventure rather than self-testing or
pilgrimage. This was also because the youth travelled on shoe string budgets across the
continents to reach their spiritual house in the East.
Today, sociologists have broadened the concept of the pilgrimage to include non-sacred
activities like travel to homes of modem "idols" and opinion leaders (film stars and
others) rare eco-systems and environmental or ethnic regions. The search for ones roots '"
is yet another form of pilgrimage that has inspired many across the world to undertake a
journey back home.
In a country like India, where for the mass of the people tourism may be economically
unfeasible, the pilgrimage is a vital and living experience. With a higher personal
income and better education, there is an increasing secularisation of beliefs and pleasure •.
components are being added to the familiar pilgrim routes and itineraries. Consequently
monastries, temples and shrines have now begun to advertise special tours because the
economic benefits of pilgrim/tourists have become alluring for these trusts. Melas at
sacred shrines are now great attractions, apart from the special Kumbh Melas held in
..•
o Ujjain, Nasik and Allahabad. Pilgrimage sites have also become important tourist
destinations because they arc so closely linked with the cultural identity of a destination,
to
o like Varanasi or Gangotri.
o
x
39

I
Tourism Phenomenon
Check Your Progress 4
1) What do you understand by pilgrimage?

2) Discuss the importance of the Silk Route.

3.9 GRAND TOUR

The term is popularly understood to describe a circuit of Western Europe undertaken by

a wealthy social elite for culture, education and pleasure. It is a frequent reference point
in the history of tourism in Europe. Most modern studies have a conventional image of
the Tour, without recognising that it was the first extensive movement of tourists for
which we have primary sources like letters, journals and diaries of tourists. These
sources indicate that any extensive movement of tourists is brought about by a particular
social and cultural environment, and each country can develop its own perspective on
the nature of the Grand Tour.
The impact of such a tour on art and intellectual life, social and economic history as
well 'as literature indicate that the aristocracy was perhaps most visible. However, it is
the middle class, both merchant and scribe, who have recorded the passage of the
tourist, while the artisan has passed on his craft and skill in the search for a master.
There are several debatable assertions regarding the Grand Tour - that it followed a
prescribed route and was leisurely in pace. Now, we have evidence of no set pattern
being followed and also travelling as fast as possible. It is also questionable that the
Grand Tour was an essential part of a diplomatic training or the rounding off of a spell
at Oxford or Cambridge. Was it the result of a secularisation of religion? Was the
decline of the tour due to the coming of the Railways or changing cultural values with
the increase in the size of the middle class? The idea of the Grand Tour as an extensive
itinerary for tourists to follow owes something to all these factors in the course of its
development. We can mention the characteristics of the Grand Tour as follows:
1) The Grand Tour can be defined in terms of class, which would determine the places
visited and the mode of travel. For example, the nobility would follow the court to
40
 resorts in the hills, near lakes or along the coast. The aristocracy and the high Historical Evolution and
Development
officials would follow suit as well as visit renowned centres of learning.
2) The Grand Tour can be defined by the destinations on the itinerary, but such a
defmition would limit the classes involved in extensive travel.
3) The Oxford English Dictionary defines the Grand Tour as a tour of the principal
cities and places of interest in Europe, formerly said to be an essential pari of the
education of young men of "good birth" and "fortune". This definition, besides
being Euro-centric has class limitations and has been broadened to suggest that the
tour was of certain places and cities of Western Europe undertaken primarily, but
not exclusively, for education and pleasure.
4) Reasons for undertaking the Grand Tour were also diverse: career; education;
culture; literary; health; scientific; business and economic. At different times one or
more of these motivations could have been the primary one, depending on the social
status, cultural environment and trends in transport and accommodation.
S) The Grand Tour itinerary was closely linked to the availability of tourism resources,
both relating to trends in fashion as well as facilitation. The timing was also related
to seasonal variations as well as events and activities of the concerned individuals.
Similar trends affected the length of stay at different destinations.
6) An emergent tourism industry also began to direct tourism flows in the 19th century
as commercial facilities were required to supplement the informal and formal
arrangements that merchants, pilgrims and tourists had commonly used in earlier
times. Thus, accommodation in inns, taverns and rented rooms became common-
particularly in the cities. Regular transport services were established and guidebooks
were available. There were guides as well as porters. Cycling and walking tours
also gained in popularity. Finally, banking arrangements through exchange notes
were made to give added facilities to the tourist. The stage was now set for the
emergence of a travel organiser (like Thomas Cookrwho provided all these
facilities to the tourist on his package tours.
7) The Grand Tour made tourism a family affair and soon women travellers began to
travel.
This phase of the history of tourism has an abundance of material. The only problem is
of selection and analysis, so that it would be available at one place for any time period
or destination.

3.10' TRANSITION TO MODERN TOURISM

In Europe the transition to modem tourism came about principally due to the;
• revolutionary changes in technology,
• rising personal incomes due to rapid industrialisation, and
• enterprise of middle class professionals (like Thomas Cook) who began to organise
tours for the inexperienced traveller.
In India, British colonialism reproduced the form of tourism at home in the colony. The
hill stations became the destinations for the administrative and commercial elites as
summer retreats. Beaches along the east coast like, Puri, Waltair and Marina and Juhu
on the West Coast, catered to the desire for sea-side holidays. Adventurers,
scientists and merchants took to the mountains to explore and map the distant corners
of the expanding British interests in the sub-continent. The Railway system made all .
the resorts accessible to the British tourist and the Indian elite. Railway hotels and
guest houses run by the Anglo-Indian community provided impetus to the growth of
resorts. .
There was a bifurcation in the form of tourism for the middle class and the elite. The
pilgrim centres, located in the hills near spa centres or at the confluence of venerated
rivers and temple towns continued to draw visitors. The visitors now began to build
second homes in these areas which had a regular clientele. The second home.
phenomenon was responsible for the growth of hill stations like Manali, Ooty and;
Darjeeling as well as the beach towns of Puri, Waltair and Juhu. .

I
Tourism Phenomenon The institutional pattern of the British Indian administration including schools, colleges,
courts etc. encouraged the exodus from the towns and cities of India to. resort regions in
the vicinity. The well-to-do had country estates which were located in rural areas.
Travel-for-a-change had become a well established Indian tradition by the time India
became independent
Sir John Sargent, in 1948, began to look at international aspects of tourism. Europe had
a committed number of orientalists who were interested in continuing the Indian
connection. Besides, there were many Britishers who were unwilling to return to the
grim climate of their home country. They were also completely alienated from social
manners and culture at home. They were the hang over from the Raj, people who had
devoted their lives to India and were not ready to break these ties. Sargent also
indicated the economic advantages of international tourism and recommended the setting
up of a tourist traffic cell at Indian embassy's abroad and in the Ministry of Transport
to facilitate tourism to India.
Civil aviation had linked India to Europe in the 1930s. The Railways spanned the length
and breadth of the country and the Circuit Houses and Dak Bungalows provided a
European standard of accommodation, catering and entertainment to the visitor. The
trained manpower also existed, apprenticed to the sahib-log during the long years of the
Raj. Recreation of facilities like tennis, cricket and golf clubs, theatres and libraries are
common features of such resorts. India was now ready to launch itself on the world
tourism scene. '

Check Your Progress 5

1) What do you understand by the term Grand Tour?

• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ v •••••••••••••••••

.................................................................... ' ) .

· ~,. ~ '-. .

· -~.".: .

· ~ ~.

.......................................................................................... / .

........................................................................................ ; .

· " , ~ .
• ••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ~ ••••• t •.•••••••••••••••••

· ".~" ~. , .
2) Why did Sargent suggest to attract international tourists?
(

........................................................................................ }..

· ~ .
· ,~ .. " .
....................................................................................... , ; .
•••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• ,7 •••••••••••••

· ,. .."~' .
••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••••• J' •••••••••••••••••

...........................................................................................................
42
 Historical Evolution and
Development

3) What type of tourism was promoted by the British in India?

....................... , .

............................................................... , .

3.11 MODERN TOURISM IN INDIA

The Rail network in India placed the means of recreation within the reach of an
increasingly large number of people who had leisure time and the income to enjoy it.
Apart from the box wallah and the Babu log, the middle class and the working people
were also exposed to a travel culture.
The 9 private airlines were incorporated into the public sector corporation, Indian
Airlines, with a view to establishing an air transport network to link the remotest areas
of the country.
Domestic Tourism was encouraged by providing the Le~v~ Travel Concession, since the
new industrial giants in the public sector now provided employment to people from all
parts 01 the country. Youth and students were also provided concessions to travel and
., study in different [Link] the country. .
International Tourism was promoted for its economic benefits, particularly foreign
exchange earning, which a newly industrialising country like India needed.
In the early 1960s it was decided to establish the India Tourism Development
Corporation (lTDC). The idea was to provide western comforts to international visitors
at the major tourist attractions in the country. ITDC was to play the role of a catalyst in
developing a modem superstructure (like five star Ashoka Hotel) for international
tourists. The government set up the infrastructure to promotetourism by establishing Air
India International and tourism promotion offices in London and Frankfurt. The tourism
cell in the Ministry of Civil Aviation was upgraded into a department. The private
'sector was invited to establish luxury facilities for the high spending tourist. The first
pioneer in this field was Mohan Singh Oberoi, who began his career in hotelering with
the ClarksHotel in Shimla and the Grand Hotel in Calcutta.
By the late sixties the Ministry of Civil Aviation was bifurcated and the first Director \
General of Tourism, S.N. Chib, began to formulate India's Tourism policy. He called in
UN experts to identify a modem Indian tourist product that explored resources for
-I
Cl> tourism that would attract the mass tourist looking for a value for money spent at a
holiday destination. As a result the Gulmarg Ski resort and the Kovalam beach resort
o
..•. were established. The private sector was encouraged to develop Goa after its liberation
to from Portuguese rule. The Golden Triangle of Delhi-Agra-Jaipur still continued to be the
o main attraction for tourists, who still did not see India as a holiday destination.
o
"
..
I
Tourism Phenomenon However, Kashmir valley with its unique houseboat culture and the religions and history
of India continued to draw the orientalist, even though India was not really a competitor
in the world market.
By this time the travel trade had come of age. SITA World Travels established by Inder
Sharma began to package India tours, and is today a front runner in the field of travel
and tours, with offices all over the world. Organisations like the Travel Agents
Association of India (TAAI), Indian Association of Tour Operators (lATO) etc. also
played their role. However, the travel trade till today brings ~Iumry 20% of international
tourists to India. This indicates that tourism in the country still has to come of age.
In the 1970s tourism was separated from the Ministry of Civil Aviation and this
indicated the growing importance attached to tourism in India. To strengthen the tourism
infrastructure State Tourism Development Corporations were set up to provide
accommodation and transport facilities at tourist destinations around the country.
Almost every state has a Tourism Department which frames the tourism policy of the
state.
By 1980 India's Tourism Policy established the importance given to the expansion of
international tourism, although the target of 1 million tourists was still not achieved.
Domestic Tourism, a social objective, was in the meanwhile reaching a much larger
dimension, estimated at 40 million. A small attempt was made to start collecting data
from the states but domestic tourism was never visualised as the main focus of tourism
development. The stress on foreign tourism was because of the frequent balance of
payments crises faced by the country in this period.
The 1 million target achieved in 1990 remains a milestone in the development of
tourism in India. An ambitious National Action Plan (1992) hopes to double India's
share of the international tourism market from 0.50 to 1%, by doubling hotel capacity in
the classified accommodation sector to 80,000 rooms and allowing an open skies policy
in air transport, including charters. New markets and diverse products like adventure
sports, fairs and festivals and golf along with the traditional cultural attractions are now
being developed into circuits which cover the main tourist destinations in the country.
1992 was celebrated as the Tourism year. Tourism has been recognised as an industry
and many policy benefits and incentives have been given to the private sector to invest
in tourism to encourage its growth.
A new feature of the 1980s was the emphasis on tourism education and training. Apart
from the Food Craft and Hotel Management Schools, the Indian Institute of Tourism
and Travel Management was set up to train tourism administrators under the Ministry of
Tourism (now it is in Gwalior). Many universities also began to introduce vocational
education, and tourism education was one of the options offered at certificate, diploma
and graduate levels.

Check Your Progress 6

1) Why was the ITDC established?

............................................................................................................

44
2) What does the National Action Plan hope to achieve? Historical Evolution and"
Development
..............................................................................................................
...........................................................................................................
.... ~ .
............ " , .

3.12 LET US SUM UP

A history of tourism developed mainly through indirect sources in the early period. It was
only with the onset of 20th century that statistics and information on tourism began to
be directly collected.

Trade and pilgrimage played an important role in tourism traffic in the pre-modem
times. However, the growth of modem technology, rtsing incomes and modem •
entrepreneurs hips contributed to the emergence of modem tourism.

3.13 KEYWORDS

Euro Centric: A viewpoint which takes into account only European beliefs, ideas and
attitudes etc. as a way for looking at the world.

Hinterlands: Areas outside mainstream of urban Activity with which normally the urban
trade or industry try to force a link. This is done either for markets or supply of raw
materials.

Holiday Patterns: The way in which vacations or holidays are undertaken by different
sections of a society.

Ideological Leanings: World view of one kind or the other.

Maritime: Connected with activities on the sea.

3.14 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

EXERCISES
"!

Check Y our' Progress 1

1) See Sub-sec. 3.3.l. These records help in computing volume of people who
travelled, the time of the year and the places visited in travel.
,
2) See Sec. 3.1.

3) See Sec. 3.2. You may discuss how it is important to study the phenomenon of
tourism in a particular sonet at a particular point of time.

45

I
TourIsm Phenomenon
Check Your Progress 2
1) See Sec. 3.4. You may discuss the religions and secular sources of the world.
2) See Sec. 3.5. You may discuss the development with respect to growth of track and
pilgrim pathways as well as growth of urban centres along river or sea.

Check Your Progress 3

1) See Sub-sec. 3.6.3. You may discuss development of trade and land routes,
currency, festivals, culture. academics and host and guide facilities in this context.
2) i) ...J ii) X iii) Xiv) ...J

3) See Sub-sec. 3.6.5. You could mention the facilities given to treaders and the way
importance was given and travel infrastructure.

t' Check Your Progress 4

1) See Sec. 3.8. You could elaborate on how pilgrimage is a journey undertaken for
spiritual and material wish fulfilment.
2) See Sec. 3.7. You could discuss how the Silk Route contributed to trade, new
ideas and technology and to a touristic frame of mind for the traveller.

[CheCk Your Progress S

1) See Sub-sec. 3.9. You could discuss how the Grand Tour is a circuit of West
Europe undertaken by wealthy for culture, education and pleasure.
2) See Sub-sec. 3.10. You could discuss how an orientalist outlook, hangover from the
Raj. etc. of Britishers made Sargent look for the potentialities of international
tourism.
3) See Sub-sec. 3.10.

Check Your Progress 6

1) See Sub-sec. 3.11. You could discuss how ITDC was set up to cater to international
tourism.
2) See Sub-sec. 3.11. You could mention how the plan sets a target for itself in the
international tourist market as well as in the domestic market by setting up tourism
as an industry. - \
"'\..\

46
 Hlstorlcill EvolutlGD and
SOME USEFUL BOOKS FOR THIS BLOCK Development

David W. Howell Passport: An Introduction To The Travel and Tourism,

Ohio, 1989
Rob Davidson Tourism, London, 1993
Robbert Chritie Mill Tourism System, New Jersey, 1992
Suhita Chopra Tourism Development in India, New Delhi, 1992

ACTIVITIES FOR THIS BLOCK

Note: Discuss the results of Activities with your counsellor.

I Activity 1
Going by the definition of Tourist, decide who among the following is a Tourist and of
what type. If not why?
1) Damle stays in Poona. However, his place of work is in Bombay. He takes a train
(like the Deccan Queen) to Bombay and back every day.
2) Ms Vinneta Menon stays in Kottayam and works in a Private Company. The
Company has given her a two week vacation plus travel and accommodation
expenses. She uses this offer by visiting Mount Abu.
3) Murthy arrived in Delhi for an official meeting which was delayed by three hours.
He utilised this time to do some shopping in Connaught Place.
4) Rahul and his friends went to Tirupati for darshan.
5) Salim stays inAjmer. He visits the Dargah every evening.

I Activity 2
On the leftside arc given the motives to travel and on the right are the destinations.
Mark the correct destination in relation to the motive:
1) Escape (to wildlife) beach on west coast
national park
pilgrimage centre
2) Liesure (sun and sand) beach resort
river bank
near tanks/ponds
3) Mountaineering and Trekking Himachal Hills
Rajasthan cities
Rann of Kutch
4) Escape (from hot weather) Desert Resort
Hill Resort
Museums
5) Pilgrimage and Beach Jagannath Puri
Kovalam
Khujaraho
6) To see land of forts and places Sikkim
Tamilnadu
Rajas than
7) All luxury Five Star Hotel, Casino etc.
Visit to Monastry
Trekking in. Mountains

47

I
Tourism Phenomenon 8) Sking and Trekking Hill Resort
Desert Resort
Beach Resort
9) Mughal mom!..':llents Varanasi and Agra
Agra and Fatehpur Sikri
Mathura and Jaipur
10) By train to a Hill Ooty or Darjeeling
Station Nainital or Kodaikanal

Mount Abu or Dalhousie

I Activity 3

Mention which of the following is an inbound, outbound or domestic tourist/so

i) James came to Delhi from England to spend a Holiday.
)
ii) Jogendra Singh and his family are going to Srinagar for two weeks. Their place of
, residence is Chandigarh.

iii) Vijaya and her four friends are going to spend a holiday in Nepal though they
reside in Madras.

iv) Inayat stays in Hyderabad. He visits Ajmer to see the dargah.

v) Kutty has taken American nationality. He travels from New York to Warangal for a
holiday.

I Activity 4

There ate five tourists mentioned in Activity-3, identify their destinations and origin.

I Activity 5

Visit a Railway Platform or a Bus Stand. There must be passengers waiting. Ask a few
as to their motive/s of travel; whether they have been in touch with a tour operator? if
yes why and if not why? their duration of travel? Whether they have planned it or just
left it to their friends or relatives? Do this exercise 2/3 times and compare your findings
of each visit and prepare a note on the following:
a) Different motivations for travel.

b) More commonly places to be visited.

c) Percentage of those who go for a planned holiday.

I Activity 6 .1

Locate a few of your friends who intend to visit places. Try to know what motivates
them and accordingly suggest some destinations.

48

"
r
 TOURIST ARRIVALS IN INDIA BY COUNTRY OF NATIONALITY
DURING JANUARY TO DECEMBER 1996-1998
(INCLUDING NATIONALS OF PAKISTAN AND BANGLADESH)

NATIONALITY 1996 1997 1998 ·PERCENTAGE CHANGE

(January - December) 1997/96 1998/97

NORTH AMERICA

Canada 74031 78570 80111 6.1 2.0

U.S.A. 228829 244239 244687 6.7 0.2
Others 34 55 122 61.8 121.8

Total 302894 322864 324920 6.6 0.6

CENTRAL AND SOUTH AMERICA

Argentina 2839 3202 3776 12.8 17.9

Brazil 5194 4821 6498 -7.2 34.8
Mexico 2400 2364 3462 -1.5 4604
Others 8913 6624 9965 -25.7 5004

Total 19346 17011 23701 -12.1 39.3

WESTERN EUROPE

Austria 17084 16369 18211 -4.2 11.3

Belgium 22160 21532 22658 -2.8 5.2
Denmark 13326 14203 16370 6.6 15.3
Finland 16057 12127 9844 -24.5 -18.8
France 93325 91423 97898 -2.0 7.1
Germany 99853 105979 93993 6.1 -11.-3
Greece 5567 4182 5494 -24.9 31.4
Ireland 5835 5257 7062 -9.9 34.3
Italy 49910 53854 54058 7.9 004
Netherlands 40246 44843 54227 11.4 ·20.9
Norway 8205 8046 8769 -1.9 9.0
Portugal 7020 6855 8004 -204 16.8
Spain 24419 22903 25309 -6.2 10.5
Sweden 21192 19772 19563 -6.7 -1.1
Switzerland 34989 31717 33364 -9.4
U.K. 360686 370567 376513 2.7
.• 5.21.6
Others 1348 1700 2074 26.1 22.0
>
Total 821222 831329 853411 1.2 2.7

EASTERN EUROPE

Czechoslovakia 2800 2330 4244 -16.8 82.1

Poland 6241 5996 7873 -3.9 31.3
C.I.S. 41085 32190 29493 -21.7 -804
Others 5547 4581 6633 -17.4 44.8

Total 55673 45097 48243 -19.0 7.0

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 NATIONALITY 1996 1997 1998 PERCENT AGE CHANGE
(January - December) 1997/96 1998/97

AFRICA

Egypt 3485 3451 4663 -1.0 35.1

Ethiopia 5138 5273 5784 2.6 9.7
Kenya 19248 18993 21537 -1.3 13.4
Mali 4525 14626 13774 223.2 -5.8
Mauritius 9684 11518 13632 18.9 18.4
Nigeria 3721 3972 3710 6.7 -6.6.
South Africa 19328 22218 20397 15.0 -8.2
Sudan 2375 3071 2406 29.3 -21.7
Tanzania 11083 8794 8245 -20.7 -6.2
Zambia 1355 1480 1402 9.2 -5.3
Others 9206 8965 15158 -2.6 69.1

Total 89148 102361 110708 14.8 8.2

WEST ASIA

Behrain 10835 11547 10251 6.6 -11.2

Israel 18387 20162 21103 9.7 4.7
Jordan 2306 2616 2334 13.4 -10.8
Kuwait 2604 2302 1974 -11.6 -14.2
Oman 17020 16185 13695 -4.9 -15.4
Qatar 2416 3718 4552 53.9 22.4
Saudi Arabia 17688 15390 12256 -13.0 -20.4
Syria 1200 1731 1467 44.3 -15.3
Turkey 2139 2135 1778 -0.2 -16.7
U.A.E. 21404 19828 14992 -7.4 -24.4
Yamen Arab Republic 15103 13909 8310 -7.9 -40.3
Others 3163 3084 2877 -2.5 -6.7

Total 114262 112607 95589 -1.4 -15.1

SOUTH ASIA

Afghanistan 12943 3151 3605 -75.7 14.4

. Iran 12171 11338 9828 -6.8 13.3
Maldives 1083 1217 2119 12.4 74.1
Nepal 43426 43155 38199 -0.6 -11.5
Pakistan 41810 45076 44057 7.8 -2.3
Bangladesh 322355 355371 339757 10.2 -4.4
Sri Lanka 107351 122080 118292 13.7 -3.1
Bhutan 2828 2318 2915 -18.0 25.8

Total 543967 583706 558772 7.3 -4.3

NATIONALITY 1996 1997 1998 PERCENTAGE CHANGE
(January - December) 1997/96 1998/97

SOUTH EAST ASIA

Indonesia 7701 7756 5728 0.7 -26.1

Malaysia' 53370 60401 47496 13.2 -21.4
Myanmar 2306 2681 3022 16.3 12.7
Philippines 5152 5756 5527 11.7 -4.0
Singapore 47136 52004 54328 10.3 4.5
Thailand 16188 16494 16368 1.9 -0.8
Others 955 1113 1055 16,5 -5.2

Total 132808 146205 133524 10.1 -8.7

EAST ASIA L

China (Main) 5613 7369 4312 31.3 -41.5

China (Taiwan) 8066 5721 6754 -29.1 18.1
Hong Kong 8560 10209 9562 19.3 -6.3
Japan 99018 99729 89565 0.7 - 10.2
Korea (South) 16173 15392 16321 -4.8 6.0
Korea (North) 6560 8259 2064 25.9 -75.0
Others 276 201 788 -27.2 292.0

Total 144266 146880 129366 1.8 -11.9

AUSTRALASIA

Australia 48755 50647 57807 3.9 14.1

Newzealand 11289 11409 14720 1.1 29.0
Fiji 1584 1379 1917 -12.9 39.0
Others 1435 1952 5768 36.0 195.5

Total 63063 65387 80212 3.7 22.7

Stateless 1211 647 183 -46.6 -71.7

Grand Total 2287860 2374094 2358629 3.8 -0.7

Source: Department of Tourism, Government of India

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