Chapter 13 Biology 11

UNIT
5 Plants: Anatomy,
Growth, and Function
T
he maple tree is a symbol of Canada. For hundreds of
• Plants have specialized structures with years, people have been tapping maple trees to collect
distinct functions that enable them to
respond and adapt to their environment. the sweet sap and turn it into maple sugar, candy,
and syrup. Perhaps you have eaten maple-flavoured
• Plant variety is critical to the survival and
sustainability of ecosystems. foods or visited a maple sugar bush on a class trip. Even if you
have never tasted maple syrup, you should be familiar with the
Overall Expectations maple leaf as an icon on the nation’s flag—or on the jerseys of
a particular Ontario hockey team. However, you may be less
• F1 evaluate the importance of
sustainable use of plants to Canadian familiar with the cells and tissues that make up the maple leaf,
society and other cultures or the plant organs responsible for sap flow. Do you know what
• F2 investigate the structures and kind of cells carry sap or where the sap comes from? In this unit
functions of plant tissues, and factors you will expand your understanding not only of maple trees, but
affecting plant growth of the many plants that influence our lives every day. You will
• F3 demonstrate an understanding of explore how plants function and how we use them to our benefit.
the diversity of vascular plants, including As you study this unit, look ahead to the Unit 5 Project
their structures, internal transport on pages 616 and 617, which gives you an opportunity to
systems, and their role in maintaining
biodiversity.
demonstrate and apply your new knowledge and skills. Keep
a planning folder so you can complete the project in stages as
you progress through the unit.
Unit Contents
Chapter 13
Plants: Uses, Form, and Function
What is the structure and function of
plant organs?
Chapter 14
Plants: Reproduction, Growth, and
Sustainability
How do plants grow and reproduce?
528
529
UNIT
5 Preparation
Plant Cells and Tissues
• Plant cells differ from animal cells in that they have • Vascular tissue transports water, sugars, and other
rigid cell walls, large central vacuoles, and chloroplasts. nutrients throughout the plant.
• The chloroplasts contain the pigment chlorophyll, • Guard cells are specialized dermal cells that alter their
which gives leaves and stems their green colour and shape to control the gas and water exchange in the leaf.
which traps the Sun’s light energy for photosynthesis. • Mesophyll tissue of the leaf consists of palisade cells,
• Meristematic tissue produces new cells that which are specialized for photosynthesis, and spongy
differentiate into specialized cells that make up parenchyma cells, which have air spaces that enable
different plant tissues. gases to diffuse through the leaf tissue.
• Plant tissues include ground tissue, dermal tissue, and • Plants contain a system of tube-like structures called
vascular tissue. vascular bundles, which contain two types of cells:
• Ground tissue makes up much of the plant body. xylem, which transports water and minerals from roots
to leaves, and phloem, which transports sugars from
• Dermal tissue forms the outermost covering of the
leaves to roots.
plant’s organs.
1. Which part of the leaf has the greatest abundance of 4. Examine the diagram of the leaf cross section. Write
chlorophyll-containing chloroplasts? the name of the process that takes place at each of the
a. the palisade tissue cells, located under the upper labelled sites.
epidermis A
b. the palisade tissue cells, located under the lower
epidermis
c. the cells on either side of the stomata
d. the spongy tissue cells, located below the palisade C
cells
e. the spongy tissue cells, located above the lower
epidermis B
2. Which of these best describes the parts of a plant in 5. Describe the location and function of the stomata in
which you would find xylem and phloem? a typical plant.
a. roots, stems, leaves, flowers
6. Veins are visible in the leaves of many plant species.
b. roots, stems, leaves
Describe the function of veins, and identify the two
c. roots, stems, leaves, root hairs main types of tissues they contain.
d. stems and leaves
7. The cross section diagrams below show the
e. roots and leaves
arrangement of the vascular bundles in the stems of
3. What is the function of meristematic cells? monocot plants and dicot plants.
a. to convert light energy into a form of energy that a. Identify each diagram as either a monocot or a dicot
plants can use to sustain their lives stem.
b. to cause plant stems to bend toward light b. Use a graphic organizer such as a flowchart or table
c. to produce undifferentiated cells to compare the veins, seed leaves, and flower parts
d. to produce the cells that can become new tissues of monocots and dicots.
and organs in the part of the plant where they are
found
e. to produce glucose and store it in the form of sugars
and starches
scattered arranged in ring
530 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Plant Organs and Organ Systems
• The body of a typical flowering plant is made up of four (leaves, as well as stems of some plants), and transport
main organs: roots, stems, leaves, and flowers. water and nutrients such as minerals and sugars
• The roots take up water and nutrients from the soil. throughout the plant (stem).
Roots also anchor plants in the soil. • A flower is actually an organ system made up of four
• The stem and leaves together comprise the shoot organs: sepals at the base, attractive petals, male
system of a plant. The function of the shoot system is stamens that produce pollen, and the female pistil that
to support the plant (stem), perform photosynthesis contains the ovaries.
8. The needles of coniferous trees such as pines and firs 10. Describe two ways in which the body of a flowering
are leaves. The same is true of the needles and spikes of plant is adapted to living on land.
cactus plants. Which of the following statements is true? 11. The first known experiment to investigate the source
a. Photosynthesis in cactus plants is performed in the of nutrition in plants was conducted in the 1600s.
stem. A hypothesis for this investigation might have said:
b. Cactus plants do not perform photosynthesis, “If a plant gains mass as it grows, and if soil is the
because they lack leaves. source of nutrition for plants, then as a plant grows,
c. Photosynthesis in cactus plants is performed in the the soil should lose mass and the plant should gain
leaves. an amount of mass equal to the amount that the
d. Cactus plants get all the nutrients they need from soil loses.”
the soil and water retrieved through their deep a. What kinds of observations in the real world might
taproots. have led to the ideas expressed by this hypothesis?
e. The organ systems of cactus plants are totally b. Briefly describe a procedure that could be used to
different from those of other flowering plants. test this hypothesis.
9. Explain why flowers are important to flowering plants. c. If the procedure were performed, would the results
support or refute the hypothesis? Explain.
Cellular Transport: Diffusion and Osmosis
• The cell membrane controls the movement of particles • Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area
into and out of the cell. in which their concentration is high to an area in which
• The cell membrane is selectively permeable, meaning their concentration is lower.
that some substances are able to move across it and • Osmosis is the diffusion of water molecules across a
some substances are not. semi-permeable membrane.
12. The environment surrounding a cell has a greater 13. Which of the following statements about osmosis is
concentration of sodium particles than the environment true?
inside that cell. What will happen as a result? a. Water moves from a weaker (less concentrated)
a. Sodium particles will move from inside the cell to solution to a stronger (more concentrated) solution.
outside the cell. b. Water molecules move from an area of high
b. Sodium particles will diffuse away from the cell. water concentration to an area of lower water
c. Sodium particles will move from outside the cell to concentration.
inside the cell. c. Water moves from a more dilute solution to a more
d. No movement of sodium particles will occur. concentrated solution.
e. Sodium particles inside the cell will diffuse farther d. All three statements are true.
inside the cytoplasm. e. None of the three statements is true.
Unit 5 Preparation • MHR 531

14. Diffusion and osmosis are called methods of passive 16. The illustration below shows a sugar solution in a
transport in cellular systems. Explain what this means. U-shaped tube. The tube has a selectively permeable
15. You are conducting an investigation to demonstrate the membrane that divides the tube into equal halves.
process of diffusion. You have set up various materials Examine the illustration carefully, and write a detailed
so that a semi-permeable membrane is separating a caption for it that explains what is taking place and why.
concentrated salt solution from a dilute salt solution. Before osmosis After osmosis
a. Draw a diagram of this setup.
b. Label the diagram to show the membrane and the
two salt solutions.
c. Give your diagram a suitable title.
d. Add arrows to show the direction that you predict
the particles of each solution will move.
e. Write a caption for your diagram that clearly
explains what is happening and why.
Selectively
permeable Water molecule
membrane Sugar molecule
Plant Phylogeny
• Plants may be classified as vascular or non-vascular on • Gymnosperms include conifers, and they bear their
the basis of whether they have an internal system for seeds in cones.
transporting water and nutrients. • Angiosperms are flowering plants whose seeds are
• Non-vascular plants include the mosses, hornworts, contained in fruits.
and liverworts. Non-vascular plants have alternate • Seeds enable plants to reproduce sexually without
generations and obtain water and nutrients directly needing water. Seeds also provide protection against
from their environment through osmosis and diffusion. harsh environmental conditions.
• Seedless vascular plants also have alternate generations. • Angiosperms are the most diverse group of plants,
They include ferns, horsetails, and clubmosses. with more than 250 000 species.
• Vascular seed-bearing plants can be subdivided into
gymnosperms and angiosperms.
17. Which is characteristic of mosses? 19. Compare and contrast the characteristics of
a. vascular tissue gymnosperms and angiosperms.
b. flowers 20. Compare and contrast the characteristics of
c. seeds non-vascular plants and vascular plants.
d. rhizoids 21. There are many more species of angiosperms than
e. fruits of plants in any other groups of the plant kingdom.
18. Which of these is an example of a non-vascular plant? Explain why.
a. fern 22. Acid rain causes damage more easily to reproduction
b. moss in spore-bearing plants, such as mosses, than in
c. horsetail gymnosperms and angiosperms. Explain, with
d. oak tree reference to the reproductive cycle in spore-bearing
e. lichen plants, why you would expect this to be the case.

Plants—Their Use and Sustainability
• An ecosystem includes all the interacting parts of a • Biodiversity is the number and variety of organisms
biological community and the non-living components found in a specific region.
of its environment. • Ecosystem services are the benefits that sustainable
• Sustainable use of a resource is use that does not ecosystems provide to organisms, including humans.
cause long-term depletion of the resource or affect the Ecosystem services are the natural result of all the
diversity of the ecosystem from which the resource is activities that occur in the biosphere.
obtained. • The biosphere is the living surface of Earth and interacts
• A sustainable ecosystem is one that is capable of with, and depends on, the non-living land (lithosphere),
withstanding pressure and giving support to a variety air (atmosphere), and water (hydrosphere).
of organisms. Sustainable ecosystems endure, and they • Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are reciprocal
support a wide variety of organisms. All organisms processes that cycle oxygen and carbon (in the form of
require sustainable ecosystems for survival. carbon dioxide) through the biosphere.
23. Which of the following statements about cellular 26. Which of the uses of plants in question 25 are not
respiration is true? examples of ecosystem services? Give reasons to justify
a. Plants, unlike other organisms, are able to extract your answer.
energy from their food without cellular respiration. 27. In what ways do plants affect the atmosphere,
b. Plants can live without cellular respiration to supply hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere? Try to give
their cells with the energy they need to function. at least two examples for each.
c. Cellular respiration is the exact opposite of 28. The diagrams below represent the fragmentation
photosynthesis. of a woodland ecosystem over a period of about
d. Cellular respiration only takes place at night, when 120 years. In 1831, a measured area was almost
plants are no longer able to photosynthesize. completely covered in forest. By 1950, less than
e. None of these statements about cellular respiration 1 percent of the original area was covered in forest.
is true. a. Name at least three human activities that are
24. Which is an example of an ecosystem service? likely factors in this change of woodland habitat.
a. the cycling of oxygen and carbon through Earth’s b. Explain why it is unlikely that natural, non-human
spheres activities were responsible for the change shown.
b. the pollination of crops and natural vegetation c. Suggest at least two ecosystem services that were
c. the dispersal of seeds lost as a result of this change, and explain your
d. the cycling of mineral nutrients as a result of the thinking.
action of decomposers
e. All of these are examples of ecosystem services.
25. People use plants in so many ways that it can be easy
to forget how important they are to our lives and
lifestyles. Give at least two examples of ways that 1831 1882
plants are used for each of the following:
a. clothing
b. buildings and other shelters
c. food energy
d. cosmetics
1902 1950
e. flavourings
f. medicines
g. fuel
h. beauty
Unit 5 Preparation • MHR 533

CHAPTER Plants: Uses, Form, and Function
13
Specific Expectations
In this chapter, you will learn how to . . .
• F1.1 evaluate, on the basis of research,
the importance of plants to the growth
and development of Canadian society
(13.1)
• F1.2 evaluate, on the basis of research,

ways in which different societies or
cultures have used plants to sustain
human populations while supporting
environmental sustainability (13.1)
• F2.1 use appropriate terminology related

to plants (13.2, 13.3)
• F2.3 identify and draw biological

diagrams of the specialized plant tissues
in roots, stems, and leaves, using a
microscope and models (13.2, 13.3, 13.4)
• F3.1 describe the structures of the

various types of tissues in vascular
plants, and explain the mechanisms
of transport involved in the processes
by which materials are distributed
throughout a plant (13.2, 13.3, 13.4)
• F3.2 compare and contrast monocot

and dicot plants in terms of their
structures and their evolutionary
processes (13.3)
Y ou may know that wood and wood products are used

to build houses. However, construction material can also
come from plants other than woody trees. Straw bales are
becoming a popular alternative to lumber and fibreglass
insulation in housing. For example, in the house shown in
the photographs, bales of straw are used for support and
insulation. Straw is renewable on a short timescale, making
it a popular “green” alternative to more processed forms of
building materials. It is also relatively inexpensive, is easily
available, and is an excellent insulator. When houses made
from straw bales are finished, they often look no different
from conventionally constructed houses.

Launch Activity
Straw Versus Wood

Straw-bale houses vary in the amount and use of the bales. In
post-and-beam construction, both lumber and straw bales are used to
construct the house frame. The lumber supports the roof of the structure.
The bales provide only insulation and serve as the walls of the structure.
In modified post-and-beam houses, wood framing for doors and windows
supports the roof as well as the bales. In load-bearing construction, on
the other hand, the bales not only serve as the walls, but they also support
the roof of the structure. Can using straw bales to build houses reduce the
amount of wood needed in overall construction? Do the math to find out.
Materials
• calculator
Procedure
1. In 2002, Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC)
reported on a small study in southern Ontario that evaluated the claim
that houses built using straw-bale construction use less lumber than
houses built with wood alone. A builder kept track of the total amount
of lumber used to construct a straw-bale house and a simulated
stick-frame house of similar dimensions. The results are recorded in
the table below.
2. Calculate the increase in wood use of the stick-frame house compared
with the straw-bale house. (Hint: Subtract the values in the second
column from the values in the third column.) Design a modified table
with additional rows to record your calculations.
3. Calculate and record the percentage increase in the amount of wood
used. (Hint: Use the values you determined in step 2 in relation to the
values from the second column.)
Total Lumber Used in Straw-Bale and Stick-Frame House Construction
Type of Lumber Used Straw Bale Stick Frame
Total lumber used (m3) 3.65 5.39
Lumber used in roof system (m3) 2.16 1.94
Lumber used in wall system (m3) 1.49 3.45
Dimensional lumber used (m3) 3.08 3.93
Engineered lumber used (m3) 0.58 1.46
Questions
1. Based on this study, is the claim that straw-bale construction uses
less wood than stick-frame construction supported? Explain your
reasoning.
2. What are the limitations of this study?
3. List two positive factors that could affect the choice of straw as
a construction material for a house. What are two possible
negative factors?
Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 535

SECTION
Plants as Valuable Bioresources
13.1
Key Terms Nearly everything that you do each day is possible because of plants. As shown in
Figure 13.1, people depend on plants to provide food, clothing, shelter, and medicine,
photosynthesis
as well as the oxygen we breathe.
cellulose
agriculture
food security
sustainable agriculture
textile
timber
biofuel
Figure 13.1 Plants and

plant products affect every
aspect of your life. From
plants humans get food
and fibre for paper, fabric,
and shelter. Some plants,
such as Echinacea purpurea
(bottom right), are used for
medicinal purposes.
The Biosphere Depends on Plants

Plants are essential to the health and functioning of the biosphere. Plants provide
many important ecosystem services, including serving as food and habitat for other
organisms, producing oxygen through photosynthesis, providing fibre for humans to
make clothing and structures, reducing soil erosion, and providing fuel sources. Two of
the most important ecosystem services of plants are that they carry out photosynthesis
and that they contain cellulose.
Photosynthesis: A Life-Sustaining Process

The conversion of solar energy into chemical energy is one of the factors that permit life
photosynthesis a
series of chemical as we know it to exist on Earth. This process is called photosynthesis, and it occurs in
reactions that converts plants, some bacteria, and some protists. During photosynthesis plants use light energy
energy from sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide into two products vital to the biosphere: glucose and
into chemical energy oxygen. Glucose is the food that supplies plants and, ultimately, any consumer along a food
stored in molecules
chain with energy to perform all other activities. As producers, plants make up the base
cellulose a large
carbohydrate molecule
of the food chain in many ecosystems. Although plants use some of the oxygen molecules
that they produce during photosynthesis for cellular respiration, most of the oxygen is
released into the atmosphere. The oxygen produced by plants and other photosynthetic
organisms is used by other organisms, including humans, for their own cellular
respiration. About 50 percent of the oxygen in the atmosphere is produced by plants.
The Many Uses of Cellulose

Plants contain cellulose, a large and complex carbohydrate. Cellulose is the main
component of cell walls in plants, and humans use cellulose in many different ways.
For example, cellulose from cotton plants is used to make fabric, and cellulose from
wood pulp is used to make paper and cardboard. The heat generated when wood and
other plant materials are burned comes from the chemical energy stored in cellulose.

Plants as a Source of Food
Throughout history, plants have been a primary source of food for humans. Agriculture
agriculture farming or
refers to farming or forestry practices that produce food and goods. For commercial forestry practices that
food production, humans use about 150 of the 50 000 edible plant species on Earth. produce food and goods
The average human diet is made up of only about 20 crop plants. Three of these
crops—wheat, rice, and corn (maize)—make up about 60 percent of the calories that
humans consume directly from plants. Other crops that are important to humans
include sugar cane, potatoes, sugar beets, soybeans, and barley.
The Importance of Agriculture to Canadian Society

The agricultural industry in Canada provides people across the nation with food and
jobs. One in seven jobs in Canada is in the agricultural industry. The agriculture and
food industries account for almost 10 percent of Canada’s gross domestic product
(GDP). Canada’s agricultural products are exported to countries all over the world,
including the United States, Japan, and China. For example, exports of maple sugar
and maple syrup are worth over 200 million dollars every year.
Aboriginal Agriculture
In some North American Aboriginal societies, corn, climbing beans, and squash,
shown in Figure 13.2, are known as “the three sisters.” These crops have been planted
together by Aboriginal farmers across North America for thousands of years. The three
crops benefit each other, growing most successfully when they are all planted together.
The corn acts as a vertical structure for the beans to climb. When the bean plant dies
and decays, it adds nitrogen to the soil in a form that the corn and squash can use for
life processes. The squash, growing horizontally along the ground, acts as a ground
cover. It helps protect the corn and the beans from dehydration, weeds, and other pests. Figure 13.2 Aboriginal
societies depended on
Important Food Crops in Canada three major agricultural
Canada’s grain crops, including wheat, barley, oats, and rye, are used to produce food crops, known as “the three
products within Canada and worldwide. Other Canadian crops, such as soybeans and sisters”—corn, climbing
beans, and squash.
flaxseed, are used to produce food oils, for which there is a significant market both
domestically and internationally. Table 13.1 shows high production crops in Canada
and some of the food products they are used to make.
Table 13.1 Crops with the Highest Production in Canada in 2008
Production
Crop (thousands of tonnes) Food Products
Wheat 28 611 • flour used to make pasta, bread, cereal, cakes, and cookies
Canola 12 642 • canola oil
Barley 11 781 • can be added to soups, salads, and stews
• flour used to make baked goods
Grain corn 10 592 • cornmeal, cereal, and tortilla chips
Oats 4 272 • oatmeal and oat bran
• flour used to make cereal, muffins, and cookies
Peas 3 571 • eaten alone or in soups, salads, and stews
Soybeans 3 335 • soybeans, tofu, and soy milk
• flour used to make baked goods
Lentils 1 043 • eaten alone or in soups, salads, and stews
Flaxseed 861 • flaxseeds and flaxseed oil
Rye 316 • flour for cereal, bread, and other baked goods

Food Security
Scientists predict that by 2030 the global population of humans will have risen to over
food security the state
where all people, at 8 billion, and by 2050 there will be as many as 9 billion people living on Earth. As the
all times, have access human population continues to rise, one of the most important issues we are faced with
to enough safe and is how to achieve food security. This is a critical issue for today’s human population
nutritious food to meet and all future individuals on Earth.
their dietary needs and
preferences and allow
them to lead an active Monoculture
and healthy life Agricultural techniques have changed significantly over time, as technology has been
used to produce enough food and other crops to meet the demands of a growing
population. Most agriculture in today’s world is based on monocultures, in which
hundreds of hectares of one type of plant are grown in place of the natural ecosystem.
The ease of caring for one vast area covered by the same plant, such as the soybeans
shown in Figure 13.3, is a huge benefit of monoculture. Similar treatment, care,
fertilizer, and pesticides can be applied to improve the quality and quantity of the crop.
While the intended effect of monocultures—to increase crop yield—has been
successful, there are some negative environmental and economic consequences
associated with this method. Planting a single crop on the same area of soil repeatedly
can deplete the soil of valuable nutrients. As a result, monocultures require the input
of synthetic fertilizers. Monocultures are often vulnerable to crop-specific pests, which
has led to an increase in the use of pesticides. A farmer must bear the economic cost of
these inputs. Water quality in ground water, streams, and rivers is usually lowered when
synthetic fertilizers and pesticides are present.
Figure 13.3 Monoculture
allows larger and more
productive crops to grow,
but has some drawbacks,
including the vulnerability
of the crop to disease.
Sustainable Agriculture
Many scientists, farmers, consumers, and governments are turning toward sustainable
sustainable agriculture
an approach to agriculture as a method to meet the food needs of the present without compromising
agricultural production the ability of future generations to meet their needs. The goal of sustainable agriculture
that integrates is to produce enough food to feed the world while taking into account the economy,
economics, the society, and the environment in an integrated way. In sustainable agriculture, farming
environment, and
society in meeting the methods aim to balance high yields with sustainable practices. For example, crop
nutritional needs of rotation helps keep soil healthy and reduces the need for synthetic fertilizers. The use
the world of natural predators helps keep pest populations under control, reducing the need for
pesticides. Hand-pulling of weeds helps reduce the use of machinery, which reduces
the need for petroleum-based fuels. Also, by hiring people to help with some aspects
of production, local communities benefit socially and economically. In general,
sustainable agriculture practices try to model natural ecological processes, thereby
reducing impacts to the environment. The economic and social impacts of food
production are integrated into the approach as well.

Activity 13.1 The Importance of Plants to Canadian Society
How are plants important to Canadians? • agricultural industry • pharmaceutical industry

• recreational activities • construction industry
Materials • traditional medicinal uses • tourist industry
• reference books
• computer with Internet access Questions
1. Write a short essay explaining the importance of plants
Procedure to Canadian society.
Research information about the role of plants in the growth
2. Choose one of the plants that is important to Canadian
and development of Canadian society. Consider the
society and explain why it is important to manage that
following uses, activities, and industries related to plants:
plant sustainably.
Plants as a Source of Fibres and Building Materials

Plant fibres have been used by humans for thousands of years. Products including
textile a fabric, flexible
paper, cords, rope, and textiles are all made from the fibres of different types of plants, material, or related
as shown in Table 13.2. product made from
natural or synthetic
Table 13.2 Selected Materials Made from Plant Fibres fibres, threads, or yarns
Type of Material Description
Paper Paper is made from wood chips, fibrous crops such as rice, and recycled paper
that is ground down, producing a material called pulp. Pulp is then mixed with
water into a soft mass that is mashed and pressed into a thin sheet.
Cardboard Cardboard is high-quality paper that still contains some lignin. Lignin is a
substance in plants that holds strands inside cellulose molecules together.
Cardboard is stiff and brown because the lignin has not been removed from it.
Rope Cords and rope are valuable plant fibre products that are used for tying,
building, and hauling. Fibres from a plant called Indian hemp (Apocynum
cannabinum) are used to make the highest quality rope and cord in the world.
Fabric Fibres can be intertwined to make fabrics and cloths that are used in the textile
industry. Textiles are used worldwide for clothing, household products, and
shelters. Cotton is produced in the largest volumes of any textile worldwide.
Flax plants produce one of the most valuable textiles in the world—linen. Flax
fibres are made into linen textiles such as bed sheets and lace.
Plants have provided resources that humans have used as building materials
timber trees in their
throughout time. Wood is the most popular building material worldwide. Timber is natural state or wood
wood that is intended to be used for carpentry or construction. Wood is also the raw that has been prepared
material used to make furniture and other items, such as musical instruments. Many for use as a building
wood products such as plywood, chipboard, particleboard, and fibreboard are also used material
in construction. The straw used to build the straw-bale house you saw at the beginning
of the chapter is another example of a plant material that is used in construction.
Learning Check
1. What are two important ecosystem services that 4. Fifty percent of atmospheric oxygen is produced by
plants provide? plants. Infer the origin of the remaining 50 percent.
2. Name two uses of cellulose. 5. Explain how “the three sisters” could be described as
3. Choose one of the crops listed in Table 13.1 and having a symbiotic relationship.
explain how it affects your daily life. 6. A parasite wipes out the wheat crop in a local
community. List three potential impacts of this event.

Plants as a Source of Biochemicals
Plants produce chemical compounds for many different purposes. In most cases,
plants use chemicals to either attract pollinators or to repel threats, such as fungi,
insects, and other herbivores. Long before current technology and mass production,
humans were extracting the chemicals from plants for many purposes, including
medicines, perfumes, and dyes.
Medicinal Uses
Aboriginal peoples in North America and around the world have used, and continue
to use, plants and plant extracts for a variety of medicinal purposes. For example, a
tea made from blackberry plants is used to treat diarrhea and other stomach ailments.
In the 1600s and 1700s, Aboriginal peoples also helped European explorers treat
scurvy—a disease resulting from a lack of vitamin C—which afflicted many sailors
after their long voyage across the ocean. Evergreen bark and needles, primarily from
coniferous hemlocks and pines, were boiled to make a tea rich in vitamin C.
Medicines, whether traditional or products of modern technology, have affected
the lives of most individuals and society as a whole. Many people live longer due to the
use of medicines. Approximately 25 percent of all prescription medicines contain plant
extracts. These extracts are either isolated from or synthesized from plants, and then
manufactured. The pharmaceutical industry is constantly testing new plant extracts
to discover potential applications in medicines. However, the deforestation of many
rainforests is causing loss of biodiversity and threatening undiscovered species that
might help fight many conditions that are currently untreatable.
For example, the rosy periwinkle, shown in Figure 13.4 (A), has had a huge
impact on the treatment of cancer. It is the source of vincristine and vinblastine, two
compounds that are used to treat childhood leukemia and Hodgkin’s disease. The
survival rate of individuals suffering from Hodgkin’s disease shifted from less than
20 percent to greater than 90 percent after these compounds were discovered. The
rosy periwinkle, however, is native to rainforests in Madagascar, and is at risk due to
rapid deforestation in that region. More examples of plants that are used for medicinal
purposes are shown in Figure 13.4.
A B C
Figure 13.4 (A) The rosy periwinkle is the source of breakthrough medicines that have
significantly changed the survivor rates for some cancers. This plant is at risk from the effects of
deforestation. Herbal plants such as ginseng (B) and goldenseal (C) are the sources of natural
remedies that are available without a prescription. Ginseng is used to improve the function of
the immune system. Goldenseal is used to fight colds and as a mouthwash to treat sore gums
and sore throats.

Plants as a Source of Fuel
Burning the woody parts of plants has provided energy for cooking and heating for
biofuel a fuel that
thousands of years. Prehistoric plants are the source of a primary fuel that is used in our is produced from
society today—coal. Coal used today was formed over millions of years as partially renewable biological
decomposed plant material was buried deeper and deeper under Earth’s surface. sources
Canada is becoming a significant leader in the production of biofuels, which are
fuels produced from renewable biological sources such as crops and crop residues.
Many people believe that biofuels can play a major role in meeting the climate change
challenge because they have the potential to provide an alternative energy source to
fossil fuels. You will read more about the possible advantages and disadvantages of
biofuels in the Quirks & Quarks feature on the next page.
Plants and Erosion Control

Plants play a key role in controlling erosion and reducing the negative effects of
flooding. Soil erosion is a naturally occurring process in which the actions of wind and
water remove the top layers of soil. The loss of soil is a significant issue, particularly in
agricultural regions. The fertile topsoil that is critical to good crop growth can be lost
and is not easily replaced. Another significant problem is the movement of the eroded
soil—it can wash down embankments and make roads impassable, and it can redirect
streams. One of the key ways to help reduce soil erosion is to cover the area with
appropriate plants, as shown in Figure 13.5.
Figure 13.5 Plants slow
down the movement of
water on the surface of
the soil. By doing so, they
allow the excess water
to penetrate into the soil
rather than washing over
and carrying the topsoil
with it.
Plants, Recreation, and Ecotourism

Figure 13.6 shows that plants are important parts of environments that humans rely
on as educational and recreational resources. Many Canadians enjoy the surrounding
natural environment for recreation—camping, hiking, boating, picnicking, cycling, and
climbing. Local parks, conservation areas, provincial parks, national parks, and even
backyards provide environments filled with plant life that we depend on to get our
exercise, learn about nature, and relax.
Ecotourism is also a significant industry in Canada. Tourists come from all over the
world to visit Canadian landscapes, all of which include plants. Many Canadians travel
to visit different parts of the country, such as the temperate rainforests on the west
coast, the sweeping prairies, or the vast boreal forests that cover much of the country.
People also visit the dense deciduous forests of eastern Canada and the tundra to see the
Figure 13.6 Hiking in the
wildflowers in the summertime. Canadians also visit other countries to experience the decidious forests of Ontario
tropical rainforests of Costa Rica, the jungles of South America, and the wild grasslands is a pastime enjoyed by
of Africa, to name just a few among thousands of destinations. many Canadians.

STSE
Quirks &
Quarks
with BOB MCDONALD
THIS WEEK ON QUIRKS & QUARKS
Could Canada Rely on Biomass to Meet Energy Needs? Related Career

Biomass engineers work
We are running out of fossil fuels and the hunt Researchers looked for non-food sources on processes and structures
for alternative fuels is underway! Biomass of biomass. For example, significant wood that generate energy from
has been a small-scale source of heat since residue exists in Canada, especially in British biomass, such as wood waste,
humans began using fire. Could it be practical Columbia, where the pine beetle infestation energy crops (switch grass or
to use biomass or fuels derived from biomass could create 1 billion cubic metres of dead corn, for example), and wastes
to meet the energy needs of the modern pine by 2013. This amount of biomass could from agriculture, food, and
world? Bob McDonald asked several university run an estimated twenty 300 MW power industry. They may develop
new technologies or fine-tune
researchers, as well as people from private plants for 20 years, thus supplying half of that
existing biomass power projects
companies, about the prospects for biofuels. province’s energy production.
as the industry develops.
In Ottawa, a company is producing
Renewable Energy from Plants an enzyme that can break down cellulose.
Biomass from sugar cane and corn has been This process also produces ethanol. The
used to make ethanol, an alcohol distilled from demonstration project used straw to
plant sugars. Brazil has an ethanol industry produce over 1 million litres of
based on sugar cane that supplements and ethanol between 2004 and 2010.
reduces the use of gasoline for transportation. Successful commercial production
In North America, corn has been the crop of requires at least 100 million litres
choice to make ethanol. Ethanol from both of ethanol per year. Sources of
sources works well in vehicles. However, closer cellulose, such as wood chips and
examination revealed that, as of 2006, it took agricultural waste, are bulky and
1 litre of fossil fuel to produce 1.25 litres of corn much less energy-dense than coal
ethanol. Therefore, the fossil fuel “savings” were or oil, so the power plant must be
not significant. In addition, corn is a food crop. located close to the supply. As of 2010,
Competition from the fuel market was driving the company was planning to build As of 2009, about 16 million hectares
corn prices beyond what many families in a commercial plant in Saskatchewan. of forests in British Columbia had been
countries such as Mexico could pay. infested with the mountain pine beetle.
Switch grass, a prairie grass native to Canada, can be used
as a renewable fuel. After harvest, the grass is ground and
compressed into pellets that are burned to release their QU ES T I ONS
stored chemical energy.
1. Use a PMI chart to analyze the advantages and

disadvantages of different types of biofuels.
2. If residues from agricultural fields and forests are
removed for use in energy production, how could
this removal affect the cycling of matter in farm and
forest ecosystems? What might be some unintended
consequences of harvesting these residues?
3. Use Internet and/or print resources to find out more
about what biomass engineers do. What might a
typical day at work be like for a biomass engineer?
542 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth and Function
Section 13.1 RE V IE W
Section Summary
• Plants are important because they transform the • Cellulose is an important molecule found in the cell walls
Sun’s energy into glucose and release oxygen into the of plants, and it is used by humans in many ways.
atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis. • Plants are a source of food, fibres, building materials,
biochemicals, fuel, flood and erosion control, recreation,
and ecotourism.
Review Questions
1. K/U Not all of the oxygen produced by plants 9. A Figure 13.4 (A) shows the rosy periwinkle, one
through photosynthesis is released into the type of plant that has had a major impact on the
atmosphere. Explain why. survival rates of people with certain types of cancer.
2. T/I Although there are 50 000 plant crops, only What could you do to help protect these plants and
about 150 of them are used for commercial food others that may have beneficial properties?
production. List two possible reasons for this. 10. K/U What are some advantages of biofuels?
3. K/U Which three crop plants make up the majority 11. A The tables below contain information about the
of the human diet? greenhouse gas emissions for two types of fossil fuels
4. K/U Explain why agriculture is important to and three types of biofuels currently in use.
Canadian society. Fossil Fuels
5. C Express your opinion on whether monoculture Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Fuel Type (production and use) (kg/L)
is an effective and sustainable method to increase crop
Diesel 2.8
yield. Support your opinion with specific examples.
Gasoline 2.4
6. K/U Give some examples of the practices used in
sustainable agriculture. Consider the environment, Biofuels
economics, and society. Greenhouse Gas Emissions
7. C Create a graphic organizer to show the different Fuel Type (production and use) (kg/L)
products made from plant fibres and their uses. Biodiesel 0.9
8. T/I Bamboo, shown below, is a fast-growing plant Ethanol from corn 1.9
that can be used to make fabric. T-shirts made from Ethanol from
1.1
bamboo are often marketed as eco-friendly since sugar cane
bamboo is considered a renewable resource. Think of a a. Which two fuels have the highest greenhouse gas
question and make a prediction related to the durability emissions?
of a bamboo t-shirt compared to that of a cotton t-shirt.
b. How do the greenhouse gas emissions of the
For example, you may wonder if a bamboo t-shirt will
biofuels compare to those of the fossil fuels?
last for as many washings as a cotton t-shirt. Or you
c. Which biofuel has the lowest greenhouse gas
may question whether bamboo fabric rips more easily
emissions?
than cotton. Design an investigation to test your
d. Why is it important to measure the greenhouse
prediction. Identify your independent and dependent
gases emitted during both the production and use
variables, as well as which variables you will control.
of each fuel (as opposed to just what is emitted
during a fuel’s use)?
e. What other factors might be considered when
analyzing the overall sustainability of a fuel?
12. T/I A landscaper has recommended several plant
species to help control erosion in a sloped yard. Design
an investigation to test which species helps control
erosion most effectively. List the materials you might
use and explain your procedure.

SECTION
The Vascular Plant Body
13.2
Key Terms Like animals, plants are made up of specialized cells that are organized into tissues, which
are themselves organized into systems of organs. The various parts of plants are adapted
shoot system
to perform life-supporting functions that include photosynthesis, cellular respiration,
root system
absorption of water and minerals, and transport of these and other substances
meristematic tissue throughout the plant. The basic parts and body of a typical plant are shown in Figure 13.7.
dermal tissue
epidermis Vascular Plant Systems
guard cell
Recall from Chapter 3 that plants are classified into two main groups: those that have
stoma
vascular tissue (vascular plants) and those that do not (non-vascular plants). Vascular
root hairs
plants have two organ systems: an above-ground shoot system and an underground
ground tissue root system. The shoot system is made up of the stems and leaves, two of the three
xylem organs in plants. Leaves, which are specialized to perform photosynthesis, grow from
phloem stems. Stems also bear the reproductive structures of the mature plant. You will learn
shoot system the
about plant reproductive structures in Chapter 14.
stems and leaves of a The root system is made up of the roots of the plant, and it anchors the plant by
plant; the stems provide penetrating into the soil. The root system absorbs the water and mineral nutrients
structural support and, that the plant needs. You will learn about these organ systems in more detail in the
in some cases, perform
next section.
photosynthesis; the
leaves are specialized for
photosynthesis
root system the roots
of a plant; it anchors
the plant and absorbs
the water and mineral
nutrients the plant needs
organ
shoot
system
leaf
stem
tissue
root root
system
specialized cells
Figure 13.7 The body of a vascular plant consists of a root system and a shoot system.
The organs of a plant—the leaves, stems, and roots—are made of tissues. Tissues are
groups of specialized cells that work together to perform a function.

Plant Cells
Figure 13.8 shows the basic structure of a typical plant cell. Plant cells have a cell wall,
which provides support to the plant, a large central vacuole, and chloroplasts, which are
used to carry out photosynthesis. There are several different types of plant cells, which
are described below and summarized in Table 13.3, on the next page.
cell wall
central vacuole
chloroplast
plasma
membrane
nucleus
Figure 13.8 A typical plant cell is surrounded by a cell wall and contains a nucleus, chloroplasts,
and a central vacuole, which stores food, enzymes, and other materials needed by the cell.
Parenchyma Cells
Most of the cells throughout a plant are flexible, thin-walled cells called parenchyma
cells. They are the basis for many plant structures and are capable of a wide range of
functions, including storage, photosynthesis, gas exchange, and protection. These cells
are spherical in shape, and their cell walls flatten when they are packed tightly together,
as you can see in Table 13.3, on the next page.
Parenchyma cells that are in leaves and green stems have many chloroplasts, which
produce glucose by carrying out photosynthesis. Other parenchyma cells, such as those
found in roots and fruits, lack chloroplasts but have large central vacuoles that can
store substances, such as starch, water, or oils.
Collenchyma Cells
Collenchyma cells are familiar to anyone who has eaten celery. These cells make
up the long strings that can be pulled from a celery stalk. Collenchyma cells are
often elongated and occur in long strands or cylinders that provide support for the
surrounding cells. Collenchyma cells, such as those shown in Table 13.3, can have
unevenly thickened cell walls. As a collenchyma cell grows, the thinner portions of
its cell wall can expand. This growth pattern makes collenchyma cells flexible, which
allows plants to bend without breaking.

Sclerenchyma Cells
Sclerenchyma cells have very thick secondary cell walls that contain lignin, a strong
substance that makes the cell walls very tough and hard. While parenchyma and
collenchyma cells are alive at maturity, most sclerenchyma cells die once they have
completed growth and development. They lack cytoplasm and other living components
when they mature, but their thick, rigid cell walls remain. Their primary function is to
provide support for mature plants.
As shown in Table 13.3, there are two types of sclerenchyma cells: sclereids and
fibres. Sclereids, also called stone cells, are distributed randomly throughout the plant.
They are shorter than fibre cells and have an irregular shape. Sclereids are responsible
for the gritty texture of pears and the hard covering of seed coats. Fibre cells are needle-
shaped and have thick cell walls and small interior spaces. When they are stacked
end-to-end, fibres form a tough elastic tissue. People have used fibres for centuries to
make ropes, linens, and other textiles.
Table 13.3 Plant Cells and Functions
Cell Type Example Functions
Parenchyma With chloroplasts • storage
[pah-RENG-keh-muh] • photosynthesis
• gas exchange
• protection
• tissue repair and replacement
Magnification: 50×
Without chloroplasts
Magnification: 350×
Collenchyma • support surrounding tissues

[kohl-ENG-keh-muh] • provide flexibility for plant
• tissue repair and replacement
cell wall
Sclerenchyma Fibres • support mature plant

[skleh-RENG-keh-muh]
Magnification: 50×
Sclereids
Magnification: unavailable

Plant Tissues
Plants have four main types of tissue:
• meristematic tissue, which is where new cells are produced
• dermal tissue, which forms the outer covering of the plant; it includes epidermis
and periderm
• ground tissue, which has many functions and which makes up most of the inside of
a plant; it includes parenchyma, collenchyma, and sclerenchyma cells
• vascular tissue, which transports water, minerals, and other substances throughout
the plant and provides support; it includes xylem and phloem
Meristematic Tissue
Throughout their lives, plants can continue to produce new cells by mitosis in their
meristematic tissue
meristematic tissues, which all vascular plants have. These embryonic tissues make up undifferentiated
meristems—areas of rapidly dividing cells. As these cells mature, they can develop into embryonic plant tissue
different types of specialized plant cells. Meristematic tissues are located in different from which all other
regions of a plant, as shown in Figure 13.9. plant tissues develop
The tips of a plant’s root and stems are constantly growing longer, due to the
division of cells in the apical meristem, as shown in Figure 13.9. Intercalary meristems
are tissues found along the stems and at the base of the leaf blades of some vascular
plants, such as horsetails and grasses. The cells produced from these types of meristems
cause roots, stems, and leaves to grow longer throughout the life of the plant. This type
of growth is called primary growth. If grasses had no intercalary meristems, they would
stop growing after the first time they were mowed. Figure 13.9 Plant
growth results from the
cells produced by the
Stem Root meristematic tissues. Stems
shoot apical and roots increase in length
meristem due to the division of cells in
cork
vascular the apical meristems and the
cambium
cambium
subsequent lengthening of
cells. The vascular cambium
and the cork cambium are
meristematic tissues that
Magnification: 20×
increase the diameter of
roots and stems.
root apical
vascular meristem
cambium
cork cambium root cap
Magnification: 50×
An increase in the circumference, or girth, of roots and stems results from the Magnification: 15×
division of cells in two types of lateral meristems: vascular cambium and cork cambium.
This type of growth is called secondary growth. It adds vascular tissue, strengthens the
stem, and provides support as the plant grows taller. Figure 13.9 shows the vascular
cambium, a thin layer of meristematic tissue that can run along the length of roots and
stems and produces new vascular tissue. Vascular cambium is necessary for secondary
growth. Another type of lateral meristem, the cork cambium, produces cells that develop
tough cell walls and form a protective layer on the outside of stems and roots. This cork
tissue makes up the outer bark on woody plants, such as maple trees.

Dermal Tissue
The outer covering of a plant is made up of dermal tissue. The epidermis is a
dermal tissue the outer
layers of cells that form single layer of dermal-tissue cells that forms a protective covering over the body of
a protective covering non-woody (herbaceous) plants and young woody plants. Older woody plants also
for the plant; includes form dermal tissue, called periderm, which is produced as part of secondary growth.
epidermis and periderm It replaces the epidermis to form cork in woody stems and roots.
epidermis the dermal
tissue that makes up a
Specialized Epidermal Tissue: Guard Cells, Trichomes, and Root Hairs
plant’s outer covering
Some epidermal cells are specialized to perform a specific function. Guard cells are
guard cell a specialized
epidermal cell; paired cells that, together, surround a stoma (plural stomata), as shown in Figure 13.10.
functioning in pairs, Stomata are small openings or pores, usually in the leaf. Guard cells control the size
they regulate the of the stomata. When stomata are open, gas exchange can occur. During the day,
opening of stomata carbon dioxide diffuses in through the stomata and oxygen diffuses out. Water in the
stoma a small opening, form of gaseous water vapour also diffuses out of the plant and into the atmosphere
usually in the leaf, that
through stomata.
allows gas exchange
to occur
stoma
guard cells
Figure 13.10 Guard cells regulate the size of stomata. On hot and/or dry days,
stomata are closed in order to avoid too much water loss.
Some epidermal cells have specialized structures or extensions on their surface that
root hairs the fine,
hair-like structures that have important functions. For example, trichomes are tiny growths on the surface of the
cover the surface of epidermis. They are often found on stems and leaves, and can make the plant appear
the root of a plant; they fuzzy or woolly. Trichomes keep leaf surfaces cool and reduce evaporation. Some
increase the surface trichomes may secrete sticky or toxic substances that repel herbivores. Some trichomes,
area available for gas
exchange and the such as those on passion vines, are deadly and actually puncture the skin of herbivores
absorption of water and that attempt to walk across them, as shown in Figure 13.11. Root hairs are another
nutrients example of specialized structures on epidermal tissue. Root hairs are tiny extensions of
individual epidermal cells on plant roots. They increase the surface area available for
the absorption of water and nutrients.
A B
SuggestedInvestigation
Inquiry Investigation 13-A,
Observing Roots and Root
Hairs
Magnification: 30×
Figure 13.11 Trichomes (A) and root hairs (B) are specialized extensions on epidermal cells.
Explain why root hairs are so small and numerous.

Learning Check
7. Differentiate between vascular and non-vascular 10. How does the structure of collenchyma cells help
plants. provide flexibility to plants?
8. What organs make up the shoot system of a plant? 11. You buy some rope to tie a ladder to the top of a car.
9. How do the organ systems and tissues of a vascular Which plant cells are you using?
plant compare with the organ systems and tissues of 12. What are meristems? Draw a diagram showing
animals? Explain your answer. where meristems are found.
Ground Tissue
Ground tissue forms most of the plant’s internal and external material, and it contains
ground tissue a plant
parenchyma cells, collenchyma cells, and sclerenchyma cells. Ground tissues have a tissue that has multiple
wide range of functions, including photosynthesis, storage, and support. In some stems, functions and that
roots, and seeds, the cells of ground tissue store starch and oils. Ground tissue also makes up most of the
provides support for the plant when it grows between other types of tissue. inside of a plant
xylem vascular tissue
that transports water
Vascular Tissue
and minerals from the
Vascular tissue is an internal system of tubes that run lengthwise throughout the stem roots to the leaves
of a plant, connecting the roots and the leaves. The function of vascular tissue is to phloem vascular tissue
transport water and dissolved substances throughout the plant. that transports organic
There are two types of vascular tissue: xylem and phloem. Xylem transports water nutrients, often from
and minerals from the roots to the leaves. Phloem transports nutrients such as sugars the leaves to the roots,
but also from roots and
to areas where they are needed for growth and metabolism, or to the roots for storage. mature leaves to new
In non-woody flowering plants, vascular tissue in the stems is organized into leaves
groups called vascular bundles, and these vascular bundles are scattered throughout the
ground tissue. In woody flowering plants, vascular bundles are arranged in concentric
rings in the ground tissue near the epidermal layer.
Xylem
Xylem is the water-conducting tissue of plants. In gymnosperms, xylem consists of
cells called tracheids. In angiosperms, xylem consists of two types of cells: tracheids and
vessel elements, shown in Figure 13.12. Tracheids and vessel elements begin as living
cells growing end to end in an immature stem. When tracheids and vessel elements
Figure 13.12 Vessel
mature, their living contents die, leaving the non-living cell walls in place. Fluids are elements are long,
passed from one tracheid or vessel element to the next through pores known as pits. continuous tubes formed
from dead, hollow,
cylindrical cells arranged
end to end. Tracheids are
dead cells that taper at
the ends and overlap one
another.
vessel vessel
element element
tracheid
longitudinal section of xylem

Magnification: unavailable

Phloem
Phloem is the food-conducting tissue in vascular plants. Figure 13.13 shows the two
types of phloem cells: sieve tube elements and companion cells. Both of these are alive at
maturity, unlike the cells making up xylem. Sieve tube elements have no nuclei. Sieve
tubes have plates at both ends that are perforated with holes, making them resemble
a sieve. Each sieve tube element has an associated companion cell that does have a
nucleus. Companion cells carry out life functions to maintain both types of cells.
sieve tube element
companion
cell
nucleus
sieve plate
Longitudinal section Cross section
Magnification: 100× Magnification: 200×
Figure 13.13 Companion cells and sieve tube elements make up phloem. Food produced in the
leaves of plants is carried to the rest of the plant through the phloem.
Activity 13.2 Plant Cell Types
In this activity, you will investigate three types of plant cells 2. Use the information in the text and in Table 13.3 to
by observing slides of some common plant parts. identify the type of cells you observed.
Materials 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with the remaining slides.

• microscope Questions
• prepared slides from root, leaf, and stem tissues of plants
1. What types of cells did you identify? Explain how you
Procedure determined the identity of each cell type.
1. Observe the first prepared slide under the microscope 2. Why are there different types of cells in plants?
on low power, and then under high power. Draw the
cells you see. Label any structures or organelles that you
can identify.

Section Summary
• The organs of a plant are contained in two organ • The outer covering of a plant is called the epidermis and
systems—the root system and the shoot system. is made up of dermal tissue.
• Different types of plant cells include parenchyma cells, • Plants are made up mostly of ground tissue.
collenchyma cells, and sclerenchyma cells. • Vascular tissue is an internal transport system that runs
• Meristems are areas of rapidly dividing cells that throughout the plant, carrying water and dissolved
can develop into different types of specialized cells nutrients and minerals.
throughout the plant.
Review Questions
1. C Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast 10. T/I As shown in the micrograph below, cells that
the root system and the shoot system in plants. make up plant epidermis resemble pieces of a jigsaw
2. K/U Refer to Figure 13.8. List three structures or puzzle with interlocking edges. Many epidermal cells
organelles in plant cells and explain the function of each. secrete a waxy substance that forms an outer layer
called the cuticle. Explain how the structures of the
3. K/U Identify the type of cells
epidermal cells and the cuticle are important
shown in the photograph on the
adaptations for survival.
right. Where would these cells
likely be found in a plant?
Explain your reasoning.
4. K/U What type of specialized cell is a sclereid? What
type of tissue do you think sclereids are found in?
5. K/U What are the four main types of plant tissue?
6. C Create a table contrasting three different types
of meristem, and explain their function. 11. C Make a labelled sketch showing the relationship
7. K/U Describe how a plant grows. between the guard cells and the stoma.
8. T/I The roots and stems of herbaceous, or 12. A You brush up against the leaves of a plant that
non-woody, plants do not increase in circumference, are covered with small, hair-like projections like the
whereas those of woody plants, such as trees, do. ones shown below. By the time you get home, your skin
a. Using your knowledge of plant anatomy, form is irritated. Which specialized part of an epidermal cell
a hypothesis about what might account for this were you probably exposed to?
difference.
b. Describe a procedure you could use to test your
hypothesis.
9. K/U What type of tissue forms the structure to
which the arrow is pointing in the photograph below?
Compare the structure of this type of tissue with that
used for transport. How have the cells differentiated
to carry out specific functions? 13. C Make a table listing the three types of
specialized cells in ground tissue and state the
function(s) of each type of cell.
14. C Illustrate the similarities and differences in
structure between xylem and phloem. How are these
tissues specialized for transportation of water and
nutrients?
15. K/U If the xylem or phloem of a plant were damaged,
what would happen to the plant?

SECTION
Plant Organs and Their Functions
13.3
Key Terms Plants must absorb water and minerals from below the ground surface. From above
the ground, plants take in carbon dioxide and absorb light. The ability to acquire these
root cap
resources depends on three basic plant organs: roots, stems, and leaves.
cortex
endodermis
Roots
taproot
If you have ever eaten a carrot, a radish, or a sweet potato, then you have eaten part of a
fibrous root
plant root. The root system is usually the first structure to emerge from a seed when it
aerenchyma
sprouts. For most plants, roots serve three functions:
cuticle
• Roots take in water and dissolved minerals that are then transported to where they
mesophyll
are needed in the rest of the plant.
palisade mesophyll
spongy mesophyll • Roots anchor the plant in soil or to some other plant or object, supporting the plant
venation against forces such as wind and water.
• Roots store the carbohydrates that are produced by photosynthesis in the leaves or
green stems, as well as water and other nutrients.
In some plants, the root system is so vast that it makes up more than half of the plant’s
mass. The roots of most plants grow 0.5 m to 5 m down into the soil. However, some
plants, such as the mesquites that grow in the dry southwestern part of the United
States, have roots that extend as deep as 50 m toward available water. Other plants, such
as cacti, have many relatively shallow branching roots that grow out from the stem in all
directions as far as 15 m. Both of these examples are adaptations to limited water access.
Root Structure and Function

The tip of the root is covered by the root cap, as shown in Figure 13.14. The root
root cap a protective
covering on the tip of cap consists of parenchyma cells that help protect the growing tissues as the root
the root extends through soil or more resistant material, such as rock. The cells of the root cap
produce a slimy substance that, together with the outside layer of cells, reduces friction
as the root grows through soil, rocks, or some other material.
The root’s apical meristem produces new cells that develop into different types
of root tissues that perform different functions. For example, some new cells replace
cells that have been removed by friction as the root grows. Other cells increase the
length of the root.
Figure 13.14 The root cap
covers and protects the
root tip as it grows through
soil and other materials.
root cap Magnification: 25×

Outer Root Layers
Like the rest of a plant, the root is covered in a layer of dermal tissue. Epidermal cells
cortex a layer of cells
produce root hairs that increase the surface area of the root. This increases the area over between the epidermis
which the root is able to absorb water and dissolved minerals. Just inside the epidermis and the vascular tissues
is the cortex. The cortex lies between the epidermis and the vascular tissues of the root, of the root
as shown in Figure 13.15. This layer is composed of ground tissue made of parenchyma endodermis a layer of
cells that transport and store water, minerals, and food in the plant. All materials that cells between the cortex
and the vascular tissue
enter the root, including water and minerals, must pass through the cortex to get to the of the root
vascular tissue, which will then transport them to the rest of the plant.
On the inside edge of the cortex, between the cortex and the vascular tissue, is the
layer called the endodermis. The endodermis, which is also shown in Figure 13.15,
is one cell thick. Each cell in the endodermis is surrounded by a waterproof band
called a Casparian strip. The Casparian strip creates a barrier that forces water and
dissolved minerals to cross the plasma membrane and pass through the cytoplasm
of endodermal cells rather than moving around the cells. In this way, the endodermis
acts as a control point that allows only water and certain dissolved nutrients and ions
to enter the vascular system.
vascular tissue endodermis with
Casparian strip
root hair
cortex water
root hair
epidermis
root cap water
root hair
Figure 13.15 The plant root is structured to absorb water and minerals from the soil and move
them through to the central vascular tissue.
Inner Root Vascular Tissue

Inside the endodermis are the vascular tissues, xylem and phloem. They make up
the centre of the root. The arrangement of xylem and phloem is different in monocot
and dicot flowering plants. (Recall that flowering plants are either monocots, which
produce seeds in which the embryo has one seed leaf, or dicots, which produce seeds in
which the embryo has two seed leaves.) In monocots, xylem cells typically form a ring
around a central core of cells. The core of cells is called pith. Phloem cells surround the
xylem cells in this ring. In dicots, the xylem cells often form an X or star shape, and the
phloem cells are between the arms of the star. These patterns are shown in Figure 13.16.
You will learn about other differences between monocots and dicots later in this section.
xylem
Figure 13.16 In monocot
A xylem B roots (A), xylem tissue
forms a ring around
the pith. In dicot roots
(B), xylem tissue forms a
central star or X shape.
pith
phloem
Magnification: 60× Magnification: 18× phloem

Types of Root Systems
The two major types of root systems are taproots and fibrous roots. A taproot consists
taproot a root system
made up of a thick root of a thick root with smaller lateral branching roots. Some plants, such as the carrots
with few smaller lateral shown in Table 13.4, use the taproot to store food. Other taproots, like those of
branching roots dandelions, grow deep into the soil. Having a root that grows deep underground
fibrous root a root enables plants to tap into sources of water that are far below ground level.
system made up of Fibrous roots are made up of many smaller branching roots, such as the scallions
many small branching
roots
shown in Table 13.4. The roots are all about the same size and grow from a central
point. Fibrous roots usually do not grow as deeply into soil as taproots do. Grass roots,
aerenchyma plant
tissue with large air for example, may only grow a few centimetres into soil.
spaces to facilitate gas Some roots are modified to provide extra support for a plant or to store food and
exchange in aquatic water. In dry regions, some plants produce huge water-storage roots. Other roots, such
plants or plants that live
as the sweet potatoes shown in Table 13.4, are modified to store food and water. Some
in flooded areas
aquatic plants have a special tissue in their roots called aerenchyma. Aerenchyma is a
spongy tissue that has large air spaces through which oxygen can move.
Table 13.4 Types of Roots
Type Example Function
Taproot • anchors plant
• absorbs water and minerals
• food and water storage
Fibrous root • anchors plant

• absorbs water and minerals
Modified root • food and water storage
Learning Check
13. Into which part of the plant are the following 17. Why must you dig deeply into your lawn to
absorbed: carbon dioxide, water, minerals, and light? permanently remove a dandelion?
14. What are the functions of roots? 18. If you were preparing a vegetarian meal out of roots,
15. What is a root cap? would you use plants that have fibrous root systems?
Explain your answer.
16. Make a Venn diagram to compare and contrast
taproots and fibrous roots.

Stems
There are many types of stems, varying from soft and flexible (herbaceous) to hard
and rigid (woody). Asparagus stems, for example, are soft, flexible, and green. They
contain chloroplasts and can perform photosynthesis. Annuals (plants that live for
only one growing season) are herbaceous. Trees, shrubs, and many perennials (plants
that live for more than two growing seasons) have sturdy, woody stems that do not
perform photosynthesis. While some perennials are herbaceous, others have stems
that are not only woody but covered with bark. Bark includes the layers of tissue from
the xylem outward, including the phloem tissue, the layer of cork tissue surrounding
the phloem, and the tough outermost covering of the tree. The bark protects the plant
from insects and other threats, such as herbivores and even fire.
Figure 13.17 Annual growth
rings form in the stems of woody
Stem Structure and Function plants. This pattern occurs because
The main function of a stem is to provide support for the plant’s leaves and seasonal variations in moisture and
reproductive structures. Recall that stems increase in length due to the shoot apical other environmental conditions
influence the production of new
meristem. As woody plants grow taller, the diameter of the stem also increases. New
vascular tissue.
vascular tissue is produced each year, resulting in a pattern of annual growth rings
Infer how the amount of available
that is visible in the xylem tissue. The age of a tree can be estimated by counting the water and nutrients might affect
annual growth rings in the xylem at the base of its trunk, as shown in Figure 13.17. the width of an annual growth ring.
Types of Stems
There are many adaptations of stems that help plants to survive. In some plants, stems
are used to store excess food. In others, stems help plants withstand drought, cold,
or heat. While you might easily identify the stems of sunflowers or tomatoes, other
stems look quite different, as shown in Figure 13.18. For example, a white potato is a
type of stem called a tuber. The tuber, in this case the potato, is an enlarged part of
an underground stem. It has buds extending from it that will grow into new potato
plants. Other stems, called bulbs, are shortened, compressed stems surrounded by
fleshy leaves. Examples of bulbs include onions and tulips. Crocuses and gladiolas are
examples of plants that form corms. A corm is composed almost entirely of stem tissue
with some scaly leaves at its top. Horizontal stems that grow above ground along the SuggestedInvestigation
surface of the soil are called stolons. Strawberry plants, for example, have stolons, which Inquiry Investigation 13-B,
are also called runners. Another type of horizontal stem is a rhizome. Rhizomes are Plant Stems
horizontal stems that grow underground.
A B C
D E
stolon
Figure 13.18 There are several different types of stems. (A) The potato is a tuber. (B) The onion
is a bulb. (C) Crocuses are corms. (D) Strawberry plants have above-ground runners, or stolons.
(E) Irises are plants that have rhizomes.

Leaves
Leaves come in many different shapes and sizes. Even the way that leaves are arranged
on the stem, and the number of leaves on a plant, varies from species to species. For
example, tulips may have only a few leaves, whereas a large, mature hardwood tree,
such as an elm or a maple, may have thousands of leaves.
Leaf Structure and Function

Despite their amazing variety, the main function of all leaves is the same—to convert
cuticle a waxy layer on
the epidermis that is the light energy from the Sun into the chemical energy of food through the process of
secreted by epidermal photosynthesis. The structure of all leaves is adapted to perform this critical function.
cells The external structure of a typical leaf has a flat portion called the blade, which
mesophyll the layer has a relatively large surface area. In some species, such as grasses, the blade attaches
between the upper and directly to the stem. In other species, the blade attaches to the stem via a structure
lower epidermis of a leaf
that contains numerous
called a petiole. The epidermal cells of leaves secrete a waxy substance that forms the
chloroplasts cuticle, as shown in Figure 13.19. This protective layer helps reduce water loss from
palisade mesophyll leaves by reducing evaporation. Vascular tissue runs through the petiole, connecting
the layer of cells where the leaf ’s vascular tissue—the veins—to the stem’s vascular tissue. The veins conduct
most photosynthesis water and dissolved minerals into the leaf and they conduct dissolved carbohydrates,
takes place, immediately
made during photosynthesis, from the leaf to the rest of the plant.
below the epidermis
Figure 13.19 shows the internal structure of a leaf. The cuticle and the epidermis of
spongy mesophyll the
layer of irregularly a leaf are transparent, allowing light to penetrate to the next layer. The only cells of the
shaped, loosely packed epidermis that have chloroplasts are the guard cells. You will learn about the function
cells below the palisade of guard cells in exchanging gases and controlling water loss in Section 13.4.
mesophyll layer Between the upper and lower epidermis of a leaf is the mesophyll, which is made
up of parenchyma cells containing numerous chloroplasts. Immediately below the
upper epidermis is a row of tightly packed parenchyma cells called palisade mesophyll
cells. They contain many chloroplasts, and their location below the epidermis and their
shape give them maximum exposure to light. Most photosynthesis takes place in the
palisade mesophyll.
Below the palisade mesophyll layer is the spongy mesophyll. In this layer, the
parenchyma cells are irregularly shaped and loosely packed. The open air spaces
between the cells in the spongy mesophyll allow oxygen, carbon dioxide, and water
vapour to move easily around the cells. Cells in the spongy mesophyll also contain
chloroplasts, but there are fewer of these per cell than in the palisade mesophyll layer.
blade
upper
epidermis cuticle
petiole
palisade
mesophyll cell
Figure 13.19 The internal air space

structure of a leaf consists
of mesophyll. The prefix
meso means middle and
phyll means leaf. vascular
bundle
spongy
mesophyll cells
lower
epidermis guard cell
cuticle stoma

Identifying Leaves
The differences in the size, shape, and texture of leaves are all clues that can help to
venation the pattern
identify a plant species. Table 13.5 shows some of the characteristics used to describe of veins in a leaf
and identify leaves. The blade of a simple leaf is not divided into smaller parts. The
blades of compound leaves are divided into smaller leaflets.
A leaf ’s venation is the pattern of the veins in the leaf. Monocots, such as grasses
and irises, usually have parallel venation, in which the veins in the leaf run parallel
to the main, or central, vein and each other. Dicots usually have palmate or pinnate
leaves like those shown in Table 13.5. Palmate leaves have veins that branch off from a
common point. Pinnate leaves have veins that branch off along the central vein.
The arrangement of leaves on the stem, which is also shown in Table 13.5, is another
characteristic that can be used to identify plants. Leaf growth is opposite if two leaves
are attached to the stem directly opposite each other at the same level. Alternate growth
describes leaves arranged in a step-like pattern on either side of the stem, with each leaf
at a different level. In a whorled arrangement, three or more leaves are evenly spaced
around a stem at the same level.
Table 13.5 Characteristics Used to Identify Leaves
Leaf Type Leaf Venation Leaf Arrangement
Opposite
Simple
l Palmate
Alternate
Pi t
Pinnate
Compound Parallel Whorled
Learning Check
19. Describe a herbaceous stem. 23. Provide a possible explanation for the fact that there
20. You are serving potatoes for dinner, and your friend are fewer chloroplasts in the spongy mesophyll layer
comments on how much she enjoys eating root of a leaf than in the palisade mesophyll layer.
vegetables. How is her statement inaccurate? 24. Trees have woody stems, whereas annuals (plants
21. What is the function of the cuticle? that complete their life cycle in one growing
season or less) have herbaceous stems. Provide
22. Predict why the air spaces in the spongy mesophyll
an explanation for this difference.
are particularly large near the epidermis, as
illustrated in Figure 13.19.

Differentiating Flowering Plants: Monocots and Dicots
As you know, flowering plants may be divided into two groups based on the number
of seed leaves in their embryos. These seed leaves, called cotyledons, are the source of
nourishment for seedlings before true leaves are capable of photosynthesis. Recall from
Chapter 3 that some plant embryos have one cotyledon, so they are called monocots.
Other plant embryos have two cotyledons, so they are called dicots.
Throughout this section, as you have learned about roots, stems, and leaves, you
have considered ways in which these organs differ in flowering plants. Table 13.6
compares these and other features that may be used to distinguish monocots and dicots.
SuggestedInvestigation Although monocots might seem simpler in form than dicots, the first angiosperm
Inquiry Investigation 13-C, seeds were actually dicots. Monocots are one of several early branches from the
Comparing and Contrasting dicot evolutionary tree. The single cotyledon, parallel venation, and other features of
Monocots and Dicots monocots developed as a variation of the dicot form.
Table 13.6 Comparing Monocots and Dicots
Characteristic Monocots Dicots
Number of embryonic seed One Two
leaves
Organization of vascular tissue Roots have vascular tissue Roots have vascular tissue
in roots and stems arranged in a ring. Vascular arranged in a star shape.
bundles in stem are scattered Vascular bundles in stem are
throughout ground tissue. arranged in a distinct ring.
Venation Veins are usually parallel to Veins are palmate or pinnate.
each other along the length of
the leaf.
Number of flower parts Flowers are in three parts, or Flowers are in four or five
multiples of three. parts, or multiples of four or
five.
Presence of wood No Yes
(secondary growth)
Root system Typically fibrous Typically taproot
Common examples • asparagus • almond tree
• banana tree (shown below) • beans and other legumes
• lily • cabbage
• oats, wheat, rice, corn, and • cactus
all other grasses • cashew tree
• onion • citrus trees
• orchid • coffee
• palm tree • flax
• yam • oak tree
• olive tree (shown below)
• rose
• strawberry
• tea

Section Summary
• The root system anchors the plant and absorbs water and • Stems and roots have many different forms, some of
nutrients from the surrounding soil. which are modified to store food or water.
• Stems provide support for the plant’s leaves and • Leaves perform photosynthesis, and their internal
reproductive structures. structure is specialized to maximize the amount of
sunlight they can capture and convert to chemical energy.
Review Questions
1. C Use a graphic organizer to summarize the 11. K/U Why is a transparent cuticle important to
functions of the root cap, cortex, and endodermis. a plant?
2. K/U Explain how the structure of the endodermis 12. C Use a diagram to compare a leaf ’s palisade
supports the movement of water into the root while mesophyll to its spongy mesophyll.
maintaining a protective barrier. 13. T/I What is the advantage of having the palisade
3. T/I The diagram below shows a cross section mesophyll cells more tightly packed than the spongy
of a plant part. mesophyll cells?
a. Which part of the plant is shown? 14. T/I All leaves are specialized to perform
b. Is this plant a monocot or a dicot? Explain your photosynthesis, but they differ greatly in structure
reasoning. from species to species. The stem of the cactus shown
below is waxy and thicker than stems of plants found
naturally in Canada. The leaves are reduced and in the
form of spines. Hypothesize how these adaptations
improve survival in an arid and harsh environment.
4. K/U What are the two major types of root systems?

What distinguishes them from each other?
5. K/U What is the main function of a stem? What
other plant activity takes place in the stems of
herbaceous plants? 15. K/U List three features that distinguish a monocot
6. K/U How does the process that increases a stem’s from a dicot.
length differ from the one that increases its girth? 16. A Is the flowering plant shown below likely
7. A Refer to Figure 13.17. Of the rings shown a monocot or a dicot? Explain your answer.
in the photograph, identify a section between two
rings that you think represents a year in which
environmental conditions were favourable for
the tree. Hint: Count the rings out from the centre.
Explain your reasoning.
8. C Create a graphic organizer to distinguish
between the different types of stems.
9. K/U Is a leaf a tissue, an organ, or an organ system?
Support your answer.
10. K/U What is the function of the petiole?

SECTION
Transport in Plants
13.4
Key Terms Vascular plants have a conducting system to transport fluids and nutrients from one part
of the plant to another. Essentially, a plant is a tube with its base embedded in the ground.
transpiration
The base of the tube is the root system, and the leaves are at the top of the tube, as shown
root pressure
in Figure 13.20. For a plant to function, two kinds of transport processes must occur.
cohesion-tension model First, sugars and other carbohydrates made in the leaves by photosynthesis must be
translocation carried to all other living cells in the plant. For this to happen, water that contains the
pressure-flow model dissolved carbohydrates must move up and down the tube. Cells in the phloem perform
this function. Second, water and dissolved nutrients in the ground must be taken up by
the roots and transported to cells in the leaves and in other parts of the plant. In this
process, water moves up the tube. Cells in the xylem perform this function.
Figure 13.20 Water and

minerals move from the
roots upward in the xylem
tissue of vascular plants.
Organic molecules, such
as carbohydrates, are water
transported upward and nutrients
downward in the phloem
tissue.
How Water and Nutrients Move Into and Out of Plant Cells
Particles move according to concentration gradients—the difference in concentration
between two areas. Diffusion is the net movement of particles from an area of high
concentration to an area of low concentration until the concentrations between the two
areas are balanced. Particles are described as “moving down” a concentration gradient.
The specific term for the diffusion of water molecules across a membrane is osmosis.
When a water solution has a high concentration of solutes (dissolved substances),
the concentration of water molecules is low. Conversely, when a solution has a low
concentration of solutes, the concentration of water molecules is high. If there are
many solutes in a solution outside a plant cell, and if they are unable to move through
the cell membrane, water molecules will move out of the cell by osmosis until the
concentration of water molecules on either side of the membrane is balanced.
Diffusion and osmosis occur naturally as a result of the random movement of
particles. In other words, particles that move down their concentration gradient by
diffusion and osmosis do not require energy to do so. However, for sugars and many
other nutrients that must move across cell membranes, energy is needed. This process
is called active transport. Diffusion, osmosis, and active transport are the means by
which water and nutrients are moved into and out of plant cells.

Transport in the Xylem
The root cells contain a higher concentration of dissolved nutrients than the surrounding
soil, so water moves into the roots by osmosis. Water moves through the root cells or
through the intercellular spaces within the root, and enters the xylem. The water is then
transported in the xylem tissue up through the root into the stem. Within the stem,
water moves by diffusion into other tissues of the plant. Minerals usually move across
cell membranes through active transport.
As the xylem tissue carrying water and minerals enters the leaf, the conducting transpiration the
vessels branch into the numerous veins. From the end of each vein, water and minerals process in which water
can diffuse into the cells of the leaf. Much of the water that reaches the leaf—90 percent evaporates from the
or more—is lost to the atmosphere as it evaporates through the stomata. This process of inside of a leaf to the
outside through the
water loss from a plant is called transpiration.
stomata
The movement of water in plants presents a puzzle. Plants have no muscles to push
root pressure the
water against gravity. So how is water transported from root tips to leaves—a distance mechanism by which
that can be as large as 100 m or more in some trees? positive pressure in
Long-distance transport in the xylem is accomplished by two processes: root the roots moves water
pressure and transpirational pull. Both positive pressure (pushing) and negative upward in a plant
pressure (pulling) contribute to water moving up through the xylem. Root pressure
is responsible for the positive pressure, while transpirational pull is responsible for
the negative pressure.
Root Pressure: Pushing Water Up Against Gravity

Root pressure is a mechanism that pushes water and minerals upward in a plant. Water
entering the roots creates a positive pressure that tends to push water upward. Minerals
are moved from the soil into the xylem against their concentration gradient by active
transport. The high concentration of dissolved materials in the xylem causes more
water to move in by osmosis. This increases the positive pressure that pushes the water
column up. This process is aided by the adhesion (sticking) of water molecules to the
cell walls of the xylem tissue.
Sometimes, in shorter plants, the result of root pressure can be observed as water
droplets on the tips or surface of leaves. Under conditions of high humidity, water
cannot evaporate from the leaves. In smaller plants, such as grasses and roses, root
pressure can cause water to be pushed up the xylem to the surface of the leaves. Since
the air is humid and the rate of transpiration is low, the xylem fluid does not evaporate.
Instead, it forms tiny droplets along the edge of the leaves, as shown in Figure 13.21.
This process is called guttation.
Figure 13.21 The droplets
formed by guttation
resemble dew, but they
originate from inside the
plant. Dew is formed on
the surface of plants when
water vapour in the air
condenses.

Transpirational Pull: Pulling Water Up Against Gravity
Scientists estimate that root pressure is able to raise water to about 10 metres. However,
cohesion-tension
model a model of water many trees are more than 100 m tall, so root pressure cannot explain how water is
transport that explains raised against gravity to these great heights. Negative pressure (pulling) from above is
how water is moved the strongest force for long-distance transport in plants. The cohesion-tension model
from the roots to the of water transport accounts for the majority of movement of water and minerals from
leaves of a plant
the roots to the leaves in even the tallest trees. Recall that most of the water that reaches
the leaves is lost through transpiration. The loss of this water creates the pull that moves
water up the plant. In summary, the transpiration of water from the leaves of a plant
creates a negative pressure that acts to pull water up to replace the lost water. There are
three main factors that play a role in the cohesion-tension model:
• Transpiration: Transpiration, the evaporation of water molecules from the shoot system,
is the major force responsible for the movement of water and dissolved minerals
upward in a plant stem. Dry air, heat, and wind cause transpiration, which results in
negative pressure as water molecules continuously leave the plant through the stomata,
as shown in Figure 13.22 (A). This negative pressure exerts tension on the water confined
in the xylem’s conducting tubes all the way down to the roots. Transpirational pull can
be significant, considering plants may lose up to 100 litres of water on a very hot day.
• Cohesion: The columns of water in the xylem have a property called cohesion. The
force of attraction between the water molecules in each narrow xylem tube provides a
force that keeps the water column unbroken while it is being pulled up under tension,
as shown in Figure 13.22 (B).
• Adhesion: Adhesion causes the water molecules to adhere, or stick, to the xylem walls.
Along with cohesion, adhesion keeps the water column from breaking as it is pulled
upward.
As the column of water is being pulled up the plant by the forces of transpiration,
cohesion, and adhesion, more water enters the plant at the roots. Water entering the
roots replaces the water leaving the plant by transpiration.
Activity 13.3 Modelling Transpiration
In this activity, you will model transpiration. 3. Carefully use the scalpel to cut lengthwise through the
two carnation stems. Begin the cut at the bottom of the
Materials stem, and extend the cut about halfway up the length
• water of the stem.
• red and blue food colouring
4. Remove all the leaves from one of the carnations.
• 2 white carnations with many leaves
• 4 graduated cylinders (50 mL) 5. Place each carnation so that half of its stem is in the
• sharp knife or scalpel red-dyed water and half is in the blue-dyed water.
• fan
6. Place the carnations in front of a fan until you see a
Safety Precaution colour change in the plants.
Questions
1. What happened to the plants after they had been in the
Procedure two liquids? Why did this occur?
1. Pour about 25 mL of water into each of the four 2. Was there a difference between the carnation with leaves
graduated cylinders. and the one without leaves?
2. Add five drops of red food colouring to the water in two 3. Why was a fan used? Would this activity still work
of the cylinders. Add five drops of blue food colouring to without a fan? Explain your answer.
the other cylinders.

How Transpiration Works
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Figure 13.22 As the column of water is being pulled up the plant by

the force of transpiration, more water enters the roots.
Learning Check
25. How are minerals transported into the roots of 29. Draw a labelled diagram that shows how the
a plant? cohesion-tension model of water transport works.
26. What substances are transported in xylem tissue? 30. Your friend conducts an investigation with a short
27. What is transpiration? fern plant to show how water moves up plant stems
by root pressure. Would you advise your friend to
28. Why are cohesion and adhesion important in
apply the results to all plants? Why or why not?
transpiration?

Nutrient Transport in Phloem
Photosynthesis occurs in the green parts of the plant, usually the leaves. The product
of photosynthesis, glucose, is converted to sucrose—familiar to you as table sugar—
for transport through the phloem. Translocation is the transport of sucrose and other
organic molecules through the phloem of a plant.
Translocation moves sugars from where they are made in the plant to where they
are needed for growth, metabolism, and storage. For example, during winter storage,
plants transport carbohydrates into their roots, and then back to the trunk and
branches in the spring.
Recall the structure of phloem in Figure 13.13. The conducting cells are called sieve
translocation the
transport of sucrose and tube elements, and compounds can flow swiftly through these cells. They are living cells,
other organic molecules unlike xylem, and each conducting cell is usually partnered with a companion cell.
through the phloem of
a plant The Mechanism of Translocation: The Pressure-Flow Model
pressure-flow model Translocation in phloem moves sucrose from a source to a sink. The source of the sucrose
a model that explains
is any region of the plant where the sugars are entering into sieve tubes. A common
how organic molecules
move from source to source is the palisade and spongy mesophyll tissues in the leaf, where photosynthesis
sink through phloem in occurs. The sink is any region in the plant where sugars are used or stored. For example,
a flowering plant while the flowers and fruits of a plant are developing, they are sinks because they need
organic molecules for their growth and development. Roots are also sinks, since they
need nutrients for energy and growth. They also store carbohydrates during the winter.
While water and minerals are mostly pulled up by transpiration, plant nutrients are
mostly pushed through phloem. The pressure-flow model is a hypothesis that uses a
combination of osmosis and pressure dynamics to explain how materials are pushed from
a source to a sink through translocation. Figure 13.23 shows the mechanism behind this
hypothesis. Two bulbs are connected by a glass tube. The end of each bulb is covered by
a membrane that is selectively permeable—water can pass through, but sucrose cannot.
The first bulb contains sucrose at a higher concentration than the second bulb. The entire
apparatus is submerged in water. Water flows into the first bulb because it has the higher
sucrose concentration. This creates a pressure difference between the two bulbs, and
some of the contents of the first bulb are forced up into the tube connecting the two
bulbs. As pressure builds in the second bulb, water diffuses out through the selectively
permeable membrane. When the concentrations of sucrose solutions in the two bulbs are
equal, the flow stops.
flow of solution
H2O
concentrated dilute sugar solution
sugar solution
selectively
permeable
membranes
H2O H2O
bulb 1 bulb 2
Figure 13.23 The red dots represent sucrose, which moves through the glass tube from bulb 1
to bulb 2 due to pressure differences.
Explain which bulb is the source and which bulb is the sink in this model.

Pressure Flow in Phloem
If there were a way to continuously add more sucrose to bulb 1 and remove it from
bulb 2, the flow would never stop. This is what scientists think happens in phloem
tissue. When nutrients are pumped into or removed from the phloem, the change in
concentration causes a movement of water in that same direction. As a result, internal
pressure builds up at the source end of the sieve tube and pushes the sucrose-rich
solution toward any sink, where the sucrose is then removed. Figure 13.24 shows this
process. In xylem, it is mostly negative pressure moving water and dissolved minerals;
in phloem, it is positive pressure driving the flow from source to sink.
The direction of flow is always from source to sink, and the sinks change depending
on the plant’s stage of growth and development. For example, in older plants, newly
forming leaves are a sink, and the sucrose travels from photosynthesizing leaves to
growing leaves. When fruit is forming, sucrose moves there by translocation, and
growth in other areas of the plant slows down. Because the flow moves from source to
sink, sometimes flow can happen in both directions at once. Different sieve tubes can be
conducting phloem sap in opposite directions, from different sources to different sinks.
B Water moves into the phloem as a result

of the increased concentration of sucrose.
The movement of water leads to an increase
in pressure in the phloem.
source: leaf cells
A
Sucrose enters the phloem in the leaf,
increasing the concentration of sucrose
solution in the phloem.
water
sucrose
C The pressure gradient between the source and

the sink causes a flow of solution through the
phloem from the source to the sink. Water moves
into and out of the phloem along the way.
sink: root cells
D
Sucrose is removed from the phloem by
tissues in the plant stem and root. This causes
the concentration of sucrose solution to fall,
and therefore water moves out of the phloem.
Pressure in the phloem decreases.
Figure 13.24 A common source is photosynthetic tissue in a leaf. Glucose produced by

photosynthesis is converted to sucrose and then enters the phloem by active transport. Fluid
pressure increases and pushes the solute-rich solution toward a sink where cells are growing,
carrying out processes that require energy, or storing food.

Section Summary
• Water and minerals are transported through the plant in • The cohesion-tension model explains how water is moved
xylem. Organic nutrients—carbon-based molecules that long distances from a plant’s roots to its leaves, driven
are produced by the plant—are transported in phloem. mainly by transpiration.
• Active transport, osmosis, and diffusion move water short • The pressure-flow model explains how translocation
distances through plants. moves organic molecules from a source, where they are
entering the phloem, to a sink, where they are being used
or stored.
Review Questions
1. K/U Which two features distinguish active transport 10. C Draw a labelled diagram that explains the
from diffusion? pressure-flow model of nutrient movement inside
2. K/U Describe how transpiration affects the phloem in plants.
movement of water through a plant. 11. T/I Which part of a plant would be a sink for sugars
3. K/U Does water move in both directions in xylem? in the spring?

Explain your answer. 12. T/I In an investigation, a researcher interrupted the
4. A Under which weather conditions would you be flow of materials through a tree by placing a metal
most likely to observe a leaf that looks like the one plate part of the way through the trunk. One day later,
shown below? a chemical analysis revealed that the sugar
concentration in the tree tissue was higher above the
plate than below the plate. As well, the concentration of
minerals and water was greater below the plate than
above the plate. Explain these results.
13. C A classmate is confused about whether phloem
transports organic molecules upward or downward in
a stem. How could you explain phloem transport to
clear up this confusion?
14. C Use a Venn diagram to compare and contrast
root pressure and the pressure-flow model.
15. T/I The diagram below illustrates two transport
5. T/I The cohesive and adhesive properties of water
processes that are used in plants.
are essential elements in the transport of materials in
a. Identify the two processes.
plants. Predict what would happen if these properties
b. Describe how each process is used in the
did not exist.
transportation of molecules in plants.
6. T/I Design an investigation to test the hypothesis
that water moves more quickly through a plant
growing in low humidity conditions than it does in a
plant growing in high humidity conditions.
7. T/I When your house plants have not been watered
for a week, they begin to wilt. Would you expect the
leaves near the top or near the bottom of the plant to
be affected first? Explain your answer.
8. A Would the cohesion-tension model be a good
water molecule salt movement of molecules
model for water transport in low-lying plants in moist
areas, such as mosses? 16. C Use a graphic organizer of your choice to
9. K/U Leaves can be both a source and a sink for compare and contrast transpiration and translocation.
organic molecules. Explain how this is possible.

Inquiry 13-A
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
Observing Roots and Root Hairs
Root hairs help the plant absorb water and minerals from the soil by increasing
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
the surface area for absorption.
✓ Communicating
Pre-Lab Questions
Safety Precautions 1. Identify the functions of roots.
2. Why is it important to handle microscope slides carefully?
Materials Question
• 2 or 3 paper towels What are the structures of roots, and how do they contribute to root function?
• 6 lima beans or radish seeds,
Procedure
soaked overnight
1. Fold a paper towel so that its width is equal to the height of a 250 mL
• water
beaker. It may need to be folded into two or three layers.
• two 250 mL beakers
2. Line the inside of the beaker with the folded paper towel.
• ruler
3. Gently place four to six lima beans between the paper towel and the side
• cheesecloth of the beaker about halfway to the bottom of the beaker.
• elastic band 4. Using the second beaker and the ruler, add water to the first beaker to a
• hand lens height of 1 cm. Maintain this water level over the next few days.
• microscope 5. Cover the beaker with cheesecloth, and use the rubber band to secure it.
• prepared slides of cross sections 6. Observe the lima beans daily as they begin to sprout. Examine the roots
showing root hairs and root hairs using a hand lens.
7. Estimate and record the length and width of a typical root hair.
8. Estimate the surface area of a typical root hair and estimate the surface
area of the root without root hairs. Assume the root hairs and roots are
cylinders. Record your estimates.
9. Examine the prepared slide of root cross sections under the microscope.
Analyze and Interpret

1. Draw the structure of the roots you observed, including the root hairs.
2. Based on your estimates, by what factor did the root hairs increase the
surface area of the roots on the lima beans?
3. What features of root hairs make them well suited to absorbing water?
Conclude and Communicate

4. How might the removal of all root hairs from a plant’s roots affect the plant?
Go to Using a Microscope in Appendix A

for help with use and care of a microscope.
Extend Further
Go to Biological Drawing in Appendix A
5. INQUIRY Design an investigation to compare and contrast the function of
for help with making a biological drawing.
root hairs to the function of trichomes on a plant such as an African violet.
6. RESEARCH Investigate how the roots of an epiphyte are adapted to provide
the plant with what it needs.

Inquiry 13-B
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Plant Stems
You have read that there are several ways to classify and describe plants. For
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting
example, flowering plants can be divided into two categories: monocots and
✓ Communicating
dicots. This division is based on the number of cotyledons in the embryo. There
are other characteristics that differ between monocots and dicots, including the
Safety Precautions arrangement of xylem and phloem tissue in the roots and the stems.
Herbaceous and woody are two adjectives used to describe plants and plant
• Use care when slicing a cross stems. Herbaceous plants have soft, often green stems, in which primary growth
section of tissue from the celery produces most, if not all, of the plant body. Woody plants have hard, or woody,
stalk. stems that increase in girth due to secondary growth. In this investigation, you
will use prepared slides to compare and contrast the structure of stems of a
• Scalpel blades are very sharp.
herbaceous monocot and a herbaceous dicot, and then compare the stem of the
Exercise extreme care.
herbaceous dicot to the stem of a woody dicot.
• Wash your hands thoroughly after
the investigation. A B
Materials
• celery stalk
• iodine stain
• prepared slides of stems:
herbaceous monocot, herbaceous
dicot, and woody dicot
• microscope
• scalpel
• microscope slides and cover slips
(A) Black-eyed Susans are examples of herbaceous plants. (B) Maple trees are
examples of woody plants.
Pre-Lab Questions
1. What are the main functions of the stem?
2. What is the difference between a herbaceous plant and a woody plant?
3. What safety precautions should you observe when handling a scalpel?
Go to Using a Microscope in Appendix A
for help with use and care of a microscope.
Question
Go to Biological Drawing in Appendix A
for help with making a biological drawing. How do the stems of monocots and dicots compare under the microscope?

Procedure Conclude and Communicate
1. Obtain a slide of a herbaceous monocot stem, such 8. How do you think the tissues of a herbaceous dicot and
as corn. a young, woody dicot are similar? What distinguishing
2. Identify the cells and tissues, such as parenchyma cells, features make them different?
epidermis, ground tissue, xylem, and phloem, within
the stem. Extend Further
3. Draw and label a diagram of the stem.
9. INQUIRY Some animals, such as rabbits and mice,
4. Obtain a slide of a herbaceous dicot stem, such chew the bark from around the base of trees during
as alfalfa. the winter. Since the bark consists of phloem, there
5. Repeat steps 2 and 3. is some nutritional value to the animals. Design an
6. Obtain a slide of a woody dicot stem, such as investigation to test the effects of bark removal on
basswood or maple. a plant. Identify the independent and dependent
7. Identify the cells and tissues, such as parenchyma cells, variables. What variables would you control in the
epidermis, ground tissue, vascular cambium, xylem, investigation?
and phloem, within the stem. 10. RESEARCH Find out how maple syrup is obtained
8. Count the growth rings in the stem. Observe from maple trees. What part of the tree is tapped to
any differences in the width of each ring. obtain sap for making maple syrup? How can a tree be
tapped year after year and not be harmed or killed?
9. Draw and label a diagram of the stem.
10. Thinly slice a cross section of tissue from the
celery stalk.
11. Prepare a wet-mount slide, using iodine to stain
the tissues.
12. Observe the celery under low power.

1. Compare and contrast the appearance of vascular
tissue in monocot and dicot stems.
2. Compare and contrast the appearance of a herbaceous
stem and a woody stem.
3. How old was the stem of the woody plant? Infer in
which years environmental conditions were favourable
to the plant. Explain your reasoning.
4. Was the celery a monocot or dicot? What evidence
did you observe to support your answer?
5. From its location in the vascular bundle, infer the
function of the vascular cambium.
6. In a woody stem, the vascular cambium is located
between the phloem and xylem. Predict where the
newest phloem and xylem cells are found, and give
reasons for your prediction.
7. Infer why there are more parenchyma cells in
herbaceous stems than in woody stems.

Inquiry 13-C
INVESTIGATION
Skill Check
✓
Comparing and Contrasting
✓ Analyzing and Interpreting Monocots and Dicots
✓ Communicating In this investigation, you will use live plant specimens and photographs of
flowering plants to classify plants as monocots or dicots.
Safety Precautions
• Use care when cutting the seeds.

• Scalpel blades are very sharp.
Exercise extreme care.
• Inform the teacher if you have a
food allergy.
• Wash your hands thoroughly after
the investigation.
monocot leaf dicot leaf
Materials
• presoaked seeds, such as beans,
Pre-Lab Questions
corn, or peas
1. What microscopic characteristics distinguish a monocot and a dicot?
• stem, leaves, and flowers of various
plants, such as onions, herbs, or 2. What macroscopic (visible to the unaided eye) characteristics distinguish
house plants a monocot and a dicot?
• scalpel 3. Why is it important to wash your hands after completing an investigation?
• hand lens Question

How can you use the characteristics of monocots and dicots to tell them apart?
Monocot Procedure
1. Dissect one sample of each type of seed to find out whether its embryo has
seed coat endosperm one or two cotyledons.
cotyledon
2. Draw and label the inside of each seed.
embryo 3. Obtain samples of stems, flowers, and leaves of various plants. Observe their
characteristics to classify the plants as monocots or dicots. Use Table 13.6
(on page 558) to help you in your classification.
Dicot 4. Draw an example of each structure you examined. Identify as many
differences among the samples as you can.
seed coat 5. Each of the plants shown on the right is the floral emblem of a Canadian
province or territory. Determine which are monocots and which are dicots.
embryo
cotyledon 1. What differences did you observe in the external appearance of monocot
and dicot plants?
2. Which class dominates the official list of floral emblems?
The seeds of monocots and dicots differ.
Conclude and Communicate
3. Identify the significant differences between monocots and dicots.

Extend Further
4. INQUIRY Create a dichotomous key that could be used

to classify a plant as a monocot or a dicot.
5. RESEARCH Find out more information about a plant
species that is commercially important, including
whether it is a monocot or dicot, herbaceous or woody,
and native to North America. How has the plant
influenced human culture?
mayflower Epigaea repens
white trillium Trillium grandiflorum wild rose Rosa acicularis prairie crocus Anemone patens
purple violet Viola cucullata dogwood tree Cornus nuttallii prairie lily Lillium philadelphicum
blue flag iris Iris versicolor pitcher plant Sarracenia purpurea lady slipper Cypripedium acaule
purple saxifrage Saxifraga oppositifolia fireweed Epilobium angustifolium mountain avens Dryas octopetala

STSE
Case Study
Medicinal Plants
Assessing the Best Use of Land and Its Resources
Scenario
For thousands of years, humans have used plants for healing The survival of some medicinal plants is at risk due to the
purposes. Over time, people have discovered ways to extraction of resources or other use of land on which they
prepare and use plants to treat physical complaints such grow. Some medicinal plants are overharvested, while others
as stomachaches, childbirth pains, aching joints, sore eyes, grow in areas where the timber industry is important to the
chapped skin, fevers, nosebleeds, and coughs and colds. economy. The habitats of some medicinal plants are destroyed
Today, medicinal plants are important on both a local when areas are deforested to make room for agriculture
level and global level. Over five billion people—about 70 or development, both of which can be important to local
percent of the world’s population—still rely on plants as their economies. Read the information handouts that follow to
primary source of medicine. For some people, harvesting and understand more about medicinal plants and their status. As
selling medicinal plants is their only source of income. Plants you read, think about how land and resources related to land
are a source of about 40 percent of pharmaceutical drugs that may be used. Be prepared to use the knowledge you gain
are manufactured commercially. Aside from being beneficial from the handouts as well as your own research to discuss
to human health, medicinal plants also contribute to the the issues related to medicinal plants and land use with your
biodiversity and food webs of their respective ecosystems. classmates.
Pacific Yew
Magnolia (Taxus brevifolia)
(Magnolia officinalis)
RANGE Worldwide, there are
RANGE There are 245 species several species of yew, which
of magnolias worldwide. Two are a type of evergreen shrubs.
thirds of these species are in For example, the Pacific yew is
Asia, and the rest are in North found along the western coast
and South America. of the United States, ranging
s in China and da yew is found in
MEDICINAL VALUE For over 5000 year up into British Columbia, and the Cana
us species Canada.
Japan, the roots and stem bark from vario northeastern United States and eastern
been used to crea te mag nolia tea for the United States
of magnolia have
nerv ous disorders. MEDICINAL VALUE Over 40 years ago,
treating cancer, stroke, and anxie ty and e and the Natio nal Cancer
Department of Agric ultur
used to treat sinus infections with cancer-
Magnolia flowers have been Institute bega n testing plan ts for chem icals
iratory infec tions . that the Pacific yew’s
and chronic resp
ral species of fighting properties. They discovered
Scientists have discovered that seve bark contains a chemical, calle d pacl itaxe l, with these
d hono kiol in their roots, dient in
magnolia contain a chemical calle properties. Paclitaxe l soon beca me a valua ble ingre
s. Hono kiol has been shown to rapy drug s.
stem barks, and seed cone one of the most widely used chemothe
bloo d clott ing. It also has antib acterial paclitaxel,
reduce anxiety and
that hono kiol Since it is difficult to create synthetic
show
and anti-inflammatory effects. Studies scientists have looked for othe r natu ral sour ces. The
tumo urs more sens itive to ed as a good
may be useful in making cancer Canada yew (Taxus cana dens is) was iden tifi
. As a resu lt, scien tists are tryin g uce two types
traditional chemotherapy source of pacl itaxe l. Cana da yews also prod
etic deriv ative s of this chem ical. pacl itaxe l.
to create synth of taxanes that can be used to make
magnolia are now been overharvesting
STATUS About half of all species of STATUS In the past decade, there has
es for the decline in of the yew forest
threatened. One of the main caus of yews. In China, for exam ple, 80 perc ent
resta tion. The habitats of Canada, there are
population numbers is defo in Yunnan province was destroyed. In
are dest roye d whe n the fores ts in which ial yew harvesting.
magnolia trees
equently, the land regulations in place to control commerc
they stand are clear-cut for timber. Subs Studies are being done to fi nd ways to harv est yew in a
as bana nas and coffee.
might be planted with crops, such more sustainable man ner.

Research and Analyze
1. Research more examples of medicinal plants that
are at risk and choose one example. Learn more
about the different sides of the issue regarding the
status of this plant. What are the opposing interests
involved in the issue of medicinal plants and land
use? What are the pros and cons of preserving the
land or habitat in which the plant grows? What
FIELD GUIDE
VOL UME 1: MED ICIN AL PLA NTS
are the pros and cons of an alternative use of
the land, for example, farming or hydroelectric
development to provide much-needed electricity
to a region? Form an opinion about how the land
should be used.
2. Research to find out how strategies for the

Goldthread and conservation and sustainable use of medicinal
plants are being used by small communities and
Wild Sarsaparilla traditional healers in some developing countries.
(Coptis trifolia and Aralia nudicaulis)
RANGE Goldthread and wild 3. Using the results of your research and the
sarsaparilla are found across Canada, information in the case study, summarize the issues
including in Canada’s boreal forest, related to growth and harvesting of medicinal
and are used by some Aboriginal plants versus some of the other ways in which the
peoples for food and healing land could be used. Use this information to form
purposes. an opinion about issues related to the growth of
MEDICINAL AND CULTURAL VALUE medicinal plants and land use.
In the past, the root of goldthread, a
flowering shrub, was used to treat Take Action
liver problems, mouth sores, and dige
stive disorders, and 1. Plan Share the results of your research and
to purify the blood. Today, it is used to
make a mouthwash
to treat mouth sores. The root of wild analysis with your group. Plan a course of action
sarsaparilla, which
is a relative of ginseng, is used to make to help promote your opinion about how the
a tea for easing
toothache, sore throats, and upset stom land should be used or how the issues might be
achs. The whole
plant is used to treat pneumonia. resolved with regard to the medicinal plant you
There are over 500 First Nations com chose to research. Actions may include creating an
munities and
hundreds of Métis communities living information campaign, initiating a letter-writing
in the boreal
forest region. Many of these commun campaign targeting key government officials, or
ities have used
traditional methods to harvest medicina
l plants in the running a fundraising campaign for an organization
forests for centuries. The collection proc
ess itself, the that promotes your point of view.
oral passing-down of the knowledge,
and the use of the
medicinal plants for healing are an impo 2. Act Create a product related to the action you
rtant part of the
culture of many Aboriginal peoples. outlined in the previous question. For example,
STATUS The boreal forest is under threa if you outlined an information campaign, create
t by many human-
caused pressures. These include clima a sample pamphlet that you would use as part of
te change, the
introduction of invasive species, and the campaign. If you chose to work on a letter-
habitat loss and
fragmentation due to industrial logging writing campaign, write a letter to an appropriate
and the commercial
development of hydro power and minin government official. If you chose to run a
g. In the western
part of the forest there is a growing netw
ork of roads fundraising campaign, write a letter that you could
built to support the extraction of oil and
gas resources. send to organizations asking them for support.
Dams have flooded areas formerly cove
red with plants.
These changes are a threat to the surv
ival of local plant
populations, and to traditional cultural
practices and the
overall traditional ways of life of the Abor
iginal peoples
who live in this region.

Chapter 13 SUMMARY
Section 13.1 Plants as Valuable Bioresources
For thousands of years, humans have used plants as KEY CONCEPTS

sources of food, fibres, fuel, and medicines. • Plants are important because they transform the
Sun’s energy into glucose and release oxygen into the
KEY TERMS atmosphere through the process of photosynthesis.
agriculture photosynthesis
• Cellulose is an important molecule found in the cell walls of
biofuel sustainable agriculture
plants, and it is used by humans in many ways.
cellulose textile
food security timber • Plants are a source of food, fibres, building materials,
biochemicals, fuel, flood and erosion control, recreation,
and ecotourism.
Section 13.2 The Vascular Plant Body
Vascular plants have specialized tissues and cells • Different types of plant cells include parenchyma cells,
that perform many functions needed for growth collenchyma cells, and sclerenchyma cells.
and survival. • Meristems are areas of rapidly dividing cells that can
develop into different types of specialized cells throughout
KEY TERMS
the plant.
dermal tissue root hairs
epidermis root system • The outer covering of a plant is called the epidermis and is
ground tissue shoot system made up of dermal tissue.
guard cell stoma • Plants are made up mostly of ground tissue.
meristematic tissue xylem • Vascular tissue is an internal transport system that runs
phloem throughout the plant, carrying water and dissolved
KEY CONCEPTS nutrients and minerals.
• The organs of a plant are contained in two organ systems—
the root system and the shoot system.
Section 13.3 Plant Organs and Their Functions
The root and shoot systems of plants have structures KEY CONCEPTS
that enable plants to survive in their unique • The root system anchors the plant and absorbs water and
environments. nutrients from the surrounding soil.
• Stems provide support for the plant’s leaves and
KEY TERMS
reproductive structures.
aerenchyma palisade mesophyll
cortex root cap • Stems and roots have many different forms, some of which
cuticle spongy mesophyll are modified to store food or water.
endodermis taproot • Leaves perform photosynthesis, and their internal structure
fibrous root venation is specialized to maximize the amount of sunlight they can
mesophyll capture and convert to chemical energy.
Section 13.4 Transport in Plants
Water, minerals, nutrients, and sugar are transported • Active transport, osmosis, and diffusion move water short
throughout a plant in the xylem and phloem. distances through plants.
• The cohesion-tension model explains how water is moved
KEY TERMS
long distances from a plant’s roots to its leaves, driven
cohesion-tension model translocation
mainly by transpiration.
pressure-flow model transpiration
root pressure • The pressure-flow model explains how translocation moves
organic molecules from a source, where they are entering
KEY CONCEPTS the phloem, to a sink, where they are being used or stored.
• Water and minerals are transported through the plant in
xylem. Organic nutrients—carbon-based molecules that
are produced by the plant—are transported in phloem.

Chapter 13 REVIEW
Knowledge and Understanding 7. Which is the main function of plant leaves?

Select the letter of the best answer below. a. anchor the plant d. store carbohydrates
1. Which is the region of actively dividing cells at the tip b. absorb water e. perform photosynthesis
of the stem? c. absorb minerals
a. apical meristem d. dermal tissue 8. What is the function of guard cells?
b. vascular tissue e. ground tissue a. They store carbohydrates.
c. lateral meristem b. They control the size of the stomata.
2. Which vascular tissue is shown below? c. They help support the plant.
d. They absorb minerals from soil.
e. They increase the surface area for absorption.
Answer the questions below.
9. What type of tissue makes up the outer layer of a plant?
10. How does the branching structure of a root enable it to
perform its functions?
11. Potatoes and sweet potatoes are both food storage
structures. Explain the difference between these two
plant structures.
12. Identify the structure shown below. Which material is
a. phloem d. parenchyma transported through this structure? In which direction
b. xylem e. aerenchyma does transport occur?
c. epidermis
3. In which of the following organisms does
photosynthesis occur?
a. frogs
b. all green plants
c. all bacteria
d. some animals
e. all protists
4. What is one advantage of monocultures?
a. They require the input of synthetic fertilizers.
b. They are less vulnerable to pests.
c. They restore nutrients to the soil. 13. What are trichomes? List two functions of trichomes.
d. They increase crop yield.
14. What is the function of vascular tissue in plants?
e. They improve the water quality in the area.
Describe the two types of vascular tissue and their
5. Which type of tissue makes up the outer covering function.
of a plant?
15. Describe the three factors involved in the cohesion-
a. meristematic tissue d. vascular tissue tension model of water transport.
b. dermal tissue e. stem tissue
16. What plant part is shown in this cross section?
c. ground tissue
How can you tell?
6. Which statement about plants is false?
a. Plants do not carry out cellular respiration.
b. Plant fibres can be used to make textiles.
c. Plant products can be used as building materials.
d. Plants are a source of pharmaceutical products.
e. Plants can help reduce soil erosion.

Chapter 13 REVIEW
Thinking and Investigation Communication

17. A tree grows in an environment where typically there 25. Describe the similarities and differences in the
are four or five very dry years followed by a wet year. structure of xylem and phloem. Use sketches to
How would this be reflected in the annual growth rings support your answer.
of the tree? 26. Plants have specialized structures with
18. How can the tissue inside a living plant be dead? distinct functions that enable them to
Explain your answer. respond and adapt to their environment. Make a sketch
19. Design a procedure to test the hypothesis that showing the functions of roots and how roots may be
trichomes on a plant in the mustard family secrete a modified depending on the plant’s environment.
toxin that keeps caterpillars away. 27. Draw a labelled diagram showing two types of
20. Plan a field trip in your local area to classify the horizontal stems.
various types of plants as monocots or dicots, and as 28. The concept map below compares the different types
herbaceous or woody. Outline the steps, procedures, of specialized plant cells in ground tissue and their
and materials that you would need for your field trip. functions. Copy the concept map into your notebook
21. The two main root systems in plants are taproots and and complete the map.
fibrous roots. ground tissue
a. How does the structure of a taproot differ from that consists of

of a fibrous root?
b. Explain how the structure of each supports their
parenchyma
function. cells
22. In the small intestine of humans, the surface area for
the absorption of water and nutrients is increased by which which which
the presence of small projections on the surface of the

cells called microvilli. What structure in plants serves a store
similar purpose? Explain. materials
23. The winters in Canada can be exceptionally harsh. 29. Plant variety is critical to the survival and
List two stem adaptations and describe how they help sustainability of ecosystems. Since only one
plants survive a Canadian winter. type of plant is grown in monocultures, they lack
24. Study the diagram below. species diversity. When genetically engineered seeds
a. Identify and describe the function of the cells are planted, such as pest-resistant or drought-resistant
labelled A, B, C, and D. strains of plants, genetic diversity within crop plants is
b. Why do you think leaves are made mostly of also low. In a short paragraph, explain how these
parenchyma cells? factors may affect the sustainability of a monoculture.
A 30. Use diagrams to illustrate the three processes involved
in the movement of substances in plants: transpiration,
translocation, and osmosis.
B
31. Which plants are important for sustaining Canada’s
growth in the agricultural sector? Research the answer
to this question. Given that the maple leaf is already a
symbol of Canada, what other plants could be used as
C symbols of Canada? Use the results of your research to
justify your answer.
D
32. Make an outline for an Internet advertisement
promoting ecotourism, with an emphasis on plants,
in an area of your choice in Canada.
33. Make a spider map that shows the different ways
humans use plants.

34. Draw and label a diagram that shows the contribution 41. If you wanted to create paper that was sturdy and
of each of the “three sisters” to the relationship these capable of holding canned goods without breaking,
plants have. what type of cellular material would you leave in the
35. Summarize your learning in this chapter using wood pulp during processing?
a graphic organizer. To help you, the Chapter 13 42. Would you expect plants living in dry conditions to
Summary lists the Key Terms and Key Concepts. have more or fewer stomata than plants living in wet
Refer to Using Graphic Organizers in Appendix A to conditions? Explain your answer.
help you decide which graphic organizer to use. 43. Soil erosion along the banks of rivers continues to be
a problem in Ontario.
Application
a. How can plants be used to help solve this problem?
36. Your friend brings home photographs from a holiday
b. Which plants would you choose, and why?
in the tropics. One photograph is similar to the one
shown below. It shows a tree with structures coming
down from its branches and going into the soil. Your
friend thinks the stem and branches of the tree are
mutated and is going to submit the photograph to the
newspaper. Research information about the structures
shown in the photograph, called adventitious roots.
What advice would you give your friend about
submitting the photograph?
44. Acetylsalicylic acid, or ASA, is the medicinal

ingredient in aspirin. It can be synthesized from
salicin, found in poplar bark. Since the time of the
ancient Greeks, poplar and willow bark have been
used as a natural pain reliever. Many other plants have
medicinal applications. Choose one medicinal plant
and describe its source and use.
45. Food security is the state where all people, at all times,
have access to enough safe and nutritious food to meet
their dietary needs and preferences and allow them to
lead an active and healthy life. This is a critical issue for
today’s human population. Do you think food security
will or can ever be achieved? Explain your position.
37. Would you expect the roots of plants that are usually
submerged under water to float or sink if they were 46. The local food movement involves buying foods, such
pulled out and placed in water? Explain your answer. as vegetables, fruits, meat, and dairy products, that are
grown or produced as close to a given area as possible.
38. You cut your grass to stop it growing because you know
a. Research more information about initiatives to
the apical meristem is located at the tops of stems. The
“buy local.”
grass just grows back. Explain this observation.
b. Explain how the local food movement can
39. You are explaining that all trees have cork. Your friend
contribute to community development.
disagrees, and says only cork trees have cork. Support
your statement. 47. A large oak tree can transpire about 150 000 liters
of water per year. Draw a diagram that explains the
40. The cuticle helps reduce water loss from leaves. It also
role of plants in the water cycle. Use the following
functions as a protective barrier, helping to keep dirt,
terms in your diagram, either as labels or in a caption:
bacteria, fungi, or other substances from reaching
leaves, transpiration, guard cells, xylem, water cycle,
the inside of a plant. Explain the importance of these
evaporation, stomata, and roots.
functions to the health of a plant.

Chapter 13 SELF-ASSESSMENT
Select the letter of the best answer below. 7. K/U Which plant parts would most likely provide the
1. K/U Which is a practice associated with best source of starch?

monocultures? a. leaves
a. planting a single species in a large area b. stems
b. crop rotation c. flowers
c. hand-pulling of weeds d. tuberous roots
d. use of natural predators to control pests e. fibrous roots
e. reduced need for synthetic fertilizers 8. K/U In which layer(s) of a leaf does the majority of
2. K/U From which plant is the food product tofu photosynthesis take place?
made? a. upper epidermal layer
a. wheat d. oats b. palisade mesophyll layer
b. corn e. soybeans c. spongy mesophyll layer
c. barley d. lower epidermal layer
3. K/U Which statement about cellulose is false? e. all layers equally
a. It is a large and complex carbohydrate. 9. K/U Which statement best describes a monocot?
b. It is the main component of cell walls in plants. a. Roots have vascular tissue arranged in a star shape.
c. It is the sole product of photosynthesis. b. Leaf veins are usually palmate or pinnate.
d. It can be used to make fabric. c. Flowers are in four or five parts, or multiples of four
e. It can be used to make paper and cardboard. or five.
4. K/U Which specialized organs of a plant perform d. It has a woody stem.
photosynthesis? e. It typically has fibrous roots.
a. flowers d. shoots 10. K/U Which accurately describes the movement of
b. leaves e. bark sugars inside a plant?

c. roots a. Sugars are transported in the xylem according to
the cohesion-tension model.
5. K/U Which two features are found in plants cells and
not in animal cells? b. Sugars are transported in the phloem from the roots
to the leaves for winter storage.
a. nucleus and chloroplasts
c. Sugars are transported using a combination of
b. cell wall and chloroplasts
osmosis and pressure dynamics.
c. cell membrane and cell wall
d. Sugars are transported by transpiration.
d. cell membrane and chloroplasts
e. Sugars are transported into the roots by diffusion.
e. cell wall and nucleus
6. K/U Typical plant cells are pictured below. Use sentences and diagrams as appropriate to answer the
Identify the plant cell type and location. questions below.
11. T/I Distinguish between the function of
collenchyma cells and sclerenchyma cells. How does
the structure of each of these cells support their
function?
12. K/U How do plants help control erosion?
13. A A tree is growing in your friend’s yard. Your
friend states that the tree has grown 10 cm in height
Magnification: 350× due to secondary growth. Explain why this statement
a. parenchyma cell–leaf is inaccurate.
b. sclerenchyma cell–leaf 14. C Use a diagram to illustrate the gas exchange
c. parenchyma cell–root process in a leaf. Identify all relevant cell types.
d. sclerenchyma cell–stem 15. K/U Describe the difference in function between
e. collenchyma cell–stem xylem and phloem.

16. A In some plants, roots are adapted to the 21. A A tree’s growth rings can be used to indicate
environment in which the plant lives. For example, the age of a tree and how favourable the growing
cypress, mangrove, and some other trees that live in conditions were in a year. Is it possible that more than
water develop modified roots that extend upward one ring could be produced in one year? Explain your
rather than downward. Provide a possible explanation answer.
for this adaptation. 22. T/I In Activity 13.3, the movement of water from a
17. K/U Compare the processes of diffusion and osmosis. plant’s roots to its leaves was modelled. If a similar
18. C Draw a diagram that illustrates the movement of investigation were performed to track the movement
water in the xylem of a plant. of sugars during a period of growth, where would you
expect the sugars to be deposited?
19. T/I Fibres from a plant called Indian hemp
(Apocynum cannabinum) are used to make the 23. C Use a diagram to compare the structure of the
highest quality rope and cord in the world. palisade mesophyll layer with the spongy meosophyll
a. Design an investigation to test this claim. layer. How do the differences in structure reflect their
function?
b. What types of measurements might you make to
determine the superiority of products made with 24. A The Venus flytrap, shown below, is a carnivorous
Indian hemp fibres compared to the same products plant that obtains nutrients, such as nitrogen, by
made from other fibres? trapping small insects and spiders.
c. Identify the independent and dependent variables a. Compare this mechanism of obtaining nutrients
in the investigation you design. with the way most plants obtain mineral nutrients.
20. T/I A cross section of two stems, one of a monocot b. In what types of soil would Venus flytraps be more
and one of a dicot, is shown below. Using your successful than other plants? Explain.
knowledge of the difference between these two types of
flowering plant, identify the stems and describe the
difference in structure.
A
25. C Canada is considered to be an agricultural

superpower.
a. Write a short paragraph supporting this idea.
b. Be sure to include at least three relevant facts
or examples.
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13.1 13.1 13.1 13.2 13.2 13.2 13.3 13.3 13.3 13.4 13.2 13.1 13.2 13.2 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.4 13.1 13.3 13.3 13.4 13.3 13.4 13.1
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Chapter 13 Biology 11

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Chapter 13 Biology 11

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UNIT

scattered arranged in ring

530 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Cellular Transport: Diffusion and Osmosis

Unit 5 Preparation • MHR 531

532 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Unit 5 Preparation • MHR 533

• F1.2 evaluate, on the basis of research,

• F2.1 use appropriate terminology related

• F2.3 identify and draw biological

• F3.1 describe the structures of the

• F3.2 compare and contrast monocot

Y ou may know that wood and wood products are used

534 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Straw Versus Wood

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 535

Figure 13.1 Plants and

The Biosphere Depends on Plants

Photosynthesis: A Life-Sustaining Process

The Many Uses of Cellulose

536 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

The Importance of Agriculture to Canadian Society

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 537

538 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

How are plants important to Canadians? • agricultural industry • pharmaceutical industry

Plants as a Source of Fibres and Building Materials

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 539

540 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Plants and Erosion Control

Plants, Recreation, and Ecotourism

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 541

THIS WEEK ON QUIRKS & QUARKS

Could Canada Rely on Biomass to Meet Energy Needs? Related Career

1. Use a PMI chart to analyze the advantages and

5. C Express your opinion on whether monoculture Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 543

544 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 545

Collenchyma • support surrounding tissues

Sclerenchyma Fibres • support mature plant

546 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

cork cambium root cap

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 547

548 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

longitudinal section of xylem

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 549

sieve tube element

Longitudinal section Cross section

Magniﬁcation: 100× Magniﬁcation: 200×

Activity 13.2 Plant Cell Types

Materials 3. Repeat steps 1 and 2 with the remaining slides.

550 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 551

Root Structure and Function

root cap Magnification: 25×

552 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Inner Root Vascular Tissue

Magnification: 60× Magnification: 18× phloem

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 553

Fibrous root • anchors plant

Modified root • food and water storage

554 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 555

Leaf Structure and Function

Figure 13.19 The internal air space

556 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Compound Parallel Whorled

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 557

558 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

4. K/U What are the two major types of root systems?

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 559

Figure 13.20 Water and

560 MHR • Unit 5 Plants: Anatomy, Growth, and Function

Root Pressure: Pushing Water Up Against Gravity

Chapter 13 Plants: Uses, Form, and Function • MHR 561

Activity 13.3 Modelling Transpiration