Journal of Social Sciences 8 (3): 310-317, 2012

ISSN 1549-3652
© 2012 Science Publications

The Implications of Teacher Effectiveness

Requirements for Initial Teacher Education Reform

Pretorius, S.G.
Department of Teacher Education, College of Education,
University of South Africa, P O Box 392, Pretoria, 0003, South Africa

Abstract: Problem statement: School effectiveness research shows that teacher effectiveness is the
single most important school-based factor in student success. The effects of poor teaching linger and
can be measured for at least three years after students have left the classroom. It is too late to wait until
secondary school level for backlogs to be eradicated. Education systems, such as the South African
system, which grapple with large numbers of dysfunctional schools, should look anew at teacher
effectiveness in all school phases. The urgent need for highly effective teachers in every classroom
requires that education systems develop a comprehensive definition of teacher effectiveness and create
training programmes to develop it. Thus, the problem investigated is: What are the characteristics,
skills, attitudes and behaviors associated with effective teachers and what is the best way in which
schools of education can adapt initial teacher education to meet the challenges of today’s classrooms?
Approach: A mixed method approach was adopted. In addition to an in-depth literature review, open-
ended questionnaires, probing perceptions of teacher effectiveness issues were distributed to teachers,
school principals, policy officials and teacher educators. Interviews were conducted with a variety of
educational experts. Classroom observations of experienced and novice teachers were conducted in a
variety of contexts using open-ended classroom observation checklists. Results: Based on the findings of
the research a synthesis of the characteristics, knowledge, skills, attitudes and behaviors associated with
effective teachers was developed. Conclusion: If teachers are to be effective their initial training will
have to be effective. This study has identified the characteristics and behaviours associated with effective
teachers. These indicators are broad guidelines for schools of education to stimulate teacher education
reform. Covering the curriculum, structuring of content, appropriate pacing and alignment, clear goal
setting, clarity of content and presentation, are a few requirements for effective teachers which have
direct implications for teacher education.

Key words: School Effectiveness Research (SER), effectiveness issues, appropriate pacing, training
programmes, multiple challenges, neglected primary

INTRODUCTION the economic and technological fields and the impact

thereof on the world of work, great demands are being
This study focuses on teacher effectiveness. School made on education systems to provide high quality
Effectiveness Research (SER) shows that teacher education to raise the standards of achievement.
effectiveness is the single most important school-based If teacher effectiveness in this complex era is the
factor in student success. Teachers, not schools, make single most important school-based factor in student
the difference in student learning (Wyatt, 1996; achievement, education reform movements should
Townsend, 2001). The effects of poor teaching and, look anew at teacher effectiveness in all school phases
conversely, good teaching, linger and can be measured and the factors contributing to effective teaching. The
for at least three years after the students have left the training that teachers receive is most surely one of the
classroom (Wendel, 2000). It is too late to wait until critical factors contributing to whether they would be
secondary school level for backlogs built up during years effective or not. Teacher success is inevitably linked
of neglected primary school education to be eradicated. to good and effective training.
However, teaching in contemporary societies is an In South Africa, now almost 18 years after the end
extremely multi-faceted and specialized task. We are of apartheid, it is claimed that between 80 and 90% of
living in a rapidly changing world. Teachers are faced all schools “can be labeled as dysfunctional” (Cohen
with multiple challenges. In this age of rapid change in and Seria, 2010). The pass rate for the final school year
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dropped for five consecutive years, falling to 62, 2% in MATERIALS AND METHODS
2008 from 73, 3% in 2003 (Cohen and Seria, 2010). A
recent SACMEQ (2010) showed that grade 6 learners’ An in-depth review of the existing literature has
reading and mathematics scores in standardized tests been conducted. SER, within which parameters teacher
ranked ninth among the fifteen countries participated in effectiveness studies could be placed, has produced a
the study. Only 21% of learners achieved the basic voluminous amount of studies and findings in terms of
requirements in mathematics (level 3) and only 29% in school effectiveness over the last three decades.
reading (level 3). After national assessments in February According to Sammons (2006) the key features of SER
of this year, it was announced by the Minister of Basic methodology is that it is mainly quantitative. Due to a
Education that grade 3 and grade 6 learners scored on call for more qualitative research from the side of the
average 35 and 28% for literacy respectively and 28 critics of SER, case studies and mixed methods
and 30% for numeracy. According to the World approaches are increasing in importance (Wyatt, 1996;
Economic Forum (Schussler, 2011) South Africa is Teddlie and Reynolds, 2001). This study adopted a
ranked 137 out of 139 countries in terms of mixed method approach. In addition to the literature
mathematics and science education. This is in spite of review, open-ended questionnaires, probing perceptions
the fact that education gets the biggest share of the of teacher effectiveness issues were distributed to
country’s budget and is spending far more per learner teachers, school principals, policy officials at education
as in any other African country. departments and teacher educators. Interviews were
This state of affairs is ascribed to poor teacher conducted with a variety of educational experts.
education as one of the main reasons for teachers’ Furthermore, classroom observations of both
ineffectiveness in the classroom (Coetzee in Rademeyer, experienced and novice teachers were conducted in a
2011). Although South African teacher education has variety of contexts using open-ended classroom
undergone various reforms since 1994 a recent Higher observation checklists.
Education Quality Committee review found: “The
quality of a substantial proportion of teacher education Teacher effectiveness: a review of the literature:
programmes is questionable, with few meeting minimum The critical importance of effective teachers in all
standards in the areas of programme organisation, classrooms: Research consistently shows that teachers
have the greatest potential to influence children’s
design, coordination and work-based learning.” It is
education (Muijs and Reynolds, 2001). “Teacher
further stated: “Many students, especially in PGCE
quality matters. In fact, it is the most important school-
programmes, are not given sufficient opportunity to
related factor influencing student achievement” (Rice,
engage in practice learning and this problem is 2003). School effectiveness research has shown that
compounded by weak institutional-school teachers and the learning level are three to four times
relationships, poor communication, few and more powerful than the school level (Reynolds, 1998).
inadequate supervision and mentorship arrangements In examining longitudinal achievement of students,
and sometimes no deliberate student placement Sanders (Wendel, 2000), maintains: “The single
policies” (DHET, 2010). largest factor affecting academic growth of student
Thus, the aim of this research was to identify the populations is differences in effectiveness of
attributes of effective teachers and reflect on how these individual classroom teachers.”
findings could help shape future teacher education In view of a myriad of reforms to improve schools
programmes in South Africa. in recent years, Darling-Hammond (2010a; 2010b)
highlights an important lesson from these efforts,
Research problem: The urgent need for highly effective namely “the repeated finding that teachers are the
teachers in every classroom requires that an education fulcrum that determines whether any school initiative
system develops a comprehensive definition of teacher tips towards success or failure”.
effectiveness and create training programmes and Muijs and Reynolds (2002a), citing Sanders and
professional development support to maintain and Rivers, indicate that students taught by ineffective
develop it. Thus, the problem being investigated in this teachers for consecutive years do significantly worse in
both gains and achievement compared to their peers
research is: What are the characteristics, skills, attitudes
assigned to effective teachers for consecutive years.
and behaviours associated with effective teachers and “Students who have highly effective teachers for three
what is the best way in which schools of education can years in a row will score 50% points higher on
adapt the initial training of teachers to meet the achievement tests than students who have less effective
challenges of today’s classrooms? teachers three years in a row” (Sanders and Rivers as
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cited (Varlas, 2009). Furthermore, high quality teachers different but related angles, namely from an input,
can make up for the typical deficits in the preparation of process or output perspective. Inputs are what a teacher
learners from disadvantaged areas (Varlas, 2009). brings to his or her position in terms of background,
If then so that teachers make the difference in beliefs, expectations, experience, pedagogical and
student learning, more so than school-based factors content knowledge, certification and licensure and
such as class size, what makes an affective teacher? educational attainment. In the literature these measures
are often referred to as “teacher quality”. The processes
Teacher effectiveness an elusive concept: Despite angle refers to the interaction that occurs in a classroom
general agreement in the literature that teacher between teachers and students. Outputs represent the
effectiveness is of critical importance, Coggshall (2007) results of classroom processes such as the impact on
states: “ Not only are there a multiplicity of student achievement, graduation rates, student behavior,
perspectives on what makes teachers ‘good’, there are attitudes, social-emotional well-beingand more.
deeply held personal and professional beliefs and According to these authors, outputs can be referred to
values surrounding what ‘good’ is and how to gauge it as teacher effectiveness. However, teacher effectiveness
in a meaningful way. as used in the research literature is often limited to
From a policy perspective, Rice (2003) points out mean impact on student achievement specifically.
that the literature on teacher quality and qualifications Darling-Hammond (2010a) builds on above-
has been viewed as inconsistent and inconclusive. “In mentioned distinction in describing teacher quality as
the absence of a strong, robustand deep body of the bundle of personal traits and understandings an
research, the debate in this field is largely ideological. individual brings to teaching, including dispositions to
From a UK context it is claimed: “Our ignorance in behave in certain ways. She refers to research which
the area of teacher effectiveness is virtually total” has found that more effective teachers generally possess
(Reynolds 1998). the following qualities:
Furthermore, teacher effectiveness is strongly
influenced by the context of instruction and the • Strong general intelligence and verbal ability that
conditions under which teachers work. Highly effective help them organize and explain ideas and observe
teachers in affluent areas with well-resourced schools and think diagnostically
may not be equally effective in high-needs schools in • Strong content knowledge in the fields they teach
high poverty areas (Darling-Hammond, 2010a). • Knowledge of how to teach others in that field, in
particular how to develop higher order thinking skills
Perspectives on teacher effectiveness: In defining • An understanding of learners and their learning and
teacher effectiveness, scientists would approach it from development, of how to assess learning and support
different perspectives. Some would emphasise the students with learning differences or difficulties as
characteristics of effective teachers, while others will well as those learning the language of instruction
study the qualities, behaviours, attitudes, dispositions, • Adaptive expertise that will allow them to make
personality traits, activities and strategies of effective judgments about what is likely to work in a given
teachers. Others will distinguish between the inputs, the context in response to students’ needs
processes and output factors, while others will define it
from a value-added perspective. After a review of the teacher effectiveness literature,
Despite the elusiveness of the concept and the Sammons (2006) concludes that effective teachers are
many orientations, Wong and Wong (2011) argue that associated with the following characteristics:
effective teaching is not a mystery. “Effectiveness is
identifiable, teachableand implementable.” • They teach the class as a whole
Coggshall (2007) uses the term teacher quality as a • They present information or skills clearly and
catch-all term encompassing many aspects of what makes animatedly
teachers ‘good’ at what they do. It includes concepts such • They keep the sessions task-orientated
as teacher effectiveness but also teacher qualifications, • They are non-evaluative and keep instruction
expertise, capacity, performance and more. Teacher relaxed
effectiveness is more narrowly defined with a focus on • They have high expectations for achievement and
teachers’ contributions to student outcomes. give more homework, pace lessons faster and
Goe et al. (2008), referring to the ongoing debate create alertness
about what an effective teacher is and does, assert that • They relate comfortably to students and in such
judging teachers could be approached from three reducing behavior problems
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Sammons (2006) further provides a list of teacher on the basis of an evaluation of discussions of the topic
behaviors which promote achievement and which in the literature. These are the following:
stresses similar aspects:
• Effective teachers have high expectations for all
• Emphasise academic goals students and help students learn, as measured by
• Make goals explicit and expect students to be able value-added or alternative growth measures
to master the curriculum • Effective teachers contribute to positive academic,
• Organize and sequence the curriculum carefully attitudinal and social outcomes for students such as
• Use clear explanations and illustrate what students regular attendance, on-time promotion, self
are to learn efficacy and cooperative behavior
• Ask direct and specific questions to monitor • Effective teachers use diverse resources to plan and
students’ progress and understanding structure engaging learning opportunities; monitor
• Provide students with ample opportunities to student progress formatively, adapting instruction
practice as needed and evaluating achievement using
multiple sources of evidence
• Give prompts and feedback to ensure success
• Effective teachers contribute to the development of
• Correct mistakes and allow students to use a skill
classrooms and schools that value diversity and
until it becomes automatic
civic-mindedness
• Review work regularly and hold students
• Effective teachers collaborate with their peers,
accountable for their work
administrators, parents and education professionals
to ensure student success, in particular those with
In an extensive review of effectiveness literature special needs and at risk of failure
Reynolds (1996) highlights important teaching
variables associated with effectiveness in the In their extensive research Muijs and Reynolds
classroom, including the following: (2002a) work towards a more comprehensive
definition. Teacher effectiveness research has led to the
• Structured lessons-students do better when their identification of a range of behaviors that are positively
school day is structured with teachers organizing related to student achievement in basic skills. A
student work ensuring that there is plenty for consistent finding is that effective teachers emphasize
them to do academic instruction as their main classroom goal; they
• Intellectually challenging teaching-student progress is have an academic orientation and create a business-like,
faster when teachers stimulate them using problem- task-orientated environment. They spend classroom
solving and higher order questioning and statements time on academic activities rather than socializing.
• A work-centered environment-this is associated
They are good classroom and behavior managers and
with a high level of student time on task with
clearly instruct students on proper behavior procedures.
students enjoying their work and demonstrating an
eagerness to begin new tasks; noise levels are low; Students learn more in classes where they spend
and movement around the classroom is minimal most of their time being taught, rather than working on
and work-related their own. Teacher-led discussion as opposed to
• Limited focus in sessions-students do better when individual seatwork dominates. Therefore, effective
teachers focus on one or two subject areas within teachers take an active role rather than just facilitating
the same classroom activity students’ learning. In avoiding students remaining
• Maximum communication between teacher and passive during a lesson, effective teachers ask a lot of
students-the more communication between teacher questions, a mix of low-level and higher level questions.
and students the better students learn; Although the above behaviorist teacher effectiveness
communication to individual students is less strand has been challenged by the ‘connectionist’ or
effective than teachers using opportunities to talk “constructivist’ paradigm, teacher behaviors have been
to the whole class the most significant predictor of student progress over
• Record-keeping-this is essential, not only for the time (Muijs and Reynolds 2002b).
principal but also the teacher as it is used in
planning and other assessment activities RESULTS
Based on the findings of the literature review as
Goe et al. (2008) consider the following five point well as the methods indicated under methodology, a
definition of teacher effectiveness which is formulated synthesis of the knowledge, skills, attitudes and
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behaviors associated with effective teachers have been • Effective teachers know how to support students
identified: with learning differences or difficulties as well as
those learning the language of instruction
• Effective teachers have strong personalities. They • Effective teachers understand diversity and teach in a
command respect. They are intelligent, full of manner that includes all the diverse needs of students
confidence, positive, enthusiastic, friendly and from different ethnic, religious and social groups
genuinely care for their students • Effective teachers come to their classrooms well-
• Effective teachers believe all students can succeed prepared. The three most important words to a
and have high expectations of them. teacher are: preparation, preparation, preparation.
• Effective teachers create an inviting environment • Effective teachers initiate lessons from a striking
in their classrooms displaying appropriate learning angle immediately catching all students’ interest.
support materials which stimulate students’ interest • Effective teachers’ lessons progress in a structured
and are changed often way by linking work with students’ prior
• Effective teachers have an academic orientation. knowledge, stating clear objectives, outlining
They create a businesslike and task-oriented content, giving attention to key points, explaining the
atmosphere influencing high students’ time on task. relations between concepts and other sections of the
They spend classroom time on academic activities. subject contentand reviewing main ideas at the end of
• Effective teachers display a deep knowledge and the lesson. Lessons proceed at a brisk pace
understanding of the subject or discipline they teach, • Effective teachers have a limited focus in sessions
the salient concepts thereof, the relations among because they know students do better when
concepts and how to apply discipline knowledge. teachers focus on one or two curriculum areas
• Effective teachers continue learning in order to within the same classroom activity
stay abreast of changing demands and the rapid • Effective teachers ensure that students are actively
increase in knowledge in most disciplines. They involved in lessons in various ways. The teacher
are active researchers asks a lot of well-planned and challenging
• Effective teachers know how to teach their subjects questions and constantly monitors students’
effectively. Different subjects have different progress and understanding. Students take part in
epistemologies and the implicit prescriptions and the discussions, in problem-solving and well-
proscriptions are known to effective teachers (cf planned group work
Clarke and Walsh, 2002) • Effective teachers incorporate regular, well-
• Effective teachers are flexible. They apply a planned and challenging homework giving
variety of strategies and teaching approaches to thorough feedback to students on their progress.
ensure the best possible mastery of different They show high levels of praise and
aspects of the subject content encouragement
• Effective teachers have the skills to utilize technology • Effective teachers apply a variety of formative and
to the fullest, not only in their classrooms but also as a summative assessment strategies according to the
valuable source of new information. school’s assessment policy utilizing scores of
• Effective teachers are excellent communicators. achievement to determine trends and apply
They communicate subject knowledge actively, corrective teaching measures
clearly and in a structured way • Effective teachers develop effective systems of
• Effective teachers teach the class as a whole record-keeping
because communication to individual students is • Effective teachers are able to reflect on their
less effective than teachers using opportunities to teaching practice in order to determine deficiencies
talk to the whole class and continuously improve their teaching strategies.
• Effective teachers have an in-depth knowledge of • Effective teachers are competent classroom
the curriculum, the outcomes and assessment managers. They are able to plan and organize
practices required and the particular contents to be classroom activities and behaviors so that an
taught in the relevant phase of learning effective teaching environment is created. Noise
• Effective teachers cover the curriculum thoroughly. levels are low and movement around the classroom
They organize and sequence the curriculum carefully. is minimal and work-related. Although a business-
• Effective teachers know the child, the like and task-orientated atmosphere is maintained,
developmental phases and the learning needs of a healthy classroom climate and friendly
the various phases atmosphere exist
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• Effective teachers contribute to positive academic, concepts thereof, the relations among conceptsand
attitudinal and social outcomes for students such as how to apply knowledge. Different subjects have
regular attendance, dedication and self efficacy. different epistemologies and the implicit
• Effective teachers are leaders in their own right. prescriptions and proscriptions are known to
They have appropriate knowledge of leadership effective teachers
theories and styles and apply democratic • Train student teachers how to be flexible and to
leadership. Students take part in decisions and utilise a variety of strategies and teaching
behavior management approaches to ensure the best possible mastery of
• Effective teachers are self managers. They manage different aspects of the subject content
their time effectively and apply counter strategies • Train teachers to use technology and how to
to avoid burnout integrate appropriate technology in the teaching of
• Effective teachers collaborate well with their peers in the particular subject or discipline
teams and with administrators, parents and education • Work on student teachers’ communication skills
professionals to ensure student success, in particular and how to communicate effectively and in a
those with special needs and at risk of failure structured way especially where both teachers and
learners are learning the language of instruction.
DISCUSSSION • Research findings show that communication to
individual students is less effective than teachers
A barrage of criticism was levelled over the last using opportunities to talk to the whole class. Train
two decades at initial teacher education in many teachers to use the principles of whole-class
countries. This has prompted efforts to redefine what teaching effectively
makes an effective teacher, which have in turn led to a • The school curriculum, in particular the curriculum
new conception of what constitutes teaching quality and of the subject that the student will teach, should be
a shift in the locus of reform from schools to dealt with thoroughly. A curriculum cannot be
classrooms. A continuation of teacher effectiveness covered effectively if a teacher does not have
research, according to Townsend (2001), may lead to a appropriate background in this regard.
better understanding of how important issues such as • Train teachers thoroughly how to organize,
initial teacher training and ongoing professional sequence and cover the curriculum of a subject on
development might be to student achievement. a particular grade level
This study argues that the characteristics of • Provide thorough knowledge of the learning child
effective teachers should constitute the broad guiding in its various developmental phases.
principles for initial teacher education. The indicators • Prepare student teachers how to support students
as identified above have direct implications for teacher with learning differences or difficulties as well as
education. In view of these indicators the teacher those learning the language of instruction
education curriculum should emphasise the following: • Create sensitivity for diversity and how to teach in a
manner that includes all the diverse needs of students
from different ethnic, religious and social groups
• Develop appropriate values including honesty, • Proper preparation is essential for teacher
integrity, collegiality, consistency, fairness, effectiveness. Train future teachers how to plan a
genuine care for students, sensitivity for diversity lesson thoroughly and provide for all necessary
and a work ethic elements of an effective lesson
• Develop effective attitudes and orientations • Train future teachers the elements of a structured
including an academic orientation, high lesson, from linking work with students’ prior
expectations, enthusiasm, being positive and knowledge to stating clear objectives and
motivated, an eagerness to continue learningand reviewing main ideas at the end of the lesson
self-confidence • Train future teachers how to pace a lesson effectively
• Train students in the use of effective learning and to limit the scope of a lesson to one or two
support material and how to create an effective curriculum areas within the same classroom activity.
learning environment which attracts students’ • Student teachers should be trained how to
interest and make them eager to learn. actively involve students in lessons in various
• Develop effective time management strategies so ways such as discussions, problem-solving and
that teachers will ensure high time on task well-planned group work
• Introduce effective teaching methods for the • Train teachers in the techniques of questioning in
specific subject or phase they will teach, the salient order to ask questions at various cognitive levels.
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