Philosophy

Contents

0.1 A Defense of Abortion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

0.1.1 Overview of the essay . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
0.1.2 Criticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.1.3 Table of common criticisms and responses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
0.1.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.1.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
0.1.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.2 Buridan's ass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.2.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
0.2.2 Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.2.3 Buridan's principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
0.2.4 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.2.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.2.7 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.2.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.3 Buridan's bridge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.3.1 The sophism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
0.3.2 Buridan's solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.3.3 Philosophers on the sophism and its solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
0.3.4 Use of Buridan's bridge in literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.3.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.4 Chicken or the egg . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
0.4.1 History of the dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.4.2 Scientific resolution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
0.4.3 Chicken-and-egg problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.4.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.4.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
0.5 Chinese room . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.5.1 Chinese room thought experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
0.5.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
0.5.3 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

i
ii CONTENTS

0.5.4 Computer science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

0.5.5 Complete argument . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
0.5.6 Replies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
0.5.7 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
0.5.8 Citations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
0.5.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
0.5.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
0.6 Double-barreled question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
0.6.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
0.6.2 Legal usage . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
0.6.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
0.6.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
0.6.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
0.7 Ghost in the machine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
0.7.1 Gilbert Ryle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
0.7.2 The Concept of Mind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
0.7.3 Popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
0.7.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
0.7.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
0.7.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
0.8 God is dead . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
0.8.1 Explication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
0.8.2 Death of God theological movement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
0.8.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
0.8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
0.8.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
0.8.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
0.9 Hanlon's razor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
0.9.1 Origins and etymology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
0.9.2 Similar quotations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
0.9.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
0.9.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
0.9.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
0.10 Loaded question . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
0.10.1 Defense . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
0.10.2 Historical examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
0.10.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
0.10.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
0.10.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
0.11 Meaning of life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
0.11.1 Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
CONTENTS iii

0.11.2 Scientific inquiry and perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

0.11.3 Western philosophical perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
0.11.4 East Asian philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
0.11.5 Religious perspectives . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
0.11.6 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
0.11.7 Popular views . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
0.11.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
0.11.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
0.11.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
0.12 Murphy's law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
0.12.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
0.12.2 Association with Murphy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
0.12.3 Other variations on Murphy's law . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
0.12.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
0.12.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
0.12.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
0.12.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
0.13 Occam's razor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
0.13.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
0.13.2 Justifications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
0.13.3 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
0.13.4 Controversial aspects of the razor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
0.13.5 Anti-razors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
0.13.6 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
0.13.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
0.13.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
0.13.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
0.13.10 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
0.13.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
0.14 Paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
0.14.1 Logical paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
0.14.2 Quine's classification of paradoxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
0.14.3 Paradox in philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
0.14.4 Paradox in medicine . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
0.14.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
0.14.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
0.14.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
0.15 Philosophic burden of proof . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
0.15.1 Holder of the burden . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
0.15.2 In public discourse . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
0.15.3 Proving a negative . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
iv CONTENTS

0.15.4 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
0.15.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
0.15.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
0.16 Plank of Carneades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
0.16.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
0.16.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
0.17 Poisoning the well . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
0.17.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
0.17.2 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
0.17.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
0.17.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
0.17.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
0.18 Quis custodiet ipsos custodes? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
0.18.1 Original context . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
0.18.2 Reference to political power . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
0.18.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
0.18.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
0.18.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
0.19 Ship of Theseus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
0.19.1 Variations of the paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
0.19.2 Proposed resolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
0.19.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
0.19.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
0.20 Thought experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
0.20.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
0.20.2 Variety . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
0.20.3 Origins and use of the literal term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
0.20.4 Uses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88
0.20.5 In science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
0.20.6 Relation to real experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
0.20.7 Causal reasoning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89
0.20.8 Seven Types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
0.20.9 In philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
0.20.10 Famous thought experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
0.20.11 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94
0.20.12 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
0.20.13 Significant articles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
0.20.14 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
0.20.15 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
0.21 Time travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
0.21.1 History of the time travel concept . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
CONTENTS v

0.21.2 Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

0.21.3 Time travel to the past in physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
0.21.4 Time travel to the future in physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
0.21.5 Other ideas from mainstream physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
0.21.6 Philosophical understandings of time travel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
0.21.7 Ideas from fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
0.21.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
0.21.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
0.21.10 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
0.21.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
0.22 Turtles all the way down . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
0.22.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
0.22.2 Notable modern allusions or variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
0.22.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
0.22.4 Footnotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123

1 Dilemmas 124
1.1 Crocodile dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.1.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.1.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.2 Double bind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
1.2.1 Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
1.2.2 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
1.2.3 Complexity in communication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.2.4 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.2.5 Phrase examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
1.2.6 Positive double binds . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1.2.7 Theory of logical types . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1.2.8 Science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1.2.9 Schizophrenia . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
1.2.10 Evolution of Species as a Logical Level Distinct from Survival of the Individual . . . . . . 128
1.2.11 Usage in Zen Buddhism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
1.2.12 Girard's mimetic double bind . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1.2.13 Neuro-linguistic programming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
1.2.14 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.2.15 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130
1.2.16 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.2.17 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.3 Euthyphro dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.3.1 The dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.3.2 In philosophical theism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
1.3.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
vi CONTENTS

1.3.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137

1.3.5 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
1.3.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
1.3.7 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1.3.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1.4 False dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1.4.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142
1.4.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.4.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.4.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.5 Prisoner's dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143
1.5.1 Strategy for the classic prisoners' dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.5.2 Generalized form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
1.5.3 The iterated prisoners' dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
1.5.4 Real-life examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 148
1.5.5 Related games . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
1.5.6 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1.5.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
1.5.8 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
1.5.9 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1.6 Samaritan's dilemma . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1.6.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1.6.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1.6.3 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1.7 Trolley problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
1.7.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
1.7.2 Related problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 154
1.7.3 In cognitive science . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.7.4 In neuroethics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.7.5 Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.7.6 Views of professional philosophers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.7.7 As urban legend . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.7.8 Implications for autonomous vehicles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
1.7.9 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
1.7.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
1.7.11 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157

2 Fallacies 158
2.1 Argumentum ad populum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.1.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.1.2 Explanation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 158
2.1.3 Exceptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
CONTENTS vii

2.1.4 Reversals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

2.1.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.1.6 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.1.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.2 Association fallacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.2.1 Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160
2.2.2 Guilt by association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.2.3 Honor by association . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.2.4 Galileo Gambit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 161
2.2.5 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.2.6 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.2.7 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.2.8 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.3 Fallacy of division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.3.1 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.3.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.3.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
2.4 Ignoratio elenchi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
2.4.1 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
2.4.2 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.4.3 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.5 List of fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.5.1 Formal fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
2.5.2 Informal fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
2.5.3 Conditional or questionable fallacies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2.5.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2.5.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
2.5.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 172
2.5.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.6 Nirvana fallacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.6.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.6.2 Perfect solution fallacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.6.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.6.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.6.5 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.7 Psychologist's fallacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.7.1 Alternative statements of the fallacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.7.2 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.7.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.8 Texas sharpshooter fallacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
2.8.1 Structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
viii CONTENTS

2.8.2 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175

2.8.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2.8.4 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
2.8.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176

3 Paradoxes 177
3.1 Coastline paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
3.1.1 Mathematical aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.1.2 Practical . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
3.1.3 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.1.4 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.1.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.2 Fermi paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.2.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
3.2.2 Basis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
3.2.3 Name . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.2.4 Drake equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
3.2.5 Empirical resolution attempts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
3.2.6 Explaining the paradox hypothetically . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.2.7 In science fiction and other media . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.2.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.2.9 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
3.2.10 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
3.2.11 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.2.12 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.2.13 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.3 Grandfather paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
3.3.1 Scientific theories . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
3.3.2 Theories in science fiction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
3.3.3 Other considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.3.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.3.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
3.3.6 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.4 Liar paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.4.1 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
3.4.2 Explanation of the paradox and variants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.4.3 Possible resolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 205
3.4.4 Logical structure of the liar paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.4.5 Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
3.4.6 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3.4.7 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
3.4.8 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
CONTENTS ix

3.4.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208

3.4.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.5 List of paradoxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.5.1 Logic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
3.5.2 Mathematics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.5.3 Decision theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
3.5.4 Physics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
3.5.5 Biology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
3.5.6 Chemistry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.5.7 Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.5.8 Linguistics and Artificial Intelligence . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.5.9 Philosophy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
3.5.10 Mysticism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3.5.11 Economics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
3.5.12 Perception . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.5.13 Politics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.5.14 History . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.5.15 Psychology and sociology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
3.5.16 Miscellaneous . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
3.5.17 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
3.5.18 Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
3.6 Sorites paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3.6.1 The original formulation and variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
3.6.2 Proposed resolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 221
3.6.3 In popular culture . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
3.6.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
3.6.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
3.6.6 Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.6.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.7 Unexpected hanging paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.7.1 Description of the paradox . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.7.2 The logical school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.7.3 The epistemological school . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.7.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
3.7.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
3.7.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
3.7.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227

4 Stories 228
4.1 Blind men and an elephant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.1.1 The story . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
4.1.2 Jain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
x CONTENTS

4.1.3 Buddhist . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229

4.1.4 Sufi Muslim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
4.1.5 Hindu . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.1.6 John Godfrey Saxe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.1.7 Modern treatments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
4.1.8 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.1.9 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.1.10 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2 Camel's nose . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
4.2.1 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
4.3 Parable of the broken window . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.3.1 The parable . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.3.2 Differing interpretations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
4.3.3 Criticisms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
4.3.4 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.3.5 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.3.6 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.3.7 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.4 The Gift of the Magi . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
4.4.1 Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.4.2 Adaptations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236
4.4.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.4.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.5 The Lady, or the Tiger? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.5.1 Plot summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
4.5.2 Other works . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.5.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.5.4 Further reading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.5.5 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.6 Three men make a tiger . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 238
4.6.1 Origin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.6.2 See also . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.6.3 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
4.6.4 External links . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

5 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses 240

5.1 Text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.2 Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 258
5.3 Content license . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
 0.1. A DEFENSE OF ABORTION 1

0.1 A Defense of Abortion who carries her pregnancy to term is a 'Good Samaritan'
who goes beyond her obligations.* [6]
"A Defense of Abortion" is a moral philosophy paper
by Judith Jarvis Thomson first published in 1971. Grant-
Third-party participation – the “expanding child”
ing for the sake of argument that the fetus has a right
to life, Thomson uses thought experiments to argue that
Thomson criticizes the common method of deducing a
the pregnant woman's right to control her own body and
woman’s right to abort from the permissibility of a third
its life-support functions trumps the fetus' right to life,
party committing the abortion. In almost all instances, a
and that induced abortion is therefore morally permissi-
woman’s right to abortion may hinge on the doctor’s
ble. Her argument has many critics on both sides of the
willingness to perform it. If the doctor refuses, then the
abortion debate,* [1] yet continues to receive defense.* [2]
woman is denied her right. To base the woman’s right
Thomson's imaginative examples and controversial con-
on the accordance or refusal of a doctor, she says, is to
clusions have made “A Defense of Abortion”perhaps
ignore the mother’s full personhood, and subsequently,
“the most widely reprinted essay in all of contemporary
her rights to her body. Thomson presents the hypothetical
philosophy".* [3]
example of the ‘expanding child’:

0.1.1 Overview of the essay Suppose you find yourself trapped in a tiny
house with a growing child. I mean a very tiny
The Violinist house, and a rapidly growing child—you are
already up against the wall of the house and
In “A Defense of Abortion”, Thomson grants for the in a few minutes you’ll be crushed to death.
sake of argument that the fetus has a right to life, but de- The child on the other hand won’t be crushed
fends the permissibility of abortion by appeal to a thought to death; if nothing is done to stop him from
experiment: growing he’ll be hurt, but in the end he’ll
simply burst open the house and walk out a free
man.* [7]
You wake up in the morning and find your-
self back to back in bed with an unconscious
violinist. A famous unconscious violinist. He Thomson concedes that a third party indeed cannot make
has been found to have a fatal kidney ailment, the choice to kill either the person being crushed or the
and the Society of Music Lovers has canvassed child. However, this does not mean that the person being
all the available medical records and found crushed cannot act in self-defense and attack the child
that you alone have the right blood type to to save his or her own life. To liken this to pregnancy,
help. They have therefore kidnapped you, and the mother can be thought to be the house, the fetus the
last night the violinist's circulatory system was growing-child. In such a case, the mother’s life is being
plugged into yours, so that your kidneys can be threatened, and the fetus is the one who threatens it. Be-
used to extract poisons from his blood as well cause for no reason should the mother’s life be threat-
as your own. [If he is unplugged from you now, ened, and also for no reason is the fetus threatening it,
he will die; but] in nine months he will have both are innocent, and thus no third party can intervene.
recovered from his ailment, and can safely be But, Thomson says, the person threatened can intervene,
unplugged from you.* [4] by which justification a mother can rightfully abort.* [8]
Continuing, Thomson returns to the ‘expanding child’
Thomson takes it that you may now permissibly unplug example and points out:
yourself from the violinist even though this will cause his
death: the right to life, Thomson says, does not include For what we have to keep in mind is that the
the right to use another person's body, and so by unplug- mother and the unborn child are not like two
ging the violinist you do not violate his right to life but tenants in a small house, which has, by unfortu-
merely deprive him of something—the use of your body nate mistake, been rented to both: the mother
—to which he has no right. "[I]f you do allow him to go owns the house. The fact that she does adds to
on using your kidneys, this is a kindness on your part, and the offensiveness of deducing that the mother
not something he can claim from you as his due.”* [5] can do nothing from the supposition that third
For the same reason, Thomson says, abortion does not parties can do nothing. But it does more than
violate the fetus's legitimate rights, but merely deprives this: it casts a bright light on the supposition
the fetus of something—the use of the pregnant woman's that third parties can do nothing.* [9]
body and life-support functions—to which it has no right.
Thus, by choosing to terminate her pregnancy, a woman If we say that no one may help the mother obtain an abor-
does not violate any moral obligation; rather, a woman tion, we fail to acknowledge the mother’s right over her
2 CONTENTS

body (or property). Thomson says that we are not person-

The most common objection is that Thomson's argument
ally obligated to help the mother but this does not rule out
can justify abortion only in cases of rape. In the violinist
the possibility that someone else may act. As Thomson scenario, you were kidnapped: you did nothing to cause
the violinist to be plugged in, just as a woman who is
reminds, the house belongs to the mother; similarly, the
body which holds a fetus also belongs to the mother.* [10]
pregnant due to rape did nothing to cause her pregnancy.
But in typical cases of abortion, the pregnant woman had
intercourse voluntarily, and thus has either tacitly con-
Pregnancy resulting from voluntary intercourse – sented to allow the fetus to use her body (the tacit con-
“people-seeds” sent objection),* [13] or else has a duty to sustain the fe-
tus because the woman herself caused the fetus to stand
To illustrate an example of pregnancy due to voluntary in need of her body (the responsibility objection).* [14]
intercourse, Thomson presents the ‘people-seeds’situ- Other common objections turn on the claim that the fe-
ation: tus is the pregnant woman's child whereas the violinist is a
stranger (the stranger versus offspring objection),* [15]
Again, suppose it were like this: people-seeds or that abortion kills the fetus whereas unplugging the vi-
drift about in the air like pollen, and if you olinist merely lets him die (the killing versus letting die
open your windows, one may drift in and take objection).* [15]
root in your carpets or upholstery. You don’
t want children, so you fix up your windows Defenders of Thomson's argument* [16] reply that the al-
with fine mesh screens, the very best you can leged disanalogies between the violinist scenario and typ-
buy. As can happen, however, and on very, ical cases of abortion do not matter, either because the
very rare occasions does happen, one of the factors that critics appeal to are not genuinely morally rel-
screens is defective; and a seed drifts in and evant, or because those factors are morally relevant but do
*
takes root. [11] not apply to abortion in the way that critics have claimed.
A summary of common objections and responses is given
Here, the people-seeds flying through the window repre- below.
sent conception, despite the mesh screen, which functions
as contraception. The woman does not want a people-
seed to root itself in her house, and so she even takes the
0.1.3 Table of common criticisms and re-
measure to protect herself with the best mesh screens. sponses
However, in the event that one finds its way in, unwel-
come as it may be, does the simple fact that the woman Less common objections to Thomson's argument (and the
knowingly risked such an occurrence when opening her pro-choice responses) include:
window deny her the ability to rid her house of the in-
truder? Thomson notes that some may argue the affirma- • the natural–artificial objection:* [32] pregnancy is
tive to this question, claiming that “...after all you could a natural process that is biologically normal to the
have lived out your life with bare floors and furniture, or human species. The joined condition of the violin-
with sealed windows and doors”.* [11] But by this logic, ist and donor, in contrast, represents an extreme and
she says, any woman could avoid pregnancy due to rape unusual form of "life support" that can only proceed
by simply having a hysterectomy – an extreme procedure in the presence of surgical intervention. This differ-
simply to safeguard against such a possibility. Thomson ence is morally relevant and therefore the two situ-
concludes that although there may be times when the fetus ations should not be used to model each other. The
does have a right to the mother's body, certainly in most pro-choice response would be to point out that what
cases the fetus does not have a right to the mother's body. is natural is not necessarily better or more legitimate
This analogy raises the issue of whether all abortions are than what is not. Cancer is natural and the surgery
unjust killing.* [11] which cures cancer is unnatural;

• the conjoined twins objection:* [33] the relation-

0.1.2 Criticism ship between conjoined twins represents a more
complete analogy to pregnancy than the relationship
Critics of Thomson's argument (see the table below) gen- between the violinist and the kidney donor. Because
erally grant the permissibility of unplugging the violinist, the fatal separation of conjoined twins is immoral,
but seek to block the inference that abortion is permissi- so is abortion. The pro-choice response would be
ble by arguing that there are morally relevant differences to state that conjoined twins have equal claims to
between the violinist scenario and typical cases of abor- their shared organs, since they were conceived at
tion. One notable exception being that of Peter Singer the same time, in contrast to the fetus/prenatal off-
who claims that, despite our intuitions, a utilitarian cal- spring, who was conceived after his/her/its mother
culus would imply that one is morally obliged to stay con- and whose claim to her body is thus inferior to that
nected to the violinist.* [12] of the woman;* [34]
0.1. A DEFENSE OF ABORTION 3

• the different burdens objection:* [35] supporting [17] Thomson 1971: 57–59
the violinist is a much greater burden than normal
[18] Boonin 2003: 154–164
pregnancy, and so unplugging the violinist is morally
permissible whereas aborting the fetus is not. A re- [19] Boonin 2003: 164–167
ply to this objection would be to point out that child-
birth is a great burden, often requiring major surgery [20] Boonin 2003: 167–188
and, in the absence of sophisticated medical/surgical [21] Thomson 1971: 55–59
care, a significant risk to the woman's life;
[22] Thomson 1971: 64–65; Boonin 2003: 228–234
• the artificiality objection:* [36] our intuitions on
bizarre thought experiments of the sort used by [23] Boonin 2003: 249–254
Thomson are unreliable and provide no warrant for [24] Boonin 2003: 247–249
the conclusions they are intended to support. The
pro-choice response would be that this is a thought [25] Boonin 2003: 233 n 60
experiment and thus it is not meant to be realistic; [26] McMahan 2002: 383–4; Boonin 2003: 193
• the duty to sustain the violinist objection: [37] [27] Boonin 2003: 189 n 41, noting however that this is an ad
*

despite the common intuition, one does have an obli- hominem reply
gation to support the violinist, and likewise the fetus.
[28] Thomson 1971: 156–159
Of course, critics of Thomson's analogy have replies to [29] Boonin 2003: 199–211
these responses,* [32] and so the debate goes back and
forth. [30] e.g. Finnis 1973; Schwarz 1990; Lee 1996; Lee and
George 2005

[31] Boonin 2003: 222–227

0.1.4 See also
[32] Parks 2006
• Abortion debate
[33] Himma 1999, Parks 2006
• Abortion
[34] Boonin 2003: 245–246

[35] Schwarz 1990

0.1.5 Notes
[36] Wiland 2000: 467.“The story of the unconscious violin-
[1] e.g., Schwarz 1990, Beckwith 1993 and Lee 1996 on the ist, some argue, is a complete fiction. There is no Society
pro-life side; Tooley 1972, Warren 1973, Steinbock 1992 of Music Lovers, there are no famous violinists in need
and McMahan 2002 on the pro-choice side of kidney transplants, and there are no kidnappers forcing
others to donate their bodies for the good of another.”
[2] Kamm 1992; Boonin 2003: ch 4
[37] Hershenov 2001, Smith and Brogaard 2001
[3] Parent 1986: vii

[4] Thomson 1971: 48–49.

0.1.6 References
[5] Thomson 1971: 55
• Beckwith, F. 1993. Politically Correct Death. Grand
[6] Thomson 1971: 63; Boonin 2003: 133–134 Rapids, MI: Baker Books, ch 7.
[7] Thomson 1971: 52
• Boonin, D. 2003. A Defense of Abortion. Cam-
[8] Thomson 1971: 52–53 bridge: Cambridge University Press, ch 4.

[9] Thomson 1971: 53 • Finnis, J.. “The Rights and Wrongs of Abortion”
. Philosophy and Public Affairs 2:2 (Winter 1973):
[10] Thomson 1971: 54
117–145. JSTOR 2265137
[11] Thomson 1971: 59
• Hershenov, D.“Abortions and Distortions”. Social
[12] Singer 2011:134 Theory and Practice 27:1 (January 2001): 129–148.
[13] e.g. Warren 1973; Steinbock 1992 • Kamm, F. 1992. Creation and Abortion. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
[14] e.g. Beckwith 1993; McMahan 2002
• Lee, P. 1996. Abortion and Unborn Human Life.
[15] e.g. Schwarz 1990; Beckwith 1993; McMahan 2002
Washington, DC: Catholic University of America
[16] Boonin 2003: 133–281 Press, ch 4.
4 CONTENTS

• Lee, P and R George.“The Wrong of Abortion”. In

A Cohen and C Wellman, eds. 2005. Contemporary
Debates in Applied Ethics. Oxford: Blackwell: 13–
26, at 20–21.

• McMahan, J. 2002. The Ethics of Killing. New

York: Oxford University Press.

• Parent, W. 1986. “Editor's introduction”. In J

Thomson. Rights, Restitution, and Risk. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press: vii–x.

• Parks, B. D.“The Natural-Artificial Distinction and

Conjoined Twins: A Response To Judith Thomson's
Argument for Abortion Rights”. National Catholic
Bioethics Quarterly 6:4 (Winter 2006): 671–680

• Schwarz, S. 1990. The Moral Question of Abortion.

Chicago: Loyola University Press, ch 8.
Political cartoon c. 1900, showing the United States Congress
• Singer, P. 2011. Practical Ethics. New York, Cam- as Buridan's ass (the two hay piles version), hesitating between a
bridge University Press, ch 6. Panama route or a Nicaragua route for an Atlantic-Pacific canal.

• Smith, B. and Brogaard, B. 2001. “Living High

and Letting Die”. Philosophy 76 (3):435-442
0.2 Buridan's ass
(2001) doi:10.1017/S0031819101000377, JSTOR
3751780 Buridan's ass is an illustration of a paradox in philoso-
phy in the conception of free will.
• Steinbock, B. 1992. Life Before Birth: The Moral It refers to a hypothetical situation wherein an ass that
and Legal Status of Embryos and Fetuses. Oxford: is equally hungry and thirsty is placed precisely midway
Oxford University Press, at 78. between a stack of hay and a pail of water. Since the
paradox assumes the ass will always go to whichever is
• Thomson, J. “A Defense of Abortion”. Philoso-
closer, it will die of both hunger and thirst since it can-
phy and Public Affairs 1:1 (Autumn 1971): 47–66.
not make any rational decision to choose one over the
JSTOR 2265091
other.* [1] The paradox is named after the 14th century
• Thomson, J.“Rights and Deaths”. Philosophy and French philosopher Jean Buridan, whose philosophy of
Public Affairs 2:2 (Winter 1973): 146–159. JSTOR moral determinism it satirizes. A common variant of the
2265138 paradox substitutes two identical piles of hay for the hay
and water; the ass, unable to choose between the two, dies
• Tooley, M.“Abortion and Infanticide”. Philosophy of hunger.
and Public Affairs 2:1 (Autumn 1972): 37–65, at
52–53. JSTOR 2264919
0.2.1 History
• Warren, M. “On the Moral and Legal Status of
Abortion”. Monist 57:1 (1973): 43–61. JSTOR The paradox predates Buridan; it dates to antiquity, being
27902294 found in Aristotle's On the Heavens.* [2] Aristotle, in ridi-
culing the Sophist idea that the Earth is stationary simply
• Wiland, E. “Unconscious violinists and the because it is circular and any forces on it must be equal in
use of analogies in moral argument”. Jour- all directions, says that is as ridiculous as saying that* [2]
nal of Medical Ethics 26 (2000): 466–468.
doi:10.1136/jme.26.6.466
...a man, being just as hungry as thirsty, and
placed in between food and drink, must neces-
sarily remain where he is and starve to death.
0.1.7 External links
—Aristotle, On the Heavens, ca.350 BCE
• A Defense of Abortion, full text
However, the Greeks only used this paradox as an anal-
• Francis Beckwith's website, contains PDFs of a ogy in the context of discussions of the equilibrium of
number of his critiques physical forces.* [2]
0.2. BURIDAN'S ASS 5

The 12th century Persian Islamic scholar and philoso- would die of hunger and thirst. If I am asked,
pher Al-Ghazali discusses the application of this paradox whether such a one should not rather be con-
to human decision making, asking whether it is possible sidered an ass than a man; I answer, that I do
to make a choice between equally good courses without not know, neither do I know how a man should
grounds for preference.* [2] He takes the attitude that free be considered, who hangs himself, or how we
will can break the stalemate. should consider children, fools, madmen, &c.
—Baruch Spinoza, Ethics, book 2, proposi-
Suppose two similar dates in front of a tion 49, scholium
man, who has a strong desire for them but who
is unable to take them both. Surely he will take Other writers have opted to deny the validity of the illus-
one of them, through a quality in him, the na- tration. A typical counter-argument is that rationality as
ture of which is to differentiate between two described in the paradox is so limited as to be a straw man
similar things. version of the real thing, which does allow the considera-
—Abu Hamid al-Ghazali,The Incoherence tion of meta-arguments. In other words, it is entirely ra-
of the Philosophers 1100* [3] tional to recognize that both choices are equally good and
arbitrarily (randomly) pick one instead of starving. This
Moorish Islamic philosopher Averroes (1126–1198), in counter-argument is sometimes used as an attempted jus-
commentary on Ghazali, takes the opposite view.* [2] tification for faith or intuitivity (called by Aristotle noetic
or noesis). The argument is that, like the starving ass,
Although Buridan nowhere discusses this specific prob- we must make a choice in order to avoid being frozen in
lem, its relevance is that he did advocate a moral deter- endless doubt. Other counter-arguments exist.
minism whereby, save for ignorance or impediment, a hu-
man faced by alternative courses of action must always According to Edward Lauzinger, Buridan's ass fails to in-
choose the greater good. In the face of equally good al- corporate the latent biases that humans always bring with
*
ternatives Buridan believed a rational choice could not be them when making decisions. [5]
made.* [4]

0.2.3 Buridan's principle

Should two courses be judged equal, then
the will cannot break the deadlock, all it can
The situation of Buridan's ass was given a mathemati-
do is to suspend judgement until the circum-
cal basis in a 1984 paper by American computer scien-
stances change, and the right course of action
tist Leslie Lamport, in which Lamport presents an argu-
is clear.
ment that, given certain assumptions about continuity in
—Jean Buridan, 1340
a simple mathematical model of the Buridan's ass prob-
lem, there will always be some starting conditions under
Later writers satirised this view in terms of an ass which, which the ass will starve to death, no matter what strategy
confronted by both food and water must necessarily die it takes.
of both hunger and thirst while pondering a decision.
Lamport calls this result “Buridan’s principle":

0.2.2 Discussion A discrete decision based upon an input having

a continuous range of values cannot be made
Some proponents of hard determinism have granted the within a bounded length of time.* [6]
unpleasantness of the scenario, but have denied that it
illustrates a true paradox, since one does not contradict
oneself in suggesting that a man might die between two Application to digital logic: Metastability
equally plausible routes of action. For example, in his
Ethics, Benedict de Spinoza suggests that a person who Main article: Metastability in electronics
sees two options as truly equally compelling cannot be
fully rational: A version of Buridan's principle actually occurs in
electrical engineering. Specifically, the input to a digital
[I]t may be objected, if man does not act logic gate must convert a continuous voltage value into
from free will, what will happen if the incen- either a 0 or a 1 which is typically sampled and then
tives to action are equally balanced, as in the processed. If the input is changing and at an interme-
case of Buridan's ass? [In reply,] I am quite diate value when sampled, the input stage acts like a
ready to admit, that a man placed in the equi- comparator. The voltage value can then be likened to
librium described (namely, as perceiving noth- the position of the ass, and the values 0 and 1 represent
ing but hunger and thirst, a certain food and a the bales of hay. Like the situation of the starving ass,
certain drink, each equally distant from him) there exists an input on which the converter cannot make
6 CONTENTS

a proper decision, resulting in a metastable state. Hav- [4] Kinniment, David J. (2008). Synchronization and Arbitra-
ing the converter make an arbitrary choice in ambiguous tion in Digital Systems. John Wiley & Sons. p. 3. ISBN
situations does not solve the problem, as the boundary 0470517131.
between ambiguous and unambiguous values introduces
[5]“Thought and Process”, Lauzinger, Edward, 1994
another binary decision with its own metastable state.
The metastability problem is a significant issue in digital [6] Leslie Lamport (December 1984).“Buridan's Principle”
circuit design, and metastable states are a possibility . Retrieved 2010-07-09.
wherever asynchronous inputs (digital signals which are
not synchronized to a clock signal) occur. The ultimate
reason the problem is manageable is that the probabil- 0.2.7 Bibliography
ity of a metastable state persisting longer than a given
• The Columbia Encyclopedia (6th ed.). 2006.
time interval t is an exponentially declining function of t.
In electronic devices, the probability of such an “unde- • Knowles, Elizabeth (2006). The Oxford Dictionary
cided”state lasting longer than a few nanoseconds, while of Phrase and Fable.
always possible, is infinitesimal. Similar scaling laws in
the operation of neurons may explain why “Buridan” • Mawson, T.J. (2005). Belief in God. New York,
states of indecision are not often observed in human be- NY: Oxford University (Clarendon) Press. p. 201.
havior.
• Rescher, Nicholas (1959/60). “Choice Without
Preference: A Study of the History and of the Logic
0.2.4 In popular culture of the Problem of“Buridan’s Ass"". Kant-Studien
51: 142–75. Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Buridan's“glass”appears in the fantasy novel“Zelda
Pryce: The Razor's Edge”(2013) by Joseph Robert • Zupko, Jack (2003). John Buridan: Portrait of a
Lewis as a physical device with the“arcane”ability Fourteenth-Century Arts Master. Notre Dame, In-
to paralyze a person with two conflicting impulses or diana: University of Notre Dame Press. pp. 258,
ideas. 400n71.

• Ullmann-Margalit, E.; Morgenbesser, S. (1977).

0.2.5 See also “Picking and Choos-ing”. Social Research 44: 757–
785.
• Analysis paralysis

• Catch-22 0.2.8 External links

• Dining philosophers problem • Vassiliy Lubchenko (August 2008). “Competing
• Entropy interactions create functionality through frustration”
. Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 105 (31): 10635–
• Hobson's choice 6. doi:10.1073/pnas.0805716105. PMC 2504771.
PMID 18669666.
• Lagrangian point

• Metastability in electronics
0.3 Buridan's bridge
• Morton's fork

• Search cost Buridan's Bridge (also known as Sophism 17) is de-

scribed by Jean Buridan, one of the most famous and
• Spontaneous symmetry breaking influential philosophers of the Late Middle Ages, in
his book Sophismata. Sophism 17 is a self-referenced
paradox that involves a proposition pronounced about an
0.2.6 References event that might or might not happen in the future.
[1] “Buridan's ass: Oxford Companion to Phrase and Fable”
. Encyclopedia.com. Retrieved 2009-12-15.
0.3.1 The sophism
[2] Rescher, Nicholas (2005). Cosmos and Logos: Studies
in Greek Philosophy. Ontos Verlag. pp. 93–99. ISBN The sophism is:
393720265X.

[3] Kane, Robert (2005). A Contemporary Introduction to Imagine the following scenario:
Free Will. New York: Oxford. p. 37.
0.3. BURIDAN'S BRIDGE 7

0.3.2 Buridan's solution

In order to solve the paradox Buridan proposes three
questions:

1. Is the proposition uttered by Socrates: “You are

going to throw me into the water”true, or is it false?
2. Is Plato's promise true or is it false?
3.“What ought Plato to do to fulfill his promise?"* [3]

In response to the first question Buridan states that it is

impossible to determine if Socrates' proposition is true
or false. This is because the proposition “You are going
to throw me into the water”is a future contingent that
could be true or false depending on what Plato is going
to do. Dr. Joseph W. Ulatowski says that Buridan appar-
ently used Aristotle's thesis about what“truth”is to come
up with this response. Aristotle believed that a proposi-
tion is true if and only if it is verified by the state of things
as they currently are. Contradicting the principle of biva-
lence, Buridan implies a system of three-valued logic in
which there are three truth values--true, false, and some
indeterminate third value.* [3]
In determining the truth value of Plato's conditional
promise, Buridan suggests that Plato's promise was false,
and that because Plato gave his promise carelessly he is
not obligated to fulfill the promise.* [3]
In discussing the third question,“What ought Plato to do
to fulfill his promise”, Buridan states that Plato should
not have given a conditional promise in the first place.
One proposed humorous solution for the Buridan's bridge He also suggests that Plato could have made sure that the
sophism is to let Socrates cross the bridge and then throw him condition was formulated in such a way that it would not
into the water on the other side. cause a contradiction; because Plato cannot fulfill his con-
ditional promise without violating it, he is not obligated
to fulfill the promise. Ulatowski points out that this is the
contrapositive of the principle stated by Immanuel Kant:
Socrates wants to cross a river and comes “ought implies can”.* [3]
to a bridge guarded by Plato, who says:
Plato: Socrates, if in the first proposition which
you utter, you speak the truth, I will permit you 0.3.3 Philosophers on the sophism and its
to cross. But surely, if you speak falsely, I shall solution
throw you into the water.
Socrates: You will throw me into the water.* [1] In his solution to the sophism, Walter Burley applied the
principle “nothing is true unless at this instant”(“nihil
est verum nisi in hoc instanti”) and concluded that “if a
proposition is true it must be true now”.* [4]
Socrates's response puts Plato in a difficult situation. He Dr. Dale Jacquette of the University of Bern says that
could not throw Socrates into the water, because if he “Plato can either permit Socrates to pass or have him
did he would violate his promise to let Socrates to cross seized and thrown into the river without violating his con-
the bridge if he speaks the truth. On the other hand, if ditional vow”. Jacquette argues that Plato's conditional
Plato allows Socrates to cross the bridge it would mean promise was given only in regards of Socrates's proposi-
that Socrates spoke untruth when he replied: “You are tion being clearly and unconditionally either true or false.
going to throw me into the water”. In that case Socrates To prove his point Jacquette asks, what would Plato have
should have been thrown into the water. In other words, to do if Socrates had said nothing and was“as silent as a
Socrates could be allowed to cross the bridge if and only Sphinx", or if he uttered something that could not be ei-
if he could not be.* [2] ther proven or“undisproven”, something like Goldbach's
8 CONTENTS

conjecture. Jacquette concludes that Plato's conditional Sancho comes up with the moral solution:
promise was true, and Socrates's proposition is “neither
true simpliciter nor false simpliciter", and therefore Plato ...there is the same reason for this passen-
would be right regardless of the choice that he made.* [3] ger dying as for his living and passing over the
In his book Paradoxes from A to Z Professor Michael bridge; for if the truth saves him the falsehood
Clark comes to the conclusion that if Plato is an honor- equally condemns him; and that being the case
able man, Socrates should not get wet under any circum- it is my opinion you should say to the gentlemen
stances. Clark argues that Socrates could say, “Either who sent you to me that as the arguments for
I am speaking falsely, and you will throw me in, or I am condemning him and for absolving him are ex-
speaking truly, and you won't throw me in”. Clark says actly balanced, they should let him pass freely,
that if this sentence is true, then it means that the first al- as it is always more praiseworthy to do good
ternative“is ruled out”, leaving us only with the second than to do evil.* [6]
one. If this sentence is false, it means that both alterna-
tives are false, and because Socrates spoke falsely“it will
be false”to throw him into the river.* [5] 0.3.5 References
Dr. Joseph W. Ulatowski believes that since the truth [1] Swart, Henriëtte de; Henk Verkuyl (August 1999).
value in Plato's conditional promise and even more so “Tense and Aspect in Sentence and Discourse”. Utrecht:
in Socrates's proposition is indeterminate, it means that ESSLLI Summer School. pp. 56–57. CiteSeerX:
Plato “ought to err on the side of caution with respect 10.1.1.118.1692.
to the future contingency and allow Socrates to cross the [2] Dale Jacquette (1991). “Buridan's Bridge”. Philosophy
bridge”.* [3] In the same work Ulatowski offers a couple 66 (258). doi:10.1017/s0031819100065116. JSTOR
of humorous solutions to the paradox. Plato, Ulatowski 3751219.
says, could let Socrates to cross the bridge, and then throw
him into water on the other side. Or both Plato and [3] Ulatowski, Joseph W. (2003). “A Conscientious Res-
Socrates could combine their efforts and forcibly eject olution of the Action Paradox on Buridan's Bridge”.
Buridan himself from Buridan's bridge.* [3] Southwest Philosophical Studies 25: 85–94. Retrieved 11
February 2011.

[4] Øhrstrøm, Peter; Per F. V. Hasle (1995). Temporal Logic:

0.3.4 Use of Buridan's bridge in literature From Ancient Ideas to Artificial Intelligence. Springer. p.
38. ISBN 978-0-7923-3586-3. Retrieved 11 February
Buridan's bridge sophism was used by Miguel de Cer- 2011.
vantes in Don Quixote,* [5] when Sancho was presented
[5] Clark, Michael (May 16, 2007). Paradoxes from A to Z
with the Buridan's bridge dilemma: A man who was go-
(2 ed.). Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 978-0-415-42082-2.
ing to cross the bridge was asked to respond truthfully Retrieved 11 February 2011.
where he was going or otherwise to face a death by hang-
ing. The man“swore and said that by the oath he took he [6] Cervantes, Miguel de. “LI: Of the Progress of Sancho's
was going to die upon that gallows that stood there, and Government, and Other Such Entertaining Matters”. Don
nothing else.”* [6] Quixote. Free Library. Retrieved 22 February 2011.

Sancho summarizes the situation by saying: “the man

swears that he is going to die upon the gallows; but if
he dies upon it, he has sworn the truth, and by the law 0.4 Chicken or the egg
enacted deserves to go free and pass over the bridge; but
if they don't hang him, then he has sworn falsely, and by The chicken or the egg causality dilemma is commonly
the same law deserves to be hanged”. He then comes up stated as “which came first, the chicken or the egg?" To
with the solution, “that of this man they should let pass ancient philosophers, the question about the first chicken
the part that has sworn truly, and hang the part that has or egg also evoked the questions of how life and the
lied; and in this way the conditions of the passage will universe in general began.* [1]
be fully complied with”.* [6] After Sancho makes this From a modern scientific perspective, the chicken egg
statement, the person who was asking for advice reasons came first because the genetic recombination that pro-
with him: duced the first “chicken”(though that may be an ar-
bitrary definition in a breeding population undergoing
“But then, senor governor,”replied the speciation) occurred in germ-line cells in a non-chicken
querist, “the man will have to be divided into ancestor. Another literal answer is that“the egg”in gen-
two parts; and if he is divided of course he will eral came first, because egg-laying species pre-date the
die; and so none of the requirements of the law existence of chickens. To others, the chicken came first,
will be carried out, and it is absolutely neces- seeing as chickens are merely domesticated red jungle-
sary to comply with it.”* [6] fowls.
0.4. CHICKEN OR THE EGG 9

could be a first bird or egg and concluded that both the

bird and egg must have always existed:

If there has been a first man he must have

been born without father or mother – which is
repugnant to nature. For there could not have
been a first egg to give a beginning to birds, or
there should have been a first bird which gave
a beginning to eggs; for a bird comes from an
egg.* [2]

The same he held good for all species, believing, with

Plato, “that everything before it appeared on earth had
first its being in spirit.”* [3]
Plutarch (46–126) referred to a hen rather than simply
a bird. Plutarch discussed a series of arguments based
on questions posed in a symposium. Under the section
entitled “Whether the hen or the egg came first”, the
discussion is introduced in such a way suggesting that the
Illustration from Tacuina sanitatis, 14th century
origin of the dilemma was even older:

...the problem about the egg and the hen,

Cultural references to the chicken and egg intend to point which of them came first, was dragged into our
out the futility of identifying the first case of a circular talk, a difficult problem which gives investiga-
cause and consequence. The metaphorical view sets a tors much trouble. And Sulla my comrade said
metaphysical ground to the dilemma. To better under- that with a small problem, as with a tool, we
stand its metaphorical meaning, the question could be re- were rocking loose a great and heavy one, that
formulated as: “Which came first, X that can't come of the creation of the world...”* [4]* [5]* [6]
without Y, or Y that can't come without X?"
Macrobius (early 5th century), a Roman philosopher,
An equivalent situation arises in engineering and science
found the problem to be interesting:
known as circular reference, in which a parameter is re-
quired to calculate that parameter itself. Examples are
You jest about what you suppose to be a
Van der Waals equation and the Colebrook equation.
triviality, in asking whether the hen came first
from an egg or the egg from a hen, but the point
should be regarded as one of importance, one
0.4.1 History of the dilemma
worthy of discussion, and careful discussion at
that.”* [7]* [8]

In System of Nature by Baron D'Holbach (1770, trans-

lated into English in 1797), he asks “was the animal an-
terior to the egg, or did the egg precede the animal?" (part
1, chapter 6).
Stephen Hawking and Christopher Langan argue that the
egg came before the chicken,* [9]* [10] though the real im-
portance of the question has faded since Darwin's On the
Origin of Species and the accompanying Theory of Evo-
lution, assuming the question intended “egg”to mean
an egg in general rather than an egg that hatches into a
chicken. According to Popular Science, the egg came first
A chick hatching from an egg as it evolved prior to birds.* [11]

Ancient references to the dilemma are found in the writ-

0.4.2 Scientific resolution
ings of classical philosophers. Their writings indicate that
the proposed problem was perplexing to them and was A simple explanation of why the egg came first was by
commonly discussed by others of their time as well. Roy A. Sorensen in his one-page-article in 1992. He ar-
Aristotle (384–322 BC) was puzzled by the idea that there gued that although it is indeterminate which animal was
10 CONTENTS

the first chicken, the question of whether the chicken egg”.

or the chicken egg came first has a determinate answer. Logically the final conclusion can be drawn that the egg
Since an animal does not evolve into another species dur- indeed came before the chicken, as a bird that was not a
ing its lifetime, and since organisms can fail to breed chicken could accumulate germline mutations in a single
true, it is biologically necessary that the chicken egg came sperm or ovum to produce the first genetically identifiable
first.* [12] chicken, but a non-chicken egg is much less likely to pro-
Evolution changes species over time via mutation and sex- duce a non-chicken which accumulates enough identical
ual reproduction. Since DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) somatic cell mutations across its cells to create a chicken
can be modified before and after birth,* [13] it can be ar- spontaneously.
gued that a mutation must have taken place at conception
or within an egg such that a creature similar to a chicken,
but not a chicken, laid the first chicken eggs. These eggs 0.4.3 Chicken-and-egg problem
then hatched into chickens that inbred to produce a liv-
ing population.* [14]* [15] Hence, in this light, both the The term “chicken-and-egg problem”is further com-
chicken and the structure of its egg evolved simultane- monly used to describe a situation that is not a philosoph-
ously from birds that, while not of the same exact species, ical dilemma, but one in which it is impossible to reach
gradually became more and more like present-day chick- a certain desired outcome because a necessary precon-
ens over time. dition is not satisfied, while to meet that precondition in
turn requires that the desired outcome has already been
However, no one mutation in one individual can be con- realized. For example, it has been argued that the trans-
sidered as constituting a new species. A speciation event formation to alternative fuels for vehicles faces a chicken-
involves the separation of one population from its parent and-egg problem: “it is not economical for individuals
population, so that interbreeding ceases; this is the pro- to purchase vehicles using alternative fuels absent suffi-
cess whereby domesticated animals are genetically sep- cient refueling stations, and it is not economical for fuel
arated from their wild forebears. The whole separated dealers to open stations absent sufficient alternative fuel
group can then be recognized as a new species. vehicles”.* [17] This is closely related to the economic
The modern chicken was believed to have descended concept of vicious circle, but in this kind of situation one
from another closely related species of birds, the red jun- that becomes a virtuous circle upon reaching a tipping
glefowl, but recently discovered genetic evidence suggests point.
that the modern domestic chicken is a hybrid descendant
of both the red junglefowl and the grey junglefowl.* [16]
Assuming the evidence bears out, a hybrid is a compelling 0.4.4 See also
scenario that the chicken egg, based on the second defi-
nition, came before the chicken. • Bootstrapping, a technique in computer program-
ming used to avoid chicken-and-egg scenarios where
This implies that the egg existed before the chicken, but two programs are mutually needed for compiling or
that the chicken egg did not exist until an arbitrary thresh- loading each other
old was crossed that differentiates a modern chicken from
its ancestors. Even if such a threshold could be defined, • Catch-22 (logic)
an observer would be unlikely to identify that the thresh-
old had been crossed until the first chicken had been • Circular cause and consequence
hatched and hence the first chicken egg could not be iden- • Cosmogony
tified as such.
• Evolutionary biology
A simple view is that at whatever point the threshold was
crossed and the first chicken was hatched, it had to hatch • Feedback loop
from an egg. The type of bird that laid that egg, by def-
inition, was on the other side of the threshold and there- • Grandfather paradox
fore not a chicken—it may be viewed as a proto-chicken
or ancestral chicken of some sort, from which a genetic • Omphalos hypothesis
variation or mutation occurred that resulted in the egg be- • On the Origin of Species
ing laid containing the embryo of the first chicken. In
this light, the argument is settled and the 'egg' had to • Predestination paradox
have come first. However, whether this was defined as
a chicken egg or proto-chicken egg is debatable. So tech-
nically the egg came before the chicken, but the chicken 0.4.5 References
may have come before the chicken egg. So it depends on
whether the question is“What came first, the chicken or [1] Theosophy (September 1939). “Ancient Landmarks:
Plato and Aristotle”. Theosophy 27 (11): 483–491.
the egg”or “what came first, the chicken or the chicken
Archived from the original on February 2013.
0.5. CHINESE ROOM 11

[2] François Fénelon: Abrégé des vies des anciens philosophes, a computer running a program to have a “mind”and
Paris 1726, p. 314 (French). Translation: Lives of the “consciousness”* [lower-alpha 1] in the same sense that
ancient philosophers, London 1825, p. 202 (English) people do, simply by virtue of running the right program.
The experiment is intended to help refute a philosophical
[3] Blavatsky, H.P. (1877). Isis Unveiled. pp. I, 426–428.
position that Searle named "strong AI":
[4] Plutarch (1976). Plutarch's Moralia: Table-talk : Books
I-III. Heinemann.
“The appropriately programmed computer
[5] Renaud, Gabriel (2005). Protein Secondary Structure with the right inputs and outputs would thereby
Prediction using inter-residue contacts. pp. 71. have a mind in exactly the same sense human
beings have minds.”* [lower-alpha 2]
[6] Pluatarch, Moralia, ΣΥΜΠΟΣΙΑΚΩΝ ΒΙΒΛΙΑ
Θ, ΣΥΜΠΟΣΙΑΚΩΝ ΒΙΒΛΙΟΝ ΔΕΥΤΕΡΟΝ,
ΠΡΟΒΛΗΜΑ Γ: Πότερον ἡ ἄρνις πρότερον ἢ τὸ To contest this view, Searle writes in his first description
ᾠὸν ἐγένετο, 635e-638a. of the argument: “Suppose that I'm locked in a room
and ... that I know no Chinese, either written or spoken”
[7] Smith, Page; Charles Daniel (2000). The Chicken Book.
. He further supposes that he has a set of rules in English
University of Georgia Press. p. 169. ISBN 0-8203-2213-
that “enable me to correlate one set of formal symbols
X.
with another set of formal symbols”, that is, the Chinese
[8] Macrobius, Saturnalia, VII, 16. characters. These rules allow him to respond, in written
Chinese, to questions, also written in Chinese, in such
[9] “Archives: Meeting Dr. Stephen Hawking”. The Bridge
a way that the posers of the questions – who do under-
School. 2005. Archived from the original on 2012-12-30.
stand Chinese – are convinced that Searle can actually
Retrieved 2012-12-30.
understand the Chinese conversation too, even though he
[10] Christopher Michael Langan (2001). “Which Came cannot. Similarly, he argues that if there is a computer
First...”. Cognitive-Theoretic Model of the Universe. program that allows a computer to carry on an intelligent
megafoundation.org. Retrieved 2008-02-08. conversation in a written language, the computer execut-
ing the program would not understand the conversation
[11] Engber, Daniel (2013). “FYI: Which Came First, The
Chicken Or The Egg?". Popular Science (Bonnier Corpo- either.
ration) 282 (3): 78. Retrieved 15 February 2013. The experiment is the centerpiece of Searle's Chi-
nese room argument which holds that a program
[12] Roy A. Sorensen. 1992. The Egg came before the
chicken. Oxford University Press. cannot give a computer a "mind", "understanding"
or "consciousness", regardless of how intelligently it
[13] Adel, Waleed. “Revealed: Scientists ‘edit’DNA to may make it behave. The argument is directed
correct adult genes and cure diseases”. Steve Connor. against the philosophical positions of functionalism and
Retrieved 2014-04-22. computationalism,* [1] which hold that the mind may be
[14] CNN (May 26, 2006).“Chicken and egg debate unscram- viewed as an information processing system operating on
bled”. CNN.com. Retrieved 2008-02-09. formal symbols. Although it was originally presented
in reaction to the statements of artificial intelligence re-
[15] HowStuffWorks. “Which came first, the chicken or the searchers, it is not an argument against the goals of AI
egg?". HowStuffWorks. Retrieved 2008-02-09. research, because it does not limit the amount of intelli-
*
[16] Eriksson J, Larson G, Gunnarsson U, Bed'hom B, Tixier- gence a machine can display. [2] The argument applies
Boichard M et al. (January 23, 2008). “Identification only to digital computers and does not apply to machines
*
of the Yellow Skin Gene Reveals a Hybrid Origin of the in general. [3] This kind of argument against AI was de-
Domestic Chicken”. PLoS Genetics, e10.eor. preprint scribed by John Haugeland as the “hollow shell”argu-
(2008): e10. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000010.eor. ment.* [4]
Retrieved 2008-02-20.
Searle's argument first appeared in his paper “Minds,
[17] Saving Energy in U.S. Transportation. U.S. Congress Of- Brains, and Programs”, published in Behavioral and
fice of Technology Assessment. 1994. OTA-ETI-589. Brain Sciences in 1980. It has been widely discussed in
the years since.* [5]

0.5 Chinese room

0.5.1 Chinese room thought experiment
For the British video game development studio, see The Searle's thought experiment begins with this hypothetical
Chinese Room. premise: suppose that artificial intelligence research has
succeeded in constructing a computer that behaves as if it
The Chinese room is a thought experiment presented by understands Chinese. It takes Chinese characters as input
John Searle to challenge the claim that it is possible for and, by following the instructions of a computer program,
 12 CONTENTS

produces other Chinese characters, which it presents as nal's “most influential target article”,* [5] generating an
output. Suppose, says Searle, that this computer per- enormous number of commentaries and responses in the
forms its task so convincingly that it comfortably passes ensuing decades. David Cole writes that “the Chinese
the Turing test: it convinces a human Chinese speaker Room argument has probably been the most widely dis-
that the program is itself a live Chinese speaker. To all cussed philosophical argument in cognitive science to ap-
of the questions that the person asks, it makes appropri- pear in the past 25 years”.* [13]
ate responses, such that any Chinese speaker would be Most of the discussion consists of attempts to refute it.
convinced that he is talking to another Chinese-speaking “The overwhelming majority,”notes BBS editor Stevan
human being.
Harnad,* [lower-alpha 6] “still think that the Chinese
The question Searle wants to answer is this: does the ma- Room Argument is dead wrong.”* [14] The sheer volume
chine literally “understand”Chinese? Or is it merely of the literature that has grown up around it inspired Pat
simulating the ability to understand Chinese?* [6]* [lower- Hayes to quip that the field of cognitive science ought to
alpha 3] Searle calls the first position "strong AI" and the be redefined as“the ongoing research program of show-
latter “weak AI”.* [lower-alpha 4] ing Searle's Chinese Room Argument to be false”.* [15]
Searle then supposes that he is in a closed room and has Searle's paper has become“something of a classic in cog-
a book with an English version of the computer program, nitive science,”according to Harnad.* [14] Varol Akman
along with sufficient paper, pencils, erasers, and filing agrees, and has described his paper as “an exemplar of
cabinets. Searle could receive Chinese characters through philosophical clarity and purity”.* [16]
a slot in the door, process them according to the pro-
gram's instructions, and produce Chinese characters as
output. If the computer had passed the Turing test this 0.5.3 Philosophy
way, it follows, says Searle, that he would do so as well,
simply by running the program manually. Although the Chinese Room argument was originally pre-
Searle asserts that there is no essential difference between sented in reaction to the statements of AI researchers,
the roles of the computer and himself in the experiment. philosophers have come to view it as an important part of
Each simply follows a program, step-by-step, producing the philosophy of mind. It is a challenge to functionalism
a behavior which is then interpreted as demonstrating in- and the computational theory of mind,* [lower-alpha 7]
telligent conversation. However, Searle would not be able and is related to such questions as the mind–body prob-
to understand the conversation. (“I don't speak a word lem, the problem of other minds, the symbol-grounding
of Chinese,”* [9] he points out.) Therefore, he argues, it problem, and the hard problem of consciousness.* [lower-
follows that the computer would not be able to understand alpha 1]
the conversation either.
Searle argues that without “understanding”(or Strong AI
"intentionality"), we cannot describe what the machine is
doing as “thinking”and since it does not think, it does Searle identified a philosophical position he calls“strong
not have a “mind”in anything like the normal sense of AI":
the word. Therefore he concludes that “strong AI”is
false.
The appropriately programmed computer
with the right inputs and outputs would thereby
have a mind in exactly the same sense human
0.5.2 History
beings have minds.* [lower-alpha 2] and is also
quoted in Daniel Dennett's Consciousness Ex-
Gottfried Leibniz made a similar argument in 1714, us- plained.* [19] Searle's original formulation was
ing the thought experiment of expanding the brain until “The appropriately programmed computer re-
it was the size of a mill.* [10] Leibniz found it difficult to ally is a mind, in the sense that computers given
imagine that a “mind”capable of “perception”could the right programs can be literally said to un-
be constructed using only mechanical processes.* [lower- derstand and have other cognitive states.”* [20]
alpha 5] In 1974, Lawrence Davis imagined duplicating Strong AI is defined similarly by Stuart Rus-
the brain using telephone lines and offices staffed by peo- sell and Peter Norvig: “The assertion that
ple, and in 1978 Ned Block envisioned the entire popula- machines could possibly act intelligently (or,
tion of China involved in such a brain simulation. This perhaps better, act as if they were intelligent)
thought experiment is called the China brain, also the is called the 'weak AI' hypothesis by philoso-
“Chinese Nation”or the “Chinese Gym”.* [11] phers, and the assertion that machines that do
The Chinese room was introduced in Searle's 1980 paper so are actually thinking (as opposed to simulat-
“Minds, Brains, and Programs”, published in Behavioral ing thinking) is called the 'strong AI' hypothe-
and Brain Sciences.* [12] It eventually became the jour- sis.”* [2]</ref>
 0.5. CHINESE ROOM 13

The definition hinges on the distinction between simulat- computers can have mental states and help to explain
ing a mind and actually having a mind. Searle writes that the mind);
“according to Strong AI, the correct simulation really is a
mind. According to Weak AI, the correct simulation is a
• Computational states are implementation-
model of the mind.”* [7]
independent —in other words, it is the software
The position is implicit in some of the statements of that determines the computational state, not the
early AI researchers and analysts. For example, in 1955, hardware (which is why the brain, being hardware,
AI founder Herbert A. Simon declared that “there are is irrelevant); and that
now in the world machines that think, that learn and
create”* [21]* [lower-alpha 8] and claimed that they had
• Since implementation is unimportant, the only em-
“solved the venerable mind–body problem, explaining
pirical data that matters is how the system functions;
how a system composed of matter can have the prop-
* hence the Turing test is definitive.
erties of mind.” [22] John Haugeland wrote that “AI
wants only the genuine article: machines with minds, in
the full and literal sense. This is not science fiction, but
real science, based on a theoretical conception as deep as Strong AI vs. biological naturalism
it is daring: namely, we are, at root, computers ourselves.”
*
[23] Searle holds a philosophical position he calls "biological
*
Searle also ascribes the following positions to advocates naturalism": that consciousness [lower-alpha 1] and
of strong AI: understanding require specific biological machinery that
is found in brains. He writes “brains cause minds”
*
[3] and that “actual human mental phenomena [are]
• AI systems can be used to explain the mind; [lower-
*
dependent on actual physical–chemical properties of ac-
alpha 4]
tual human brains”.* [33] Searle argues that this machin-
• The study of the brain is irrelevant to the study of ery (known to neuroscience as the "neural correlates of
the mind;* [lower-alpha 9] and consciousness") must have some (unspecified) “causal
powers”that permit the human experience of conscious-
• The Turing test is adequate for establishing the ex- ness.* [34] Searle's faith in the existence of these powers
istence of mental states.* [lower-alpha 10] has been criticized.* [lower-alpha 12]
Searle does not disagree that machines can have con-
Strong AI as computationalism or functionalism sciousness and understanding, because, as he writes,“we
are precisely such machines”.* [3] Searle holds that the
In more recent presentations of the Chinese room ar- brain is, in fact, a machine, but the brain gives rise to
gument, Searle has identified “strong AI”as “com- consciousness and understanding using machinery that is
puter functionalism" (a term he attributes to Daniel Den- non-computational. If neuroscience is able to isolate the
nett).* [1]* [28] Functionalism is a position in modern mechanical process that gives rise to consciousness, then
philosophy of mind that holds that we can define men- Searle grants that it may be possible to create machines
tal phenomena (such as beliefs, desires, and perceptions) that have consciousness and understanding. However,
by describing their functions in relation to each other and without the specific machinery required, Searle does not
to the outside world. Because a computer program can believe that consciousness can occur.
accurately represent functional relationships as relation- Biological naturalism implies that one cannot determine
ships between symbols, a computer can have mental phe- if the experience of consciousness is occurring merely
nomena if it runs the right program, according to func- by examining how a system functions, because the spe-
tionalism. cific machinery of the brain is essential. Thus, biolog-
Stevan Harnad argues that Searle's depictions of strong AI ical naturalism is directly opposed to both behaviorism
can be reformulated as“recognizable tenets of computa- and functionalism (including “computer functionalism”
tionalism, a position (unlike“strong AI”) that is actually or“strong AI”).* [35] Biological naturalism is similar to
held by many thinkers, and hence one worth refuting.” identity theory (the position that mental states are“iden-
*
[29] Computationalism* [lower-alpha 11] is the position tical to”or “composed of”neurological events), how-
in the philosophy of mind which argues that the mind can ever, Searle has specific technical objections to identity
be accurately described as an information-processing sys- theory.* [36]* [lower-alpha 13] Searle's biological natural-
tem. ism and strong AI are both opposed to Cartesian dual-
ism,* [35] the classical idea that the brain and mind are
Each of the following, according to Harnad, is a “tenet” made of different“substances”. Indeed, Searle accuses
of computationalism:* [32] strong AI of dualism, writing that“strong AI only makes
sense given the dualistic assumption that, where the mind
• Mental states are computational states (which is why is concerned, the brain doesn't matter.”* [24]
14 CONTENTS

Consciousness Strong AI vs. AI research

Searle's original presentation emphasized “understand- Searle's arguments are not usually considered an issue for
ing”—that is, mental states with what philosophers AI research. Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig observe that
call "intentionality"—and did not directly address other most AI researchers “don't care about the strong AI hy-
closely related ideas such as “consciousness”. How- pothesis—as long as the program works, they don't care
ever, in more recent presentations Searle has included whether you call it a simulation of intelligence or real in-
consciousness as the real target of the argument.* [1] telligence.”* [2] The primary mission of artificial intel-
ligence research is only to create useful systems that act
Computational models of consciousness intelligently, and it does not matter if the intelligence is
are not sufficient by themselves for con- “merely”a simulation.
sciousness. The computational model for
Searle does not disagree that AI research can create ma-
consciousness stands to consciousness in the
chines that are capable of highly intelligent behavior. The
same way the computational model of anything
Chinese room argument leaves open the possibility that a
stands to the domain being modelled. Nobody
digital machine could be built that acts more intelligent
supposes that the computational model of
than a person, but does not have a mind or intentionality
rainstorms in London will leave us all wet.
in the same way that brains do. Indeed, Searle writes that
But they make the mistake of supposing that
“the Chinese room argument ... assumes complete suc-
the computational model of consciousness is
cess on the part of artificial intelligence in simulating hu-
somehow conscious. It is the same mistake in
man cognition.”* [40]
both cases.* [37]
—John R. Searle, Consciousness and Lan- Searle's“strong AI”should not be confused with "strong
guage, p. 16 AI" as defined by Ray Kurzweil and other futurists,* [41]
who use the term to describe machine intelligence that
rivals or exceeds human intelligence. Kurzweil is con-
David Chalmers writes “it is fairly clear that con- cerned primarily with the amount of intelligence dis-
sciousness is at the root of the matter”of the Chinese played by the machine, whereas Searle's argument sets no
room.* [38] limit on this. Searle argues that even a super-intelligent
machine would not necessarily have a mind and con-
Colin McGinn argues that that the Chinese room provides
sciousness.
strong evidence that the hard problem of consciousness
is fundamentally insoluble. The argument, to be clear, is
not about whether a machine can be conscious, but about Symbol processing
whether it (or anything else for that matter) can be shown
to be conscious. It is plain that any other method of prob- The Chinese room (and all modern computers) manipu-
ing the occupant of a Chinese room has the same diffi- late physical objects in order to carry out calculations and
culties in principle as exchanging questions and answers do simulations. AI researchers Allen Newell and Herbert
in Chinese. It is simply not possible to divine whether a A. Simon called this kind of machine a physical symbol
conscious agency inhabits the room or some clever simu- system. It is also equivalent to the formal systems used in
lation.* [39] the field of mathematical logic. Searle emphasizes the
Searle argues that this is only true for an observer out- fact that this kind of symbol manipulation is syntactic
side of the room. The whole point of the thought exper- (borrowing a term from the study of grammar). The com-
iment is to put someone inside the room, where they can puter manipulates the symbols using a form of syntax
directly observe the operations of consciousness. Searle rules, without any knowledge of the symbol's semantics
claims that from his vantage point within the room there (that is, their meaning).
is nothing he can see that could imaginably give rise to
consciousness, other than himself, and clearly he does not
have a mind that can speak Chinese. Chinese room as a Turing machine

The Chinese room has a design analogous to that of a

0.5.4 Computer science modern computer. It has a Von Neumann architecture,
which consists of a program (the book of instructions),
The Chinese room argument is primarily an argument in some memory (the papers and file cabinets), a CPU which
the philosophy of mind, and both major computer scien- follows the instructions (the man), and a means to write
tists and artificial intelligence researchers consider it irrel- symbols in memory (the pencil and eraser). A machine
evant to their fields.* [2] However, several concepts devel- with this design is known in theoretical computer science
oped by computer scientists are essential to understand- as "Turing complete", because it has the necessary ma-
ing the argument, including symbol processing, Turing chinery to carry out any computation that a Turing ma-
machines, Turing completeness, and the Turing test. chine can do, and therefore it is capable of doing a step-
0.5. CHINESE ROOM 15

by-step simulation of any other digital machine, given A program uses syntax to manipu-
enough memory and time. Alan Turing writes,“all digital late symbols and pays no attention
computers are in a sense equivalent.”* [42] The widely ac- to the semantics of the symbols. It
cepted Church-Turing thesis holds that any function com- knows where to put the symbols and
putable by an effective procedure is computable by a Tur- how to move them around, but it
ing machine. In other words, the Chinese room can do doesn't know what they stand for or
whatever any other digital computer can do (albeit much, what they mean. For the program,
much more slowly). the symbols are just physical ob-
jects like any others.
There are some critics, such as Hanoch Ben-Yami, who
argue that the Chinese room can not simulate all the abili-
ties of a digital computer, such as being able to determine (A2) “Minds have mental contents
the current time.* [43] (semantics).”
A different argument is that this computer metaphor lies Unlike the symbols used by a pro-
precisely at the crux of the debate because it fuels the in- gram, our thoughts have meaning:
tuitions of critics such as Searle, Penrose, and others who they represent things and we know
are essentially reacting against the notion of programma- what it is they represent.
bility. The common view that an external program al-
ways governs a computer is understandable because the
usual meaning of“computer”corresponds to a universal (A3) “Syntax by itself is neither constitutive
Turing machine. However, universal programmability is of nor sufficient for semantics.”
a red herring. It is merely a convenient way to instanti-
This is what the Chinese room
ate general Turing machines, which are not always pro-
thought experiment is intended to
grammable. Thus, the Chinese Room argument critiques
prove: the Chinese room has syn-
rote program-interpretation, but it is incomplete because
tax (because there is a man in there
it does not also address the program's own Turing ma-
moving symbols around). The Chi-
chine computation (cf. the systems reply, below). Con-
nese room has no semantics (be-
sequently, philosophical discussions about “computers”
cause, according to Searle, there
should focus on general Turing computability without the
is no one or nothing in the room
distraction of universal programmability.* [44]
that understands what the symbols
mean). Therefore, having syntax is
Turing test not enough to generate semantics.

Main article: Turing test Searle posits that these lead directly to this conclusion:

The Turing test is a test of a machine's ability to exhibit (C1) Programs are neither constitutive of nor
intelligent behaviour. In Alan Turing's original illustra- sufficient for minds.
tive example, a human judge engages in a natural lan-
guage conversation with a human and a machine designed This should follow without contro-
to generate performance indistinguishable from that of a versy from the first three: Pro-
human being. All participants are separated from one an- grams don't have semantics. Pro-
other. If the judge cannot reliably tell the machine from grams have only syntax, and syntax
the human, the machine is said to have passed the test. is insufficient for semantics. Every
mind has semantics. Therefore pro-
grams are not minds.
0.5.5 Complete argument
This much of the argument is intended to show that
Searle has produced a more formal version of the argu- artificial intelligence can never produce a machine with a
ment of which the Chinese Room forms a part. He pre- mind by writing programs that manipulate symbols. The
sented the first version in 1984. The version given below remainder of the argument addresses a different issue. Is
is from 1990.* [45]* [lower-alpha 14] The only part of the the human brain running a program? In other words, is
argument which should be controversial is A3 and it is the computational theory of mind correct?* [lower-alpha
this point which the Chinese room thought experiment is 7] He begins with an axiom that is intended to express
intended to prove.* [lower-alpha 15] the basic modern scientific consensus about brains and
He begins with three axioms: minds:

(A1) “Programs are formal (syntactic).” (A4) Brains cause minds.

16 CONTENTS

Searle claims that we can derive“immediately”and“triv- • Those that contend that Searle's argument is mis-
ially”* [34] that: leading

(C2) Any other system capable of causing • Those that argue that the argument makes false
minds would have to have causal powers (at assumptions about subjective conscious experience
least) equivalent to those of brains. and therefore proves nothing

Brains must have something that Some of the arguments (robot and brain simulation, for
causes a mind to exist. Science has example) fall into multiple categories.
yet to determine exactly what it is,
but it must exist, because minds ex-
ist. Searle calls it “causal powers” Systems and virtual mind replies: finding the mind
. “Causal powers”is whatever the
brain uses to create a mind. If any- These replies attempt to answer the question: since
thing else can cause a mind to ex- the man in the room doesn't speak Chinese, where is
ist, it must have“equivalent causal the “mind”that does? These replies address the key
powers”.“Equivalent causal pow- ontological issues of mind vs. body and simulation vs.
ers”is whatever else that could be reality. All of the replies that identify the mind in the
used to make a mind. room are versions of “the systems reply”.

And from this he derives the further conclusions:

Systems reply * [50]* [lower-alpha 17] The basic “sys-
tems reply”argues that it is the“whole system”that
(C3) Any artifact that produced mental phe- understands Chinese. While the man understands
nomena, any artificial brain, would have to be only English, when he is combined with the pro-
able to duplicate the specific causal powers of gram, scratch paper, pencils and file cabinets, they
brains, and it could not do that just by running form a system that can understand Chinese. “Here,
a formal program. understanding is not being ascribed to the mere in-
dividual; rather it is being ascribed to this whole sys-
This follows from C1 and C2: Since
tem of which he is a part”Searle explains.* [27] The
no program can produce a mind,
fact that man does not understand Chinese is irrel-
and“equivalent causal powers”pro-
evant, because it is only the system as a whole that
duce minds, it follows that pro-
matters.
grams do not have “equivalent
causal powers.”
Searle notes that (in this simple version of the
(C4) The way that human brains actually pro- reply) the“system”is nothing more than a col-
duce mental phenomena cannot be solely by lection of ordinary physical objects; it grants
virtue of running a computer program. the power of understanding and consciousness
to “the conjunction of that person and bits
Since programs do not have“equiv- of paper”* [27] without making any effort to
alent causal powers”, “equiva- explain how this pile of objects has become a
lent causal powers”produce minds, conscious, thinking being. Searle argues that
and brains produce minds, it fol- no reasonable person should be satisfied with
lows that brains do not use pro- the reply, unless they are “under the grip of
grams to produce minds. an ideology”.* [27]

0.5.6 Replies Searle then responds by simplifying this list of

physical objects: he asks what happens if the
Replies to Searle's argument may be classified according man memorizes the rules and keeps track of
to what they claim to show:* [lower-alpha 16] everything in his head? Then the whole sys-
tem consists of just one object: the man him-
self. Searle argues that if the man doesn't un-
• Those that identify who speaks Chinese derstand Chinese then the system doesn't un-
• Those that demonstrate how meaningless symbols derstand Chinese either because now“the sys-
can become meaningful tem”and“the man”both describe exactly the
same object.* [27] Critics of Searle's response
• Those that suggest that the Chinese room should be argue that the program has allowed the man to
redesigned in some way have two minds in one head.
0.5. CHINESE ROOM 17

More sophisticated versions of the systems reply try to simulation, and writes: “No one supposes that
identify more precisely what “the system”is and they computer simulations of a five-alarm fire will
differ in exactly how they describe it. According to these burn the neighborhood down or that a com-
replies, the “mind that speaks Chinese”could be such puter simulation of a rainstorm will leave us
things as: the “software”, a “program”, a “running all drenched.”* [58] Nicholas Fearn responds
program”, a simulation of the“neural correlates of con- that, for some things, simulation is as good as
sciousness”, the “functional system”, a “simulated the real thing. “When we call up the pocket
mind”, an "emergent property”, or “a virtual mind” calculator function on a desktop computer, the
(Marvin Minsky's version of the systems reply, described image of a pocket calculator appears on the
below). screen. We don't complain that 'it isn't really
a calculator', because the physical attributes of
From mathematics, the theory of computation and Turing
machines upholds part of the systems reply by account- the device do not matter.”* [59] The question
is, is the human mind like the pocket calcula-
ing for the two computations that are known to be oc-
curring within the room, namely (1) the computation for tor, essentially composed of information? Or
is the mind like the rainstorm, something other
universal programmability (which is the function instan-
tiated by the person and note-taking materials indepen- than a computer, and not realizable in full by a
dently from any particular program contents) and (2) the computer simulation? (The issue of simulation
computation of the Turning machine that is described by is also discussed in the article synthetic intelli-
the program (which is instantiated by everything includ- gence.)
ing the specific program).* [52] (To better see the second
computation, just imagine that the program describes the These replies provide an explanation of exactly who it
algorithm for integer addition. The person would still ex- is that understands Chinese. If there is something be-
ecute their own universal computation in exactly the same sides the man in the room that can understand Chinese,
automatic, rote, formal way, impervious to this program's Searle can't argue that (1) the man doesn't understand
overall function. Yet, now we know two things: (1) the Chinese, therefore (2) nothing in the room understands
computation of integer addition is actually occurring in Chinese. This, according to those who make this reply,
the room and (2) the person is not the primary thing re- shows that Searle's argument fails to prove that “strong
sponsible for it.) AI”is false.* [lower-alpha 19]
The theory of computation thus formally explains the However, the replies, by themselves, do not prove that
open possibility that the second computation in the Chi- strong AI is true, either: they provide no evidence that the
nese Room could entail a human-equivalent semantic un- system (or the virtual mind) understands Chinese, other
derstanding of the Chinese inputs. It does not prove that than the hypothetical premise that it passes the Turing
such an understanding exists because the theory does not Test. As Searle writes “the systems reply simply begs
address the Turing Test. But it does show why the focus the question by insisting that system must understand Chi-
belongs on the program's Turing machine rather than on nese.”* [27]
the person's.* [53]
Robot and semantics replies: finding the meaning
Virtual mind reply * [lower-alpha 18] The term
"virtual" is used in computer science to describe an
As far as the person in the room is concerned, the sym-
object that appears to exist “in”a computer (or
bols are just meaningless “squiggles.”But if the Chi-
computer network) only because software makes it
nese room really “understands”what it is saying, then
appear to exist. The objects “inside”computers
the symbols must get their meaning from somewhere.
(including files, folders, and so on) are all “virtual”
These arguments attempt to connect the symbols to the
, except for the computer's electronic components.
things they symbolize. These replies address Searle's con-
Similarly, Minsky argues, a computer may contain
cerns about intentionality, symbol grounding and syntax
a“mind”that is virtual in the same sense as virtual
vs. semantics.
machines, virtual communities and virtual reality.

To clarify the distinction between the simple Robot reply * [61]* [lower-alpha 20] Suppose that in-
systems reply given above and virtual mind stead of a room, the program was placed into a
reply, David Cole notes that two simulations robot that could wander around and interact with its
could be running on one system at the same environment. This would allow a "causal connec-
time: one speaking Chinese and one speaking tion”between the symbols and things they repre-
Korean. While there is only one system, there sent. Hans Moravec comments: 'If we could graft
can be multiple“virtual minds,”thus the“sys- a robot to a reasoning program, we wouldn't need
tem”can not be the “mind”.* [57] a person to provide the meaning anymore: it would
come from the physical world.”* [63]* [lower-alpha
Searle responds that such a mind is, at best, a 21]
18 CONTENTS

Searle's reply is to suppose that, unbeknownst speakers it speaks to, through the programmers who gave
to the individual in the Chinese room, some it world knowledge, and through the cameras and other
of the inputs came directly from a camera sensors that roboticists can supply.
mounted on a robot, and some of the outputs
were used to manipulate the arms and legs of
the robot. Nevertheless, the person in the room Brain simulation and connectionist replies: redesign-
is still just following the rules, and does not ing the room
know what the symbols mean. Searle writes“he
doesn't see what comes into the robot's eyes.” These arguments are all versions of the systems reply that
*
[65] (See Mary's room for a similar thought identify a particular kind of system as being important;
experiment.) they identify some special technology that would create
conscious understanding in a machine. (Note that the
“robot”and “commonsense knowledge”replies above
Derived meaning * [66]* [lower-alpha 22] Some re- also specify a certain kind of system as being important.)
spond that the room, as Searle describes it, is
connected to the world: through the Chinese
Brain simulator reply * [72]* [lower-alpha 26] Suppose
speakers that it is “talking”to and through the
that the program simulated in fine detail the action
programmers who designed the knowledge base in
of every neuron in the brain of a Chinese speaker.
his file cabinet. The symbols Searle manipulates
This strengthens the intuition that there would be no
are already meaningful, they're just not meaningful
significant difference between the operation of the
to him.
program and the operation of a live human brain.

Searle says that the symbols only have a “de- Searle replies that such a simulation does not
rived”meaning, like the meaning of words in reproduce the important features of the brain
books. The meaning of the symbols depends —its causal and intentional states. Searle is
on the conscious understanding of the Chi- adamant that“human mental phenomena [are]
nese speakers and the programmers outside the dependent on actual physical–chemical proper-
room. The room, according to Searle, has no ties of actual human brains.”* [24] Moreover,
understanding of its own.* [lower-alpha 23] he argues:

Commonsense knowledge / contextualist reply. [I]magine that instead of a monolingual

*
[64]* [lower-alpha 24] Some have argued that man in a room shuffling symbols we have the
the meanings of the symbols would come from a man operate an elaborate set of water pipes
vast “background”of commonsense knowledge with valves connecting them. When the man
encoded in the program and the filing cabinets. receives the Chinese symbols, he looks up in
This would provide a "context" that would give the the program, written in English, which valves
symbols their meaning. he has to turn on and off. Each water con-
nection corresponds to a synapse in the Chi-
Searle agrees that this background exists, but nese brain, and the whole system is rigged up
he does not agree that it can be built into pro- so that after doing all the right firings, that is
grams. Hubert Dreyfus has also criticized the after turning on all the right faucets, the Chi-
idea that the“background”can be represented nese answers pop out at the output end of the
symbolically.* [69] series of pipes. Now where is the understand-
ing in this system? It takes Chinese as input, it
To each of these suggestions, Searle's response is the simulates the formal structure of the synapses
same: no matter how much knowledge is written into the of the Chinese brain, and it gives Chinese as
program and no matter how the program is connected output. But the man certainly doesn't under-
to the world, he is still in the room manipulating sym- stand Chinese, and neither do the water pipes,
bols according to rules. His actions are syntactic and and if we are tempted to adopt what I think is
this can never explain to him what the symbols stand the absurd view that somehow the conjunction
for. Searle writes “syntax is insufficient for semantics.” of man and water pipes understands, remem-
*
[70]* [lower-alpha 25] ber that in principle the man can internalize the
formal structure of the water pipes and do all
However, for those who accept that Searle's actions sim- the “neuron firings”in his imagination.* [12]
ulate a mind, separate from his own, the important ques-
tion is not what the symbols mean to Searle, what is im- Two variations on the brain simulator reply are:
portant is what they mean to the virtual mind. While
Searle is trapped in the room, the virtual mind is not: China brain * [74]* [lower-alpha 27] What if
it is connected to the outside world through the Chinese we ask each citizen of China to simulate
0.5. CHINESE ROOM 19

one neuron, using the telephone system to Or they may be claiming that (2) it is easier to see that the
simulate the connections between axons Chinese room has a mind if we visualize this technology
and dendrites? In this version, it seems as being used to create it.
obvious that no individual would have any In the first case, where features like a robot body or
understanding of what the brain might be a connectionist architecture are required, Searle claims
saying. that strong AI (as he understands it) has been aban-
doned.* [lower-alpha 32] The Chinese room has all the
Brain replacement scenario * [76]* [lower- elements of a Turing complete machine, and thus is ca-
alpha 28] In this, we are asked to pable of simulating any digital computation whatsoever.
imagine that engineers have invented a If Searle's room can't pass the Turing test then there is no
tiny computer that simulates the action other digital technology that could pass the Turing test.
of an individual neuron. What would If Searle's room could pass the Turing test, but still does
happen if we replaced one neuron at a not have a mind, then the Turing test is not sufficient to
time? Replacing one would clearly do determine if the room has a “mind”. Either way, it de-
nothing to change conscious awareness. nies one or the other of the positions Searle thinks of as
Replacing all of them would create a dig- “strong AI”, proving his argument.
ital computer that simulates a brain. If
The brain arguments in particular deny strong AI if they
Searle is right, then conscious awareness
assume that there is no simpler way to describe the mind
must disappear during the procedure
than to create a program that is just as mysterious as
(either gradually or all at once). Searle's
the brain was. He writes “I thought the whole idea of
critics argue that there would be no point
strong AI was that we don't need to know how the brain
during the procedure when he can claim
works to know how the mind works.”* [25] If computa-
that conscious awareness ends and mind-
tion does not provide an explanation of the human mind,
less simulation begins.* [lower-alpha
then strong AI has failed, according to Searle.
29] (See Ship of Theseus for a similar
thought experiment.) Other critics hold that the room as Searle described it
does, in fact, have a mind, however they argue that it is
Connectionist replies * [lower-alpha 30] Closely related difficult to see—Searle's description is correct, but mis-
to the brain simulator reply, this claims that a mas- leading. By redesigning the room more realistically they
sively parallel connectionist architecture would be hope to make this more obvious. In this case, these ar-
capable of understanding. guments are being used as appeals to intuition (see next
section).

Combination reply * [81] This response combines the In fact, the room can just as easily be redesigned to
robot reply with the brain simulation reply, argu- weaken our intuitions. Ned Block's "blockhead" argu-
ing that a brain simulation connected to the world ment* [83] suggests that the program could, in theory, be
through a robot body could have a mind. rewritten into a simple lookup table of rules of the form
“if the user writes S, reply with P and goto X”. At least in
principle, any program can be rewritten (or "refactored")
Many mansions/Wait till next year reply
* into this form, even a brain simulation.* [lower-alpha 33]
[25]* [lower-alpha 31] Better technology in
In the blockhead scenario, the entire mental state is hid-
the future will allow computers to understand.
den in the letter X, which represents a memory address—
Searle agrees that this is possible, but considers this
a number associated with the next rule. It is hard to visu-
point irrelevant. His argument is that a machine
alize that an instant of one's conscious experience can be
using a program to manipulate formally defined
captured in a single large number, yet this is exactly what
elements can't produce understanding. Searle's
“strong AI”claims. On the other hand, such a lookup ta-
argument, if correct, rules out only this particular
ble would be ridiculously large (probably to the point of
design. Searle agrees that there may be other de-
being impossible in practice), and the states could there-
signs that would cause a machine to have conscious
fore be extremely specific.
understanding.
Searle's argues that however the program is written or
however the machine is connected to the world, the mind
These arguments (and the robot or commonsense knowl-
is being simulated by a simple step by step digital ma-
edge replies) identify some special technology that would
chine (or machines). These machines are always just like
help create conscious understanding in a machine. They
the man in the room: they understand nothing and don't
may be interpreted in two ways: either they claim (1)
speak Chinese. They are merely manipulating symbols
this technology is required for consciousness, the Chinese
without knowing what they mean. Searle writes: “I can
room does not or can not implement this technology, and
have any formal program you like, but I still understand
therefore the Chinese room can not pass the Turing test or
nothing.”* [9]
(even if it did) it would not have conscious understanding.
20 CONTENTS

Speed and complexity: appeals to intuition tion produce no luminance at all. It is inconceiv-
able that you might constitute real luminance just by
The following arguments (and the intuitive interpretations moving forces around!"* [75] The problem is that he
of the arguments above) do not directly explain how a would have to wave the magnet up and down some-
Chinese speaking mind could exist in Searle's room, or thing like 450 trillion times per second in order to
how the symbols he manipulates could become meaning- see anything.
ful. However, by raising doubts about Searle's intuitions
they support other positions, such as the system and robot Stevan Harnad is critical of speed and complexity replies
replies. These arguments, if accepted, prevent Searle when they stray beyond addressing our intuitions. He
from claiming that his conclusion is obvious by under- writes“Some have made a cult of speed and timing, hold-
mining the intuitions that his certainty requires. ing that, when accelerated to the right speed, the compu-
Several critics believe that Searle's argument relies en- tational may make a phase transition into the mental. It
tirely on intuitions. Ned Block writes“Searle's argument should be clear that is not a counterargument but merely
depends for its force on intuitions that certain entities do an ad hoc speculation (as is the view that it is all just a
not think.”* [84] Daniel Dennett describes the Chinese matter of ratcheting up to the right degree of 'complex-
room argument as a misleading "intuition pump"* [85] ity.')"* [90]* [lower-alpha 35]
and writes“Searle's thought experiment depends, illicitly, Searle accuses his critics of placing too much faith in their
on your imagining too simple a case, an irrelevant case, own intuitions. Searle argues that anyone who is willing
and drawing the 'obvious' conclusion from it.”* [85] to accept the“systems reply”(which asserts that a mind
Some of the arguments above also function as appeals can emerge from“a system”without saying what the sys-
to intuition, especially those that are intended to make tem is or how such a thing might give rise to a mind) has
it seem more plausible that the Chinese room contains a been completely misled by their own intuitions, writing
*
mind, which can include the robot, commonsense knowl- that they are “under the grip of an ideology”. [27]
edge, brain simulation and connectionist replies. Sev-
eral of the replies above also address the specific is- Other minds and zombies: meaninglessness
sue of complexity. The connectionist reply emphasizes
that a working artificial intelligence system would have Several replies argue that Searle's argument is irrelevant
to be as complex and as interconnected as the human because his assumptions about the mind and conscious-
brain. The commonsense knowledge reply emphasizes ness are faulty. Searle believes that human beings di-
that any program that passed a Turing test would have to rectly experience their consciousness, intentionality and
be “an extraordinarily supple, sophisticated, and mul- the nature of the mind every day, and that this experi-
tilayered system, brimming with 'world knowledge' and ence of consciousness is not open to question. He writes
meta-knowledge and meta-meta-knowledge”, as Daniel that we must “presuppose the reality and knowability of
Dennett explains.* [68] the mental.”* [93] These replies question whether Searle
is justified in using his own experience of consciousness
Speed and complexity replies * [86]* [lower-alpha 34] to determine that it is more than mechanical symbol pro-
The speed at which human brains process informa- cessing. In particular, the other minds reply argues that
tion is (by some estimates) 100 billion operations per we cannot use our experience of consciousness to answer
second.* [88] Several critics point out that the man questions about other minds (even the mind of a com-
in the room would probably take millions of years puter), and the epiphenomena reply argues that Searle's
to respond to a simple question, and would require consciousness does not “exist”in the sense that Searle
“filing cabinets”of astronomical proportions. This thinks it does.
brings the clarity of Searle's intuition into doubt.
Other minds reply * [94]* [lower-alpha 36] This reply
An especially vivid version of the speed and complexity points out that Searle's argument is a version of the
reply is from Paul and Patricia Churchland. They propose problem of other minds, applied to machines. There
this analogous thought experiment: is no way we can determine if other people's subjec-
tive experience is the same as our own. We can only
Churchland's luminous room * [89]“Consider a dark study their behavior (i.e., by giving them our own
room containing a man holding a bar magnet or Turing test). Critics of Searle argue that he is hold-
charged object. If the man pumps the magnet up ing the Chinese room to a higher standard than we
and down, then, according to Maxwell's theory of would hold an ordinary person.
artificial luminance (AL), it will initiate a spread-
ing circle of electromagnetic waves and will thus be Nils Nilsson writes“If a program behaves as if
luminous. But as all of us who have toyed with mag- it were multiplying, most of us would say that
nets or charged balls well know, their forces (or any it is, in fact, multiplying. For all I know, Searle
other forces for that matter), even when set in mo- may only be behaving as if he were thinking
0.5. CHINESE ROOM 21

deeply about these matters. But, even though new animal would reproduce just as any other
I disagree with him, his simulation is pretty human and eventually there would be more of
good, so I'm willing to credit him with real these zombies. Natural selection would favor the
thought.”* [97] zombies, since their design is (we could suppose)
a bit simpler. Eventually the humans would die
Alan Turing (writing 30 years before Searle out. So therefore, if Searle is right, it is most likely
presented his argument) noted that people that human beings (as we see them today) are
never consider the problem of other minds actually “zombies”, who nevertheless insist they
when dealing with each other. He writes that are conscious. It is impossible to know whether we
“instead of arguing continually over this point are all zombies or not. Even if we are all zombies,
it is usual to have the polite convention that ev- we would still believe that we are not.
eryone thinks.”* [98] The Turing test simply
extends this“polite convention”to machines. Searle disagrees with this analysis and argues that “the
He doesn't intend to solve the problem of other study of the mind starts with such facts as that humans
minds (for machines or people) and he doesn't have beliefs, while thermostats, telephones, and adding
think we need to.* [lower-alpha 37] machines don't ... what we wanted to know is what dis-
tinguishes the mind from thermostats and livers.”* [65]
Epiphenomenon / zombie reply Several philosophers He takes it as obvious that we can detect the presence of
argue that consciousness, as Searle describes it, does consciousness and dismisses these replies as being off the
not exist. This position is sometimes referred to as point.
eliminative materialism: the view that consciousness
is a property that can be reduced to a strictly me-
chanical description, and that our experience of con- 0.5.7 Notes
sciousness is, as Daniel Dennett describes it, a "user
illusion".* [101] [1] The section consciousness of this article discusses the re-
lationship between the Chinese room argument and con-
sciousness.
Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig argue that, if
we accept Searle's description of intentional- [2] This version is from Searle's Mind, Language and Soci-
ity, consciousness and the mind, we are forced etyught experiment]] presented by [[John Searle]] to chal-
to accept that consciousness is epiphenomenal: lenge the claim that it is possible for a [[computer]] run-
that it“casts no shadow”, that it is undetectable ning a [[Computer program|program]] to have a “mind”
in the outside world. They argue that Searle and“consciousness"{{efn|name=Consciousness}} in the
must be mistaken about the“knowability of the same sense that people do, simply by virtue of run-
mental”, and in his belief that there are“causal ning the right program. The experiment is intended to
properties”in our neurons that give rise to the help refute a [[philosophical position]] that Searle named
"'''strong AI'''": <blockquote>"The appropriately pro-
mind. They point out that, by Searle's own de-
grammed computer with the right inputs aSearle 1999, p.
scription, these causal properties can't be de-
.
tected by anyone outside the mind, otherwise
the Chinese Room couldn't pass the Turing test [3] Searle writes that “according to Strong AI, the correct
—the people outside would be able to tell there simulation really is a mind. According to Weak AI, the
wasn't a Chinese speaker in the room by detect- correct simulation is a model of the mind.”* [7] He also
ing their causal properties. Since they can't de- writes “On the Strong AI view, the appropriately pro-
tect causal properties, they can't detect the ex- grammed computer does not just simulate having a mind;
istence of the mental. In short, Searle's“causal it literally has a mind.”* [8]
properties”and consciousness itself is unde-
tectable, and anything that can not be detected [4] Searle writes “Partisans of strong AI claim that in this
question and answer sequence the machine is not only sim-
either does not exist or does not matter.* [102]
ulating a human ability but also (1) that the machine can
literally be said to understand the story and provide the
Daniel Dennett provides this extension to the “epiphe- answers to questions, and (2) that what the machine and
nomena”argument. its program explains the human ability to understand the
story and answer questions about it.”* [6]
Dennett's reply from natural selection * [103] Sup-
[5] Note that Leibniz' was objecting to a “mechanical”the-
pose that, by some mutation, a human being is born ory of the mind (the philosophical position known as
that does not have Searle's “causal properties” mechanism.) Searle is objecting to an “information pro-
but nevertheless acts exactly like a human being. cessing”view of the mind (the philosophical position
(This sort of animal is called a "zombie" in thought known as "computationalism"). Searle accepts mecha-
experiments in the philosophy of mind). This nism and rejects computationalism.
22 CONTENTS

[6] Harnad edited BBS during the years which saw the intro- [20] This position is held by Margaret Boden, Tim Crane,
duction and popularisation of the Chinese Room argu- Daniel Dennett, Jerry Fodor, Stevan Harnad, Hans
ment. Moravec and Georges Rey among others.* [62]

[7] Stevan Harnad holds that the Searle's argument is against [21] David Cole calls this the “externalist”account of mean-
the thesis that“has since come to be called 'computation- ing.* [64]
alism,' according to which cognition is just computation,
hence mental states are just computational states”.* [17] [22] The derived meaning reply is associated with Daniel Den-
David Cole agrees that“the argument also has broad im- nett and others.
plications for functionalist and computational theories of
[23] Searle distinguishes between“intrinsic”intentionality and
meaning and of mind”.* [18]
“derived”intentionality. “Intrinsic”intentionality is the
kind that involves “conscious understanding”like you
[8] Simon, together with Allen Newell and Cliff Shaw, had
would have in a human mind. Daniel Dennett doesn't
just completed the first“AI”program, the Logic Theorist.
agree that there is a distinction. David Cole writes “de-
[9] Searle believes that“strong AI only makes sense given the rived intentionality is all there is, according to Dennett.”
*
dualistic assumption that, where the mind is concerned, [67]
the brain doesn't matter.”* [24] He writes elsewhere, “I
[24] David Cole describes this as the“internalist”approach to
thought the whole idea of strong AI was that we don't
meaning.* [64] Proponents of this position include Roger
need to know how the brain works to know how the mind
Schank, Doug Lenat, Marvin Minsky and (with reser-
works.”* [25] This position owes its phrasing to Stevan
vations) Daniel Dennett, who writes “The fact is that
Harnad.* [26]
any program [that passed a Turing test] would have to
be an extraordinarily supple, sophisticated, and multilay-
[10]“One of the points at issue,”writes Searle, “is the ade-
ered system, brimming with 'world knowledge' and meta-
quacy of the Turing test.”* [27]
knowledge and meta-meta-knowledge.”* [68]
[11] Computationalism is associated with Jerry Fodor and
[25] Searle also writes “Formal symbols by themselves can
Hilary Putnam,* [30] and is held by Allen Newell,* [26]
never be enough for mental contents, because the sym-
Zenon Pylyshyn* [26] and Steven Pinker,* [31] among oth-
bols, by definition, have no meaning (or interpretation, or
ers.
semantics) except insofar as someone outside the system
gives it to them.”* [71]
[12] See the replies to Searle under Meaninglessness, below
[26] The brain simulation replay has been made by Paul
[13] Larry Hauser writes that “biological naturalism is either
Churchland, Patricia Churchland and Ray Kurzweil.* [73]
confused (waffling between identity theory and dualism)
or else it just is identity theory or dualism.”* [35] [27] Early versions of this argument were put forward in 1974
by Lawrence Davis and in 1978 by Ned Block. Block's
[14] The wording of each axiom and conclusion are from version used walkie talkies and was called the “Chinese
Searle's presentation in Scientific American.* [34]* [46] Gym”. Paul and Patricia Churchland described this sce-
(A1-3) and (C1) are described as 1,2,3 and 4 in David nario as well.* [75]
Cole.* [47]
[28] An early version of the brain replacement scenario was
[15] Paul and Patricia Churchland write that the Chinese room put forward by Clark Glymour in the mid-70s and was
thought experiment is intended to “shore up axiom 3” touched on by Zenon Pylyshyn in 1980. Hans Moravec
.* [48] presented a vivid version of it,* [77] and it is now associ-
ated with Ray Kurzweil's version of transhumanism.
[16] David Cole combines the second and third categories, as
well as the fourth and fifth.* [49] [29] Searle predicts that, while going through the brain pros-
thesis, “you find, to your total amazement, that you are
[17] This position is held by Ned Block, Jack Copeland, Daniel indeed losing control of you external behavior. You find,
Dennett, Jerry Fodor, John Haugeland, Ray Kurzweil, and for example, that when doctors test your vision, you hear
Georges Rey, among others.* [51] them say 'We are holding up a red object in front of you;
pleas tell us what you see.' You want to cry out 'I can't
[18] The virtual mind reply is held by Marvin Minsky, Tim see anything. I'm going totally blind.' But you hear your
Maudlin, David Chalmers and David Cole.* [54] The reply voice saying in a way that is completely out your control,
was introduced by Marvin Minsky.* [55]* [56] 'I see a red object in front of me.' ... [Y]our conscious ex-
perience slowly shrinks to nothing, while your externally
[19] David Cole writes “From the intuition that in the CR observable behavior remains the same.”* [78]
thought experiment he would not understand Chinese by
running a program, Searle infers that there is no under- [30] The connectionist reply is made by Andy Clark and
standing created by running a program. Clearly, whether Ray Kurzweil,* [79] as well as Paul and Patricia Church-
that inference is valid or not turns on a metaphysical ques- land.* [80]
tion about the identity of persons and minds. If the person
understanding is not identical with the room operator, then [31] Searle (2009) uses the name“Wait 'Til Next Year Reply”
the inference is unsound.”* [60] .
0.5. CHINESE ROOM 23

[32] Searle writes that the robot reply “tacitly concedes that [10] Cole 2004, 2.1, Leibniz 1714, section 17
cognition is not solely a matter of formal symbol manipu-
lation.”* [65] Stevan Harnad makes the same point, writ- [11] Cole 2004, 2.3
ing:“Now just as it is no refutation (but rather an affirma-
[12] Searle 1980.
tion) of the CRA to deny that [the Turing test] is a strong
enough test, or to deny that a computer could ever pass it, [13] Cole 2004, p. 2; Preston & Bishop 2002
it is merely special pleading to try to save computation-
alism by stipulating ad hoc (in the face of the CRA) that [14] Harnad 2001, p. 2.
implementational details do matter after all, and that the
[15] Harnad 2001, p. 1; Cole 2004, p. 2
computer's is the 'right' kind of implementation, whereas
Searle's is the 'wrong' kind.”* [82] [16] In Akman's review of Mind Design II
[33] That is, any program running on a machine with a finite [17] Harnad 2005, p. 1.
amount memory.
[18] Cole 2004, p. 1.
[34] Speed and complexity replies are made by Daniel Den-
nett, Tim Maudlin, David Chalmers, Steven Pinker, [19] Dennett 1991, p. 435.
Paul Churchland, Patricia Churchland and others.* [87]
Daniel Dennett points out the complexity of world knowl- [20] Searle 1980, p. 1.
edge.* [68] [21] Quoted in Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 21.
[35] Critics of the “phase transition”form of this argument [22] Quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 46 and Russell & Norvig
include Stevan Harnad, Tim Maudlin, Daniel Dennett and 2003, p. 17.
David Cole.* [87] This “phase transition”idea is a ver-
sion of strong emergentism (what Daniel Dennett derides [23] Haugeland 1985, p. 2(Italics his).
as “Woo woo West Coast emergence”* [91]). Harnad
accuses Churchland and Patricia Churchland of espous- [24] Searle 1980, p. 13.
ing strong emergentism. Ray Kurzweil also holds a form
[25] Searle 1980, p. 8.
of strong emergentism.* [92]
[26] Harnad 2001.
[36] The “other minds”reply has been offered by Daniel
Dennett, Ray Kurzweil and Hans Moravec, among oth- [27] Searle 1980, p. 6.
ers.* [95] Alan Turing anticipated Searle's line of argu-
ment (which he called “The Argument from Conscious- [28] Searle 2004, p. 45.
ness”) in 1950 and makes the other minds reply.* [96]
[29] Harnad 2001, p. 3 (Italics his).
[37] One of Turing's motivations for devising the Turing test is
[30] Horst 2005, p. 1.
to avoid precisely the kind of philosophical problems that
Searle is interested in. He writes“I do not wish to give the [31] Pinker 1997.
impression that I think there is no mystery ... [but] I do not
think these mysteries necessarily need to be solved before [32] Harnad 2001, pp. 3–5.
we can answer the question with which we are concerned
in this paper.”* [99] Although Turing is discussing con- [33] Searle 1990, p. 29.
sciousness (not the mind or understanding or intentional-
[34] Searle 1990.
ity), Stuart Russell and Peter Norvig argue that Turing's
comments apply the Chinese room.* [100] [35] Hauser 2006, p. 8.

[36] Searle 1992, chpt. 5.

0.5.8 Citations [37] Searle 2002.
[1] Searle 1992, p. 44. [38] Chalmers 1996, p. 322.
[2] Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 947. [39] McGinn 2000.
[3] Searle 1980, p. 11. [40] Searle 2004, p. 63.
[4] Haugeland 1981, p. 31. [41] Kurzweil 2005, p. 260.
[5] Harnad 2001, p. 1. [42] Turing 1950, p. 442.
[6] Searle 1980, p. 2. [43] Ben-Yami 1993.

[7] Searle 2009, p. 1. [44] Yee 1993.

[8] Searle 2004, p. 46. [45] Searle 1984; Searle 1990.

[9] Searle 1980, p. 3. [46] Hauser 2006, p. 5.

24 CONTENTS

[47] Cole 2004, p. 5. [81] Searle 1980, pp. 8–9; Hauser 2006, p. 11.

[48] Churchland & Churchland 1990, p. 34. [82] Harnad 2001, p. 14.

[49] Cole 2004, pp. 5–6. [83] Block 1981.

[50] Searle 1980, pp. 5–6; Cole 2004, pp. 6–7; Hauser 2006, [84] Quoted in Cole 2004, p. 13.
pp. 2–3; Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 959, Dennett 1991,
p. 439; Fearn 2007, p. 44; Crevier 1993, p. 269. [85] Dennett 1991, pp. 437–440.

[51] Cole 2004, p. 6. [86] Cole 2004, pp. 14–15; Crevier 1993, pp. 269–270;
Pinker 1997, p. 95.
[52] Yee 1993, p. 44.
[87] Cole 2004, p. 14.
[53] Yee 1993, pp. 42–47.
[88] Crevier 1993, p. 269.
[54] Cole 2004, pp. 7–9.
[89] Churchland & Churchland 1990; Cole 2004, p. 12;
[55] Minsky 1980, p. 440. Crevier 1993, p. 270; Fearn 2007, pp. 45–46; Pinker
1997, p. 94.
[56] Cole 2004, p. 7.
[90] Harnad 2001, p. 7.
[57] Cole 2004, p. 8.
[91] Crevier 1993, p. 275.
[58] Searle 1980, p. 12.
[92] Kurzweil 2005.
[59] Fearn 2007, p. 47.
[93] Searle 1980, p. 10.
[60] Cole 2004, p. 21.
[94] Searle 1980, p. 9; Cole 2004, p. 13; Hauser 2006, pp.
[61] Searle 1980, p. 7; Cole 2004, pp. 9–11; Hauser 2006, p. 4–5; Nilsson 1984.
3; Fearn 2007, p. 44.
[95] Cole 2004, pp. 12–13.
[62] Cole 2004, p. 9.
[96] Turing 1950, pp. 11–12.
[63] Quoted in Crevier 1993, p. 272
[97] Nilsson 1984.
[64] Cole 2004, p. 18.
[98] Turing 1950, p. 11.
[65] Searle 1980, p. 7.
[99] Turing 1950, p. 12.
[66] Hauser 2006, p. 11; Cole 2004, p. 19.
[100] Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 952–953.
[67] Cole 2004, p. 19.
[101] Dennett 1991, .
[68] Dennett 1991, p. 438.
[102] Russell & Norvig 2003.
[69] Dreyfus 1979, “The epistemological assumption”.
[103] Cole 2004, p. 22; Crevier 1993, p. 271; Harnad 2005, p.
[70] Searle 1984. 4.

[71] Motzkin & Searle 1989, p. 45.

[72] Searle 1980, pp. 7–8; Cole 2004, pp. 12–13; Hauser
0.5.9 References
2006, pp. 3–4; Churchland & Churchland 1990.
• Ben-Yami, Hanoch (1993),“A Note on the Chinese
[73] Cole 2004, p. 12. Room”, Syntese 95 (2): 169–72
[74] Cole 2004, p. 4; Hauser 2006, p. 11. • Block, Ned (1981), “Psychologism and Be-
haviourism”, The Philosophical Review 90 (1): 5–
[75] Churchland & Churchland 1990.
43, doi:10.2307/2184371, JSTOR 2184371
[76] Russell & Norvig 2003, pp. 956–8; Cole 2004, p. 20;
• Chalmers, David (1996), The Conscious Mind: In
Moravec 1988; Kurzweil 2005, p. 262; Crevier 1993, pp.
271 and 279. Search of a Fundamental Theory, Oxford University
Press
[77] Moravec 1988.
• Churchland, Paul; Churchland, Patri-
[78] Searle 1992 quoted in Russell & Norvig 2003, p. 957. cia (January 1990), “Could a machine
think?", Scientific American 262 (1): 32–39,
[79] Cole 2004, pp. 12 & 17.
doi:10.1038/scientificamerican0190-32, PMID
[80] Hauser 2006, p. 7. 2294584
0.5. CHINESE ROOM 25

• Cole, David (Fall 2004), “The Chinese Room Ar- • Minsky, Marvin (1980), “Decentralized Minds”
gument”, in Zalta, Edward N., The Stanford Ency- , Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3 (3): 439–40,
clopedia of Philosophy doi:10.1017/S0140525X00005914
Page numbers above refer to a standard • McGinn, Collin (2000), The Mysterious Flame:
pdf print of the article. Conscious Minds In A Material World, Basic Books,
p. 194, ISBN 0786725168
• Crevier, Daniel (1993), AI: The Tumultuous Search
for Artificial Intelligence, New York, NY: Basic- • Motzkin, Elhanan; Searle, John (February 16,
Books, ISBN 0-465-02997-3 1989), Artificial Intelligence and the Chinese Room:
An Exchange, New York Review of Books
• Dennett, Daniel (1991), Consciousness Explained,
The Penguin Press, ISBN 0-7139-9037-6 • Nilsson, Nils (1984), A Short Rebuttal to Searle
• Dreyfus, Hubert (1979), What Computers Still Can't • Russell, Stuart J.; Norvig, Peter (2003), Artificial
Do, New York: MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-04134-0 Intelligence: A Modern Approach (2nd ed.), Upper
Saddle River, New Jersey: Prentice Hall, ISBN 0-
• Fearn, Nicholas (2007), The Latest Answers to the 13-790395-2
Oldest Questions: A Philosophical Adventure with the
World's Greatest Thinkers, New York: Grove Press • Pinker, Steven (1997), How the Mind Works, New
York, NY: W. W. Norton & Company, Inc., ISBN
• Harnad, Stevan (2001), “What's Wrong and Right 0-393-31848-6
About Searle's Chinese Room Argument”, in M.;
Preston, J., Views into the Chinese Room: New Es- • Preston, John; Bishop, Mark, eds. (2002), Views
says on Searle and Artificial Intelligence, Oxford into the Chinese Room: New Essays on Searle and Ar-
University Press tificial Intelligence, Oxford University Press, ISBN
0-19-825057-6
Page numbers above refer to a standard pdf
• Searle, John (1980),“Minds, Brains and Programs”
print of the article.
, Behavioral and Brain Sciences 3 (3): 417–457,
doi:10.1017/S0140525X00005756, retrieved May
• Harnad, Stevan (2005), “Searle's Chinese Room 13, 2009
Argument”, Encyclopedia of Philosophy, Macmillan
Page numbers above refer to a standard pdf
Page numbers above refer to a standard pdf print of the article. See also Searle's original
print of the article. draft.

• Haugeland, John (1985), Artificial Intelligence: The • Searle, John (1983), “Can Computers Think?", in
Very Idea, Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, ISBN 0- Chalmers, David, Philosophy of Mind: Classical and
262-08153-9 Contemporary Readings, Oxford: Oxford University
• Haugeland, John (1981), Mind Design, Cambridge, Press, pp. 669–675, ISBN 0-19-514581-X
Mass.: MIT Press, ISBN 0-262-08110-5 • Searle, John (1984), Minds, Brains and Science:
• Hauser, Larry (2006), “Searle's Chinese Room”, The 1984 Reith Lectures, Harvard University Press,
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy ISBN 0-674-57631-4 paperback: ISBN 0-674-
57633-0.
Page numbers above refer to a standard pdf • Searle, John (January 1990),“Is the Brain's Mind a
print of the article. Computer Program?", Scientific American 262 (1):
26–31, PMID 2294583
• Kurzweil, Ray (2005), The Singularity is Near,
Viking Press • Searle, John (1990), “Is the Brain a Digital Com-
puter?", Proceedings and Addresses of the American
• Horst, Steven (Fall 2005), “The Computational Philosophical Association 64 (November): 21–37,
Theory of Mind”, in Zalta, Edward N., The Stan- doi:10.2307/3130074
ford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Searle, John (1992), The Rediscovery of the Mind,
• Leibniz, Gottfried (1714), Monadology, George Cambridge, Massachusetts: M.I.T. Press
MacDonald Ross (trans.)
• Searle, John (1999), Mind, language and society,
• Moravec, Hans (1988), Mind Children, Harvard New York, NY: Basic Books, ISBN 0-465-04521-9,
University Press OCLC 231867665 43689264
26 CONTENTS

• Searle, John (2004), Mind: a brief introduction, • Margaret Boden, “Escaping from the Chinese
Oxford University Press, Inc., ISBN 978-0-19- room”, Cognitive Science Research Papers No.
515733-8 CSRP 092, University of Sussex, School of Cogni-
tive Sciences, 1987, OCLC 19297071, online PDF,
• Searle, John (2002), Consciousness and Lan- “an excerpt from a chapter”in the then unpublished
guage, Cambridge University Press, p. 16, ISBN “Computer Models of Mind: : Computational Ap-
0521597447 proaches in Theoretical Psychology”, ISBN 0-521-
24868-X (1988); reprinted in Boden (ed.) “The
• Searle, John (2009), Chinese room argument 4 (8), Philosophy of Artificial Intelligence”ISBN 0-19-
Scholarpedia, doi:10.4249/scholarpedia.3100 824854-7 (1989) and ISBN 0-19-824855-5 (1990);
Boden “Artificial Intelligence in Psychology: In-
• Turing, Alan (October 1950),“Computing Machin-
terdisciplinary Essays”ISBN 0-262-02285-0, MIT
ery and Intelligence”, Mind LIX (236): 433–460,
Press, 1989, chapter 6; reprinted in Heil, pp. 253–
doi:10.1093/mind/LIX.236.433, ISSN 0026-4423,
266 (1988) (possibly abridged); J. Heil (ed.) “Phi-
retrieved 2008-08-18
losophy of Mind: A Guide and Anthology”, Ox-
ford University Press, 2004, pages 253–266 (same
Page numbers above refer to a standard pdf version as in“Artificial Intelligence in Psychology”
print of the article. )

• Yee, Richard (1993), “Turing Machines And Se-

mantic Symbol Processing: Why Real Computers
Don't Mind Chinese Emperors”, Lyceum 5 (1):
0.6 Double-barreled question
37–59
A double-barreled question (sometimes, double-direct
question* [1]) is an informal fallacy. It is committed when
Page numbers above and diagram contents refer
someone asks a question that touches upon more than one
to the Lyceum pdf print of the article.
issue, yet allows only for one answer.* [2]* [3]* [4] This
may result in inaccuracies in the attitudes being measured
for the question, as the respondent can answer only one of
0.5.10 Further reading the two questions, and cannot indicate which one is being
answered.* [5]
• Chinese Room Argument entry in the Internet En-
cyclopedia of Philosophy Many double-barreled questions can be detected by
the existence of the grammatical conjunction "and" in
• The Chinese Room Argument, part 4 of the Septem- them.* [2]* [3] This is not a foolproof test, as the word
ber 2, 1999 interview with Searle Philosophy and “and”can exist in properly constructed questions.
the Habits of Critical Thinking in the Conversations
A question asking about three items is known as “tri-
With History series
ble (triple, treble)-barreled.”* [4] In legal proceedings,
• Understanding the Chinese Room, Mark Rosen- a double-barreled
*
question is called a compound ques-
felder tion. [6]

• A Refutation of John Searle's “Chinese Room Ar-

gument”, by Bob Murphy 0.6.1 Examples
• Kugel, P. (2004). “The Chinese room is An example of a double-barreled question would be the
a trick”. Behavioral and Brain Sciences 27. following: “do you think that students should have more
doi:10.1017/S0140525X04210044., PDF at au- classes about history and culture?" This question asks
thor's homepage, critical paper based on the as- about two different issues: “do you think that students
sumption that the CR cannot use its inputs (which should have more classes about history”and “do you
are in Chinese) to change its program (which is in think that students should have more classes about cul-
English). ture?" Combining both questions into one makes it un-
clear what exactly is being measured, and as each ques-
• Wolfram Schmied (2004). “Demolishing Searle's tion may elicit a different response if asked separately
Chinese Room”. arXiv:cs.AI/0403009 [cs.AI]. there is an increased likelihood of confusing the respon-
• John Preston and Mark Bishop, “Views into the dents.* [2] In other words, while some respondents would
Chinese Room”, Oxford University Press, 2002. answer “yes”to both and some “no”to both, some
Includes chapters by John Searle, Roger Penrose, would like to answer both "yes and no".* [4]
Stevan Harnad and Kevin Warwick. Other examples of double-barreled questions:
0.6. DOUBLE-BARRELED QUESTION 27

•“Please agree or disagree with the following state- W: “No.”

ment: Cars should be faster and safer.”* [3]

•“How satisfied are you with your pay and job condi- A: “So you admit you murdered your neigh-
tions?"* [4] bor!"

•“How often and how much time do you spend on Strictly speaking, this is not actually confessing to the
each visit to a hospital?"* [5] murder because having some other act that was done in-
•“Does your department have a special recruitment stead of the murder would still be consistent with the an-
policy for men and women?"* [5] swer“no,”such as going shopping instead of killing the
neighbor. Nonetheless, the answer to this question could
•“Do you think that there is a good market for the be misleading, as the answer “no”would also be con-
product and that it will sell well?" sistent with committing the murder. Such a question, if
asked at trial, would properly be subject to an objection
•“Should the government spend less money on the for being compound.
military and more on education?"
Compound questions are a common feature in loaded
•“Is this tool interesting and useful?" questions such as“Are you still beating your wife?" The
argument is phrased as a single question requiring a sin-
gle answer, but actually involves two or more issues that
The same considerations apply to questions with fixed cannot necessarily be accurately answered with a single
choice answers, as an answer can also be double-barreled. response. By combining the questions “Are you cur-
For example, if a question asks,“What motivates you to rently beating your wife?" and “Have you ever beaten
work?" an answer “Pleasant work and nice co-workers” your wife?" one can make it impossible for someone who
is double-barreled.* [4] has never beaten his wife to answer the question effec-
Buttering-up is a type of a double-barreled question. It tively with a simple“yes”or“no.”Instead, all questions
happens when one of the questions is a question that the must be answered. Therefore the innocent person should
questioned person will want to answer“yes”to, and an- say, “I have never beaten my wife,”making it clear that
other that the questioner hopes will be answered with the no wife beating has ever occurred.
same “yes.”For example, “Would you be a nice guy
and lend me five bucks?"
Some questions may not be double-barreled but confus- 0.6.3 In popular culture
ingly similar enough to a double-barreled question to re-
sult in similar issues. For example, the question“Should On his album Mitch All Together, Mitch Hedburg jokes
the organization reduce paperwork required of employ- about a supposed double-barreled question on his health
ees by hiring more administrators?" can be interpreted as insurance form: “Have you ever used sugar or PCP?"
composed of two questions: “Should the organization
reduce paperwork required of employees?" and“Should
the organization hire more administrators?" 0.6.4 See also
Double-barreled questions have been asked by profes-
• Complex question
sionals, resulting in notable skewed media reports and
research pieces. For example, Harris Poll used double-
• Entailment (pragmatics)
barreled questions in the 1980s, investigating the US
public opinion on Libya–United States relations, and
• Fallacy of many questions
American attitudes toward Mikhail Gorbachev.* [7]
• Implicature
0.6.2 Legal usage • Leading question
In a legal trial, a compound question will likely raise an
• Loaded question
objection, as the witness may be unable to provide a clear
answer to the inquiry. For example, consider an imag-
• Mu (negative)
ined dialogue between a cross-examining attorney and a
witness: • Persuasive definition

A:“So instead of murdering your neighbor, did • Poisoning the well

you go home and bake a pie which you donated
to the Girl Scouts bake sale?" • Presupposition
28 CONTENTS

0.6.5 References of the same logical category. This confusion of logical

categories may be seen in other theories of the relation
[1] Terry J. Fadem, The Art of Asking: Ask Better Questions, between mind and matter. For example, the idealist the-
Get Better Answers, FT Press, 2008, ISBN 0-13-714424- ory of mind makes a basic category mistake by attempting
5, Google Print, p.188 to reduce physical reality to the same status as mental re-
[2] Response bias. SuperSurvey, Ipathia Inc. ality, while the materialist theory of mind makes a basic
category mistake by attempting to reduce mental reality
[3] Earl R. Babbie, Lucia Benaquisto, Fundamentals of Social to the same status as physical reality.* [3]* [4]
Research, Cengage Learning, 2009, Google Print, p.251

[4] Alan Bryman, Emma Bell, Business research methods,

Oxford University Press, 2007, ISBN 0-19-928498-9,
0.7.2 The Concept of Mind
Google Print, p.267-268
Main article: The Concept of Mind
[5] Ranjit Kumar, Research methodology: a step-by-step
guide for beginners, SAGE, 2005, ISBN 1-4129-1194-X,
Google Print, p.136-137
Official doctrine
[6] “compound question, definition”. Legal-
dictionary.thefreedictionary.com. http://legal-dictionary. Ryle states that (as of the time of his writing, in 1949)
thefreedictionary.com/compound+question. Retrieved
there was an “official doctrine,”which he refers to as a
2010-02-03.
dogma, of philosophers, the doctrine of body/mind dual-
[7] Earl R. Babbie, The Practice of Social Research', Cengage ism:
Learning, 2009, ISBN 0-495-59841-0, Google Print, p.258
There is a doctrine about the nature
and place of the mind which is prevalent
0.7 Ghost in the machine among theorists, to which most philosophers,
psychologists and religious teachers subscribe
This article is about a philosophical critique. For other with minor reservations. Although they admit
uses, see Ghost in the machine (disambiguation). certain theoretical difficulties in it, they tend to
assume that these can be overcome without se-
rious modifications being made to the architec-
The "ghost in the machine" is British philosopher ture of the theory.... [the doctrine states that]
Gilbert Ryle's description of René Descartes' mind-body with the doubtful exceptions of the mentally-
dualism. The phrase was introduced in Ryle's book The incompetent and infants-in-arms, every human
Concept of Mind (1949)* [1] to highlight the perceived ab- being has both a body and a mind. ... The body
surdity of dualist systems like Descartes' where mental and the mind are ordinarily harnessed together,
activity carries on in parallel to physical action, but where but after the death of the body the mind may
their means of interaction are unknown or, at best, spec- continue to exist and function.* [5]
ulative.* [2]
Ryle states that the central principles of the doctrine are
0.7.1 Gilbert Ryle unsound and conflict with the entire body of what we
know about the mind. Of the doctrine, he says “Ac-
Gilbert Ryle (1900–76) was a philosopher who lectured cording to the official doctrine each person has direct
at Oxford and who made important contributions to the and unchangeable cognisance. In consciousness, self-
philosophy of mind and to "ordinary language philoso- consciousness and introspection, he is directly and au-
phy". His most important writings include Philosophical thentically apprised of the present states of operation of
Arguments (1945), The Concept of Mind (1949), Dilem- the mind.* [6]
mas (1954), Plato's Progress (1966), and On Thinking
(1979). Ryle's estimation of the official doctrine
Ryle's The Concept of Mind (1949) is a critique of the
notion that the mind is distinct from the body, and a re- Ryle's philosophical arguments in his essay “Descartes'
jection of the theory that mental states are separable from Myth”lay out his notion of the mistaken foundations of
physical states. In this book Ryle refers to the idea of a mind-body dualism conceptions, comprising a suggestion
fundamental distinction between mind and matter as“the that to speak of mind and body as a substance, as a dualist
*
ghost in the machine”. According to Ryle, the classical does, is to commit a category mistake. Ryle writes: [1]
theory of mind, or“Cartesian rationalism”, makes a basic
category mistake, because it attempts to analyze the rela- Such in outline is the official theory. I shall
tion between“mind”and“body”as if they were terms often speak of it, with deliberate abusiveness,
 0.8. GOD IS DEAD 29

as "the dogma of the Ghost in the Machine.” • Ghost in the Shell (philosophy)
I hope to prove that it is entirely false, and false
not in detail but in principle. It is not merely
an assemblage of particular mistakes. It is one 0.7.5 Notes
big mistake and a mistake of a special kind. It
is, namely, a category mistake. [1] Ryle, Gilbert, “Descartes' Myth,”in The Concept of
Mind, Hutchinson, London, 1949
Ryle then attempts to show that the“official doctrine”of
mind/body dualism is false by asserting that it confuses [2] Tanney, Julia“Gilbert Ryle”, in Stanford Encyclopedia of
Philosophy; Dec 18, 2007; substantive revision Mon Nov
two logical-types, or categories, as being compatible. He
2, 2009 (accessed Oct. 30, 2012)
states “it represents the facts of mental life as if they
belonged to one logical type/category, when they actually [3] de Morais Ribeiro, Henrique,“On the Philosophy of Cog-
belong to another. The dogma is therefore a philosopher's nitive Science”, Proceedings of the 20th World Congress
myth.” of Philosophy, Boston MA, 10-15 August 1998 (accessed
Arthur Koestler brought Ryle's concept to wider atten- 29 October 2012)
tion in his 1967 book The Ghost in the Machine, which
[4] Jones, Roger (2008)“Philosophy of Mind, Introduction
takes Ryle's phrase as its title.* [7] The book's main focus
to Philosophy since the Enlightenment”, philosopher.org
is mankind's movement towards self-destruction, partic- (accessed Oct. 30, 2012)
ularly in the nuclear arms arena. It is particularly critical
of B. F. Skinner's behaviourist theory. One of the book's [5] Ryle, Gilbert, The Concept of Mind (1949); The Univer-
central concepts is that as the human brain has grown, sity of Chicago Press edition, Chicago, 2002, p 11
it has built upon earlier, more primitive brain structures,
and that this is the “ghost in the machine”of the ti- [6] Cottingham, John, Western philosophy: an anthology
tle. Koestler's theory is that at times these structures can Google Books Link
overpower higher logical functions, and are responsible
for hate, anger and other such destructive impulses. [7] Koestler, Arthur, The Ghost in the Machine, (1967)

0.7.3 Popular culture 0.7.6 References

The Police named their 1981 album Ghost in the Ma- • Koestler, Arthur (1990-06-05) [1967]. The Ghost
chine after this concept. Masamune Shirow borrowed in the Machine (1990 reprint edition ed.). Penguin
the“ghost”concept that figures prominently in his 1989 Group. ISBN 0-14-019192-5.
Ghost in the Shell manga and later related works. “The
Ghost in the Machine”is mentioned in the 1985 film • Ryle, Gilbert (2000-12-15) [1949]. “Descartes'
Brazil and referenced in the 2004 film I, Robot. Rap- Myth”. The Concept of Mind (New Univer edi-
per B.o.B titled a song “Ghost in the Machine”on his tion ed.). University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-
debut album, The Adventures of Bobby Ray. The elec- 73296-7.
tronic music group The M Machine also has a song titled
“Ghosts in the Machine”in their second released album,
Metropolis Part II. The electronic group Xerox & Illumi-
nation titled a song“Ghost in the machine”in the album
0.8 God is dead
XI, from 2005. Arthur C. Clarke's novel 2010: Odyssey
Two contains a chapter called“Ghost in the Machine”, This article is about the philosophical event described by
referring to the virtual consciousness inside a computer. Nietzsche. For other uses, see God is dead (disambigua-
There is an episode of Futurama entitled “Ghost in the tion).
Machines”and an episode of Superman: The Animated
Series entitled “Ghost in the Machine”. The X-Files- "God is dead" (German: “Gott ist tot” ; also known
series named an episode involving a rogue AI computer as the death of God) is a widely quoted statement by
system“Ghost in the Machine”. The band Ghost Town German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche. It first appears
titled one of their collaborations with artist Chris Shelley in Nietzsche's 1882 collection The Gay Science (German:
“Ghost in the Machine.” Die fröhliche Wissenschaft), in sections 108 (New Strug-
gles), 125 (The Madman), and for a third time in section
343 (The Meaning of our Cheerfulness). It is also found
0.7.4 See also in Nietzsche's classic work Thus Spoke Zarathustra (Ger-
• Cognitive revolution man: Also sprach Zarathustra), which is most responsible
for popularizing the phrase. The idea is stated in “The
• Dualism (philosophy of mind) Madman”as follows:
30 CONTENTS

God is dead. God remains dead. And we Misunderstandings of the death of God
have killed him. How shall we comfort our-
selves, the murderers of all murderers? What
was holiest and mightiest of all that the world When first being introduced to Nietzsche, a person can
has yet owned has bled to death under our infer the “death of God”as literal. To Nietzsche, the
knives: who will wipe this blood off us? What concept of God only exists in the minds of his followers;
water is there for us to clean ourselves? What therefore, the believers would ultimately be accountable
festivals of atonement, what sacred games shall for his life and death. Holub goes on to state that “God
we have to invent? Is not the greatness of this has been the victim of murder, and we, as human beings,
deed too great for us? Must we ourselves not are the murderers”(36).
become gods simply to appear worthy of it?
Another purpose of Nietzsche’s death of God is to“un-
—Nietzsche, The Gay Science, Section 125, mask the hypocrisies and illusion of outworn value sys-
tr. Walter Kaufmann tems”(Pfeffer 18). People do not fully comprehend
that they killed God through their hypocrisy and lack of
morality. Due to hypocrisy“God has lost whatever func-
tion he once had because of the actions taken by those
who believe in him”(Welshon 40). A god is merely a
0.8.1 Explication mirrored reflection of its people and the “Christian God
is so ridiculous a God that even were he to have existed,
The phrase “God is dead”does not mean that Niet- he would have no right to exist”(Welshon 39). Religious
zsche believed in an actual God who first existed and people start going against their beliefs and start coinciding
then died in a literal sense. Rather, it conveys his view with the beliefs of mainstream society. “[Moral think-
that the Christian God is no longer a credible source of ing] is debased and poisoned by the influence of society’
absolute moral principles. Nietzsche recognizes the cri- s weakest and most ignoble elements, the herd”(Welshon
sis that the death of God represents for existing moral 16).
assumptions: “When one gives up the Christian faith, Humanity depreciates traditional ethics and beliefs and
one pulls the right to Christian morality out from under this leads to another misunderstanding of the death of
one's feet. This morality is by no means self-evident... By God. During the era of Nietzsche, traditional beliefs
breaking one main concept out of Christianity, the faith within Christianity became almost nonexistent due to
in God, one breaks the whole: nothing necessary remains the vast expansion of education and the rise of modern
in one's hands.”* [1] This is why in “The Madman”, a science. “Belief in God is no longer possible due to
passage which primarily addresses nontheists (especially such nineteenth-century factors as the dominance of the
atheists), the problem is to retain any system of values in historical-critical method of reading Scripture, the rise of
the absence of a divine order. incredulity toward anything miraculous ... and the idea
The death of God is a way of saying that humans are no that God is the creation of wish projection (Benson 31).
longer able to believe in any such cosmic order since they Nietzsche believed that man was useless without a God
themselves no longer recognize it. The death of God will and“no longer possesses ideals and absolute goals toward
lead, Nietzsche says, not only to the rejection of a belief which to strive. He has lost all direction and purpose”(Pf-
of cosmic or physical order but also to a rejection of ab- effer 76). Nietzsche believes that in order to overcome
solute values themselves —to the rejection of belief in an our current state of depreciated values that a “strong
objective and universal moral law, binding upon all indi- classic pessimism”like that of the Greeks is “needed
viduals. In this manner, the loss of an absolute basis for to overcome the dilemmas and anxieties of modern man”
morality leads to nihilism. This nihilism is that for which (Pfeffer 65).
Nietzsche worked to find a solution by re-evaluating the “Either we died because of our religion or our religion
foundations of human values. This meant, to Nietzsche, dies because of us”(Pfeffer 73). This quote summarizes
looking for foundations that went deeper than Christian what Nietzsche was trying to say in his concept of the
values. He would find a basis in the "will to power" that death of God- that the God of Christianity has died off
he described as “the essence of reality.” because of its people and their beliefs. Far too often do
Nietzsche believed that the majority of people did not people translate the death of God into a literal sense, do
recognize this death out of the deepest-seated fear or not take responsibility for the death of God, and depreci-
angst. Therefore, when the death did begin to become ate the value of traditional Christian beliefs - all leading
widely acknowledged, people would despair and nihilism to the misunderstandings of Nietzsche’s philosophy of
would become rampant. This is partly why Nietzsche saw God’s death. Now in a world where God is dead we can
Christianity as nihilistic. He may have seen himself as a only hope that technology and science does not take con-
historical figure like Zarathustra, Socrates, or Jesus, giv- trol and“be treated as the new religion, serving as a basis
ing a new philosophical orientation to future generations for retaining the same damaging psychological habit that
to overcome the impending nihilism. the Christian religion developed”(Magnus 36).
 0.8. GOD IS DEAD 31

Nietzsche and Heidegger New possibilities

Martin Heidegger understood this part of Nietzsche's phi- Nietzsche believed there could be positive possibilities
losophy by looking at it as death of metaphysics. In his for humans without God. Relinquishing the belief in God
view, Nietzsche's words can only be understood as re- opens the way for human creative abilities to fully de-
ferring not to a particular theological or anthropological velop. The Christian God, he wrote, would no longer
view but rather to the end of philosophy itself. Philoso- stand in the way, so human beings might stop turning their
phy has, in Heidegger's words, reached its maximum po- eyes toward a supernatural realm and begin to acknowl-
tential as metaphysics and Nietzsche's words warn of its edge the value of this world.
demise and that of any metaphysical world view. If meta- Nietzsche uses the metaphor of an open sea, which can be
physics is dead, Heidegger warns, that is because from its both exhilarating and terrifying. The people who eventu-
inception that was its fate.* [2] ally learn to create their lives anew will represent a new
stage in human existence, the Übermensch —i.e. the per-
sonal archetype who, through the conquest of their own
nihilism, themselves become a sort of mythical hero. The
Nietzsche and others 'death of God' is the motivation for Nietzsche's last (un-
completed) philosophical project, the 'revaluation of all
values'.
Paul Tillich as well as Richard Schacht were influenced
by the writings of Nietzsche and especially of his phrase
“God is dead.”* [3] Nietzsche's voice
William Hamilton wrote the following about Nietzsche's
view: Although Nietzsche puts the statement “God is Dead”
into the mouth of a“madman”* [5] in The Gay Science, he
also uses the phrase in his own voice in sections 108 and
343 of the same book. In the madman's passage, the man
For the most part Altizer prefers mystical is described as running through a marketplace shouting,
to ethical language in solving the problem of “I seek God! I seek God!" He arouses some amusement;
the death of God, or, as he puts it, in map- no one takes him seriously. Maybe he took an ocean voy-
ping out the way from the profane to the sacred. age? Lost his way like a little child? Maybe he's afraid of
This combination of Kierkegaard and Eliade us (non-believers) and is hiding?-- much laughter. Frus-
makes rather rough reading, but his position trated, the madman smashes his lantern on the ground,
at the end is a relatively simple one. Here is crying out that “God is dead, and we have killed him,
an important summary statement of his views: you and I!"“But I have come too soon,”he immediately
If theology must now accept a dialectical vo- realizes, as his detractors of a minute before stare in as-
cation, it must learn the full meaning of Yes- tonishment: people cannot yet see that they have killed
saying and No-saying; it must sense the pos- God. He goes on to say:
sibility of a Yes which can become a No, and
of a No which can become a Yes; in short, it
This prodigious event is still on its way,
must look forward to a dialectical coincidentia
still wandering; it has not yet reached the ears
oppositorum. Let theology rejoice that faith is
of men. Lightning and thunder require time,
once again a“scandal,”and not simply a moral
the light of the stars requires time, deeds,
scandal, an offense to man’s pride and righ-
though done, still require time to be seen and
teousness, but, far more deeply, an ontologi-
heard. This deed is still more distant from
cal scandal; for eschatological faith is directed
them than the most distant stars —and yet they
against the deepest reality of what we know as
have done it themselves.
history and the cosmos. Through Nietzsche’s
—trans. Walter Kaufmann, The Gay Science,
vision of Eternal Recurrence we can sense the
sect. 125
ecstatic liberation that can be occasioned by the
collapse of the transcendence of Being, by the
death of God . . . and, from Nietzsche’s por-
trait of Jesus, theology must learn of the power Earlier in the book (section 108), Nietzsche wrote“God
of an eschatological faith that can liberate the is Dead; but given the way of men, there may still be caves
believer from what to the contemporary sensi- for thousands of years in which his shadow will be shown.
bility is the inescapable reality of history. But And we —we still have to vanquish his shadow, too.”
liberation must finally be effected by affirma- The protagonist in Thus Spoke Zarathustra also speaks
tion. . . . .( See “Theology and the Death of the words, commenting to himself after visiting a hermit
God,”in this volume, pp. 95-111.* [4] who, every day, sings songs and lives to glorify his god:
32 CONTENTS

'And what is the saint doing in the forest?' • Post-monotheism

asked Zarathustra. The saint answered: 'I
make songs and sing them; and when I make • Postmodern Christianity
songs, I laugh, cry, and hum: thus do I praise
God. With singing, crying, laughing, and
humming do I praise the god who is my god. 0.8.4 References
But what do you bring us as a gift?' When
Zarathustra had heard these words he bade [1] trans. Walter Kaufmann and R.J. Hollingdale; Twilight of
the Idols, Expeditions of an Untimely Man, sect. 5
the saint farewell and said: 'What could I
have to give you? But let me go quickly lest [2] Wolfgan Muller-Lauter, Heidegger und Nietzsche:
I take something from you!' And thus they Nietzsche-Interpretationen III, Walter de Gruyter 2000
separated, the old one and the man, laughing
as two boys laugh. But when Zarathustra was [3] Richard Schacht, After the Death of God: Friedrich Niet-
alone he spoke thus to his heart: 'Could it be zsche and Paul Tillich You Tube
possible? This old saint in the forest has not
[4] The Death of God Theologies Today by William Hamilton
yet heard anything of this, that God is dead!'
—trans. Walter Kaufmann, Thus Spoke [5] Read the whole section here from Thomas Common's
Zarathustra, Prologue, sect. 2. translation The Madman Section 125

What is more, Zarathustra later refers not only to the 0.8.5 Further reading
death of God, but states: 'Dead are all the Gods'. It is
not just one morality that has died, but all of them, to be • Heidegger, Martin. Nietzsches Wort 'Gott ist tot
replaced by the life of the übermensch, the new man: (1943) translated as“The Word of Nietzsche: 'God
Is Dead,'" in Holzwege, edited and translated by Ju-
'DEAD ARE ALL THE GODS: NOW lian Young and Kenneth Haynes. Cambridge Uni-
DO WE DESIRE THE OVERMAN TO versity Press, 2002.
LIVE.'
—trans. Thomas Common, Thus Spoke • Kaufmann, Walter. Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psy-
Zarathustra, Part I, Section XXII,3 chologist, Antichrist. Princeton: Princeton Univer-
sity Press, 1974.

• Roberts, Tyler T. Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Affir-

0.8.2 Death of God theological movement mation, Religion. Princeton: Princeton University
Press, 1998.
Main article: Death of God theology
Precursors to 'Death of God' theology
The cover of the April 8, 1966 edition of Time and the ac-
companying article concerned a movement in American • Benson, Bruce E. Pious Nietzsche: Decadence and
theology that arose in the 1960s known as the “death of Dionysian Faith. Bloomington: Indiana UP, 2008.
God”. The death of God movement is sometimes techni-
cally referred to as “theothanatology”(In Greek, Theos • Holub, Robert C. Friedrich Nietzsche. New York:
means God and Thanatos means death.) Ywayne Publishers, 1995.
The main proponents of this theology included the Chris- • Magnus, Bernd, and Kathleen Higgins. The Cam-
tian theologians Gabriel Vahanian, Paul Van Buren, bridge Companion to Nietzsche. Cambridge: Cam-
William Hamilton, John A.T. Robinson, Thomas J. J. Al- bridge UP, 1996.
tizer, John D. Caputo, and the rabbi Richard L. Ruben-
stein. • Pfeffer, Rose. Nietzsche: Disciple of Dionysus. Can-
bury: Associated University Presses, 1972.

0.8.3 See also • Welshon, Rex. The Philosophy of Nietzsche. Mon-

treal: McGill-Queen’s UP, 2004.
• Christian atheism
• Deconstruction and religion Death of God' theology
• Nontheism
• Thomas J. J. Altizer, The Gospel of Christian Athe-
• Post-theism ism (Philadelphia: Westminster, 1966).
 0.9. HANLON'S RAZOR 33

• Thomas J. J. Altizer and William Hamilton, Rad- about how the quotation originally came from Robert J.
ical Theology and the Death of God (Indianapolis: Hanlon of Scranton, Pennsylvania, as a submission for
Bobbs-Merrill, 1966). a book compilation of various jokes related to Murphy's
law published in Arthur Bloch's Murphy's Law Book Two:
• Bernard Murchland, ed., The Meaning of the Death More Reasons Why Things Go Wrong! (1980).* [9] Sub-
of God (New York: Random House, 1967). sequently, in 2002, the Jargon File entry noted the same,
*
• Gabriel Vahanian, The Death of God (New York: though not definitively. [10]
George Braziller, 1961).

• John D. Caputo, Gianni Vattimo, After the Death 0.9.2 Similar quotations
of God, edited by Jeffrey W. Robbins (New York:
Columbia University Press, 2007). Another similar quotation appears in Goethe's The Sor-
rows of Young Werther (1774):
• Hamilton, William,“A Quest for the Post-Historical
Jesus,”(London, New York: Continuum Interna- ...misunderstandings and neglect create
tional Publishing Group, 1994). ISBN 978-0-8264- more confusion in this world than trickery and
0641-5 malice. At any rate, the last two are certainly
much less frequent.
—Johann Wolfgang von Goethe* [11]
0.8.6 External links
• The Joyful Wisdom, The Madman
Similarly, Jane West's The Loyalists (1812) includes:
• John M. Frame, “Death of God Theology”
Let us not attribute to malice and cruelty
what may be referred to less criminal motives.
0.9 Hanlon's razor Do we not often afflict others undesignedly,
and, from mere carelessness, neglect to relieve
distress?
Hanlon's razor is a saying that recommends a way of
—Jane West* [12]
eliminating unlikely explanations for a phenomenon (a
philosophical razor).

A common (and more laconic) British English variation,

Never attribute to malice that which is ad-
coined by Bernard Ingham, is the saying "cock-up before
equately explained by stupidity.
conspiracy”, deriving from this 1985 quotation:

As an eponymous law, it may have been named after Many journalists have fallen for the con-
Robert J. Hanlon. There are also earlier sayings that con- spiracy theory of government. I do assure you
vey the same idea. that they would produce more accurate work
if they adhered to the cock-up theory.
—Bernard Ingham* [13]
0.9.1 Origins and etymology
The adage was popularized in this form and under this
name by the Jargon File, a glossary of computer pro- Another similar instance from politics is the attribution by
grammer slang.* [1]* [2] In 1990, it appeared in the Jargon First Minister of Scotland, Henry McLeish, of financial
File described as a "'murphyism' parallel to Occam's Ra- irregularities that led to his resignation in 2001, to “a
zor”.* [3] The name was inspired by Occam's razor.* [4] muddle not a fiddle”.* [14]
Later that same year, the Jargon File editors noted lack of “Heinlein's Razor”has since been defined as variations on
knowledge about the term's derivation and the existence Never attribute to malice that which can be adequately ex-
of a similar epigram by William James.* [5] In 1996, the plained by stupidity, but don't rule out malice. This quo-
Jargon File entry on Hanlon's Razor noted the existence tation is attributed to Albert Einstein in Peter W. Singer's
of a similar quotation in Robert A. Heinlein's short story book Wired for War (2009).* [15]
"Logic of Empire" (1941)* [2] “You
( have attributed con-
ditions to villainy that simply result from stupidity”), with
speculation that Hanlon's Razor might be a corruption of 0.9.3 See also
“Heinlein's Razor”.* [6]
• Clarke's three laws
In 2001, Quentin Stafford-Fraser published two blog en-
tries citing e-mails from one Joseph E. Bigler* [7]* [8] • Dunning–Kruger effect
34 CONTENTS

• Finagle's law [14] “First minister denies office fiddle”. BBC News. 6
November 2001.
• Idiot proof

• Peter Principle [15] Singer, Peter W. (2009). Wired for War. p. 434. ISBN
1594201986.
• Sturgeon's law

• Occam's razor
0.9.5 External links
• Presumption of innocence
• Jargon File entry for “Hanlon's Razor”
0.9.4 References
[1] “Hanlon's Razor”. Jargon File, as of v4.3.2. Eric S.
Raymond. 2002-03-03. Retrieved 2013-06-01. 0.10 Loaded question
[2] Andrew S. Wigosky (2004). RAPID Value Management
A loaded question or complex question fallacy is a
for the Business Cost of Ownership. Digital Press. p. 5.
ISBN 9781555582890. [...] Hanlon's Razor: 'Never at- question which contains a controversial or unjustified as-
tribute to malice that which can be adequately explained sumption (e.g., a presumption of guilt).* [1]
by stupidity.' This definition comes from 'The Jargon File' Aside from being an informal fallacy depending on us-
(edited by Eric Raymond), but one poster attributes it to age, such questions may be used as a rhetorical tool: the
Robert Heinlein, in a 1941 story called 'Logic of Empire.'
question attempts to limit direct replies to be those that
[3] Guy L. Steele; Eric S. Raymond (eds.). “THE JARGON serve the questioner's agenda.* [2] The traditional exam-
FILE, VERSION 2.1.1 (DRAFT) 12 JUN 1990”. jargon- ple is the question“Have you stopped beating your wife?"
file.org. Retrieved 2013-06-01. Whether the respondent answers yes or no, they will ad-
mit to having a wife and having beaten her at some time
[4] Giancarlo Livraghi, Il potere della stupidità, Monti & Am- in the past. Thus, these facts are presupposed by the
brosini, Pescara, Italy, 2004, p. 1
question, and in this case an entrapment, because it nar-
[5] Eric S. Raymond; Guy L. Steele (eds.). “THE JARGON rows the respondent to a single answer, and the fallacy
FILE, VERSION 2.2.1 15 DEC 1990”. jargon-file.org. of many questions has been committed.* [2] The fallacy
Retrieved 2013-06-01. relies upon context for its effect: the fact that a question
presupposes something does not in itself make the ques-
[6] Eric S. Raymond (ed.). “THE JARGON FILE, VER- tion fallacious. Only when some of these presuppositions
SION 4.0.0, 24 JUL 1996”. jargon-file.org. Retrieved
are not necessarily agreed to by the person who is asked
2013-06-01.
the question does the argument containing them become
[7] "[untitled]". Status-Q - Quentin Stafford-Fraser's blog. fallacious.* [2] Hence the same question may be loaded in
2001-11-26. Retrieved 2013-06-01. one context, but not in the other. For example the previ-
ous question would not be loaded if it was asked during a
[8] "[untitled]". Status-Q - Quentin Stafford-Fraser's blog. trial in which the defendant has already admitted to beat-
2001-12-04. Retrieved 2013-06-01.
ing his wife.* [2]
[9] Arthur Bloch (1980). Murphy's Law Book Two: More This fallacy should be distinguished from that of begging
Reasons Why Things Go Wrong!. Price Stern Sloan. p. the question (not to be confused with raising the ques-
52. ISBN 0-417-06450-0. tion),* [3] which offers a premise whose plausibility de-
[10] Eric S. Raymond (ed.). “THE JARGON FILE, VER- pends on the truth of the proposition asked about, and
SION 4.3.2, 3 MAR 2002”. jargon-file.org. Retrieved which is often an implicit restatement of the proposi-
2013-06-01. tion.* [4]

[11]“daß Mißverständnisse und Trägheit vielleicht mehr Irrun- The term “loaded question”is sometimes used to refer
gen in der Welt machen als List und Bosheit. Wenigstens to loaded language that is phrased as a question. This
sind die beiden letzteren gewiß seltener.”Werther. Erstes type of question does not necessarily contain a fallacious
Buch. zeno.org presupposition, but rather this usage refers to the question
having an unspoken and often emotive implication. For
[12] Jane West (1812). “Chapter XXII”. The Loyalists 2. example,“Are you a murderer?" would be such a loaded
Retrieved 2013-06-02.
question, as “murder”has a very negative connotation.
[13] Pigden, Charles (2006). “Chapter 3: Popper Revised, Such a question may be asked merely to harass or upset
or What is Wrong with Conspiracy Theories?". In David the respondent with no intention of listening to their reply,
Coady. Conspiracy Theories: The Philosophical Debate. or asked with the full expectation that the respondent will
p. 17. Quoted in the Otago Daily Times, 3/4/85. predictably deny it.
 0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 35

0.10.1 Defense claimed“the question presupposes that smacking is a part

of good parental correction”.* [9]
A common way out of this argument is not to answer the
question (e.g. with a simple 'yes' or 'no'), but to chal-
lenge the assumption behind the question. To use an 0.10.3 See also
earlier example, a good response to the question “Have
you stopped beating your wife?" would be“I have never • Complex question
beaten my wife”.* [5] This removes the ambiguity of
the expected response, therefore nullifying the tactic. • Entailment (pragmatics)
However, the askers of said questions have learned to
get around this tactic by accusing the one who answers • False dilemma
of dodging the question. A rhetorical question such as
“Then please explain, how could I possibly have beaten • Gotcha journalism
a wife that I've never had?" can be an effective antidote
to this further tactic, placing the burden on the deceptive • Implicature
questioner either to expose their tactic or stop the line
of inquiry. In many cases a short answer is important. I • Leading question
neither did nor do I now makes a good example on how
to answer the question without letting the asker interrupt • Mu (negative)
and misshape the response.
• Presupposition

• Suggestive question
0.10.2 Historical examples

Madeleine Albright (U.S. Ambassador to the U.N.) 0.10.4 References

claims to have answered a loaded question (and later re-
gretted not challenging it instead) on 60 Minutes on 12 [1] Gregory Bassham (2004), Critical Thinking, McGraw-Hill
May 1996. Lesley Stahl asked, regarding the effects of
UN sanctions against Iraq, “We have heard that a half [2] Douglas N. Walton, Informal logic: a handbook for critical
million children have died. I mean, that is more chil- argumentation, Cambridge University Press, 1989, ISBN
dren than died in Hiroshima. And, you know, is the price 0-521-37925-3, pp. 36–37
worth it?" Madeleine Albright: “I think that is a very
hard choice, but the price, we think, the price is worth [3] Fallacy: Begging the Question The Nizkor Project. Re-
it.”* [6] She later wrote of this response: trieved on: January 22, 2008

[4] Carroll, Robert Todd. The Skeptic's Dictionary. John Wi-

I must have been crazy; I should have an- ley & Sons. p. 51. ISBN 0-471-27242-6.
swered the question by reframing it and point-
ing out the inherent flaws in the premise behind [5] Layman, C. Stephen (2003). The Power of Logic. p. 158.
it. …As soon as I had spoken, I wished for
the power to freeze time and take back those [6] “Albright's Blunder”. Irvine Review. 2002. Archived
from the original on 2003-06-03. Retrieved 2008-01-04.
words. My reply had been a terrible mistake,
hasty, clumsy, and wrong. …I had fallen into [7] Albright, Madeleine (2003). Madam Secretary: A Mem-
a trap and said something that I simply did not oir. p. 275. ISBN 0-7868-6843-0.
mean. That is no one’s fault but my own.* [7]
[8] “Colin Powell Promotion: the Real Story”. New York
Times.
President Bill Clinton, the moderator in a town meeting
discussing the topic “Race In America”, in response to
[9] “Anti-smacking debate goes to referendum - Story - Na-
a participant argument that the issue was not affirmative tional”. 3 News. Retrieved 2010-02-03.
action but “racial preferences”asked the participant a
loaded question: “Do you favor the United States Army
abolishing the affirmative-action program that produced
0.10.5 External links
Colin Powell? Yes or no?" * [8]
For another example, the New Zealand corporal punish- • Fallacy: Loaded Questions and Complex Claims
ment referendum, 2009 asked: “Should a smack as part Critical Thinking exercises. San Jose State Univer-
of good parental correction be a criminal offence in New sity.
Zealand?" Murray Edridge, of Barnardos New Zealand,
criticized the question as “loaded and ambiguous”and • Logical Fallacy: Loaded Question The Fallacy Files
 36 CONTENTS

Where Do We Come From? What Are We? Where Are We

Going?, one of Post-Impressionist Paul Gauguin's most famous
paintings

0.11 Meaning of life

For other uses, see Meaning of life (disambiguation).
The meaning of life is a philosophical and spiritual Philosopher in Meditation (detail) by Rembrandt
question concerning the significance of living or existence
in general. It can also be expressed in different forms,
such as “What should I do?", “Why are we here?", • What is the purpose of life? What is the purpose of
“What is life all about?", and “What is the purpose of one's life?* [8]* [10]* [11]
existence?" or even “Does life exist at all?" We may
• What is the significance of life?* [11] – see also
never know. It has been the subject of much philosophi-
Psychological significance and value in life
cal, scientific, and theological speculation throughout his-
tory. There have been a large number of proposed an- • What is meaningful and valuable in life?* [12]
swers to these questions from many different cultural and
ideological backgrounds. • What is the value of life?* [13]

The meaning of life is in the philosophical and religious • What is the reason to live? What are we living
conceptions of existence, social ties, consciousness, and for?* [6]* [14]
happiness, and borders on many other issues, such as
symbolic meaning, ontology, value, purpose, ethics, good These questions have resulted in a wide range of compet-
and evil, free will, the existence of one or multiple gods, ing answers and arguments, from scientific theories, to
conceptions of God, the soul, and the afterlife. Scien- philosophical, theological, and spiritual explanations.
tific contributions focus primarily on describing related
empirical facts about the universe, exploring the context
and parameters concerning the 'how' of life. Science also 0.11.2 Scientific inquiry and perspectives
studies and can provide recommendations for the pursuit
of well-being and a related conception of morality. An al- Further information: Eudaimonia § Eudaimonia and
ternative, humanistic approach poses the question“What modern psychology and Meaningful Life
is the meaning of my life?" The value of the question
pertaining to the purpose of life may coincide with the Members of the scientific community and philosophy
achievement of ultimate reality, or a feeling of oneness,
of science communities think that science can provide
or even a feeling of fearness. the relevant context, and set of parameters necessary for
dealing with topics related to the meaning of life. In their
view, science can offer a wide range of insights on topics
0.11.1 Questions ranging from the science of happiness to death anxiety.
Science can achieve this means by objectively exposing
Questions about the meaning of life have been expressed
numerous aspects of life and reality, such as the Big Bang,
in a broad variety of ways, including the following:
the origin of life, and evolution, and by studying what ob-
jective factors correlate with the subjective experience of
• What is the meaning of life? What's it all about? meaning and happiness.
Who are we?* [1]* [2]* [3]
• Why are we here? What are we here Psychological significance and value in life
for?* [4]* [5]* [6]
• What is the origin of life?* [7] Researchers in positive psychology study empirical fac-
tors that lead to life satisfaction,* [15] full engagement
• What is the nature of life? What is the nature of re- in activities,* [16] making a fuller contribution by utiliz-
ality?* [7]* [8]* [9] ing one's personal strengths,* [17] and meaning based on
0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 37

investing in something larger than the self.* [18] Large- stroke,* [21] and increased longevity in both American
data studies of flow experiences have consistently sug- and Japanese samples.* [22] In 2014, the British National
gested that humans experience meaning and fulfillment Health Service began recommending a five step plan for
when mastering challenging tasks, and that the experi- mental well-being based on meaningful lives, whose steps
ence comes from the way tasks are approached and per- are: (1) Connect with community and family; (2) Physi-
formed rather than the particular choice of task. For ex- cal exercise; (3) Lifelong learning; (4) Giving to others;
ample, flow experiences can be obtained by prisoners in (5) Mindfulness of the world around you.* [23]
concentration camps with minimal facilities, and occur
only slightly more often in billionaires. A classic exam-
ple* [16] is of two workers on an apparently boring pro- Origin and nature of biological life
duction line in a factory. One treats the work as a tedious
chore while the other turns it into a game to see how fast
she can make each unit, and achieves flow in the process.
Neuroscience describes reward, pleasure, and motivation
in terms of neurotransmitter activity, especially in the
limbic system and the ventral tegmental area in partic-
ular. If one believes that the meaning of life is to max-
imize pleasure and to ease general life, then this allows
normative predictions about how to act to achieve this.
Likewise, some ethical naturalists advocate a science of
morality – the empirical pursuit of flourishing for all con-
scious creatures.
Experimental philosophy and neuroethics research col-
lects data about human ethical decisions in controlled sce-
narios such as trolley problems. It has shown that many
types of ethical judgment are universal across cultures,
suggesting that they may be innate, whilst others are cul-
ture specific. The findings show actual human ethical
reasoning to be at odds with most logical philosophical
theories, for example consistently showing distinctions
between action by cause and action by omission which
would be absent from utility based theories. Cognitive
science has theorized about differences between conser-
vative and liberal ethics and how they may be based on
different metaphors from family life such as strong fa-
thers vs nurturing mother models.
Neurotheology is a controversial field which tries to find
neural correlates and mechanisms of religious experi-
ence. Some researchers have suggested that the human
brain has innate mechanisms for such experiences and
that living without using them for their evolved purposes
may be a cause of imbalance. Studies have reported con-
flicted results on correlating happiness with religious be-
lief and it is difficult to find unbiased meta-analyses.
Sociology examines value at a social level using theo-
retical constructs such as value theory, norms, anomie,
etc. One value system suggested by social psychologists,
broadly called Terror Management Theory, states that hu-
man meaning is derived from a fundamental fear of death,
and values are selected when they allow us to escape the
mental reminder of death.
Emerging research shows that meaning in life predicts
better physical health outcomes. Greater meaning has
been associated with a reduced risk of Alzheimer's dis-
ease,* [19] reduced risk of heart attack among individ- DNA, the molecule containing the genetic instructions for the de-
uals with coronary heart disease,* [20] reduced risk of velopment and functioning of all known living organisms.
38 CONTENTS

The exact mechanisms of abiogenesis are unknown: no-

table hypotheses include the RNA world hypothesis
(RNA-based replicators) and the iron-sulfur world the-
ory (metabolism without genetics). The process by which
different lifeforms have developed throughout history via
genetic mutation and natural selection is explained by
evolution.* [24] At the end of the 20th century, based
upon insight gleaned from the gene-centered view of evo-
lution, biologists George C. Williams, Richard Dawkins,
David Haig, among others, concluded that if there is a
primary function to life, it is the replication of DNA and
the survival of one's genes.* [25]* [26] This view has not
achieved universal agreement; Jeremy Griffith is a no- The metric expansion of space. The inflationary epoch is the
table exception, maintaining that the meaning of life is to expansion of the metric tensor at left.
be integrative.* [27] Responding to an interview question
from Richard Dawkins about“what it is all for”, James
Watson stated “I don't think we're for anything. We're is sometimes interpreted as implying the existence of a
just the products of evolution.”* [28] multiverse.* [38]
Though scientists have intensively studied life on Earth, The ultimate fate of the universe, and implicitly human-
defining life in unequivocal terms is still a chal- ity, is hypothesized as one in which biological life will
lenge.* [29]* [30] Physically, one may say that life“feeds eventually become unsustainable, such as through a Big
on negative entropy"* [27]* [31]* [32] which refers to the Freeze, Big Rip, or Big Crunch.
process by which living entities decrease their inter- Theoretical cosmology studies many alternative specula-
nal entropy at the expense of some form of energy tive models for the origin and fate of the universe be-
taken in from the environment.* [33]* [34] Biologists gen- yond the big bang theory. A recent trend has been
erally agree that lifeforms are self-organizing systems models of the creation of 'baby universes' inside black
regulating the internal environment as to maintain this or- holes. Multiverse theories claim that every possibility of
ganized state, metabolism serves to provide energy, and quantum mechanics is played out in parallel universes.
reproduction causes life to continue over a span of mul-
tiple generations. Typically, organisms are responsive to
stimuli and genetic information changes from generation Scientific questions about the mind
to generation, resulting in adaptation through evolution;
this optimizes the chances of survival for the individual The nature and origin of consciousness and the mind it-
organism and its descendants respectively.* [35] self are also widely debated in science. The explanatory
Non-cellular replicating agents, notably viruses, are gen- gap is generally equated with the hard problem of con-
erally not considered to be organisms because they are sciousness, and the question of free will is also consid-
incapable of independent reproduction or metabolism. ered to be of fundamental importance. These subjects
This classification is problematic, though, since some are mostly addressed in the fields of cognitive science,
parasites and endosymbionts are also incapable of inde- neuroscience (e.g. the neuroscience of free will) and
pendent life. Astrobiology studies the possibility of dif- philosophy of mind, though some evolutionary biologists
ferent forms of life on other worlds, including replicating and theoretical physicists have also made several allusions
structures made from materials other than DNA. to the subject.* [39]* [40]
Reductionistic and eliminative materialistic approaches,
for example the Multiple Drafts Model, hold that con-
Origins and ultimate fate of the universe
sciousness can be wholly explained by neuroscience
Though the Big Bang theory was met with much skepti- through the workings of the brain* and* its neurons,
*
thus
cism when first introduced, it has become well-supported adhering to biological naturalism. [40] [41] [42]
by several independent observations.* [36] However, cur- On the other hand, some scientists, like Andrei Linde,
rent physics can only describe the early universe from have considered that consciousness, like spacetime, might
10* −43 seconds after the Big Bang (where zero time cor- have its own intrinsic degrees of freedom, and that one's
responds to infinite temperature); a theory of quantum perceptions may be as real as (or even more real than)
gravity would be required to understand events before material objects.* [43] Hypotheses of consciousness and
that time. Nevertheless, many physicists have specu- spacetime explain consciousness in describing a“space of
lated about what would have preceded this limit, and conscious elements”,* [43] often encompassing a num-
how the universe came into being.* [37] For example, ber of extra dimensions.* [44] Electromagnetic theories
one interpretation is that the Big Bang occurred coinci- of consciousness solve the binding problem of conscious-
dentally, and when considering the anthropic principle, it ness in saying that the electromagnetic field generated
0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 39

.* [9]* [47]* [48] Proponents of this view cite accounts of

paranormal phenomena, primarily extrasensory percep-
tions and psychic powers, as evidence for an incorporeal
higher consciousness. In hopes of proving the existence
of these phenomena, parapsychologists have orchestrated
various experiments, but apparently successful results
are more likely due to sloppy procedures, poorly trained
researchers, or methodological flaws than to actual ef-
fects.* [49]* [50]* [51]* [52]

0.11.3 Western philosophical perspectives

The philosophical perspectives on the meaning of life are
those ideologies which explain life in terms of ideals or
abstractions defined by humans.

Ancient Greek philosophy

Hieronymus Bosch's Ascent of the Blessed depicts a tunnel of

light and spiritual figures, often described in reports of near-
death experiences.
Plato and Aristotle in The School of Athens fresco, by Raphael.
Plato is pointing heavenwards to the sky, and Aristotle is gesturing
by the brain is the actual carrier of conscious experi- to the world.
ence, there is however disagreement about the implemen-
tations of such a theory relating to other workings of the
mind.* [45]* [46] Quantum mind theories use quantum
Platonism Main article: Platonism
theory in explaining certain properties of the mind. Ex-
plaining the process of free will through quantum phe-
nomena is a popular alternative to determinism. Plato, a pupil of Socrates, was one of the earliest, most
influential philosophers. His reputation comes from his
idealism of believing in the existence of universals. His
Parapsychology Based on the premises of non- Theory of Forms proposes that universals do not phys-
materialistic explanations of the mind, some have sug- ically exist, like objects, but as heavenly forms. In the
gested the existence of a cosmic consciousness, asserting dialogue of The Republic, the character of Socrates de-
that consciousness is actually the “ground of all being” scribes the Form of the Good.
 40 CONTENTS

In Platonism, the meaning of life is in attaining the high- value, which cause negative emotions and a concomitant
est form of knowledge, which is the Idea (Form) of the vicious character.
Good, from which all good and just things derive utility The Cynical life rejects conventional desires for wealth,
and value. power, health, and fame, by being free of the possessions
acquired in pursuing the conventional.* [53]* [54] As rea-
Aristotelianism Main article: Aristotelian ethics soning creatures, people could achieve happiness via rig-
orous training, by living in a way natural to human be-
ings. The world equally belongs to everyone, so suffering
Aristotle, an apprentice of Plato, was another early and is caused by false judgments of what is valuable and what
influential philosopher, who argued that ethical knowl- is worthless per the customs and conventions of society.
edge is not certain knowledge (such as metaphysics and
epistemology), but is general knowledge. Because it is not
a theoretical discipline, a person had to study and practice Cyrenaicism Main article: Cyrenaics
in order to become “good"; thus if the person were to
become virtuous, he could not simply study what virtue Aristippus of Cyrene, a pupil of Socrates, founded an
is, he had to be virtuous, via virtuous activities. To do early Socratic school that emphasized only one side of
this, Aristotle established what is virtuous: Socrates's teachings - that happiness is one of the ends
of moral action and that pleasure is the supreme good;
Every skill and every inquiry, and sim- thus a hedonistic world view, wherein bodily gratification
ilarly, every action and choice of action, is is more intense than mental pleasure. Cyrenaics prefer
thought to have some good as its object. This immediate gratification to the long-term gain of delayed
is why the good has rightly been defined as the gratification; denial is unpleasant unhappiness.* [55]* [56]
object of all endeavor [...]
Everything is done with a goal, and that goal is
“good”. Epicureanism Main article: Epicureanism
—Nicomachean Ethics 1.1
Epicurus, a pupil of the Platonist Pamphilus of Samos,
taught that the greatest good is in seeking modest
Yet, if action A is done towards achieving goal B, then pleasures, to attain tranquility and freedom from fear
goal B also would have a goal, goal C, and goal C also (ataraxia) via knowledge, friendship, and virtuous, tem-
would have a goal, and so would continue this pattern, perate living; bodily pain (aponia) is absent through one's
until something stopped its infinite regression. Aristotle's knowledge of the workings of the world and of the limits
solution is the Highest Good, which is desirable for its own of one's desires. Combined, freedom from pain and free-
sake. It is its own goal. The Highest Good is not desirable dom from fear are happiness in its highest form. Epicu-
for the sake of achieving some other good, and all other rus' lauded enjoyment of simple pleasures is quasi-ascetic
“goods”desirable for its sake. This involves achieving “abstention”from sex and the appetites:
eudaemonia, usually translated as “happiness”, “well-
being”, “flourishing”, and “excellence”. “When we say ... that pleasure is the end
and aim, we do not mean the pleasures of the
What is the highest good in all matters of prodigal or the pleasures of sensuality, as we
action? To the name, there is almost complete are understood to do, by some, through igno-
agreement; for uneducated and educated alike rance, prejudice or wilful misrepresentation.
call it happiness, and make happiness identical By pleasure we mean the absence of pain in the
with the good life and successful living. They body and of trouble in the soul. It is not by an
disagree, however, about the meaning of unbroken succession of drinking bouts and of
happiness. revelry, not by sexual lust, nor the enjoyment
—Nicomachean Ethics 1.4 of fish, and other delicacies of a luxurious ta-
ble, which produce a pleasant life; it is sober
reasoning, searching out the grounds of every
choice and avoidance, and banishing those be-
Cynicism Main article: Cynicism (philosophy) liefs through which the greatest tumults take
possession of the soul.”* [57]
Antisthenes, a pupil of Socrates, first outlined the themes
of Cynicism, stating that the purpose of life is living a life The Epicurean meaning of life rejects immortality and
of Virtue which agrees with Nature. Happiness depends mysticism; there is a soul, but it is as mortal as the body.
upon being self-sufficient and master of one's mental at- There is no afterlife, yet, one need not fear death, because
titude; suffering is the consequence of false judgments of “Death is nothing to us; for that which is dissolved, is
0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 41

without sensation, and that which lacks sensation is noth- There are many forms and derivations of liberalism, but
ing to us.”* [58] their central conceptions of the meaning of life trace back
to three main ideas. Early thinkers such as John Locke,
Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Adam Smith saw humankind
Stoicism Main article: Stoicism beginning in the state of nature, then finding meaning for
existence through labor and property, and using social
Zeno of Citium, a pupil of Crates of Thebes, established contracts to create an environment that supports those ef-
the school which teaches that living according to reason forts.
and virtue is to be in harmony with the universe's divine
order, entailed by one's recognition of the universal logos,
or reason, an essential value of all people. The mean-
ing of life is “freedom from suffering" through apatheia
(Gr: απαθεια), that is, being objective and having“clear
judgement”, not indifference.
Stoicism's prime directives are virtue, reason, and natural
law, abided to develop personal self-control and mental
fortitude as means of overcoming destructive emotions.
The Stoic does not seek to extinguish emotions, only to
avoid emotional troubles, by developing clear judgement
and inner calm through diligently practiced logic, reflec-
tion, and concentration.
The Stoic ethical foundation is that “good lies in the
state of the soul”, itself, exemplified in wisdom and self-
control, thus improving one's spiritual well-being: "Virtue
consists in a will which is in agreement with Nature.”
*
[58] The principle applies to one's personal relations
thus: “to be free from anger, envy, and jealousy”.* [58]

Enlightenment philosophy

Further information: Enlightenment philosophy

Immanuel Kant is regarded as one of the most influential thinkers
of the late Enlightenment.
The Enlightenment and the colonial era both changed the
nature of European philosophy and exported it world- Kantianism Kantianism is a philosophy based on
wide. Devotion and subservience to God were largely the ethical, epistemological, and metaphysical works of
replaced by notions of inalienable natural rights and the Immanuel Kant. Kant is known for his deontological
potentialities of reason, and universal ideals of love and theory where there is a single moral obligation, the
compassion gave way to civic notions of freedom, equal- "Categorical Imperative", derived from the concept of
ity, and citizenship. The meaning of life changed as well, duty. Kantians believe all actions are performed in ac-
focusing less on humankind's relationship to God and cordance with some underlying maxim or principle, and
more on the relationship between individuals and their for actions to be ethical, they must adhere to the categor-
society. This era is filled with theories that equate mean- ical imperative.
ingful existence with the social order.
Simply put, the test is that one must universalize the
maxim (imagine that all people acted in this way) and
Classical liberalism Classical liberalism is a set of then see if it would still be possible to perform the maxim
ideas that arose in the 17th and 18th centuries, out of con- in the world without contradiction. In Groundwork, Kant
flicts between a growing, wealthy, propertied class and gives the example of a person who seeks to borrow money
the established aristocratic and religious orders that dom- without intending to pay it back. This is a contradiction
inated Europe. Liberalism cast humans as beings with in- because if it were a universal action, no person would
alienable natural rights (including the right to retain the lend money anymore as he knows that he will never be
wealth generated by one's own work), and sought out paid back. The maxim of this action, says Kant, results
means to balance rights across society. Broadly speak- in a contradiction in conceivability (and thus contradicts
ing, it considers individual liberty to be the most impor- perfect duty).
tant goal,* [59] because only through ensured liberty are Kant also denied that the consequences of an act in any
the other inherent rights protected. way contribute to the moral worth of that act, his rea-
 42 CONTENTS

soning being that the physical world is outside one's full purpose, comprehensible truth, and essential value; suc-
control and thus one cannot be held accountable for the cinctly, nihilism is the process of “the devaluing of the
events that occur in it. highest values”.* [62] Seeing the nihilist as a natural result
of the idea that God is dead, and insisting it was some-
thing to overcome, his questioning of the nihilist's life-
19th century philosophy negating values returned meaning to the Earth.* [63]

Further information: 19th century philosophy

The End of the World, by John Martin.

To Martin Heidegger, nihilism is the movement whereby

"being" is forgotten, and is transformed into value,
in other words, the reduction of being to exchange
value.* [62] Heidegger, in accordance with Nietzsche,
saw in the so-called "death of God" a potential source
for nihilism:

If God, as the supra-sensory ground and

goal, of all reality, is dead; if the supra-sensory
world of the Ideas has suffered the loss of its
obligatory, and above it, its vitalizing and up-
building power, then nothing more remains to
which Man can cling, and by which he can ori-
ent himself.* [64]
Jeremy Bentham

Utilitarianism The origins of utilitarianism can be

traced back as far as Epicurus, but, as a school of thought, The French philosopher Albert Camus asserts that the ab-
it is credited to Jeremy Bentham,* [60] who found that surdity of the human condition is that people search for
“nature has placed mankind under the governance of two external values and meaning in a world which has none,
sovereign masters, pain and pleasure”, then, from that and is indifferent to them. Camus writes of value-nihilists
moral insight, deriving the Rule of Utility:“that the good such as Meursault,* [65] but also of values in a nihilistic
is whatever brings the greatest happiness to the greatest world, that people can instead strive to be “heroic ni-
number of people”. He defined the meaning of life as hilists”, living with dignity in the face of absurdity, liv-
the "greatest happiness principle". ing with “secular saintliness”, fraternal solidarity, and
rebelling against and transcending the world's indiffer-
Jeremy Bentham's foremost proponent was James Mill, a ence.* [66]
significant philosopher in his day, and father of John Stu-
art Mill. The younger Mill was educated per Bentham's
principles, including transcribing and summarizing much 20th-century philosophy
of his father's work.* [61]
Further information: 20th-century philosophy

Nihilism Nihilism suggests that life is without objective The current era has seen radical changes in both formal
meaning. and popular conceptions of human nature. The knowl-
Friedrich Nietzsche characterized nihilism as emptying edge disclosed by modern science has effectively rewrit-
the world, and especially human existence, of meaning, ten the relationship of humankind to the natural world.
0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 43

Advances in medicine and technology have freed hu-

mans from significant limitations and ailments of previ-
ous eras;* [67] and philosophy—particularly following the
linguistic turn —has altered how the relationships peo-
ple have with themselves and each other are conceived.
Questions about the meaning of life have also seen rad-
ical changes, from attempts to reevaluate human exis-
tence in biological and scientific terms (as in pragmatism
and logical positivism) to efforts to meta-theorize about
meaning-making as a personal, individual-driven activity
(existentialism, secular humanism).

Pragmatism Pragmatism, originated in the late-19th-

century U.S., to concern itself (mostly) with truth, posit-
ing that “only in struggling with the environment”do
data, and derived theories, have meaning, and that conse-
quences, like utility and practicality, are also components
of truth. Moreover, pragmatism posits that anything use-
ful and practical is not always true, arguing that what most
contributes to the most human good in the long course
is true. In practice, theoretical claims must be practi-
cally verifiable, i.e. one should be able to predict and test
claims, and, that, ultimately, the needs of mankind should Edvard Munch's The Scream, a representation of existential
guide human intellectual inquiry. angst.
Pragmatic philosophers suggest that the practical, use-
ful understanding of life is more important than search-
ing for an impractical abstract truth about life. William the concomitant awareness of death. According to Jean-
James argued that truth could be made, but not Paul Sartre, existence precedes essence; the (essence) of
sought.* [68]* [69] To a pragmatist, the meaning of life is one's life arises only after one comes to existence.
discoverable only via experience. Søren Kierkegaard spoke about a "leap", arguing that life
is full of absurdity, and one must make his and her own
values in an indifferent world. One can live meaningfully
Theism Main article: Philosophical theism (free of despair and anxiety) in an unconditional commit-
ment to something finite, and devotes that meaningful life
Theists believe God created the universe and that God to the commitment, despite the vulnerability inherent to
*
had a purpose in doing so. Many theists, including the doing so. [71]
former atheist Antony Flew, have been persuaded that Arthur Schopenhauer answered: “What is the meaning
God created because of the scientific evidence for a low of life?" by stating that one's life reflects one's will, and
entropy Big Bang more than 13 billion years ago. The- that the will (life) is an aimless, irrational, and painful
ists also hold the view that humans find their meaning drive. Salvation, deliverance, and escape from suffering
and purpose for life in God's purpose in creating. The- are in aesthetic contemplation, sympathy for others, and
ists further hold that if there were no God to give life asceticism.* [72]* [73]
ultimate meaning, value and purpose, then life would be
For Friedrich Nietzsche, life is worth living only if there
absurd.* [70]
are goals inspiring one to live. Accordingly, he saw ni-
hilism (“all that happens is meaningless”) as without
Existentialism Main article: Meaning (existential) goals. He stated that asceticism denies one's living in the
According to existentialism, each man and each woman world; stated that values are not objective facts, that are
creates the essence (meaning) of his and her life; life is not rationally necessary, universally binding commitments:
determined by a supernatural god or an earthly authority, our evaluations are interpretations, and not reflections of
one is free. As such, one's ethical prime directives are ac- the world, as it is, in itself, and, therefore, all ideations
tion, freedom, and decision, thus, existentialism opposes take place from a particular perspective.* [63]
rationalism and positivism. In seeking meaning to life,
the existentialist looks to where people find meaning in
life, in course of which using only reason as a source of Absurdism Main article: Absurdism
meaning is insufficient; this gives rise to the emotions of
anxiety and dread, felt in considering one's free will, and "... in spite of or in defiance of the whole of existence he
44 CONTENTS

wills to be himself with it, to take it along, almost defy-

ing his torment. For to hope in the possibility of help, not
to speak of help by virtue of the absurd, that for God all
things are possible – no, that he will not do. And as for
seeking help from any other – no, that he will not do for
all the world; rather than seek help he would prefer to be
himself – with all the tortures of hell, if so it must be."
Søren Kierkegaard, The Sickness Unto Death* [74]

In absurdist philosophy, the Absurd arises out of the fun-

damental disharmony between the individual's search for
meaning and the apparent meaninglessness of the uni-
verse. As beings looking for meaning in a meaningless
world, humans have three ways of resolving the dilemma.
Kierkegaard and Camus describe the solutions in their
works, The Sickness Unto Death (1849) and The Myth of
Sisyphus (1942):

• Suicide (or, “escaping existence”): a solution in The "Happy Human" symbol representing Secular Humanism.
which a person simply ends one's own life. Both
Kierkegaard and Camus dismiss the viability of this
option. People determine human purpose without supernatural
influence; it is the human personality (general sense)
• Religious belief in a transcendent realm or being: a that is the purpose of a human being's life. Humanism
solution in which one believes in the existence of seeks to develop and fulfill:* [76] “Humanism affirms
a reality that is beyond the Absurd, and, as such, our ability and responsibility to lead ethical lives of per-
has meaning. Kierkegaard stated that a belief in sonal fulfillment that aspire to the greater good of hu-
anything beyond the Absurd requires a non-rational manity”.* [78] Humanism aims to promote enlightened
but perhaps necessary religious acceptance in such self-interest and the common good for all people. It
an intangible and empirically unprovable thing (now is based on the premises that the happiness of the in-
commonly referred to as a "leap of faith"). However, dividual person is inextricably linked to the well-being
Camus regarded this solution as“philosophical sui- of all humanity, in part because humans are social an-
cide”. imals who find meaning in personal relations and be-
• Acceptance of the Absurd: a solution in which one cause cultural progress benefits everybody living in the
* *
accepts and even embraces the Absurd and contin- culture. [77] [78]
ues to live in spite of it. Camus endorsed this so- The philosophical sub-genres posthumanism and
lution, while Kierkegaard regarded this solution as transhumanism (sometimes used synonymously) are
“demoniac madness": "He rages most of all at the extensions of humanistic values. One should seek the
thought that eternity might get it into its head to take advancement of humanity and of all life to the greatest
his misery from him!"* [75] degree feasible and seek to reconcile Renaissance
humanism with the 21st century's technoscientific
Secular humanism Further information: Secular Hu- culture. In this light, every living creature has the right
manism to determine its personal and social “meaning of life”
*
Per secular humanism, the human species came to . [80]
be by reproducing successive generations in a progres- From a humanism-psychotherapeutic point of view, the
sion of unguided evolution as an integral expression of question of the meaning of life could be reinterpreted as
nature, which is self-existing.* [76]* [77] Human knowl- “What is the meaning of my life?"* [81] This approach
edge comes from human observation, experimentation, emphasizes that the question is personal—and avoids fo-
and rational analysis (the scientific method), and not from cusing on cosmic or religious questions about overarch-
supernatural sources; the nature of the universe is what ing purpose. There are many therapeutic responses to this
people discern it to be.* [76] Likewise, "values and reali- question. For example Viktor Frankl argues for “Dere-
ties”are determined “by means of intelligent inquiry” flection”, which translates largely as: cease endlessly re-
*
[76] and “are derived from human need and inter- flecting on the self; instead, engage in life. On the whole,
est as tested by experience”, that is, by critical intelli- the therapeutic response is that the question itself—what
gence.* [78]* [79] “As far as we know, the total person- is the meaning of life? —evaporates when one is fully
ality is [a function] of the biological organism transacting engaged in life. (The question then morphs into more
in a social and cultural context.”* [77] specific worries such as “What delusions am I under?";
 0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 45

“What is blocking my ability to enjoy things?"; “Why would still be true if our personal feelings were
do I neglect loved-ones?".) See also: Existential Therapy different.* [85]
and Irvin Yalom

Postmodernism Further information: Postmodernism

Logical positivism Logical positivists ask: “What is
the meaning of life?", “What is the meaning in ask-
Postmodernist thought—broadly speaking—sees human
ing?"* [82]* [83] and “If there are no objective values,
nature as constructed by language, or by structures and
then, is life meaningless?"* [84] Ludwig Wittgenstein and
institutions of human society. Unlike other forms of phi-
the logical positivists said: “Expressed in language, the
losophy, postmodernism rarely seeks out a priori or innate
question is meaningless"; because, in life the statement
meanings in human existence, but instead focuses on an-
the “meaning of x”, usually denotes the consequences
alyzing or critiquing given meanings in order to rational-
of x, or the significance of x, or what is notable about x,
ize or reconstruct them. Anything resembling a “mean-
etc., thus, when the meaning of life concept equals“x”,
ing of life”, in postmodernist terms, can only be under-
in the statement the “meaning of x”, the statement be-
stood within a social and linguistic framework, and must
comes recursive, and, therefore, nonsensical, or it might
be pursued as an escape from the power structures that
refer to the fact that biological life is essential to having a
are already embedded in all forms of speech and inter-
meaning in life.
action. As a rule, postmodernists see awareness of the
The things (people, events) in the life of a person can have constraints of language as necessary to escaping those
meaning (importance) as parts of a whole, but a discrete constraints, but different theorists take different views
meaning of (the) life, itself, aside from those things, can- on the nature of this process: from radical reconstruc-
not be discerned. A person's life has meaning (for him- tion of meaning by individuals (as in deconstructionism)
self, others) as the life events resulting from his achieve- to theories in which individuals are primarily exten-
ments, legacy, family, etc., but, to say that life, itself, has sions of language and society, without real autonomy (as
meaning, is a misuse of language, since any note of signif- in poststructuralism). In general, postmodernism seeks
icance, or of consequence, is relevant only in life (to the meaning by looking at the underlying structures that cre-
living), so rendering the statement erroneous. Bertrand ate or impose meaning, rather than the epiphenomenal
Russell wrote that although he found that his distaste for appearances of the world.
torture was not like his distaste for broccoli, he found no
satisfactory, empirical method of proving this:* [58]
Naturalistic pantheism According to naturalistic pan-
When we try to be definite, as to what we theism, the meaning of life is to care for and look after
mean when we say that this or that is “the nature and the environment.
Good,”we find ourselves involved in very great
difficulties. Bentham's creed, that pleasure is
the Good, roused furious opposition, and was 0.11.4 East Asian philosophy
said to be a pig's philosophy. Neither he nor
his opponents could advance any argument. In Further information: Chinese philosophy and Japanese
a scientific question, evidence can be adduced philosophy
on both sides, and, in the end, one side is seen
to have the better case —or, if this does not
happen, the question is left undecided. But in
Mohism
a question, as to whether this, or that, is the ul-
timate Good, there is no evidence, either way;
each disputant can only appeal to his own emo- Further information: Mohism
tions, and employ such rhetorical devices as
shall rouse similar emotions in others ... Ques- The Mohist philosophers believed that the purpose of life
tions as to“values”—that is to say, as to what was universal, impartial love. Mohism promoted a phi-
is good or bad on its own account, indepen- losophy of impartial caring - a person should care equally
dently of its effects —lie outside the domain for all other individuals, regardless of their actual rela-
of science, as the defenders of religion em- tionship to him or her.* [86] The expression of this indis-
phatically assert. I think that, in this, they are criminate caring is what makes man a righteous being in
right, but, I draw the further conclusion, which Mohist thought. This advocacy of impartiality was a tar-
they do not draw, that questions as to “val- get of attack by the other Chinese philosophical schools,
ues”lie wholly outside the domain of knowl- most notably the Confucians who believed that while love
edge. That is to say, when we assert that this, should be unconditional, it should not be indiscriminate.
or that, has “value”, we are giving expres- For example, children should hold a greater love for their
sion to our own emotions, not to a fact, which parents than for random strangers.
 46 CONTENTS

Confucianism

Further information: Confucianism

Confucianism recognizes human nature in accordance

with the need for discipline and education. Because
mankind is driven by both positive and negative in-
fluences, Confucianists see a goal in achieving virtue
through strong relationships and reasoning as well as min-
imizing the negative. This emphasis on normal living is
seen in the Confucianist scholar Tu Wei-Ming's quote,
“we can realize the ultimate meaning of life in ordinary
human existence.”* [87]

Legalism

Further information: Legalism (Chinese philosophy)

The Legalists believed that finding the purpose of life Symbols of the three main Abrahamic religions – Judaism,
was a meaningless effort. To the Legalists, only practi- Christianity, and Islam
cal knowledge was valuable, especially as it related to the
function and performance of the state.
Judaism's most important feature is the worship of a
single, incomprehensible, transcendent, one, indivisible,
absolute Being, who created and governs the universe.
0.11.5 Religious perspectives
Closeness with the God of Israel is through study of His
Torah, and adherence to its mitzvot (divine laws). In
The religious perspectives on the meaning of life are
traditional Judaism, God established a special covenant
those ideologies which explain life in terms of an implicit
with a people, the people of Israel, at Mount Sinai, giving
purpose not defined by humans.
the Jewish commandments. Torah comprises the written
According to the Charter for Compassion signed by many Pentateuch and the transcribed oral tradition, further de-
of the world's leading religious and secular organizations, veloped through the generations. The Jewish people are
the core of religion is the golden rule of `treat others as intended as “a kingdom of priests and a holy nation”
you would have them treat you'. The Charter's founder, * [88] and a "light to the Nations", influencing the other
Karen Armstrong, quotes an ancient Rabbi who suggested peoples to keep their own religio-ethical Seven Laws of
that `the rest is commentary'. This is not to reduce the Noah. The messianic era is seen as the perfection of this
commentary's importance, and Armstrong considers that dual path to God.
its study, interpretation and ritual are the means by which
Jewish observances involve ethical and ritual, affirmative
religious people internalize and live the golden rule.
and prohibitive injunctions. Modern Jewish denomina-
tions differ over the nature, relevance and emphases of
Western religions mitzvot. Jewish philosophy emphasises that God is not
affected or benefited, but the individual and society ben-
Further information: Abrahamic religion and Iranian efit by drawing close to God. The rationalist Maimonides
philosophy sees the ethical and ritual divine commandments as a
necessary, but insufficient preparation for philosophi-
cal understanding of God, with its love and awe.* [89]
Among fundamental values in the Torah are pursuit of
Judaism In the Judaic world view, the meaning of justice, compassion, peace, kindness, hard work, pros-
life is to elevate the physical world ('Olam HaZeh') and perity, humility, and education.* [90]* [91] The world to
prepare it for the world to come ('Olam HaBa'), the come,* [92] prepared in the present, elevates man to an
messianic era. This is called Tikkun Olam (“Fixing the everlasting connection with God.* [93] Simeon the Righ-
World”). Olam HaBa can also mean the spiritual af- teous says, “the world stands on three things: on Torah,
terlife, and there is debate concerning the eschatological on worship, and on acts of loving kindness.”The prayer
order. However, Judaism is not focused on personal sal- book relates, “blessed is our God who created us for his
vation, but on communal (between man and man) and honor...and planted within us everlasting life.”Of this
individual (between man and God) spiritualised actions context, the Talmud states,“everything that God does is
in this world. for the good,”including suffering.
0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 47

The Jewish mystical Kabbalah gives complimentary es- sacrifice of Christ's passion, death and resurrection pro-
oteric meanings of life. As well as Judaism providing vide the means for transcending that impure state (Ro-
an immanent relationship with God (personal theism), in mans 6:23). The means for doing so varies between dif-
Kabbalah the spiritual and physical creation is a para- ferent groups of Christians, but all rely on belief in Je-
doxical manifestation of the immanent aspects of God's sus, his work on the cross and his resurrection as the
Being (panentheism), related to the Shekhinah (Divine fundamental starting point for a relationship with God.
feminine). Jewish observance unites the sephirot (Di- Faith in God is found in Ephesians 2:8–9 – "* [8]For by
vine attributes) on high, restoring harmony to creation. grace you have been saved through faith; and that not of
In Lurianic Kabbalah, the meaning of life is the mes- yourselves, it is the gift of God; * [9]not as a result of
sianic rectification of the shattered sparks of God's per- works, that no one should boast.”(New American Stan-
sona, exiled in physical existence (the Kelipot shells), dard Bible; 1973). A recent alternative Christian the-
through the actions of Jewish observance.* [94] Through ological discourse interprets Jesus as revealing that the
this, in Hasidic Judaism the ultimate essential“desire”of purpose of life is to elevate our compassionate response
God is the revelation of the Omnipresent Divine essence to human suffering.* [97] Nonetheless the conventional
through materiality, achieved by man from within his lim- Christian position is that people are justified by belief in
ited physical realm, when the body will give life to the the propitiatory sacrifice of Jesus' death on the cross. The
soul.* [95] Gospel maintains that through this belief, the barrier that
sin has created between man and God is destroyed, and
allows God to change people and instill in them a new
heart after his own will, and the ability to do it. This is
what the terms“reborn”or“saved”almost always refer
to.
In the Westminster Shorter Catechism, the first question is:
“What is the chief end of Man?", that is,“What is Man's
main purpose?". The answer is: “Man's chief end is to
glorify God, and enjoy him forever”. God requires one
to obey the revealed moral law saying: “love the Lord
your God with all your heart, with all your soul, with all
your strength, and with all your mind; and your neighbour
as yourself”.* [98] The Baltimore Catechism answers the
question “Why did God make you?" by saying “God
made me to know Him, to love Him, and to serve Him in
this world, and to be happy with Him forever in heaven.”
*
[99]
The Apostle Paul also answers this question in his speech
on the Areopagus in Athens: “And He has made from
one blood every nation of men to dwell on all the face of
the earth, and has determined their preappointed times
and the boundaries of their dwellings, so that they should
seek the Lord, in the hope that they might grope for Him
and find Him, though He is not far from each one of us.”
Christ the Redeemer statue on Corcovado mountain in Rio de *
Janeiro is symbolic of Christianity,* [96] illustrating the concept [100]
of seeking redemption through Jesus Christ. Catholicism's way of thinking is better expressed through
the Principle and Foundation of St. Ignatius of Loyola:
Christianity Christianity has its roots in Judaism, and “The human person is created to praise, reverence, and
shares much of the latter faith's ontology, its central be- serve God Our Lord, and by doing so, to save his or her
liefs derive from the teachings of Jesus Christ, as pre- soul. All other things on the face of the earth are created
sented in the New Testament. Life's purpose in Christian- for human beings in order to help them pursue the end for
ity is to seek divine salvation through the grace of God which they are created. It follows from this that one must
and intercession of Christ. (cf. John 11:26) The New use other created things, in so far as they help towards
Testament speaks of God wanting to have a relationship one's end, and free oneself from them, in so far as they are
with humans both in this life and the life to come, which obstacles to one's end. To do this, we need to make our-
can happen only if one's sins are forgiven (John 3:16–21; selves indifferent to all created things, provided the mat-
2 Peter 3:9). ter is subject to our free choice and there is no other pro-
In the Christian view, humankind was made in the Image hibition. Thus, as far as we are concerned, we should not
of God and perfect, but the Fall of Man caused the want health more than illness, wealth more than poverty,
progeny of the first Parents to inherit Original Sin. The fame more than disgrace, a long life more than a short
48 CONTENTS

one, and similarly for all the rest, but we should desire For Allah's satisfaction, via the Qur'an, all Muslims must
and choose only what helps us more towards the end for believe in God, his revelations, his angels, his messengers,
which we are created.”* [101] and in the "Day of Judgment".* [107] The Qur'an de-
The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS scribes the purpose of creation as follows: “Blessed be
Church) teaches that the purpose of life on Earth is to he in whose hand is the kingdom, he is powerful over all
gain knowledge and experience.* [102] Mormons believe things, who created death and life that he might examine
that humans are literally the spirit children of God the Fa- which of you is best in deeds, and he is the almighty, the
ther (Acts 17:29, Heb. 12:9), and thus have the potential forgiving”(Qur'an 67:1–2) and “And I (Allâh) created
not the jinn and mankind except that they should be obe-
to progress to become like Him (Matt 5:48). Mormons
teach that God provided his children the choice to come dient (to Allah).”(Qur'an 51:56). Obedience testifies to
the oneness of God in his lordship, his names, and his
to Earth, which is considered a crucial stage in their de-
velopment —wherein a mortal body, coupled with the attributes. Terrenal life is a test; how one acts (behaves)
determines whether one's soul goes to Jannat (Heaven) or
freedom to choose, makes for an ideal environment to *
learn and grow. [102] The Fall of Adam is not viewed as to Jahannam (Hell). [108] However on the day
*
*
of Judge-
ment the final decision is of Allah alone. [109] Allah
an unfortunate or unplanned cancellation of God's orig-
inal plan for a paradise, rather the opposition found in may coverup short comings and allow some people to go
mortality is an essential element of God's plan because to heaven even though they may have some sins in the
the process of enduring/overcoming challenges, difficul- record.
ties, temptations, etc. provides exclusive opportunities to The Five Pillars of Islam are duties incumbent to ev-
gain wisdom and strength—which is centered on learn- ery Muslim; they are: Shahadah (profession of faith);
ing to appreciate and choose the good, and reject evil salat (ritual prayer); Zakah (charity); Sawm (fasting dur-
(Gen. 3:22; Book of Mormon, 2 Nephi 2:11;* [103] Pearl ing Ramadan), and Hajj (pilgrimage to Mecca).* [110]
of Great Price, Moses 6:55* [104]). Physical separation They derive from the Hadith works, notably of Sahih Al-
from God is an integral part of this mortal learning ex- Bukhari and Sahih Muslim. The five pillars are not men-
perience, without which humans would never have the tioned directly in the Quran.
opportunity to learn to live by faith —which as Christ Beliefs differ among the Kalam. The Sunni and the
taught in the New Testament, is the key to invoking the Ahmadiyya concept of pre-destination is divine de-
powers of heaven (Mark 11:22-23). Despite this phys- cree;* [111] likewise, the Shi'a concept of pre-destination
ical separation, God doesn't leave humans in darkness. is divine justice; in the esoteric view of the Sufis, the uni-
From the beginning, God has followed a pattern of reveal-
verse exists only for God's pleasure; Creation is a grand
ing knowledge through chosen prophets. This instruction game, wherein Allah is the greatest prize.
from God includes the concept of repentance as a lifelong
growth process through which humankind continuously The Sufi view of the meaning of life stems from the hadith
learns to make better choices by forsaking sin and learn- qudsi that states “I (God) was a Hidden Treasure and
ing from mistakes. Throughout this process, baptized loved to be known. Therefore I created the Creation that I
members can regularly invoke the cleansing power of might be known.”One possible interpretation of this view
Christ's atonement through the weekly ordinance of the is that the meaning of life for an individual is to know the
sacrament (Luke 22:17-20). It is through the atonement nature of God, and the purpose of all of creation is to
that mortals are made worthy to return to the presence reveal that nature, and to prove its value as the ultimate
of the Father, where they can continue to build upon the treasure, that is God. However, this hadith is stated in
wisdom gained during mortality (Doctrine and Covenants various forms and interpreted in various ways by people,
130:18-19* [105]) and ultimately fulfill their end purpose, such, as 'Abdu'l-Bahá of the Bahá'í Faith,* [112] and in
which is to inherit a fullness of God's glory (Rom. 8:16- Ibn'Arabī's Fuṣūṣ al-Ḥikam.* [113]
17, Gal. 4:7)—that is to say, his intelligence (Doctrine
and Covenants 93:36; 50:24). Because God is just, he al-
lows those who weren't taught the gospel during mortality
to receive it after death in the spirit world (1 Pet. 3:18-20,
1 Pet. 4:6, Doctrine and Covenants 138* [106]), so that
all of his children have the opportunity to return to live
with God, and reach their full potential.

Islam In Islam, man's ultimate life objective is to wor-

ship the creator Allah (English: God) by abiding by the
Divine guidelines revealed in the Qur'an and the Tradi-
tion of the Prophet. Earthly life is merely a test, deter-
mining one's afterlife, either in Jannah (Paradise) or in
Jahannam (Hell). The Ringstone symbol represents humanity's connection to God
0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 49

Bahá'í Faith The Bahá'í Faith emphasizes the unity of pressing meaningful living for a long time, before there
humanity.* [114] To Bahá'ís, the purpose of life is fo- was a need for naming it as a separate religion, Hindu
cused on spiritual growth and service to humanity. Hu- doctrines are supplementary and complementary in na-
man beings are viewed as intrinsically spiritual beings. ture, generally non-exclusive, suggestive and tolerant in
People's lives in this material world provide extended content.* [118] Most believe that the ātman (spirit, soul)
opportunities to grow, to develop divine qualities and —the person's true self —is eternal.* [119] In part, this
virtues, and the prophets were sent by God to facilitate stems from Hindu beliefs that spiritual development oc-
this.* [115]* [116] curs across many lifetimes, and goals should match the
state of development of the individual. There are four
possible aims to human life, known as the purusharthas
Zoroastrianism Zoroastrianism is the religion and (ordered from least to greatest): Kāma (wish, desire, love
philosophy named after its prophet Zoroaster, which is and sensual pleasure), Artha (wealth, prosperity, glory),
believed to have influenced the beliefs of Judaism and its Dharma (righteousness, duty, morality, virtue, ethics),
descendant religions.* [117] Zoroastrians believe in a uni- encompassing notions such as ahimsa (non-violence) and
verse created by a transcendental God, Ahura Mazda, to satya (truth) and Moksha (liberation, i.e. liberation from
whom all worship is ultimately directed. Ahura Mazda's Saṃsāra, the cycle of reincarnation).* [120]* [121]* [122]
creation is asha, truth and order, and it is in conflict
with its antithesis, druj, falsehood and disorder. (See also In all schools of Hinduism, the meaning of life is tied up
Zoroastrian eschatology). in the concepts of karma (causal action), sansara (the cy-
cle of birth and rebirth), and moksha (liberation). Exis-
Since humanity possesses free will, people must be re- tence is conceived as the progression of the ātman (sim-
sponsible for their moral choices. By using free will, peo- ilar to the western concept of a soul) across numerous
ple must take an active role in the universal conflict, with lifetimes, and its ultimate progression towards liberation
good thoughts, good words and good deeds to ensure hap- from karma. Particular goals for life are generally sub-
piness and to keep chaos at bay. sumed under broader yogas (practices) or dharma (cor-
rect living) which are intended to create more favorable
South Asian religions reincarnations, though they are generally positive acts in
this life as well. Traditional schools of Hinduism of-
Further information: Indian religions and Indian philos- ten worship Devas which are manifestations of Ishvara (a
ophy personal or chosen God); these Devas are taken as ideal
forms to be identified with, as a form of spiritual improve-
ment.
In short, the goal is to realize the fundamental truth about
Hindu philosophies Further information: Hinduism,
oneself. This thought is conveyed in the Mahāvākyas
Hindu philosophy and Dharma
("Tat Tvam Asi" (thou art that), “Aham Brahmāsmi”,
Hinduism is a religious category including many be-
“Prajñānam Brahma”and “Ayam Ātmā Brahma”(the
soul and the world are one)).

Advaita and Dvaita Hinduism Further information:

Advaita Vedanta and Dvaita

Later schools reinterpreted the vedas to focus on

Brahman, “The One Without a Second”,* [123] as a
central God-like figure.
In monist Advaita Vedanta, ātman is ultimately indis-
tinguishable from Brahman, and the goal of life is to
know or realize that one's ātman (soul) is identical to
Brahman.* [124] To the Upanishads, whoever becomes
fully aware of the ātman, as one's core of self, realizes
identity with Brahman, and, thereby, achieves Moksha
(liberation, freedom).* [119]* [125]* [126]
Dualist Dvaita Vedanta and other bhakti schools have a
A golden Aum written in Devanagari. The Aum is sacred indualist interpretation. Brahman is seen as a supreme be-
Hindu, Jain and Buddhist religions. ing with a personality and manifest qualities. The ātman
depends upon Brahman for its existence; the meaning of
liefs and traditions. Since Hinduism was the way of ex- life is achieving Moksha through love of God and upon
50 CONTENTS

His grace.* [125] of the plants from which they eat.* [130]

Vaishnavism Vaishnavism is a branch of Hinduism in Buddhism

which the principal belief is the identification of Vishnu
or Narayana as the one supreme God. This belief
contrasts with the Krishna-centered traditions, such as Early Buddhism Buddhists practice to embrace with
Vallabha, Nimbaraka and Gaudiya, in which Krishna is mindfulness the ill-being (suffering) and well-being that
considered to be the One and only Supreme God and the is present in life. Buddhists practice to see the causes of
source of all avataras.* [127] ill-being and well-being in life. For example, one of the
causes of suffering is unhealthy attachment to objects ma-
Vaishnava theology includes the central beliefs of Hin- terial or non-material. The Buddhist sūtras and tantras do
duism such as monotheism, reincarnation, samsara, not speak about“the meaning of life”or“the purpose of
karma, and the various Yoga systems, but with a particu- life”, but about the potential of human life to end suffer-
lar emphasis on devotion (bhakti) to Vishnu through the ing, for example through embracing (not suppressing or
process of Bhakti yoga, often including singing Vishnu's denying) cravings and conceptual attachments. Attaining
name's (bhajan), meditating upon his form (dharana) and and perfecting dispassion is a process of many levels that
performing deity worship (puja). The practices of deity ultimately results in the state of Nirvana. Nirvana means
worship are primarily based on texts such as Pañcaratra freedom from both suffering and rebirth.* [131]
and various Samhitas.* [128]
One popular school of thought, Gaudiya Vaishnavism,
teaches the concept of Achintya Bheda Abheda. In this,
Krishna is worshipped as the single true God, and all liv-
ing entities are eternal parts and the Supreme Personality
of the Godhead Krishna. Thus the constitutional position
of a living entity is to serve the Lord with love and devo-
tion. The purpose of human life especially is to think be-
yond the animalistic way of eating, sleeping, mating and
defending and engage the higher intelligence to revive the
lost relationship with Krishna.

Jainism Further information: Jainism and Jain philos-

ophy

Jainism is a religion originating in ancient India, its ethical

system promotes self-discipline above all else. Through
following the ascetic teachings of Jina, a human achieves
enlightenment (perfect knowledge). Jainism divides the The eight-spoked Dharmachakra
universe into living and non-living beings. Only when the
living become attached to the non-living does suffering Theravada Buddhism is generally considered to be close
result. Therefore, happiness is the result of self-conquest to the early Buddhist practice. It promotes the concept
and freedom from external objects. The meaning of life of Vibhajjavada (Pali), literally “Teaching of Analysis”
may then be said to be to use the physical body to achieve , which says that insight must come from the aspirant's
self-realization and bliss.* [129] experience, critical investigation, and reasoning instead
Jains believe that every human is responsible for his or of by blind faith. However, the Theravadin tradition also
her actions and all living beings have an eternal soul, jiva. emphasizes heeding the advice of the wise, considering
Jains believe all souls are equal because they all possess such advice and evaluation of one's own experiences to be
the potential of being liberated and attaining Moksha. the two tests by which practices should be judged. The
The Jain view of karma is that every action, every word, Theravadin goal is liberation (or freedom) from suffer-
every thought produces, besides its visible, an invisible, ing, according to the Four Noble Truths. This is attained
transcendental effect on the soul. in the achievement of Nirvana, or Unbinding which also
ends the repeated cycle of birth, old age, sickness and
Jainism includes strict adherence to ahimsa (or ahinsā), a death.
form of nonviolence that goes far beyond vegetarianism.
Jains refuse food obtained with unnecessary cruelty.
Many practice a lifestyle similar to veganism due to the Mahayana Buddhism Further information:
violence of modern dairy farms, and others exclude root Mahayana
vegetables from their diets in order to preserve the lives
 0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 51

Mahayana Buddhist schools de-emphasize the traditional following various spiritual paths, so Sikhs do not have a
view (still practiced in Theravada) of the release from monopoly on salvation: “The Lord dwells in every heart,
individual Suffering (Dukkha) and attainment of Awak- and every heart has its own way to reach Him.”* [132]
ening (Nirvana). In Mahayana, the Buddha is seen as Sikhs believe that all people are equally important before
an eternal, immutable, inconceivable, omnipresent be- God.* [133] Sikhs balance their moral and spiritual val-
ing. The fundamental principles of Mahayana doctrine ues with the quest for knowledge, and they aim to pro-
are based on the possibility of universal liberation from mote a life of peace and equality but also of positive ac-
suffering for all beings, and the existence of the transcen- tion.* [134]
dent Buddha-nature, which is the eternal Buddha essence
A key distinctive feature of Sikhism is a non-
present, but hidden and unrecognised, in all living beings. anthropomorphic concept of God, to the extent that one
Philosophical schools of Mahayana Buddhism, such can interpret God as the Universe itself (pantheism).
as Chan/Zen and the vajrayana Tibetan and Shingon Sikhism thus sees life as an opportunity to understand
schools, explicitly teach that bodhisattvas should refrain this God as well as to discover the divinity which lies in
from full liberation, allowing themselves to be reincar- each individual. While a full understanding of God is
nated into the world until all beings achieve enlighten- beyond human beings,* [135] Nanak described God as
ment. Devotional schools such as Pure Land Buddhism not wholly unknowable, and stressed that God must be
seek the aid of celestial buddhas—individuals who have seen from “the inward eye”, or the “heart”, of a hu-
spent lifetimes accumulating positive karma, and use that man being: devotees must meditate to progress towards
accumulation to aid all. enlightenment and the ultimate destination of a Sikh is to
lose the ego completely in the love of the lord and finally
merge into the almighty creator. Nanak emphasized the
revelation through meditation, as its rigorous application
permits the existence of communication between God
and human beings.* [135]

East Asian religions

The Khanda, an important symbol of Sikhism.

Sikhism The monotheistic Sikh religion was founded

by Guru Nanak Dev, the term “Sikh”means student, Taijitu symbolizes the unity of opposites between yin and yang.
which denotes that followers will lead their lives forever
learning. This system of religious philosophy and expres- Taoism Taoist cosmogony emphasizes the need for all
sion has been traditionally known as the Gurmat (literally sentient beings and all man to return to the primordial
“the counsel of the gurus”) or the Sikh Dharma. The fol- or to rejoin with the Oneness of the Universe by way of
lowers of Sikhism are ordained to follow the teachings of self-cultivation and self-realization. All adherents should
the ten Sikh Gurus, or enlightened leaders, as well as the understand and be in tune with the ultimate truth.
holy scripture entitled the Gurū Granth Sāhib, which in-
Taoists believe all things were originally from Taiji and
cludes selected works of many philosophers from diverse
Tao, and the meaning in life for the adherents is to realize
socio-economic and religious backgrounds. the temporal nature of the existence.“Only introspection
The Sikh Gurus say that salvation can be obtained by can then help us to find our innermost reasons for living
52 CONTENTS

... the simple answer is here within ourselves.”* [136]

Shinto torii, a traditional Japanese gate

Shinto Shinto is the native religion of Japan. Shinto

means “the path of the kami", but more specifically, it
can be taken to mean “the divine crossroad where the
kami chooses his way”. The“divine”crossroad signifies
that all the universe is divine spirit. This foundation of
free will, choosing one's way, means that life is a creative Charles Allan Gilbert's All is Vanity, an example of vanitas, de-
process. picts a young woman gazing at her reflection in a mirror, but
all is positioned in such a way as to make the image of a skull
Shinto wants life to live, not to die. Shinto sees death as appear.
pollution and regards life as the realm where the divine
spirit seeks to purify itself by rightful self-development.
Shinto wants individual human life to be prolonged for- In Douglas Adams' popular comedy book, movie, tele-
ever on earth as a victory of the divine spirit in preserving vision, and radio series The Hitchhiker's Guide to the
its objective personality in its highest forms. The pres- Galaxy, the Answer to the Ultimate Question of Life, the
ence of evil in the world, as conceived by Shinto, does not Universe, and Everything is given the numeric solution
stultify the divine nature by imposing on divinity respon- "42", after seven and a half million years of calculation by
sibility for being able to relieve human suffering while a giant supercomputer called Deep Thought. When this
refusing to do so. The sufferings of life are the sufferings answer is met with confusion and anger from its construc-
of the divine spirit in search of progress in the objective tors, Deep Thought explains that “I think the problem,
world.* [137] to be quite honest with you, is that you've never actually
known what the question is.”* [3]* [138]* [139]* [140] In
the continuation of the book, the question is proposed to
New religions There are many new religious move- be“How many roads must a man walk down, before you
ments in East Asia, and some with millions of followers: can call him a man”from Bob Dylan's "Blowin' in the
Chondogyo, Tenrikyo, Cao Đài, and Seicho-No-Ie. New Wind.”In the sequel, The Restaurant at the End of the
religions typically have unique explanations for the mean- Universe, it states that the question is 6x9. While 6 x 9 =
ing of life. For example, in Tenrikyo, one is expected to 54 in base 10, it does equal 42 in base 13, which author
live a Joyous Life by participating in practices that create Adams claimed was completely serendipitous.
happiness for oneself and others. In Monty Python's The Meaning of Life, there are several
allusions to the meaning of life. At the end of the film, a
character played by Michael Palin is handed an envelope
0.11.6 In popular culture containing “the meaning of life”, which he opens and
reads out to the audience: “Well, it's nothing very spe-
The mystery of life and its true meaning is an often recur- cial. Uh, try to be nice to people, avoid eating fat, read a
ring subject in popular culture, featured in entertainment good book every now and then, get some walking in, and
media and various forms of art. try to live together in peace and harmony with people of
 0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 53

• To become the best version of yourself.* [149]

• To seek happiness* [150]* [151] and flourish.* [3]

• To be a true authentic human being.* [152]

• To be able to put the whole of oneself into one's feel-

ings, one's work, one's beliefs.* [147]

• To follow or submit to our des-

tiny.* [153]* [154]* [155]

• To achieve eudaimonia,* [156] a flourishing of hu-

man spirit.

To achieve biological perfection

Hamlet with Yorick's skull
• To survive,* [157] that is, to live as long as possi-
ble,* [158] including pursuit of immortality (through
all creeds and nations.”* [141]* [142]* [143] Many other scientific means).* [159]
Python sketches and songs are also existential in nature, To live forever* [159] or die trying.* [160]
questioning the importance we place on life ("Always
Look on the Bright Side of Life") and other meaning-of- • To adapt. Often to improve one's chances of success
life related questioning. John Cleese also had his sit-com in another purpose; sometimes, as a purpose in itself
character Basil Fawlty contemplating the futility of his (adapting to adapt).
own existence in Fawlty Towers.
In The Simpsons episode "Homer the Heretic", a repre- • To evolve.* [161]
sentation of God agrees to tell Homer what the meaning
of life is, but the show's credits begin to roll just as he • To replicate, to reproduce.* [145] “The
starts to say what it is.* [144] 'dream' of every cell is to become two cells.”
*
[162]* [163]* [164]* [165]
In Bill and Ted's Excellent Adventure, the characters are
asked how we should life our lives, and reply with a ver-
sion of the golden rule `be excellent to each other' fol-
To seek wisdom and knowledge
lowed by 'party on, dudes!'.

• To expand one's perception of the world.* [146]

0.11.7 Popular views
• To follow the clues and walk out the exit.* [166]
“What is the meaning of life?" is a question many people
ask themselves at some point during their lives, most in • To learn as many things as possible in life.* [167]
the context “What is the purpose of life?".* [10] Some To know as much as possible about as many things
popular answers include: as possible.* [168]

• To seek wisdom and knowledge and to tame the

To realize one's potential and ideals
mind, as to avoid suffering caused by ignorance and
find happiness.* [169]
• To chase dreams.* [145]
To live one's dreams.* [146]
• To face our fears and accept the lessons life offers
• To spend it for something that will outlast it. [147]
* us.* [153]

• To matter: to count, to stand for something, to have • To find the meaning or purpose of life.* [170]* [171]
made some difference that you lived at all.* [147]

• To expand one's potential in life.* [146] • To find a reason to live.* [172]

• To become the person you've always wanted to • To resolve the imbalance of the mind by understand-
be.* [148] ing the nature of reality.* [173]
54 CONTENTS

To do good, to do the right thing

• To leave the world as a better place than you found

it.* [145]
To do your best to leave every situation better than
you found it.* [145]
• To benefit others.* [6]
• To give more than you take.* [145]
• To end suffering.* [174]* [175]* [176]
• To create equality.* [177]* [178]* [179]
• To challenge oppression.* [180]
• To distribute wealth.* [181]* [182]
• To be generous.* [183]* [184]
• To contribute to the well-being and spirit of oth-
ers.* [185]
Dante and Beatrice see God as a point of light surrounded by
• To help others,* [3]* [184] to help one another.* [186]
angels; from Gustave Doré's illustrations for the Divine Comedy
To take every chance to help another while on your
*
journey here. [145]
• To go and make new disciples of Jesus Christ.* [196]
• To be creative and innovative.* [185]
• To act justly, love mercy, and walk humbly with your
• To forgive.* [145]
* * God.* [197]
To accept and forgive human flaws. [187] [188]
• To be emotionally sincere.* [147] • To be fruitful and multiply.* [198] (Genesis 1:28)

• To be responsible.* [147] • To obtain freedom (Romans 8:20-21)

• To be honorable.* [147] • To fill the Earth and subdue it.* [198] (Genesis 1:28)

• To seek peace.* [147] • To serve mankind,* [199] to prepare

*
to meet [200] and become more like
God,* [201]* [202]* [203]* [204] to choose good
over evil,* [205] and have joy * [206]* [207]
Meanings relating to religion

• To worship God and enter heaven in afterlife.* [189] To love, to feel, to enjoy the act of living
• To reach the highest heaven and be at the heart of
the Divine.* [190] • To love more.* [145]

• To have a pure soul and experience God.* [147] • To love those who mean the most. Every life you
touch will touch you back.* [145]
• To understand the mystery of God.* [153]
• To treasure every enjoyable sensation one has.* [145]
• To know or attain union with God.* [191]* [192]
• To seek beauty in all its forms.* [145]
• To know oneself, know others, and know the will of
heaven.* [193] • To have fun or enjoy life.* [153]* [185]

• To love something bigger, greater, and beyond our- • To seek pleasure* [147] and avoid pain.* [208]
selves, something we did not create or have the
power to create, something intangible and made • To be compassionate.* [147]
holy by our very belief in it.* [145]
• To be moved by the tears and pain of others, and try
• To love God* [191] and all of his creations.* [194] to help them out of love and compassion.* [145]

• To glorify God by enjoying him forever.* [98]* [195] • To love others as best we possibly can.* [145]
0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 55

•“I spent 90% of my money on women, drink and fast 0.11.8 See also
cars. The rest I wasted.”—footballer George Best
0.11.9 References
• YOLO – You only live once; popular 2010s saying
to live life to the fullest [1] Jonathan Westphal (1998). Philosophical Propositions:
An Introduction to Philosophy. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-
• To eat, drink, and be merry.* [209] 17053-2.

[2] Robert Nozick (1981). Philosophical Explanations. Har-

vard University Press. ISBN 0-674-66479-5.
To have power, to be better
[3] Julian Baggini (September 2004). What's It All About?
• To strive for power* [63] and superiority.* [208] Philosophy and the Meaning of Life. USA: Granta Books.
ISBN 1-86207-661-8.
• To rule the world.* [154]
[4] Ronald F. Thiemann; William Carl Placher (1998). Why
Are We Here?: Everyday Questions and the Christian
• To know and master the world. [196] [210]
* *
Life. Continuum International Publishing Group. ISBN
1-56338-236-9.
• To know and master nature.* [211]
[5] Dennis Marcellino (1996). Why Are We Here?: The Sci-
entific Answer to this Age-old Question (that you don't need
Life has no meaning to be a scientist to understand). Lighthouse Pub. ISBN 0-
945272-10-3.
• Life or human existence has no real meaning or pur-
[6] Hsuan Hua (2003). Words of Wisdom: Beginning Bud-
pose because human existence occurred out of a ran- dhism. Dharma Realm Buddhist Association. ISBN 0-
dom chance in nature, and anything that exists by 88139-302-9.
chance has no intended purpose.* [173]
[7] Paul Davies (March 2000). The Fifth Miracle: The Search
• Life has no meaning, but as humans we try to as- for the Origin and Meaning of Life. Simon & Schuster.
sociate a meaning or purpose so we can justify our ISBN 0-684-86309-X. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
existence.* [145] [8] Charles Christiansen; Carolyn Manville Baum; Julie Bass-
Haugen (2005). Occupational Therapy: Performance,
• There is no point in life, and that is exactly what Participation, and Well-Being. SLACK Incorporated.
makes it so special.* [145] ISBN 1-55642-530-9.

[9] Evan Harris Walker (2000). The Physics of Conscious-

One should not seek to know and understand the ness: The Quantum Mind and the Meaning of Life. Perseus
meaning of life Books. ISBN 0-7382-0436-6.

[10] “Question of the Month: What Is The Meaning Of Life?".

• The answer to the meaning of life is too profound to Philosophy Now. Issue 59. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
be known and understood.* [173]
[11] Jiddu Krishnamurti (2001). What Are You Doing With
• You will never live if you are looking for the mean- Your Life?. Krishnamurti Foundation of America. ISBN
ing of life.* [145] 1-888004-24-X.

[12] Puolimatka, Tapio; Airaksinen, Timo (2002).“Education

• The meaning of life is to forget about the search for and the Meaning of Life” (PDF). Philosophy of Educa-
the meaning of life.* [145] tion. University of Helsinki. Retrieved 2007-07-26.

• Ultimately, man should not ask what the meaning [13] Stan Van Hooft (2004). Life, Death, and Subjectivity:
of his life is, but rather must recognize that it is he Moral Sources in Bioethics. Rodopi. ISBN 90-420-1912-
who is asked. In a word, each man is questioned by 3.
life; and he can only answer to life by answering for [14] Russ Shafer-Landau; Terence Cuneo (2007). Foundations
his own life; to life he can only respond by being of Ethics: An Anthology. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-
responsible.* [212] 4051-2951-4.

[15] E. Diener, J.J. Sapyta, E. Suh (1998). “Subjective Well-

Life is bad Being Is Essential to Well-Being.”Psychological Inquiry,
Lawrence Erlbaum

• Better never to have been.* [213] [16] Csíkszentmihályi, Mihály (1990). Flow: The Psychol-
ogy of Optimal Experience. New York: Harper and Row.
• See also Vale of tears ISBN 0-06-092043-2.
56 CONTENTS

[17] Peterson, Christopher; Seligman, Martin (2004). Char- [35] Davison, Paul G.“How to Define Life”. The University
acter strengths and virtues: A handbook and classification. of North Alabama. Retrieved 2008-10-17.
Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-516701-5.
“See brief summary”. [36] Helge Kragh (1996). Cosmology and Controversy. Prince-
ton University Press. ISBN 0-691-00546-X.
[18] Seligman, M.E.P. (2002). Authentic Happiness: Using the
New Positive Psychology to Realize Your Potential for Last- [37] Nikos Prantzos; Stephen Lyle (2000). Our Cosmic Future:
ing Fulfillment. New York: Free Press. ISBN 0-7432- Humanity's Fate in the Universe. Cambridge University
2297-0 (Paperback edition, 2004, Free Press, ISBN 0- Press. ISBN 0-521-77098-X.
7432-2298-9)
[38] Rem B. Edwards (2001). What Caused the Big Bang?.
[19] Boyle PA, Buchman AS, Barnes LL, Bennett DA. Ef- Rodopi. ISBN 90-420-1407-5.
fect of a purpose in life on risk of incident Alzheimer
[39] Harvey Whitehouse (2001). The Debated Mind: Evolu-
disease and mild cognitive impairment in community-
tionary Psychology Versus Ethnography. Berg Publishers.
dwelling older persons. Archives of General Psychiatry.
ISBN 1-85973-427-8.
2010;67:304–310.
[40] Jeffrey Alan Gray (2004). Consciousness: Creeping Up on
[20] Kim E, Sun J, Park N, Kubzansky L, Peterson C. Purpose
the Hard Problem. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
in life and reduced risk of myocardial infarction among
852090-5.
older U.S. adults with coronary heart disease: A two-year
follow-up. Journal of Behavioral Medicine. (2):124–133. [41] Paul M. Churchland (1989). A Neurocomputational Per-
spective: The Nature of Mind and the Structure of Science.
[21] Kim ES, Sun JK, Park N, Peterson C. Purpose in life and
MIT Press. ISBN 0-262-53106-2.
reduced incidence of stroke in older adults: The Health
and Retirement Study. Journal of Psychosomatic Re- [42] Daniel Clement Dennett (1991). Consciousness Ex-
search. 2013;74(5):427–432. plained. Little, Brown and Co. ISBN 0-316-18066-1.
[22] Boyle PA, Barnes LL, Buchman AS, Bennett DA. Purpose [43] John D. Barrow; Paul C.W. Davies; Charles L. Harper
in life is associated with mortality among community- (2004). Science and Ultimate Reality: Quantum Theory,
dwelling older persons. Psychosomatic Medicine. Cosmology and Complexity. Cambridge University Press.
2009;71:574–579. ISBN 0-521-83113-X.
[23] http://www.nhs.uk/Conditions/ [44] Jean Millay; Ruth-Inge Heinze (1999). Multidimensional
stress-anxiety-depression/Pages/ Mind: Remote Viewing in Hyperspace. North Atlantic
improve-mental-wellbeing.aspx Books. ISBN 1-55643-306-9.
[24] Charles Darwin (1859). On the Origin of Species. [45] McFadden, J. (2002). “Synchronous Firing and Its In-
fluence on the Brain's Electromagnetic Field: Evidence
[25] Richard Dawkins (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford Uni-
for an Electromagnetic Field Theory of Consciousness”.
versity Press. ISBN 0-19-857519-X.
Journal of Consciousness Studies 9 (4): 23–50.
[26] Richard Dawkins (1995). River out of Eden. New York:
[46] R. Buccheri; V. Di Gesù; Metod Saniga (2000). Studies on
Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-06990-8.
the Structure of Time: From Physics to Psycho(patho)logy.
[27] Griffith J. 2012. What is the Meaning of Life?. In Springer. ISBN 0-306-46439-X.
The Book of Real Answers to Everything!. ISBN
[47] Alexandra Bruce (2005). Beyond the Bleep: The Defini-
9781741290073. http://www.worldtransformation.com/
tive Unauthorized Guide to What the Bleep Do We Know!?.
what-is-the-meaning-of-life/ | accessdate=2012-11-19 |
The Disinformation Company. ISBN 1-932857-22-2.
[28] Dawkins, Richard (2006). The God Delusion. Houghton
[48] Mae-Wan Ho (1998). The Rainbow and the Worm: The
Mifflin. pp. 99–100. ISBN 978-0-618-68000-9.
Physics of Organisms. World Scientific. pp. 218–231.
[29] Astrobiology Magazine: Defining Life ISBN 981-02-3427-9.

[30] Defining Life, Explaining Emergence [49] Akers, C. (1986). “Methodological Criticisms of Para-
psychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 4”
[31] Schrödinger, Erwin (1944). What is Life?. Cambridge . PesquisaPSI. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
University Press. ISBN 0-521-42708-8.
[50] Child, I.L. (1987). “Criticism in Experimental Para-
[32] Margulis, Lynn; Sagan, Dorion (1995). What is Life?. psychology, Advances in Parapsychological Research 5”
University of California Press. ISBN 0-520-22021-8. . PesquisaPSI. Retrieved 2007-07-30.

[33] Lovelock, James (2000). Gaia – a New Look at Life on [51] Wiseman, Richard; Smith, Matthew et al. (1996). “Ex-
Earth. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-286218-9. ploring possible sender-to-experimenter acoustic leakage
in the PRL autoganzfeld experiments – Psychophysical
[34] Avery, John (2003). Information Theory and Evolution. Research Laboratories”. The Journal of Parapsychology.
World Scientific. ISBN 981-238-399-9. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 57

[52] Lobach, E.; Bierman, D. (2004). “The Invisible Gaze: [71] Amy Laura Hall (2002). Kierkegaard and the Treach-
Three Attempts to Replicate Sheldrake's Staring Effects” ery of Love. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-
(PDF). Proceedings of the 47th PA Convention. pp. 77– 89311-9.
90. Retrieved 2007-07-30.
[72] Dale Jacquette (1996). Schopenhauer, Philosophy, and
[53] Kidd, I., "Cynicism,”in The Concise Encyclopedia of West- the Arts. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-
ern Philosophy. (ed. J.O. Urmson and Jonathan Rée), 47388-8.
Routledge. (2005)
[73] Durno Murray (1999). Nietzsche's Affirmative Morality.
[54] Long, A.A., "The Socratic Tradition: Diogenes, Crates, Walter de Gruyter. ISBN 3-11-016601-1.
and Hellenistic Ethics," in The Cynics: The Cynic Move-
ment in Antiquity and Its Legacy. (ed. Branham and [74] Kierkegaard, Søren (1941). The Sickness Unto Death.
Goulet-Cazé), University of California Press, (1996). Princeton University Press. ISBN 1-4486-7502-2.

[55] “Cyrenaics.”Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. The [75] Kierkegaard, Søren (1941). The Sickness Unto Death.
University of Tennessee At Martin. 4 Nov. 2007 Princeton University Press. ISBN 1-4486-7502-2., Part
I, Ch. 3.
[56] “The Cyrenaics and the Origin of Hedonism.”Hedo-
nism.org. BLTC. 4 Nov. 2007 [76] “Humanist Manifesto I”. American Humanist Associa-
tion. 1933. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
[57] Epicurus,“Letter to Menoeceus”, contained in Diogenes
Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers, Book X [77] “Humanist Manifesto II”. American Humanist Associ-
ation. 1973. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
[58] Bertrand Russell (1946). A History of Western Philoso-
phy, New York: Simon and Schuster; London: George [78] “Humanist Manifesto III”. American Humanist Associ-
Allen and Unwin ation. 2003. Retrieved 2007-08-01.

[59] A: "'Liberalism' is defined as a social ethic that advocates [79] “A Secular Humanist Declaration”. Council for Demo-
liberty, and equality in general.”– C. A. J. (Tony) Coady cratic and Secular Humanism (now the Council for Secular
Distributive Justice, A Companion to Contemporary Po- Humanism). 1980. Retrieved 2007-08-01.
litical Philosophy, editors Goodin, Robert E. and Pettit,
Philip. Blackwell Publishing, 1995, p.440. B: “Liberty [80] Nick Bostrom (2005).“Transhumanist Values”. Oxford
is not a means to a higher political end. It is itself the University. Retrieved 2007-07-28.
highest political end.”– Lord Acton
[81] Irvin Yalom, Existential Psychotherapy, 1980
[60] Rosen, Frederick (2003). Classical Utilitarianism from
[82] Richard Taylor (January 1970). “Chapter 5: The Mean-
Hume to Mill. Routledge, p. 28. ISBN 0-415-22094-
ing of Life”. Good and Evil. Macmillan Publishing Com-
7 “It was Hume and Bentham who then reasserted most
pany. ISBN 0-02-616690-9.
strongly the Epicurean doctrine concerning utility as the
basis of justice.” [83] Wohlgennant, Rudolph. (1981).“Has the Question about
the Meaning of Life any Meaning?" (Chapter 4). In E.
[61] Mill, John Stuart. On Liberty, ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin
Morscher, ed., Philosophie als Wissenschaft.
Classics, 1974, Ed.'s introduction, p. 11.
[84] McNaughton, David (August 1988).“Section 1.5: Moral
[62] Jérôme Bindé (2004). The Future Of Values: 21st-Century
Freedom and the Meaning of Life”. Moral Vision: An In-
Talks. Berghahn Books. ISBN 1-57181-442-6.
troduction to Ethics. Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. ISBN
[63] Bernard Reginster (2006). The Affirmation of Life: Niet- 0-631-15945-2.
zsche on Overcoming Nihilism. Harvard University Press.
ISBN 0-674-02199-1. [85] Bertrand Russell (1961). Science and Ethics

[64] Heidegger, “The Word of Nietzsche,”61. [86] One hundred Philosophers. A guide to the world's greatest
thinkers Peter J. King, Polish edition: Elipsa 2006
[65] Camus (1946) L'Etranger
[87] Tu, Wei-Ming. Confucian Thought: Selfhood as Creative
[66] Camus (1955) The Myth of Sisyphus Transformation. Albany: State University of New York
Press, 1985.
[67] For example, see hygiene, antibiotic and vaccination.
[88] Exodus 19:6
[68] William James (1909). The Meaning of Truth.
Prometheus Books. ISBN 1-57392-138-6. [89] Maimonides' Confrontation with Mysticism, Menachem
Kellner, Littman Library; particularly the parable of the
[69] Walter Robert Corti (1976). The Philosophy of William King's Palace in divine worship, in the Guide for the Per-
James. Meiner Verlag. ISBN 3-7873-0352-9. plexed

[70] Philosophy 446: Theistic Perspectives on the Meaning of [90] Dan Cohn-Sherbok (2003). Judaism: History, Belief, and
Life. Webpages.uidaho.edu. Retrieved on 2013-10-29. Practice. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-23661-4.
 58 CONTENTS

[91] Abraham Joshua Heschel (2005). Heavenly Torah: As [113] CHITTICK, WILLIAM C. “THE IMPRINT OF THE
Refracted Through the Generations. Continuum Interna- BEZELS OF THE WISDOM”. IBN 'ARABI'S OWN
tional Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-0802-8. SUMMARY OF THE FUSÛS. Retrieved 3 August 2013.

[92] Wilfred Shuchat (2006). The Garden of Eden & the Strug- [114] “Bahaism.”The American Heritage Dictionary of the En-
gle to Be Human: According to the Midrash Rabbah. De- glish Language. Fourth Edition. Houghton Mifflin Com-
vora Publishing. ISBN 1-932687-31-9. pany. 2007.

[93] Randolph L. Braham (1983). Contemporary Views on the [115] Smith, P. (1999). A Concise Encyclopedia of the Bahá'í
Holocaust. Springer. ISBN 0-89838-141-X. Faith. Oxford, UK: Oneworld Publications. pp. 325–328.
ISBN 1-85168-184-1.
[94] Kabbalah: A Very Short Introduction, Joseph Dan, Ox-
ford University Press, chapter “Early modern era: Safed [116] For a more detailed Bahá'í perspective, see "'The Purpose
spirituality” of Life' Bahá'í Topics An Information Resource of the
Bahá'í International Community”.
[95] Habad intellectual Hasidic thought: source text Tanya I:
36, 49; secondary text Heaven On Earth, Faitel Levin, Ke- [117] Zoroastrianism – Relation to other religions and cultures
hot publications [118] Simon Weightman (1998). “Hinduism”. In Hinnells,
John (Ed.). The new Penguin handbook of living religions.
[96] The new Seven Wonders of the World. Hindustan Times
Penguin books. ISBN 0-14-051480-5.
(2007-07-08). Retrieved on 2013-10-29.
[119] Monier Monier-Williams (1974). Brahmanism and Hin-
[97] Drake-Brockman, Tom (2012). Christian Humanism: the
duism: Or, Religious Thought and Life in India, as Based
compassionate theology of a Jew called Jesus.
on the Veda and Other Sacred Books of the Hindus. Eli-
[98] “The Westminster Shorter Catechism”. Retrieved 2008- bron Classics. Adamant Media Corporation. ISBN 1-
03-21. 4212-6531-1. Retrieved 2007-07-08.

[120] For dharma, artha, and kama as“brahmanic householder

[99] “The Baltimore Catechism”. Retrieved 2008-06-12.
values”see: Flood (1996), p. 17.
[100] Bible, Acts 17:26–27, NKJV
[121] For the Dharma Śāstras as discussing the“four main goals
[101] St. Ignatius | Ignatian Spirituality. Bc.edu. Retrieved on of life”(dharma, artha, kāma, and moksha) see: Hopkins,
2013-10-29. p. 78.

[102] “Gospel Principles”. [122] For definition of the term पुरुष-अर्थ (puruṣa-artha) as
“any of the four principal objects of human life, i.e. धमर् ,
[103] 2 Nephi 2:11 https://www.lds.org/scriptures/bofm/2-ne/ अथर् , काम, and मोक्ष" see: Apte, p. 626, middle column,
2.11?lang=eng#10 compound #1.

[104] Moses 6:55 https://www.lds.org/scriptures/pgp/moses/6. [123] Bhaskarananda, Swami (1994). The Essentials of Hin-
55?lang=eng#54 duism: a comprehensive overview of the world's oldest re-
ligion. Seattle, WA: Viveka Press. ISBN 1-884852-02-5.
[105] “Doctrine and Covenants”.
[124] Vivekananda, Swami (1987). Complete Works of Swami
[106] https://www.lds.org/scriptures/dc-testament/dc/138? Vivekananda. Calcutta: Advaita Ashrama. ISBN 81-
lang=eng 85301-75-1.

[107] Quran 2:4, Quran 2:285, Quran 4:136 [125] Werner, Karel (1994). “Hinduism”. In Hinnells, John
(Ed.). A Popular Dictionary of Hinduism. Richmond,
[108] In most English translations of Qur'an 51:56 translates the Surrey: Curzon Press. ISBN 0-7007-0279-2.
last word to“worship”, but any Arabic (and Urdu) speak-
ing person can confirm that“ABADON”means to follow [126] See also the Vedic statement“ayam ātmā brahma”(This
the Will of Allah (NOT worship). This is relevant because Ātman is Brahman)
the Will of Allah is not just to worship HIM; to be just and [127] Gupta, Ravi M. (2007). Gavin Flood, University of Stir-
good with humanity is equally important. ling, ed. Caitanya Vaisnava Vedanta of Jiva Gosvami:
When knowledge meets devotion. Routledge. ISBN 0-
[109] The Day of Judgement. Iqra.net. Retrieved on 2013-10-
415-40548-3.
29.
[128] Tantric Literature And Gaudiya Vaishnavism
[110] “Pillars of Islam”. Encyclopædia Britannica Online. Re-
trieved 2007-05-02. [129] Shah, Natubhai. Jainism: The World of Conquerors. Sus-
sex Academic Press, 1998.
[111] Sahih Muslim, 1:1
[130] “Viren, Jain”(PDF). RE Today. Retrieved 2007-06-14.
[112] Bahá, Abdu'l. “Commentary on the Islamic Tradition
“I Was a Hidden Treasure ..."". Bahá'í Studies Bulletin. [131] “The Four Noble Truths”. Thebigview.com. Retrieved
Retrieved 3 August 2013. 2009-11-06.
 0.11. MEANING OF LIFE 59

[132] Daljeet Singh (1971). Guru Tegh Bahadur. Language [150] Lee, Dong Yul; Park, Sung Hee; Uhlemann, Max R.; Pat-
Dept., Punjab. sult, Philip (June 2000). “What Makes You Happy?: A
Comparison of Self-reported Criteria of Happiness Be-
[133] Jon Mayled (2002). Modern World Religions: Sikhism. tween Two Cultures”. Social Indicators Research 50 (3):
Harcourt Heinemann. ISBN 0-435-33626-6. 351–362. doi:10.1023/A:1004647517069. Retrieved
2007-07-26.
[134] The Sikh Coalition
[151] Social perspectives, ACM Digital Library
[135] Parrinder, Geoffrey (1971). World Religions: From An-
cient History to the Present. United States: Hamlyn Pub- [152] John Kultgen (1995). Autonomy and Intervention:
lishing Group Limited. ISBN 0-87196-129-6. Parentalism in the Caring Life. Oxford University Press
US. ISBN 0-19-508531-0.
[136] Ming-Dao Deng (1990). Scholar Warrior: An Introduc- [153] George Cappannelli; Sedena Cappannelli (2004). Authen-
tion to the Tao in Everyday Life. HarperCollins. ISBN ticity: Simple Strategies for Greater Meaning and Purpose
0-06-250232-8. at Work and at Home. Emmis Books. ISBN 1-57860-
148-7.
[137] J. W. T. Mason (2002). The Meaning of Shinto. Trafford
Publishing. ISBN 1-4122-4551-6. [154] John G. West (2002). Celebrating Middle-Earth: The
Lord of the Rings as a Defense of Western Civilization.
[138] Glenn Yeffeth (2005). The Anthology at the End of the Inkling Books. ISBN 1-58742-012-0.
Universe: Leading Science Fiction Authors on Douglas
Adams' The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy. BenBella [155] Rachel Madorsky (2003). Create Your Own Destiny!:
Books, Inc. ISBN 1-932100-56-3. Spiritual Path to Success. Avanty House. ISBN 0-
9705349-4-9.
[139] William B. Badke (2005). The Hitchhiker's Guide to the
Meaning of Everything. Kregel Publications. ISBN 0- [156] A.C. Grayling. What is Good? The Search for the best
8254-2069-5. way to live. Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003.

[157] Lopez, Mike (September 22, 1999). “Episode III: Rel-

[140] Douglas Adams (1979). The Hitchhiker's Guide to the
ativism? A Jedi craves not these things”. The Michigan
Galaxy. London: Pan Books. ISBN 0-330-25864-8.
Daily. Retrieved 2007-07-26.
[141] Monty Python's Completely Useless Web Site: Monty [158] Lovatt, Stephen C. (2007). New Skins for Old Wine. Uni-
Python's The Meaning Of Life: Complete Script versal Publishers. pp. The Meaning of Life. ISBN 1-
58112-960-2.
[142] Terry Burnham (2005). Mean Markets and Lizard Brains:
How to Profit from the New Science of Irrationality. John [159] Raymond Kurzweil; Terry Grossman (2004). Fantastic
Wiley and Sons. ISBN 0-471-71695-2. Voyage: Live Long Enough to Live Forever . Holtzbrinck
Publishers. ISBN 1-57954-954-3.
[143] Yolanda Fernandez (2002). In Their Shoes: Examining the
Issue of Empathy and Its Place in the Treatment of Offend- [160] Bryan Appleyard (2007). How to Live Forever Or Die Try-
ers. Wood 'N' Barnes Publishing. ISBN 1-885473-48-6. ing: On the New Immortality. Simon & Schuster. ISBN
0-7432-6868-7.
[144] Mark I. Pinsky (2001). The Gospel According To The
[161] Cameron, Donald (2001). The Purpose of Life. Woodhill
Simpsons: The Spiritual Life Of The World's Most Ani-
Publishing. ISBN 0-9540291-0-0.
mated Family. Westminster John Knox Press. ISBN 0-
664-22419-9. [162] Nick Lane (2005). Power, Sex, Suicide: Mitochondria and
the Meaning of Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
[145] David Seaman (2005). The Real Meaning of Life. New 280481-2.
World Library. ISBN 1-57731-514-6.
[163] Kenneth M. Weiss; Anne V. Buchanan (2004). Genetics
[146] Roger Ellerton PhD, CMC (2013). Live Your Dreams... and the Logic of Evolution. Wiley-IEEE. ISBN 0-471-
Let Reality Catch Up: NLP and Common Sense for 23805-8.
Coaches, Managers and You. Renewal Technologies.
ISBN 978-0978445270. [164] Jennifer Ackerman (2001). Chance in the House of Fate:
A Natural History of Heredity. Houghton Mifflin Books.
[147] John Cook (2007). The Book of Positive Quotations. ISBN 0-618-21909-9.
Fairview Press. ISBN 1-57749-169-6.
[165] Boyce Rensberger (1996). Life Itself: Exploring the Realm
of the Living Cell. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-
[148] Steve Chandler (2005). Reinventing Yourself: How to Be-
512500-2.
come the Person You've Always Wanted to Be. Career
Press. ISBN 1-56414-817-3. [166] Chris Grau (2005). Philosophers Explore the Matrix. Ox-
ford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-518107-4.
[149] Matthew Kelly (2005). The Rhythm of Life: Living Every
Day with Passion and Purpose. Simon & Schuster. ISBN [167] John M. Cooper; D. S. Hutchinson (1997). Plato: Com-
0-7432-6510-6. plete Works. Hackett Publishing. ISBN 0-87220-349-2.
 60 CONTENTS

[168] John E. Findling, Frank W. Thackeray (2001). Events [185] Eric G. Stephan; R. Wayne Pace (2002). Powerful Lead-
That Changed the World Through the Sixteenth Century. ership: How to Unleash the Potential in Others and Simplify
Greenwood Press. ISBN 0-313-29079-2. Your Own Life. FT Press. ISBN 0-13-066836-2.

[169] Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama (1954). The Meaning of [186] Dominique Moyse Steinberg (2004). The Mutual-aid Ap-
Life: Buddhist Perspectives on Cause and Effect. Double- proach to Working with Groups: Helping People Help One
day. Another. Haworth Press. ISBN 0-7890-1462-9.

[170] Ernest Joseph Simmons (1973). Tolstoy. Routledge. [187] John Caunt (2002). Boost Your Self-Esteem. Kogan Page.
ISBN 0-7100-7395-X. ISBN 0-7494-3871-1.

[171] Richard A. Bowell (2004). The Seven Steps Of Spiritual [188] Ho'oponopono
Intelligence: The Practical Pursuit of Purpose, Success and [189] Holy Quran 51:56. Quranic Arabic Corpus. I created the
Happiness. Nicholas Brealey Publishing. ISBN 1-85788- jinn and humankind only that they might worship Me.
344-6.
[190] Z'ev ben Shimon Halevi (1993). The Work of the Kabbal-
[172] John C. Gibbs; Karen S. Basinger; Dick Fuller (1992). ist. Weiser. ISBN 0-87728-637-X.
Moral Maturity: Measuring the Development of So-
ciomoral Reflection. Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. [191] Michael Joachim Girard (2006). Essential Believing for
ISBN 0-8058-0425-0. the Christian Soul. Xulon Press. ISBN 1-59781-596-9.

[173] Timothy Tang (2007). Real Answers to The Meaning of [192] Jaideva Singh (2003). Vijñanabhairava. Motilal Banarsi-
Life and Finding Happiness. iUniverse. ISBN 978-0-595- dass. ISBN 81-208-0820-7.
45941-4.
[193] T. M. P. Mahadevan (1974). Philosophy: Theory and
[174] Tyler T. Roberts (1998). Contesting Spirit: Nietzsche, Af- Practice (Proceedings of the International Seminar on
firmation, Religion. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0- World Philosophy). Centre for Advanced Study in Phi-
691-00127-8. losophy, University of Madras.

[194] John T. Scully (2007). The Five Commandments. Trafford

[175] Lucy Costigan (2004). What Is the Meaning of Your Life:
Publishing. ISBN 1-4251-1910-7.
A Journey Towards Ultimate Meaning. iUniverse. ISBN
0-595-33880-1. [195] John Piper (2006). Desiring God. Multnomah Books.
ISBN 1-59052-119-6.
[176] Steven L. Jeffers; Harold Ivan Smith (2007). Finding a
Sacred Oasis in Grief: A Resource Manual for Pastoral [196] (Matthew 28:18-20)
Care. Radcliffe Publishing. ISBN 1-84619-181-5.
[197] (Micah 6:8)
[177] David L. Jeffrey (1992). A Dictionary of Biblical Tradi-
tion in English Literature. Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing. [198] Thomas Patrick Burke (2004). The Major Religions: An
ISBN 0-8028-3634-8. Introduction with Texts. Blackwell Publishing. ISBN 1-
4051-1049-X.
[178] Dana A. Williams (2005). “In the Light of Likeness-
[199] Book of Mormon: Mosiah 2:17. March 1830. And be-
transformed": The Literary Art of Leon Forrest. Ohio
hold, I tell you these things that ye may learn wisdom; that
State University Press. ISBN 0-8142-0994-7.
ye may learn that when ye are in the service of your fellow
[179] Jerry Z. Muller (1997). Conservatism: An Anthology beings ye are only in the service of your God.
of Social and Political Thought from David Hume to the [200] Book of Mormon: Alma 32:32. March 1830. For behold,
Present. Princeton University Press. ISBN 0-691-03711- this life is the time for men to prepare to meet God; yea,
6. behold the day of this life is the day for men to perform
their labors.
[180] Mary Nash; Bruce Stewart (2002). Spirituality and Social
Care: Contributing to Personal and Community Well-being. [201] Holy Bible: Genesis 3:22. And the Lord God said, Behold,
Jessica Kingsley Publishers. ISBN 1-84310-024-X. the man is become as one of us, to know good and evil...
[181] Xinzhong Yao (2000). An Introduction to Confucianism. [202] Holy Bible: Matthew 5:48. Be ye therefore perfect, even
Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-64430-5. as your Father which is in heaven is perfect.

[182] Bryan S. Turner; Chris Rojek (2001). Society and Cul- [203] Pearl of Great Price: Book of Moses 1:37-39. June 1830.
ture: Principles of Scarcity and Solidarity. SAGE. ISBN And the Lord God spake unto Moses, saying: ... For be-
0-7619-7049-5. hold, this is my work and my glory—to bring to pass the
immortality and eternal life of man.
[183] Anil Goonewardene (1994). Buddhist Scriptures. Har-
court Heinemann. ISBN 0-435-30355-4. [204] “Teachings of Presidents of the Church: Lorenzo Snow”.
Lorenzo Snow. The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day
[184] Luc Ferry (2002). Man Made God: The Meaning of Life. Saints. 2011 [1884]. p. 83. As man now is, God once
University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0-226-24484-9. was: As God now is, man may be.
 0.12. MURPHY'S LAW 61

[205] Book of Mormon: Alma 29:5. March 1830. Yea, and I It is found that anything that can go wrong
know that good and evil have come before all men; he at sea generally does go wrong sooner or later,
that knoweth not good from evil is blameless; but he that so it is not to be wondered that owners prefer
knoweth good and evil, to him it is given according to his the safe to the scientific .... Sufficient stress can
desires, whether he desireth good or evil, life or death, joy hardly be laid on the advantages of simplicity.
or remorse of conscience.
The human factor cannot be safely neglected
[206] Book of Mormon: 2 Nephi 2:25. March 1830. Adam fell in planning machinery. If attention is to be ob-
that men might be; and men are, that they might have joy. tained, the engine must be such that the engi-
neer will be disposed to attend to it.* [1]
[207] Pearl of Great Price: Book of Moses 5:11. June–October
1830. And Eve, his wife, heard all these things and was
Mathematician Augustus De Morgan wrote on June 23,
glad, saying: Were it not for our transgression we never
should have had seed, and never should have known good 1866:* [2]“The first experiment already illustrates a truth
of the theory, well confirmed by practice, what-ever can
and evil, and the joy of our redemption, and the eternal
life which God giveth unto all the obedient. happen will happen if we make trials enough.”In later
publications “whatever can happen will happen”occa-
[208] T. W. Mitchell (1927). Problems in Psychopathology. sionally is termed“Murphy's law,”which raises the pos-
Harcourt, Brace & company, inc. sibility—if something went wrong—that “Murphy”is
[209] scribe. Bible. “De Morgan”misremembered (an option, among oth-
ers, raised by Goranson on American Dialect Society
[210] Steven Dillon (2006). The Solaris Effect: Art and Arti- list).* [3]
fice in Contemporary American Film. University of Texas
American Dialect Society member Bill Mullins has found
Press. ISBN 0-292-71345-2.
a slightly broader version of the aphorism in reference to
[211] Raymond Aron (2000). The Century of Total War. Wis- stage magic. The British stage magician Nevil Maskelyne
dom Publications. ISBN 0-86171-173-4. wrote in 1908:
[212] Man's Search for Meaning, Viktor Frankl. Beacon Press,
2006, ISBN 978-0-8070-1426-4 It is an experience common to all men to
find that, on any special occasion, such as the
[213] Benatar, David (2006). Better Never to Have Been - The production of a magical effect for the first time
Harm of Coming into Existence. Oxford University Press. in public, everything that can go wrong will go
p. 237. ISBN 0-19-929642-1. wrong. Whether we must attribute this to the
malignity of matter or to the total depravity of
inanimate things, whether the exciting cause is
0.11.10 External links hurry, worry, or what not, the fact remains.* [4]
• Meaning of Life: The Analytic Perspective article
in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy The contemporary form of Murphy's law goes back as far
as 1952, as an epigraph to a mountaineering book by John
Sack, who described it as an “ancient mountaineering
adage":
0.12 Murphy's law
Anything that can possibly go wrong,
For other uses, see Murphy's law (disambiguation). does.* [5]
Not to be confused with Muphry's law.

Fred R. Shapiro, the editor of the Yale Book of Quota-

Murphy's law is an adage or epigram that is typically tions, has shown that in 1952 the adage was called“Mur-
stated as: Anything that can go wrong, will go wrong. phy's law”in a book by Anne Roe, quoting an unnamed
physicist:
0.12.1 History
he described [it] as “Murphy's law or the
The perceived perversity of the universe has long been a fourth law of thermodynamics”(actually there
subject of comment, and precursors to the modern ver- were only three last I heard) which states: “If
sion of Murphy's law are not hard to find. Recent signifi- anything can go wrong, it will.”* [6]
cant research in this area has been conducted by members
of the American Dialect Society. ADS member Stephen In May 1951,* [7] Anne Roe gives a transcript of an in-
Goranson has found a version of the law, not yet gener- terview (part of a Thematic Apperception Test, asking
alized or bearing that name, in a report by Alfred Holt at impressions on a photograph) with Theoretical Physicist
an 1877 meeting of an engineering society. number 3: "...As for himself he realized that this was the
62 CONTENTS

inexorable working of the second law of the thermody-

namics which stated Murphy's law ‘If anything can go
wrong it will’.”Anne Roe's papers are in the Ameri-
can Philosophical Society archives in Philadelphia; those
records (as noted by Stephen Goranson on the American
Dialect Society list 12/31/2008) identify the interviewed
physicist as Howard Percy “Bob”Robertson (1903–
1961). Robertson's papers are at the Caltech archives;
there, in a letter Robertson offers Roe an interview within
the first three months of 1949 (as noted by Goranson on
American Dialect Society list 5/9/2009). The Robertson
interview apparently predated the Muroc scenario said by
Nick Spark (American Aviation Historical Society Journal
48 (2003) p. 169) to have occurred in or after June, 1949.
The name“Murphy's law”was not immediately secure.
A story by Lee Correy in the February 1955 issue of
Astounding Science Fiction referred to “Reilly's law,”
which “states that in any scientific or engineering en-
deavor, anything that can go wrong will go wrong”.* [8]
Atomic Energy Commission Chairman Lewis Strauss was Cover of A History of Murphy's Law
quoted in the Chicago Daily Tribune on February 12,
1955, saying “I hope it will be known as Strauss' law. It
could be stated about like this: If anything bad can hap- by Dr. John Stapp, a U.S. Air Force colonel and Flight
pen, it probably will.”* [9] Surgeon in the 1950s. These conflicts (a long running in-
Arthur Bloch, in the first volume (1977) of his Murphy's terpersonal feud) were unreported until Spark researched
Law, and Other Reasons Why Things Go WRONG series, the matter. His book expands upon and documents an
prints a letter that he received from George E. Nichols, a original four part article published in 2003 (Annals of Im-
*
quality assurance manager with the Jet Propulsion Labo- probable Research (AIR) [11]) on the controversy: Why
ratory. Nichols recalled an event that occurred in 1949 at Everything You Know About Murphy's Law is Wrong.
Edwards Air Force Base, Muroc, California that, accord- From 1948 to 1949, Stapp headed research project
ing to him, is the origination of Murphy's law, and first MX981 at Muroc Army Air Field (later renamed
publicly recounted by USAF Col. John Paul Stapp. An Edwards Air Force Base)* [12] for the purpose of testing
excerpt from the letter reads: the human tolerance for g-forces during rapid decelera-
tion. The tests used a rocket sled mounted on a railroad
The law's namesake was Capt. Ed Murphy, track with a series of hydraulic brakes at the end. Ini-
a development engineer from Wright Field Air- tial tests used a humanoid crash test dummy strapped to
craft Lab. Frustration with a strap transducer a seat on the sled, but subsequent tests were performed
which was malfunctioning due to an error in by Stapp, at that time an Air Force captain. During the
wiring the strain gage bridges caused him to tests, questions were raised about the accuracy of the in-
remark – “If there is any way to do it wrong, strumentation used to measure the g-forces Captain Stapp
he will”– referring to the technician who had was experiencing. Edward Murphy proposed using elec-
wired the bridges at the Lab. I assigned Mur- tronic strain gauges attached to the restraining clamps of
phy's law to the statement and the associated Stapp's harness to measure the force exerted on them by
variations.* [10] his rapid deceleration. Murphy was engaged in support-
ing similar research using high speed centrifuges to gen-
erate g-forces. Murphy's assistant wired the harness, and
0.12.2 Association with Murphy
a trial was run using a chimpanzee.
According to the book A History of Murphy's Law by au- The sensors provided a zero reading; however, it became
thor Nick T. Spark, differing recollections years later by apparent that they had been installed incorrectly, with
various participants make it impossible to pinpoint who each sensor wired backwards. It was at this point that a
first coined the saying Murphy's law. The law's name sup- disgusted Murphy made his pronouncement, despite be-
posedly stems from an attempt to use new measurement ing offered the time and chance to calibrate and test the
devices developed by the eponymous Edward Murphy. sensor installation prior to the test proper, which he de-
The phrase was coined in adverse reaction to something clined somewhat irritably, getting off on the wrong foot
Murphy said when his devices failed to perform and was with the MX981 team. In an interview conducted by
eventually cast into its present form prior to a press con- Nick Spark, George Nichols, another engineer who was
ference some months later —the first ever (of many) given present, stated that Murphy blamed the failure on his as-
 0.12. MURPHY'S LAW 63

sistant after the failed test, saying, “If that guy has any things go wrong!,* [15]
way of making a mistake, he will.”Nichols' account is that There have been persistent references to Murphy's law as-
“Murphy's law”came about through conversation among sociating it with the laws of thermodynamics right from
the other members of the team; it was condensed to “If the very beginning (see the quotation from Anne Roe's
it can happen, it will happen,”and named for Murphy in book above).* [6] In particular, Murphy's law is often
mockery of what Nichols perceived as arrogance on Mur- cited as a form of the second law of thermodynamics (the
phy's part. Others, including Edward Murphy's surviving law of entropy) because both are predicting a tendency to
son Robert Murphy, deny Nichols' account (which is sup- a more disorganised state.* [16]
ported by Hill, both interviewed by Spark), and claim that
the phrase did originate with Edward Murphy. According The Law of truly large numbers is similar to Murphy's
to Robert Murphy's account, his father's statement was Law. It states that with a sample size large enough, any
along the lines of “If there's more than one way to do a outrageous thing is likely to happen.
job, and one of those ways will result in disaster, then he Yphrum's law, where the name is spelled backwards, is
will do it that way.” “anything that can go right, will go right”—the optimistic
The phrase first received public attention during a press application of Murphy's law in reverse.
conference in which Stapp was asked how it was that no-
body had been severely injured during the rocket sled
tests. Stapp replied that it was because they always took 0.12.4 See also
Murphy's law under consideration; he then summarized
• Confirmation bias
the law and said that in general, it meant that it was impor-
tant to consider all the possibilities (possible things that • Finagle's law
could go wrong) before doing a test and act to counter
them. Thus Stapp's usage and Murphy's alleged usage are • Hanlon's razor
very different in outlook and attitude. One is sour, the • Hindsight bias
other an affirmation of the predictable being surmount-
able, usually by sufficient planning and redundancy. Hill • Hofstadter's law
and Nichols believe Murphy was unwilling to take the
responsibility for the device's initial failure (by itself a • Infinite monkey theorem
blip of no large significance) and is to be doubly damned • Laws of infernal dynamics
for not allowing the MX981 team time to validate the
sensor's operability and for trying to blame an underling • List of eponymous laws
when doing so in the embarrassing aftermath.
• Muphry's law
The association with the 1948 incident is by no means se-
cure. Despite extensive research, no trace of documenta- • Parkinson's law
tion of the saying as Murphy's law has been found before • Pessimism
1951 (see above). The next citations are not found until
1955, when the May–June issue of Aviation Mechanics • Precautionary principle
Bulletin included the line “Murphy's law: If an aircraft
part can be installed incorrectly, someone will install it • Segal's law
*
that way,” [13] and Lloyd Mallan's book, Men, Rockets • Shit happens
and Space Rats, referred to: “Colonel Stapp's favorite
takeoff on sober scientific laws —Murphy's law, Stapp • Sod's law
calls it—'Everything that can possibly go wrong will go
• SNAFU
wrong'.”The Mercury astronauts in 1962 attributed Mur-
*
phy's law to U.S. Navy training films. [13] • Unintended consequences

0.12.3 Other variations on Murphy's law 0.12.5 References

[1] “Holt, Alfred. “Review of the Progress of Steam Ship-
From its initial public announcement, Murphy's law ping during the last Quarter of a Century,”Minutes of
quickly spread to various technical cultures connected Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers, Vol. LI,
to aerospace engineering.* [14] Before long, variants had Session 1877–78—Part I, at 2, 8 (November 13, 1877
passed into the popular imagination, changing as they session, published 1878)". Listserv.linguistlist.org. 2007-
went. 10-10. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
Author Arthur Bloch has compiled a number of books [2]“Supplement to the Budget of Paradoxes,”The
full of corollaries to Murphy's law and variations thereof. Athenaeum no. 2017 page 836 col. 2 [and later reprints:
The first of these was Murphy's law and other reasons why e.g. 1872, 1915, 1956, 2000]
64 CONTENTS

[3] “LISTSERV 16.0”. Listserv.linguistlist.org. Retrieved 0.12.7 External links

2012-04-19.
• A collection of humorous Murphy's laws
[4] “Maskelyne, Nevil. “The Art In Magic”, ''The Magic
Circular'', June 1908, p. 25”. Listserv.linguistlist.org. • 1952 proverb citation
Retrieved 2012-04-19.
• 1955 term citation of phrase “Murphy's law”
[5] Sack, John. The Butcher: The Ascent of Yerupaja epigraph
(1952), reprinted in Shapiro, Fred R., ed., The Yale Book • Examples of the mathematical formula for Murphy's
of Quotations 529 (2006). law
[6] “Roe, Anne, ''The Making of a Scientist'' 46–47 (1952,
1953)". Listserv.linguistlist.org. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
• Murphy's law entry in the Jargon File

[7] Genetic Psychology Monographs volume 43, page 204 • Murphy's Law of Combat
[8] "''Astounding Science-Fiction'', February 1955, p. 54”. • Murphy's Law's Origin
Listserv.linguistlist.org. Retrieved 2012-04-19.
• Reference to 1941 citation of the proverb
[9] "''Chicago Daily Tribune'', February 12, 1955, p. 5”.
Listserv.linguistlist.org. Retrieved 2012-04-19. • The Annals of Improbable Research tracks down the
origins of Murphy's law
[10] Bloch, Arthur (1980 edition). Murphy's Law, and
Other Reasons Why Things Go WRONG, Los Angeles:
Price/Stern/Sloan Publishers, Inc. ISBN 0-8431-0428-7,
pp. 4-5 0.13 Occam's razor
[11] The Fastest Man on Earth – Improbable Research
For the aerial theatre company, see Ockham's Razor The-
[12] Rogers Dry Lake – National Historic Landmark at Na-
atre Company.
tional Park Service
Occam's razor (also written as Ockham's razor and in
[13] Shapiro, Fred R., ed., The Yale Book of Quotations 529
(2006).
[14] “Jargon File – Murphy's law”. Catb.org. Retrieved 2012-
04-19.
[15] Bloch, Arthur (1977). Murphy's law and other reasons
why things go wrong!. Methuen. ASIN B001P0CURK.
ISBN 0-8431-0428-7.
[16] Robert D. Handscombe, Eann A. Patterson, The Entropy
Vector: Connecting Science and Business, p134, World
Scientific, 2004, ISBN 981-238-571-1.

0.12.6 Bibliography
• Nick T. Spark (2006-05-21). A History of Murphy's
Law. Periscope Film. ISBN 0-9786388-9-1.
The motions of the sun, moon and other solar system planets can
• Paul Dickson (1981-05-18).“Murphy's law”. The be calculated using a geocentric model (the earth is at the center)
Official Rules. Arrow Books. pp. 128–137. ISBN or using a heliocentric model (the sun is at the center). Both work,
0-09-926490-0. but the geocentric system requires many more assumptions than
the heliocentric system, which has only seven. This was pointed
• Klipstein, D. L. (August 1967). “The Contribu- out in a preface to Copernicus' first edition of De revolutionibus
tions of Edsel Murphy to the Understanding of the orbium coelestium.
Behaviour of Inanimate Objects”. EEE Magazine
15. Latin lex parsimoniae, which means 'law of parsimony') is
a problem-solving principle devised by William of Ock-
• Matthews, R A J (1995). “Tumbling toast,
ham (c. 1287–1347), who was an English Franciscan
Murphy's Law and the Fundamental Constants”
friar and scholastic philosopher and theologian. The prin-
. European Journal of Physics 16 (4): 172–176.
ciple states that among competing hypotheses that predict
Bibcode:1995EJPh...16..172M. doi:10.1088/0143-
equally well, the one with the fewest assumptions should
0807/16/4/005. —Why toasted bread lands
be selected. Other, more complicated solutions may ul-
buttered-side-down.
timately prove to provide better predictions, but—in the
• Matthews received the Ig Nobel Prize for physics in absence of differences in predictive ability—the fewer as-
1996 for this work (see list). sumptions that are made, the better.
0.13. OCCAM'S RAZOR 65

The application of the principle can be used to shift the

burden of proof in a discussion. However, Alan Baker,
who suggests this in the online Stanford Encyclopedia
of Philosophy, is careful to point out that his sugges-
tion should not be taken generally, but only as it ap-
plies in a particular context, that is: philosophers who
argue in opposition to metaphysical theories that involve
allegedly “superfluous ontological apparatus”.* [lower-
alpha 1] Baker then notices that principles, including Oc- Part of a page from Duns Scotus' book Ordinatio: "Pluralitas
non est ponenda sine necessitate", i.e., “Plurality is not to be
cam's razor, are often expressed in a way that is not clear
posited without necessity”
regarding which facet of “simplicity”—parsimony or
elegance —is being referred to, and that in a hypothetical
formulation the facets of simplicity may work in differ-
ent directions: a simpler description may refer to a more
complex hypothesis, and a more complex description may
refer to a simpler hypothesis.* [lower-alpha 2]
philosophers such as John Duns Scotus (1265–1308),
Solomonoff's theory of inductive inference Robert Grosseteste (1175-1253), Maimonides (Moses
is a mathematically formalized Occam's ra- ben-Maimon, 1138–1204), and even Aristotle (384–322
zor:* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [6]* [7] shorter computable theories BC).* [14]* [15] Aristotle writes in his Posterior Analyt-
have more weight when calculating the probability of the ics, “we may assume the superiority ceteris paribus [all
next observation, using all computable theories which things being equal] of the demonstration which derives
perfectly describe previous observations. from fewer postulates or hypotheses.”* [16] Ptolemy (c.
In science, Occam's razor is used as a heuristic (discov- AD 90 – c. AD 168) stated,“We consider it a good prin-
ery tool) to guide scientists in the development of theo- ciple to explain the phenomena by the simplest hypothesis
*
retical models rather than as an arbiter between published possible.” [17]
* *
models. [8] [9] In the scientific method, Occam's razor is Phrases such as “It is vain to do with more what can be
not considered an irrefutable principle of logic or a scien- done with fewer”and “A plurality is not to be posited
tific result; the preference for simplicity in the scientific without necessity”were commonplace in 13th-century
method is based on the falsifiability criterion. For each scholastic writing.* [17] Robert Grosseteste, in Commen-
accepted explanation of a phenomenon, there is always tary on [Aristotle's] the Posterior Analytics Books (Com-
an infinite number of possible and more complex alterna- mentarius in Posteriorum Analyticorum Libros) (c. 1217–
tives, because one can always burden failing explanations 1220), declares: “That is better and more valuable
with ad hoc hypothesis to prevent them from being fal- which requires fewer, other circumstances being equal...
sified; therefore, simpler theories are preferable to more For if one thing were demonstrated from many and an-
complex ones because they are better testable and falsifi- other thing from fewer equally known premises, clearly
able.* [1]* [10]* [11] that is better which is from fewer because it makes us
know quickly, just as a universal demonstration is bet-
ter than particular because it produces knowledge from
0.13.1 History fewer premises. Similarly in natural science, in moral sci-
ence, and in metaphysics the best is that which needs no
The term “Occam's Razor”first appeared in 1852 in premises and the better that which needs the fewer, other
the works of Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet (1788– circumstances being equal.”* [18] The Summa Theolog-
1856), centuries after William of Ockham's death in ica of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274) states that “it is
1347.* [12] Ockham did not invent this “razor"; its as- superfluous to suppose that what can be accounted for by
sociation with him may be due to the frequency and ef- a few principles has been produced by many”. Aquinas
fectiveness with which he used it (Ariew 1976). Ock- uses this principle to construct an objection to God's ex-
ham stated the principle in various ways, but the most istence, an objection that he in turn answers and refutes
popular version “entities must not be multiplied beyond generally (cf. quinque viae), and specifically, through an
necessity”(Non sunt multiplicanda entia sine necessitate) argument based on causality.* [19] Hence, Aquinas ac-
was formulated by the Irish Franciscan philosopher John knowledges the principle that today is known as Occam's
Punch in his 1639 commentary on the works of Duns Razor, but prefers causal explanations to other simple ex-
Scotus.* [13] planations (cf. also Correlation does not imply causa-
tion).
Formulations before Ockham The Indian Hindu philosopher Madhva in verse 400 of his
Vishnu-Tattva-Nirnaya says: "dvidhAkalpane kalpanA-
The origins of what has come to be known as Oc- gauravamiti" (To make two suppositions when one is
cam's Razor are traceable to the works of earlier enough is to err by way of excessive supposition).
66 CONTENTS

Ockham theory is a mathematical formalization of Occam's Ra-

zor.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5]* [28]
William of Ockham (c. 1287–1347) was an English Another technical approach to Occam's Razor is
Franciscan friar and theologian, an influential medieval ontological parsimony.* [29]
philosopher and a nominalist. His popular fame as a great
logician rests chiefly on the maxim attributed to him and The widespread layperson's formulation that “the sim-
known as Ockham's razor. The term razor refers to dis- plest explanation is usually the correct one”is akin.
tinguishing between two hypotheses either by “shaving
away”unnecessary assumptions or cutting apart two sim-
ilar conclusions. 0.13.2 Justifications
While it has been claimed that Ockham's razor is not Beginning in the 20th century, epistemological justifi-
found in any of his writings,* [20] one can cite statements cations based on induction, logic, pragmatism, and es-
such as Numquam ponenda est pluralitas sine necessitate pecially probability theory have become more popular
[Plurality must never be posited without necessity], which among philosophers.
occurs in his theological work on the 'Sentences of Pe-
ter Lombard' (Quaestiones et decisiones in quattuor libros
Sententiarum Petri Lombardi (ed. Lugd., 1495), i, dist. Aesthetic
27, qu. 2, K).
Nevertheless, the precise words sometimes attributed to Prior to the 20th century, it was a commonly held belief
Ockham, entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessi- that nature itself was simple and that simpler hypotheses
tatem (entities must not be multiplied beyond neces- about nature were thus more likely to be true. This notion
sity),* [21] are absent in his extant works;* [22] this par- was deeply rooted in the aesthetic value simplicity holds
ticular phrasing owes more to John Punch,* [23] who de- for human thought and the justifications presented for it
scribed the principle as a“common axiom”(axioma vul- often drew from theology. Thomas Aquinas made this
gare) of the Scholastics.* [13] Indeed, Ockham's contri- argument in the 13th century, writing,“If a thing can be
bution seems to be to restrict the operation of this prin- done adequately by means of one, it is superfluous to do it
ciple in matters pertaining to miracles and God's power: by means of several; for we observe that nature does not
so, in the Eucharist, a plurality of miracles is possible, employ two instruments [if] one suffices.”* [30]
simply because it pleases God.* [17]
This principle is sometimes phrased as pluralitas non est Empirical
ponenda sine necessitate (“plurality should not be posited
without necessity”).* [24] In his Summa Totius Logicae, Occam's Razor has gained strong empirical support as far
i. 12, Ockham cites the principle of economy, Frustra as helping to converge on better theories (see “Applica-
fit per plura quod potest fieri per pauciora [It is futile to tions”section below for some examples).
do with more things that which can be done with fewer]. In the related concept of overfitting, excessively complex
(Thorburn, 1918, pp. 352–3; Kneale and Kneale, 1962, models are affected by statistical noise (a problem also
p. 243.) known as the bias-variance trade-off), whereas simpler
models may capture the underlying structure better and
may thus have better predictive performance. It is, how-
Later formulations ever, often difficult to deduce which part of the data is
noise (cf. model selection, test set, minimum description
To quote Isaac Newton,“We are to admit no more causes length, Bayesian inference, etc.).
of natural things than such as are both true and sufficient
to explain their appearances. Therefore, to the same nat-
ural effects we must, so far as possible, assign the same Testing the razor The razor's statement that “other
causes.”* [25]* [26] things being equal, simpler explanations are generally
better than more complex ones”is amenable to empir-
Bertrand Russell offers a particular version of Occam's ical testing. Another interpretation of the razor's state-
Razor: “Whenever possible, substitute constructions out ment would be that“simpler hypotheses (not conclusions,
of known entities for inferences to unknown entities.” i.e. explanations) are generally better than the complex
*
[27] ones”. The procedure to test the former interpretation
Around 1960, Ray Solomonoff founded the theory of would compare the track records of simple and compara-
universal inductive inference, the theory of prediction tively complex explanations. If you accept the first inter-
based on observations; for example, predicting the next pretation, the validity of Occam's Razor as a tool would
symbol based upon a given series of symbols. The only then have to be rejected if the more complex explanations
assumption is that the environment follows some un- were more often correct than the less complex ones (while
known but computable probability distribution. This the converse would lend support to its use). If the latter
0.13. OCCAM'S RAZOR 67

interpretation is accepted, the validity of Occam's Razor with that, too”) successfully prevent outright falsification.
as a tool could possibly be accepted if the simpler hy- This endless supply of elaborate competing explanations,
potheses led to correct conclusions more often than not. called saving hypotheses, cannot be ruled out—but by us-
ing Occam's Razor.* [31]* [32]* [33]

Practical considerations and pragmatism

See also: pragmatism and problem of induction

The common form of the razor, used to distinguish be-

tween equally explanatory hypotheses, may be supported
by the practical fact that simpler theories are easier to un-
derstand.
Some argue that Occam's Razor is not an inference-
driven model, but a heuristic maxim for choosing among
other models and instead underlies induction.
Alternatively, if we want to have reasonable discussion
we may be practically forced to accept Occam's Razor
in the same way we are simply forced to accept the laws
of thought and inductive reasoning (given the problem of
Possible explanations can become needlessly complex. It is co- induction). Philosopher Elliott Sober states that not even
herent, for instance, to add the involvement of leprechauns to reason itself can be justified on any reasonable grounds,
any explanation, but Occam's Razor would prevent such addi- and that we must start with first principles of some kind
tions unless they were necessary.
(otherwise an infinite regress occurs).
The pragmatist may go on, as David Hume did on the
In the history of competing hypotheses, the simpler hy-
topic of induction, that there is no satisfying alternative
potheses have led to mathematically rigorous and em-
to granting this premise. Though one may claim that
pirically verifiable theories. In the history of compet-
Occam's Razor is invalid as a premise helping to regu-
ing explanations, this is not the case—at least not gen-
late theories, putting this doubt into practice would mean
erally. Some increases in complexity are sometimes nec-
doubting whether every step forward will result in lo-
essary. So there remains a justified general bias toward
comotion or a nuclear explosion. In other words still:
the simpler of two competing explanations. To under-
“What's the alternative?"
stand why, consider that for each accepted explanation
of a phenomenon, there is always an infinite number of
possible, more complex, and ultimately incorrect, alter-
Mathematical
natives. This is so because one can always burden failing
explanations with ad hoc hypothesis. Ad hoc hypotheses
One justification of Occam's Razor is a direct result of
are justifications that prevent theories from being falsi-
fied. Even other empirical criteria, such as consilience, basic probability theory. By definition, all assumptions
introduce possibilities for error; if an assumption does
can never truly eliminate such explanations as competi-
tion. Each true explanation, then, may have had many not improve the accuracy of a theory, its only effect is to
increase the probability that the overall theory is wrong.
alternatives that were simpler and false, but also an infi-
nite number of alternatives that were more complex and There have also been other attempts to derive Occam's
false. But if an alternate ad hoc hypothesis were indeed Razor from probability theory, including notable at-
justifiable, its implicit conclusions would be empirically tempts made by Harold Jeffreys and E. T. Jaynes. The
verifiable. On a commonly accepted repeatability prin- probabilistic (Bayesian) basis for Occam's Razor is elab-
ciple, these alternate theories have never been observed orated by David J. C. MacKay in chapter 28 of his
and continue to escape observation. In addition, we do book Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Al-
not say an explanation is true if it has not withstood this gorithms,* [34] where he emphasises that a prior bias in
principle. favour of simpler models is not required.
Put another way, any new, and even more complex, the- William H. Jefferys (no relation to Harold Jeffreys) and
ory can still possibly be true. For example, if an indi- James O. Berger (1991) generalize and quantify the orig-
vidual makes supernatural claims that Leprechauns were inal formulation's “assumptions”concept as the degree
responsible for breaking a vase, the simpler explanation to which a proposition is unnecessarily accommodating
would be that he is mistaken, but ongoing ad hoc justifica- to possible observable data.* [35] They state “a hypoth-
tions (e.g. “and that's not me on the film; they tampered esis with fewer adjustable parameters will automatically
68 CONTENTS

have an enhanced posterior probability, due to the fact for truth.

that the predictions it makes are sharp”.* [35] The model —Swinburne 1997
they propose balances the precision of a theory's pre-
dictions against their sharpness; theories which sharply
made their correct predictions are preferred over theo- According to Swinburne, since our choice of theory can-
ries which would have accommodated a wide range of not be determined by data (see Underdetermination and
other possible results. This, again, reflects the mathemat- Quine-Duhem thesis), we must rely on some criterion to
ical relationship between key concepts in Bayesian infer- determine which theory to use. Since it is absurd to have
ence (namely marginal probability, conditional probabil- no logical method by which to settle on one hypothesis
ity, and posterior probability). amongst an infinite number of equally data-compliant hy-
potheses, we should choose the simplest theory: “either
science is irrational [in the way it judges theories and pre-
Other philosophers
dictions probable] or the principle of simplicity is a fun-
damental synthetic a priori truth”(Swinburne 1997).
Karl Popper Karl Popper argues that a preference for
simple theories need not appeal to practical or aesthetic
considerations. Our preference for simplicity may be jus- Ludwig Wittgenstein From the Tractatus Logico-
tified by its falsifiability criterion: we prefer simpler the- Philosophicus:
ories to more complex ones “because their empirical
content is greater; and because they are better testable” • 3.328 If a sign is not necessary then it is meaning-
(Popper 1992). The idea here is that a simple theory ap- less. That is the meaning of Occam's Razor.
plies to more cases than a more complex one, and is thus
more easily falsifiable. This is again comparing a simple
theory to a more complex theory where both explain the (If everything in the symbolism works as
data equally well. though a sign had meaning, then it has mean-
ing.)

Elliott Sober The philosopher of science Elliott Sober • 4.04 In the proposition there must be exactly as
once argued along the same lines as Popper, tying sim- many things distinguishable as there are in the state
plicity with “informativeness": The simplest theory is of affairs which it represents. They must both pos-
the more informative one, in the sense that less informa- sess the same logical (mathematical) multiplicity
tion is required in order to answer one's questions.* [36] (cf. Hertz's Mechanics, on Dynamic Models).
He has since rejected this account of simplicity, purport-
edly because it fails to provide an epistemic justification • 5.47321 Occam's Razor is, of course, not an arbi-
for simplicity. He now believes that simplicity consid- trary rule nor one justified by its practical success.
erations (and considerations of parsimony in particular) It simply says that unnecessary elements in a sym-
do not count unless they reflect something more funda- bolism mean nothing. Signs which serve one pur-
mental. Philosophers, he suggests, may have made the pose are logically equivalent; signs which serve no
error of hypostatizing simplicity (i.e. endowed it with a purpose are logically meaningless.
sui generis existence), when it has meaning only when em-
bedded in a specific context (Sober 1992). If we fail to and on the related concept of “simplicity":
justify simplicity considerations on the basis of the con-
text in which we make use of them, we may have no non- • 6.363 The procedure of induction consists in accept-
circular justification: “just as the question 'why be ratio- ing as true the simplest law that can be reconciled
nal?' may have no non-circular answer, the same may be with our experiences.
true of the question 'why should simplicity be considered
in evaluating the plausibility of hypotheses?'".* [37]
0.13.3 Applications
Richard Swinburne Richard Swinburne argues for Science and the scientific method
simplicity on logical grounds:
In science, Occam's Razor is used as a heuristic (rule
... the simplest hypothesis proposed as of thumb) to guide scientists in developing theoreti-
an explanation of phenomena is more likely cal models rather than as an arbiter between published
to be the true one than is any other available models.* [8]* [9] In physics, parsimony was an important
hypothesis, that its predictions are more likely heuristic in Albert Einstein's formulation of special rela-
to be true than those of any other available tivity,* [38]* [39] in the development and application of
hypothesis, and that it is an ultimate a priori the principle of least action by Pierre Louis Mauper-
epistemic principle that simplicity is evidence tuis and Leonhard Euler,* [40] and in the development of
0.13. OCCAM'S RAZOR 69

quantum mechanics by Max Planck, Werner Heisenberg used Occam's Razor logic to formulate the quantum hy-
and Louis de Broglie.* [9]* [41] pothesis, even resisting that hypothesis as it became more
*
In chemistry, Occam's Razor is often an important obvious that it was correct. [9]
heuristic when developing a model of a reaction mech- Appeals to simplicity were used to argue against the phe-
anism.* [42]* [43] Although it is useful as a heuristic in nomena of meteorites, ball lightning, continental drift,
developing models of reaction mechanisms, it has been and reverse transcriptase. One can argue for atomic
shown to fail as a criterion for selecting among some building blocks for matter, because it provides a simpler
selected published models.* [9] In this context, Einstein explanation for the observed reversibility of both mix-
himself expressed caution when he formulated Einstein's ing and chemical reactions as simple separation and re-
Constraint: “It can scarcely be denied that the supreme arrangements of atomic building blocks. At the time,
goal of all theory is to make the irreducible basic ele- however, the atomic theory was considered more com-
ments as simple and as few as possible without having to plex because it implied the existence of invisible parti-
surrender the adequate representation of a single datum cles which had not been directly detected. Ernst Mach
of experience”. An often-quoted version of this con- and the logical positivists rejected the atomic theory of
straint (which cannot be verified as posited by Einstein John Dalton until the reality of atoms was more evident
himself)* [44] says“Everything should be kept as simple in Brownian motion, as shown by Albert Einstein.* [47]
as possible, but no simpler.” In the same way, postulating the aether is more complex
In the scientific method, parsimony is an epistemological, than transmission of light through a vacuum. At the time,
metaphysical or heuristic preference, not an irrefutable however, all known waves propagated through a physi-
principle of logic or a scientific result.* [1]* [10]* [45] As cal medium, and it seemed simpler to postulate the exis-
a logical principle, Occam's Razor would demand that tence of a medium than to theorize about wave propaga-
scientists accept the simplest possible theoretical expla- tion without a medium. Likewise, Newton's idea of light
nation for existing data. However, science has shown re- particles seemed simpler than Christiaan Huygens's idea
peatedly that future data often support more complex the- of waves, so many favored it. In this case, as it turned out,
ories than do existing data. Science prefers the simplest neither the wave —nor the particle —explanation alone
explanation that is consistent with the data available at a suffices, as light behaves like waves and like particles.
given time, but the simplest explanation may be ruled out Three axioms presupposed by the scientific method are
as new data become available.* [8]* [10] That is, science is realism (the existence of objective reality), the existence
open to the possibility that future experiments might sup- of natural laws, and the constancy of natural law. Rather
port more complex theories than demanded by current than depend on provability of these axioms, science de-
data and is more interested in designing experiments to pends on the fact that they have not been objectively fal-
discriminate between competing theories than favoring sified. Occam's Razor and parsimony support, but do not
one theory over another based merely on philosophical prove, these axioms of science. The general principle of
principles.* [1]* [10]* [11] science is that theories (or models) of natural law must
When scientists use the idea of parsimony, it has meaning be consistent with repeatable experimental observations.
only in a very specific context of inquiry. Several back- This ultimate arbiter (selection *
criterion) rests upon the
ground assumptions are required for parsimony to con- axioms mentioned above. [10]
nect with plausibility in a particular research problem. There are examples where Occam's Razor would have fa-
The reasonableness of parsimony in one research context vored the wrong theory given the available data. Sim-
may have nothing to do with its reasonableness in another. plicity principles are useful philosophical preferences for
It is a mistake to think that there is a single global princi- choosing a more likely theory from among several possi-
ple that spans diverse subject matter.* [11] bilities that are all consistent with available data. A single
It has been suggested that Occam's Razor is a widely instance of Occam's Razor favoring a* wrong theory fal-
accepted example of extraevidential consideration, even sifies the razor as a general principle. [10] Michael Lee
and others* [48] provide cases in which a parsimonious
though it is entirely a metaphysical assumption. There is
little empirical evidence that the world is actually simple approach does not guarantee a correct conclusion and, if
based on incorrect working hypotheses or interpretations
or that simple accounts are more likely to be true than
complex ones.* [46] of incomplete data, may even strongly support a false con-
clusion. Lee states, “When parsimony ceases to be a
Most of the time, Occam's Razor is a conservative tool, guideline and is instead elevated to an ex cathedra pro-
cutting out crazy, complicated constructions and assuring nouncement, parsimony analysis ceases to be science.”
that hypotheses are grounded in the science of the day,
thus yielding “normal”science: models of explanation If multiple models of natural law make exactly the same
and prediction. There are, however, notable exceptions testable predictions, they are equivalent and there is no
where Occam's Razor turns a conservative scientist into need for parsimony to choose a preferred one. For ex-
a reluctant revolutionary. For example, Max Planck in- ample, Newtonian, Hamiltonian and Lagrangian classi-
terpolated between the Wien and Jeans radiation laws and cal mechanics are equivalent. Physicists have no interest
70 CONTENTS

in using Occam's Razor to say the other two are wrong. ever he takes up the fight his genes will live on in his off-
Likewise, there is no demand for simplicity principles to spring. And thus the“stay-and-fight”gene prevails. This
arbitrate between wave and matrix formulations of quan- is an example of kin selection. An underlying general
tum mechanics. Science often does not demand arbitra- principle thus offers a much simpler explanation, with-
tion or selection criteria between models that make the out retreating to special principles as group selection.
same testable predictions.* [10] Systematics is the branch of biology that attempts to es-
tablish genealogical relationships among organisms. It
is also concerned with their classification. There are
Biology three primary camps in systematics; cladists, pheneti-
cists, and evolutionary taxonomists. The cladists hold that
Biologists or philosophers of biology use Occam's Ra- genealogy alone should determine classification and phe-
zor in either of two contexts both in evolutionary biol- neticists contend that similarity over propinquity of de-
ogy: the units of selection controversy and systematics. scent is the determining criterion while evolutionary tax-
George C. Williams in his book Adaptation and Natu- onomists say that both genealogy and similarity count in
ral Selection (1966) argues that the best way to explain classification.* [49]
altruism among animals is based on low level (i.e. indi-
It is among the cladists that Occam's Razor is to be found,
vidual) selection as opposed to high level group selection.
although their term for it is cladistic parsimony. Cladis-
Altruism is defined by some evolutionary biologists (e.g.
tic parsimony (or maximum parsimony) is a method
R. Alexander, 1987; W. D. Hamilton, 1964) as behav-
of phylogenetic inference in the construction of types
ior that is beneficial to others (or to the group) at a cost
of phylogenetic trees (more specifically, cladograms).
to the individual, and many posit individual selection as
Cladograms are branching, tree-like structures used to
the mechanism which explains altruism solely in terms
represent lines of descent based on one or more evolution-
of the behaviors of individual organisms acting in their
ary changes. Cladistic parsimony is used to support the
own self-interest (or in the interest of their genes, via kin
hypotheses that require the fewest evolutionary changes.
selection). Williams was arguing against the perspective
For some types of tree, it will consistently produce the
of others who propose selection at the level of the group
wrong results regardless of how much data is collected
as an evolutionary mechanism that selects for altruistic
(this is called long branch attraction). For a full treat-
traits (e.g. D. S. Wilson & E. O. Wilson, 2007). The ba-
ment of cladistic parsimony, see Elliott Sober's Recon-
sis for Williams' contention is that of the two, individual
structing the Past: Parsimony, Evolution, and Inference
selection is the more parsimonious theory. In doing so he
(1988). For a discussion of both uses of Occam's Razor
is invoking a variant of Occam's Razor known as Lloyd
in biology, see Sober's article “Let's Razor Ockham's
Morgan's Canon: “In no case is an animal activity to be
Razor”(1990).
interpreted in terms of higher psychological processes, if
it can be fairly interpreted in terms of processes which Other methods for inferring evolutionary relationships
stand lower in the scale of psychological evolution and use parsimony in a more traditional way. Likelihood
development”(Morgan 1903). methods for phylogeny use parsimony as they do for all
likelihood tests, with hypotheses requiring few differing
However, more recent biological analyses, such as
parameters (i.e., numbers of different rates of character
Richard Dawkins' The Selfish Gene, have contended that
change or different frequencies of character state transi-
Occam's view is not the simplest and most basic. Dawkins
tions) being treated as null hypotheses relative to hypothe-
argues the way evolution works is that the genes prop-
ses requiring many differing parameters. Thus, complex
agated in most copies will end up determining the de-
hypotheses must predict data much better than do simple
velopment of that particular species, i.e., natural selec-
hypotheses before researchers reject the simple hypothe-
tion turns out to select specific genes, and this is really
ses. Recent advances employ information theory, a close
the fundamental underlying principle, that automatically
cousin of likelihood, which uses Occam's Razor in the
gives individual and group selection as emergent features
same way.
of evolution.
Francis Crick has commented on potential limitations of
Zoology provides an example. Muskoxen, when threat-
Occam's Razor in biology. He advances the argument
ened by wolves, will form a circle with the males on the
that because biological systems are the products of (an
outside and the females and young on the inside. This is
ongoing) natural selection, the mechanisms are not nec-
an example of a behavior by the males that seems to be
essarily optimal in an obvious sense. He cautions:“While
altruistic. The behavior is disadvantageous to them indi-
Ockham's razor is a useful tool in the physical sciences,
vidually but beneficial to the group as a whole and was
it can be a very dangerous implement in biology. It is
thus seen by some to support the group selection theory.
thus very rash to use simplicity and elegance as a guide in
However, a much better explanation immediately offers biological research.”* [50]
itself once one considers that natural selection works on
In biogeography, parsimony is used to infer ancient
genes. If the male musk ox runs off, leaving his offspring
migrations of species or populations by observing the
to the wolves, his genes will not be propagated. If how-
0.13. OCCAM'S RAZOR 71

geographic distribution and relationships of existing Religion

organisms. Given the phylogenetic tree, ancestral migra-
tions are inferred to be those that require the minimum Main article: Existence of God
amount of total movement.
In the philosophy of religion, Occam's Razor is some-
times applied to the existence of God. William of Ock-
Medicine ham himself was a Christian. He believed in God, and
in the authority of Scripture; he writes that “nothing
When discussing Occam's Razor in contemporary ought to be posited without a reason given, unless it is
medicine, doctors and philosophers of medicine speak of self-evident (literally, known through itself) or known by
diagnostic parsimony. Diagnostic parsimony advocates experience or proved by the authority of Sacred Scrip-
that when diagnosing a given injury, ailment, illness, or ture.”* [51] Ockham believed that an explanation has
disease a doctor should strive to look for the fewest pos- no sufficient basis in reality when it does not harmonize
sible causes that will account for all the symptoms. This with reason, experience, or the Bible. However, unlike
philosophy is one of several demonstrated in the popular many theologians of his time, Ockham did not believe
medical adage “when you hear hoofbeats behind you, God could be logically proven with arguments. To Ock-
think horses, not zebras". While diagnostic parsimony ham, science was a matter of discovery, but theology was
might often be beneficial, credence should also be given a matter of revelation and faith. He states: “only faith
to the counter-argument modernly known as Hickam's gives us access to theological truths. The ways of God
dictum, which succinctly states that “patients can have are not open to reason, for God has freely chosen to cre-
as many diseases as they damn well please”. It is often ate a world and establish a way of salvation within it apart
statistically more likely that a patient has several common from any necessary laws that human logic or rationality
diseases, rather than having a single rarer disease which can uncover.”* [52]
explains their myriad symptoms. Also, independently of
statistical likelihood, some patients do in fact turn out to St. Thomas Aquinas, in the Summa Theologica, uses a
have multiple diseases, which by common sense nullifies formulation of Occam's Razor to construct an objection
the approach of insisting to explain any given collection to the idea that God exists, which he refutes directly with
of symptoms with one disease. These misgivings emerge a counterargument:* [53]
from simple probability theory—which is already taken
into account in many modern variations of the razor— Further, it is superfluous to suppose that
and from the fact that the loss function is much greater in what can be accounted for by a few princi-
medicine than in most of general science. Because mis- ples has been produced by many. But it seems
diagnosis can result in the loss of a person's health and that everything we see in the world can be ac-
potentially life, it is considered better to test and pursue counted for by other principles, supposing God
all reasonable theories even if there is some theory that did not exist. For all natural things can be re-
appears the most likely. duced to one principle which is nature; and all
voluntary things can be reduced to one princi-
Diagnostic parsimony and the counterbalance it finds in
ple which is human reason, or will. Therefore
Hickam's dictum have very important implications in
there is no need to suppose God's existence.
medical practice. Any set of symptoms could be indica-
tive of a range of possible diseases and disease combi-
nations; though at no point is a diagnosis rejected or ac- In turn, Aquinas answers this with the quinque viae, and
cepted just on the basis of one disease appearing more addresses the particular objection above with the follow-
likely than another, the continuous flow of hypothesis for- ing answer:
mulation, testing and modification benefits greatly from
estimates regarding which diseases (or sets of diseases) Since nature works for a determinate end
are relatively more likely to be responsible for a set of under the direction of a higher agent, whatever
symptoms, given the patient's environment, habits, med- is done by nature must needs be traced back
ical history and so on. For example, if a hypothetical to God, as to its first cause. So also whatever
patient's immediately apparent symptoms include fatigue is done voluntarily must also be traced back
and cirrhosis and they test negative for Hepatitis C, their to some higher cause other than human reason
doctor might formulate a working hypothesis that the cir- or will, since these can change or fail; for all
rhosis was caused by their drinking problem, and then things that are changeable and capable of de-
seek symptoms and perform tests to formulate and rule fect must be traced back to an immovable and
out hypotheses as to what has been causing the fatigue; self-necessary first principle, as was shown in
but if the doctor were to further discover that the patient's the body of the Article.
breath inexplicably smells of garlic and they are suffering
from pulmonary edema, they might decide to test for the Rather than argue for the necessity of a god, some the-
relatively rare condition of selenium poisoning. ists base their belief upon grounds independent of, or
72 CONTENTS

prior to, reason, making Occam's Razor irrelevant. This ment, Jeremy Bentham's “parsimony principle”states
was the stance of Søren Kierkegaard, who viewed belief that any punishment greater than is required to achieve
in God as a leap of faith which sometimes directly op- its end is unjust. The concept is related but not identi-
posed reason.* [54] This is also the doctrine of Gordon cal to the legal concept of proportionality. Parsimony is
Clark's Presuppositional apologetics, with the exception a key consideration of the modern restorative justice, and
that Clark never thought the leap of faith was contrary to is a component of utilitarian approaches to punishment,
reason. (See also Fideism). as well as the prison abolition movement. Bentham be-
There are various arguments in favour of God which es- lieved that true parsimony would require punishment to
be individualised to take account of the sensibility of the
tablish God as a useful or even necessary assumption.
Contrastingly, atheists hold firmly to the belief that as- individual—an individual more sensitive to punishment
should be given a proportionately lesser one, since oth-
suming the existence of God would introduce unneces-
sary complexity (Schmitt 2005, e.g. the Ultimate Boeing erwise needless pain would be inflicted. Later utilitarian
writers have tended to abandon this idea, in large part due
747 gambit). Taking a nuanced position, philosopher Del
Ratzsch* [55] suggests that the application of the razor to to the impracticality of determining each alleged crimi-
nal's relative sensitivity to specific punishments.* [57]
God may not be so simple, least of all when we are com-
paring that hypothesis with theories postulating multiple
invisible universes.* [56]
Probability theory and statistics
Another application of the principle is to be found in the
work of George Berkeley (1685–1753). Berkeley was an
Marcus Hutter's universal artificial intelligence builds
idealist who believed that all of reality could be explained
upon Solomonoff's mathematical formalization of the ra-
in terms of the mind alone. He invoked Occam's Razor
zor to calculate the expected value of an action.
against materialism, stating that matter was not required
by his metaphysic and was thus eliminable. One potential There are various papers in scholarly journals deriving
problem with this belief is that it's possible, given Berke- formal versions of Occam's Razor from probability the-
ley's position, to find solipsism itself more in line with theory, applying it in statistical inference, and using it to
razor than a God-mediated world beyond a single thinker. come up with criteria for penalizing complexity in sta-
tistical inference. Recent papers have suggested a con-
In his article “Sensations and Brain Processes”(1959),
nection between Occam's Razor and Kolmogorov com-
J. J. C. Smart invoked Occam's Razor with the aim to
plexity.* [58]
justify his preference of the mind-brain identity theory
over spirit-body dualism. Dualists state that there are two One of the problems with the original formulation of the
kinds of substances in the universe: physical (including razor is that it only applies to models with the same ex-
the body) and spiritual, which is non-physical. In con- planatory power (i.e. it only tells us to prefer the sim-
trast, identity theorists state that everything is physical, plest of equally good models). A more general form of
including consciousness, and that there is nothing non- the razor can be derived from Bayesian model compari-
physical. Despite the fact that it is impossible to ap- son, which is based on Bayes factors and can be used to
preciate the spiritual when limiting oneself to the phys- compare models that don't fit the data equally well. These
ical, Smart maintained that identity theory explains all methods can sometimes optimally balance the complexity
phenomena by assuming only a physical reality. Sub- and power of a model. Generally the exact Occam factor
sequently, Smart has been severely criticized for his is intractable but approximations such as Akaike informa-
(mis)use of Occam's Razor and ultimately retracted his tion criterion, Bayesian information criterion, Variational
advocacy of it in this context. Paul Churchland (1984) Bayesian methods, false discovery rate, and Laplace's
states that by itself Occam's Razor is inconclusive re- method are used. Many artificial intelligence researchers
garding duality. In a similar way, Dale Jacquette (1994) are now employing such techniques, for instance through
stated that Occam's Razor has been used in attempts to work on Occam Learning.
justify eliminativism and reductionism in the philosophy The statistical view leads to a more rigorous formulation
of mind. Eliminativism is the thesis that the ontology of of the razor than that which came of previous philosoph-
folk psychology including such entities as“pain”,“joy” ical discussions. In particular, it shows that “simplicity”
, “desire”, “fear”, etc., are eliminable in favor of an must first be defined in some way before the razor may be
ontology of a completed neuroscience. used, and that this definition will always be subjective.
For example, in the Kolmogorov-Chaitin minimum de-
scription length approach, the subject must pick a Turing
Penal ethics machine whose operations describe the basic operations
believed to represent “simplicity”by the subject. How-
In penal theory and the philosophy of punishment, parsi- ever, one could always choose a Turing machine with
mony refers specifically to taking care in the distribution a simple operation that happened to construct one's en-
of punishment in order to avoid excessive punishment. tire theory and would hence score highly under the razor.
In the utilitarian approach to the philosophy of punish- This has led to two opposing camps- one which believes
0.13. OCCAM'S RAZOR 73

that Occam's razor is objective, and the other which be- Another contentious aspect of the razor is that a theory
lieves that Occam's razor is subjective. can become more complex in terms of its structure (or
syntax), while its ontology (or semantics) becomes sim-
pler, or vice versa.* [lower-alpha 5] Quine, in a discussion
Objective razor The minimum instruction set of a on definition, referred to these two perspectives as“econ-
universal Turing machine requires approximately the omy of practical expression”and“economy in grammar
same length description across different formulations, and vocabulary”, respectively.* [71] The theory of rela-
and is small compared to the Kolmogorov complexity of tivity is often given as an example of the proliferation of
most practical theories. Marcus Hutter has used this con- complex words to describe a simple concept.
sistency to define a“natural”Turing machine of small size
as the proper basis for excluding arbitrarily complex in- Galileo Galilei lampooned the misuse of Occam's Razor
struction sets in the formulation of razors.* [59] Describ- in his Dialogue. The principle is represented in the dia-
ing the program for the universal program as the “hy- logue by Simplicio. The telling point that Galileo pre-
pothesis”, and the representation of the evidence as pro- sented ironically was that if you really wanted to start
gram data, it has been formally proven under Zermelo– from a small number of entities, you could always con-
Fraenkel set theory that “the sum of the log universal sider the letters of the alphabet as the fundamental enti-
probability of the model plus the log of the probability of ties, since you could construct the whole of human knowl-
the data given the model should be minimized.”* [60] In- edge out of them.
terpreting this as minimising the total length of a two-part
message encoding model followed by data given model
gives us the minimum message length (MML) princi- 0.13.5 Anti-razors
ple.* [61]* [62]
Occam's Razor has met some opposition from people
One possible conclusion from mixing the concepts of
who have considered it too extreme or rash. Walter Chat-
Kolmogorov complexity and Occam's Razor is that an
ton (c. 1290–1343) was a contemporary of William of
ideal data compressor would also be a scientific expla-
Ockham (c. 1287–1347) who took exception to Occam's
nation/formulation generator. Some attempts have been
Razor and Ockham's use of it. In response he devised his
made to re-derive known laws from considerations of
* * own anti-razor: “If three things are not enough to verify
simplicity or compressibility. [63] [64]
an affirmative proposition about things, a fourth must be
According to Jürgen Schmidhuber, the appropriate math- added, and so on.”Although there have been a number
ematical theory of Occam's Razor already exists, namely, of philosophers who have formulated similar anti-razors
Solomonoff's theory of optimal inductive inference* [65] since Chatton's time, no one anti-razor has perpetuated in
and its extensions.* [66] See discussions in David L. as much notability as Chatton's anti-razor, although this
Dowe's“Foreword re C. S. Wallace”* [67] for the subtle could be the case of the Late Renaissance Italian motto of
distinctions between the algorithmic probability work of unknown attribution Se non è vero, è ben trovato (“Even
Solomonoff and the MML work of Chris Wallace, and if it is not true, it is well conceived”) when referred to
see Dowe's “MML, hybrid Bayesian network graphi- a particularly artful explanation. For further information,
cal models, statistical consistency, invariance and unique- see“Ockham's Razor and Chatton's Anti-Razor”(1984)
ness”* [68] both for such discussions and for (in section 4) by Armand Maurer.
discussions of MML and Occam's Razor. For a specific
Anti-razors have also been created by Gottfried Wilhelm
example of MML as Occam's Razor in the problem of
Leibniz (1646–1716), Immanuel Kant (1724–1804), and
decision tree induction, see Dowe and Needham's“Mes-
Karl Menger (1902–1985). Leibniz's version took the
sage Length as an Effective Ockham's Razor in Decision
* form of a principle of plenitude, as Arthur Lovejoy has
Tree Induction”. [69]
called it: the idea being that God created the most var-
ied and populous of possible worlds. Kant felt a need to
0.13.4 Controversial aspects of the razor moderate the effects of Occam's Razor and thus created
his own counter-razor:“The variety of beings should not
Occam's Razor is not an embargo against the positing rashly be diminished.”* [72]
of any kind of entity, or a recommendation of the sim- Karl Menger found mathematicians to be too parsimo-
plest theory come what may.* [lower-alpha 3] Occam's nious with regard to variables, so he formulated his Law
Razor is used to adjudicate between theories that have al- Against Miserliness, which took one of two forms: “En-
ready passed “theoretical scrutiny”tests, and which are tities must not be reduced to the point of inadequacy”
equally well-supported by the evidence.* [lower-alpha 4] and “It is vain to do with fewer what requires more.”
Furthermore, it may be used to prioritize empirical test- A less serious, but (some might say) even more extremist
ing between two equally plausible but unequally testable anti-razor is 'Pataphysics, the“science of imaginary solu-
hypotheses; thereby minimizing costs and wastes while tions”developed by Alfred Jarry (1873–1907). Perhaps
increasing chances of falsification of the simpler-to-test the ultimate in anti-reductionism, "'Pataphysics seeks no
hypothesis. less than to view each event in the universe as completely
74 CONTENTS

unique, subject to no laws but its own.”Variations on • Scientific reductionism

this theme were subsequently explored by the Argentine
writer Jorge Luis Borges in his story/mock-essay "Tlön, • Scientific skepticism
Uqbar, Orbis Tertius". There is also Crabtree's Bludgeon, • Simplicity
which cynically states that "[n]o set of mutually incon-
sistent observations can exist for which some human in-
tellect cannot conceive a coherent explanation, however 0.13.8 Notes
complicated.”
[1]“The aim of appeals to simplicity in such contexts seem to
be more about shifting the burden of proof, and less about
0.13.6 In popular culture refuting the less simple theory outright.”* [1]

[2]“In analyzing simplicity, it can be difficult to keep its two

• Occam's Razor appears in the novel “Zelda Pryce:
facets – elegance and parsimony – apart. Principles such
The Razor's Edge”(2013) by Joseph Robert Lewis as Occam's razor are frequently stated in a way which is
as a physical knife with the “arcane”ability to cut ambiguous between the two notions ... While these two
any object down to its smallest component pieces. facets of simplicity are frequently conflated, it is important
to treat them as distinct. One reason for doing so is that
•“Occam's Razor”is the title (and subject) of a clas- considerations of parsimony and of elegance typically pull
sical symphonic overture by American composer in different directions.”* [1]
Darryl Kubian.* [73]
[3]“Ockham's razor does not say that the more simple a hy-
pothesis, the better.”* [70]
0.13.7 See also
[4]“Today, we think of the principle of parsimony as a
heuristic device. We don't assume that the simpler the-
• Algorithmic information theory
ory is correct and the more complex one false. We know
• Chekhov's gun from experience that more often than not the theory that
requires more complicated machinations is wrong. Un-
• Common sense til proved otherwise, the more complex theory compet-
ing with a simpler explanation should be put on the back
• Cladistics burner, but not thrown onto the trash heap of history until
proven false.”* [70]
• Eliminative materialism
[5]“While these two facets of simplicity are frequently con-
• Falsifiability flated, it is important to treat them as distinct. One reason
for doing so is that considerations of parsimony and of el-
• Greedy reductionism
egance typically pull in different directions. Postulating
• Hanlon's razor extra entities may allow a theory to be formulated more
simply, while reducing the ontology of a theory may only
• Hitchens's razor be possible at the price of making it syntactically more
complex.”* [1]
• Inductive probability
• KISS principle 0.13.9 References
• Metaphysical naturalism
[1] Alan Baker (2010) [2004]. “Simplicity”. Stanford En-
• Minimum description length cyclopedia of Philosophy. California: Stanford University.
ISSN 1095-5054.
• Minimum message length
[2] Induction: From Kolmogorov and Solomonoff to De
• Newton's flaming laser sword Finetti and Back to Kolmogorov JJ McCall - Metroeco-
nomica, 2004 - Wiley Online Library.
• Philosophy of science
[3] Foundations of Occam's Razor and parsimony in learning
• Principle of least astonishment from ricoh.comD Stork - NIPS 2001 Workshop, 2001.

• Pseudoscience [4] A.N. Soklakov (2002).“Occam's Razor as a formal basis

for a physical theory”. Foundations of Physics Letters
• Rationalism (Springer).

• Razor (philosophy) [5] J. HERNANDEZ-ORALLO (2000).“Beyond the Turing

Test”. Journal of Logic, Language, and ...
• Regress argument
[6] M. Hutter (2003). “On the existence and convergence of
• Scientific method computable universal priors”. Springer.
0.13. OCCAM'S RAZOR 75

[7] Samuel Rathmanner; Marcus Hutter (2011). “A philo- [26] Primary source: Newton (2011, p. 387) wrote the follow-
sophical treatise of universal induction”. Entropy 13 (6): ing two “philosophizing rules”at the beginning of part
1076–1136. doi:10.3390/e13061076. 3 of the Principia 1726 edition.

[8] Hugh G. Gauch, Scientific Method in Practice, Cambridge Regula I. Causas rerum naturalium non
University Press, 2003, ISBN 0-521-01708-4, ISBN 978- plures admitti debere, quam quæ & veræ sint
0-521-01708-4. & earum phænomenis explicandis sufficiant.
Regula II. Ideoque effectuum naturalium
[9] Roald Hoffmann, Vladimir I. Minkin, Barry K. Carpen-
ejusdem generis eædem assignandæ sunt
ter, Ockham's Razor and Chemistry, HYLE —Interna-
causæ, quatenus fieri potest.
tional Journal for Philosophy of Chemistry, Vol. 3, pp.
3–28, (1997). [27] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, 'Logical Construc-
[10] Courtney A, Courtney M (2008).“Comments Regarding tion'
“On the Nature Of Science"". Physics in Canada 64 (3):
[28] On the existence and convergence of computable universal
7–8. Retrieved 1 August 2012.
priors from arxiv.org M Hutter – Algorithmic Learning
[11] Elliott Sober, Let's Razor Occam's Razor, pp. 73–93, Theory, 2003 – Springer.
from Dudley Knowles (ed.) Explanation and Its Limits,
[29] Baker, Alan (Feb 25, 2010). Edward N. Zalta, ed, ed.
Cambridge University Press (1994).
“Simplicity”. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[12] Vogel Carey, Toni (Oct 2010). Lewis, Rick, ed. “Par- (Summer 2011 Edition).
simony (In as few words as possible)". Philosophy Now
(UK) (81). Retrieved 27 October 2012. [30] Pegis 1945.

[13] Johannes Poncius’s commentary on John Duns Scotus's [31] Stanovich, Keith E. (2007). How to Think Straight About
Opus Oxoniense, book III, dist. 34, q. 1. in John Duns Psychology. Boston: Pearson Education, pp. 19–33.
Scotus Opera Omnia, vol.15, Ed. Luke Wadding, Louvain
[32] Carroll, Robert T. “Ad hoc hypothesis.”The Skeptic's
(1639), reprinted Paris: Vives, (1894) p.483a
Dictionary. 22 Jun. 2008.
[14] Aristotle, Physics 189a15, On the Heavens 271a33. See
also Franklin, op cit. note 44 to chap. 9. [33] Swinburne 1997 and Williams, Gareth T, 2008.

[15] Charlesworth, M. J. (1956). “Aristotle's Razor”. Philo- [34] Information Theory, Inference, and Learning Algo-
sophical Studies (Ireland) rithms | url=http://www.inference.phy.cam.ac.uk/itprnn/
book.pdf
[16] Wikipedians, Complexity and Dynamics citing Richard
McKeon (tr.) Aristotle's Posterior Analytics (1963) p.150 [35] Jefferys, William H.; Berger, James O. (1991). “Ock-
ham's Razor and Bayesian Statistics (Preprint available
[17] James Franklin (2001). The Science of Conjecture: Evi- as “Sharpening Occam's Razor on a Bayesian Strop”)".
dence and Probability before Pascal. The Johns Hopkins American Scientist 80: 64–72.
University Press. Chap 9. p. 241.
[36] Sober, Elliott (1975). Simplicity. Oxford: Clarendon
[18] Alistair Cameron Crombie, Robert Grosseteste and the Press (an imprint of Oxford University Press). ISBN 978-
Origins of Experimental Science 1100–1700 (1953) pp. 0-19-824407-3
85–86
[37] Sober, Elliott (2004). “What is the Problem of Sim-
[19]“SUMMA THEOLOGICA: The existence of God (Prima plicity?". In Arnold Zellner, Hugo A. Keuzenkamp &
Pars, Q. 2)". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2013-03-26. Michael McAleer. Simplicity, Inference and Modeling:
Keeping it Sophisticatedly Simple. Cambridge, U.K.: Cam-
[20] “What Ockham really said”. Boing Boing. 2013-02-11.
bridge University Pres. pp. 13–31. ISBN 0-521-80361-
Retrieved 2013-03-26.
6. Retrieved 4 August 2012 ISBN 0-511-00748-5 (eBook
[21] Bauer, Laurie (2007). The linguistics Student's Handbook. [Adobe Reader]) paper as pdf
Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press. p. 155.
[38] Einstein, Albert (1905). “Annalen der Physik”(in Ger-
[22] Flew, Antony (1979). A Dictionary of Philosophy. Lon- man) (18). pp. 639–41. |chapter= ignored (help).
don: Pan Books. p. 253.
[39] L Nash, The Nature of the Natural Sciences, Boston: Lit-
[23] Alistair Cameron Crombie (1959), Medieval and Early tle, Brown (1963).
Modern Philosophy, Cambridge, MA: Harvard, Vol. 2,
p. 30. [40] de Maupertuis, PLM (1744). “Mémoires de l'Académie
Royale”(in French). p. 423..
[24] “Ockham's razor”. Encyclopædia Britannica. Ency-
clopædia Britannica Online. 2010. Retrieved 12 June [41] de Broglie, L (1925).“Annales de Physique”(in French)
2010. (3/10). pp. 22–128..

[25] Hawking, Stephen (2003). On the Shoulders of Giants. [42] RA Jackson, Mechanism: An Introduction to the Study of
Running Press. p. 731. ISBN 0-7624-1698-X. Organic Reactions, Clarendon, Oxford, 1972.
76 CONTENTS

[43] BK Carpenter, Determination of Organic Reaction Mech- [62] Chris S. Wallace and David L. Dowe; Computer Journal,
anism, Wiley-Interscience, New York, 1984. Volume 42, Issue 4, Sep 1999 Page(s):270–283, “Mini-
mum Message Length and Kolmogorov Complexity.”
[44] Quote Investigator:“Everything Should Be Made as Sim-
ple as Possible, But Not Simpler” [63] 'Occam’s razor as a formal basis for a physical theory' by
Andrei N. Soklakov
[45] Sober, Eliot (1994). “Let's Razor Occam's Razor”. In
Knowles, Dudley. Explanation and Its Limits. Cambridge [64] 'Why Occam's Razor' by Russell Standish
University Press. pp. 73–93..
[65] Solomonoff, Ray (1964). “A formal theory of inductive
[46] Naomi Oreskes, Kristin Shrader-Frechette, Ken- inference. Part I.”. Information and Control 7 (1–22):
neth Belitz (Feb 4, 1994). “Verification, Val- 1964.
idation, and Confirmation of Numerical Mod-
els in the Earth Sciences”. Science, 263 [66] J. Schmidhuber (2006)“The New AI: General & Sound &
(5147): 641–646. Bibcode:1994Sci...263..641O. Relevant for Physics.”In B. Goertzel and C. Pennachin,
doi:10.1126/science.263.5147.641 see note 25 eds.: Artificial General Intelligence, pp. 177–200 http://
arxiv.org/abs/cs.AI/0302012
[47] Paul Pojman (2009). “Ernst Mach”. The Stanford En-
cyclopedia of Philosophy. California: Stanford University. [67] David L. Dowe (2008): Foreword re C. S. Wallace; Com-
ISSN 1095-5054. puter Journal, Volume 51, Issue 5, Sept 2008 Pages:
523–560.
[48] Lee, M. S. Y. (2002): “Divergent evolution, hier-
archy and cladistics.”Zool. Scripta 31(2): 217–219. [68] David L. Dowe (2010): “MML, hybrid Bayesian net-
doi:10.1046/j.1463-6409.2002.00101.xPDF fulltext work graphical models, statistical consistency, invari-
ance and uniqueness. A formal theory of inductive
[49] Sober, Elliot (1998). Reconstructing the Past: Parsimony, inference.”Handbook of the Philosophy of Science –
Evolution, and Inference (2nd ed.). Massacusetts Insti- (HPS Volume 7) Philosophy of Statistics, Elsevier 2010
tute of Technology: The MIT Press. p. 7. ISBN 0-262- Page(s):901–982. http://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/
69144-2. download?doi=10.1.1.185.709&rep=rep1&type=pdf

[50] Crick 1988, p. 146. [69] Scott Needham and David L. Dowe (2001):" Message
Length as an Effective Ockham's Razor in Decision
[51] “Encyclopedia of Philosophy”. Stanford. |chapter= ig- Tree Induction.”Proc. 8th International Workshop on
nored (help). Artificial Intelligence and Statistics (AI+STATS 2001),
Key West, Florida, U.S.A., Jan. 2001 Page(s):253–260
[52] Dale T Irvin & Scott W Sunquist. History of World Chris- http://www.csse.monash.edu.au/~{}dld/Publications/
tian Movement Volume, I: Earliest Christianity to 1453, p. 2001/Needham+Dowe2001_Ockham.pdf
434. ISBN 9781570753961.
[70] Robert T. Carroll. “Occam's Razor”. The Skeptic's Dic-
[53]“SUMMA THEOLOGICA: The existence of God (Prima tionary Last updated 18 February 2012
Pars, Q. 2)". Newadvent.org. Retrieved 2013-03-26.
[71] Quine, W V O (1961). “Two dogmas of empiricism”.
[54] McDonald 2005.
From a logical point of view. Cambridge: Harvard Uni-
versity Press. pp. 20–46. ISBN 0-674-32351-3.
[55] “Ratzsch, Del”. Calvin..

[56] “Encyclopedia of Philosophy”. Stanford. |chapter= ig- [72] Immanuel Kant (1929). Norman Kemp-Smith transl, ed.
nored (help). The Critique of Pure Reason. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 92.
Retrieved 27 October 2012. Entium varietates non temere
[57] Tonry, Michael (2005): Obsolescence and Immanence esse minuendas
in Penal Theory and Policy. Columbia Law Review 105:
1233–1275. PDF fulltext [73] Rasmussen, Ben (March 1 2012). “Symphony Soars
with Strings”. KVNO News. Retrieved 23 March 2015.
[58] Nannen, Volker. “A short introduction to Model Selec- Check date values in: |date= (help)
tion, Kolmogorov Complexity and Minimum Description
Length”. Retrieved 2010-07-03.
0.13.10 Further reading
[59] Algorithmic Information Theory
• Ariew, Roger (1976). Ockham's Razor: A Historical
[60] Paul M. B. Vitányi and Ming Li; IEEE Transactions
and Philosophical Analysis of Ockham's Principle of
on Information Theory, Volume 46, Issue 2, Mar 2000
Page(s):446–464,“Minimum Description Length Induc- Parsimony. Champaign-Urbana, University of Illi-
tion, Bayesianism and Kolmogorov Complexity.” nois.

[61] Chris S. Wallace and David M. Boulton; Computer Jour- • Charlesworth, M. J. (1956). “Aristotle's Ra-
nal, Volume 11, Issue 2, 1968 Page(s):185–194, “An zor”. Philosophical Studies (Ireland) 6: 105–112.
information measure for classification.” doi:10.5840/philstudies1956606.
0.13. OCCAM'S RAZOR 77

• Churchland, Paul M. (1984). Matter and Conscious- • Morgan, C. Lloyd (1903).“Other Minds than Ours”
ness. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN . An Introduction to Comparative Psychology (2nd
0-262-53050-3. ISBN. ed.). London: W. Scott. p. 59. ISBN 0-89093-
171-2. Retrieved 2006-04-15.
• Crick, Francis H. C. (1988). What Mad Pursuit: A
Personal View of Scientific Discovery. New York, • Newton, Isaac (2011) [1726]. Philosophiæ Naturalis
New York: Basic Books. ISBN 0-465-09137-7. Principia Mathematica (3rd ed.). London: Henry
ISBN. Pemberton. ISBN 978-1-60386-435-0.
• Dowe, David L.; Steve Gardner; Graham Oppy • Nolan, D. (1997). “Quantitative Parsimony”.
(December 2007). “Bayes not Bust! Why Sim- British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 48 (3):
plicity is no Problem for Bayesians”. British J. 329–343. doi:10.1093/bjps/48.3.329.
for the Philosophy of Science 58 (4): 709–754.
doi:10.1093/bjps/axm033. Retrieved 2007-09-24. • Pegis, A. C., translator (1945). Basic Writings of St.
Thomas Aquinas. New York: Random House. p.
• Duda, Richard O.; Peter E. Hart; David G. Stork 129. ISBN 0-87220-380-8.
(2000). Pattern Classification (2nd ed.). Wiley-
Interscience. pp. 487–489. ISBN 0-471-05669-3. • Popper, Karl (1992).“7. Simplicity”. The Logic of
ISBN. Scientific Discovery (2nd ed.). London: Routledge.
pp. 121–132. ISBN 84-309-0711-4.
• Epstein, Robert (1984). “The Principle of Parsi-
mony and Some Applications in Psychology”. Jour- • Rodríguez-Fernández, J. L. (1999). “Ock-
nal of Mind Behavior 5: 119–130. ham's Razor”. Endeavour 23 (3): 121–125.
doi:10.1016/S0160-9327(99)01199-0.
• Hoffmann, Roald; Vladimir I. Minkin; Barry K.
Carpenter (1997). “Ockham's Razor and Chem- • Schmitt, Gavin C. (2005). “Ockham's Razor Sug-
istry”. HYLE—International Journal for the Philos- gests Atheism”. Archived from the original on
ophy of Chemistry 3: 3–28. Retrieved 2006-04-14. 2007-02-11. Retrieved 2006-04-15.
• Jacquette, Dale (1994). Philosophy of Mind. En- • Smart, J. J. C. (1959). “Sensations and Brain Pro-
gleswoods Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice Hall. pp. cesses”. Philosophical Review (The Philosophi-
34–36. ISBN 0-13-030933-8. ISBN. cal Review, Vol. 68, No. 2) 68 (2): 141–156.
doi:10.2307/2182164. JSTOR 2182164.
• Jaynes, Edwin Thompson (1994). “Model Com-
parison and Robustness”. Probability Theory: The • Sober, Elliott (1975). Simplicity. Oxford: Oxford
Logic of Science. ISBN 0-521-59271-2. University Press.
• Jefferys, William H.; Berger, James O. (1991). • Sober, Elliott (1981).“The Principle of Parsimony”
“Ockham's Razor and Bayesian Statistics (Preprint . British Journal for the Philosophy of Science 32 (2):
available as “Sharpening Occam's Razor on a 145–156. doi:10.1093/bjps/32.2.145. Retrieved 4
Bayesian Strop)",”. American Scientist 80: 64–72. August 2012.
• Katz, Jerrold (1998). Realistic Rationalism. MIT • Sober, Elliott (1990). “Let's Razor Ockham's Ra-
Press. ISBN 0-262-11229-9. zor”. In Dudley Knowles. Explanation and its Lim-
• Kneale, William; Martha Kneale (1962). The De- its. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
velopment of Logic. London: Oxford University 73–94. ISBN.
Press. p. 243. ISBN 0-19-824183-6. ISBN. • Sober, Elliott (2002). Zellner et al., ed. “What
• MacKay, David J. C. (2003). Information The- is the Problem of Simplicity?". Retrieved 4 August
ory, Inference and Learning Algorithms. Cambridge 2012.
University Press. ISBN 0-521-64298-1. ISBN.
• Swinburne, Richard (1997). Simplicity as Evidence
• Maurer, A. (1984).“Ockham's Razor and Chatton's for Truth. Milwaukee, Wisconsin: Marquette Uni-
Anti-Razor”. Medieval Studies 46: 463–475. versity Press. ISBN 0-87462-164-X.

• McDonald, William (2005). “Søren Kierkegaard” • Thorburn, W. M. (1918). “The Myth of Oc-
. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved cam's Razor”. Mind 27 (107): 345–353.
2006-04-14. doi:10.1093/mind/XXVII.3.345.

• Menger, Karl (1960). “A Counterpart of Ock- • Williams, George C. (1966). Adaptation and nat-
ham's Razor in Pure and Applied Mathemat- ural selection: A Critique of some Current Evolu-
ics: Ontological Uses”. Synthese 12 (4): 415. tionary Thought. Princeton, New Jersey: Princeton
doi:10.1007/BF00485426. University Press. ISBN 0-691-02615-7. ISBN.
78 CONTENTS

0.13.11 External links 0.14.1 Logical paradox

• What is Occam's Razor? This essay distinguishes See also: List of paradoxes
Occam's Razor (used for theories with identical pre-
dictions) from the Principle of Parsimony (which Common themes in paradoxes include self-reference,
can be applied to theories with different predic- infinite regress, circular definitions, and confusion be-
tions). tween different levels of abstraction.
• Skeptic's Dictionary: Occam's Razor Patrick Hughes outlines three laws of the paradox:* [6]

• Ockham's Razor, an essay at The Galilean Library Self-reference An example is“This statement is false”,
on the historical and philosophical implications by a form of the liar paradox. The statement is referring
Paul Newall. to itself. Another example of self-reference is the
question of whether the barber shaves himself in the
• The Razor in the Toolbox: The history, use, and barber paradox. One more example would be “Is
abuse of Occam’s razor, by Robert Novella the answer to this question 'No'?"
• NIPS 2001 Workshop “Foundations of Occam's Contradiction“This statement is false"; the statement
Razor and parsimony in learning” cannot be false and true at the same time. Another
example of contradiction is if a man talking to a ge-
• Simplicity at Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy nie wishes that wishes couldn't come true. This con-
tradicts itself because if the genie grants his wish, he
• Occam's Razor at PlanetMath.org.
did not grant his wish, and if he refuses to grant his
wish, then he did indeed grant his wish, therefore
• Disproof of parsimony as a general principle in sci-
making it impossible to either grant or not grant his
ence
wish because his wish contradicts itself.
Vicious circularity, or infinite regress“This state-
0.14 Paradox ment is false"; if the statement is true, then the
statement is false, thereby making the statement
true. Another example of vicious circularity is the
For other uses, see Paradox (disambiguation).
following group of statements:

A paradox is a statement that apparently contra- “The following sentence is true.”

dicts itself and yet might be true (or wrong at same “The previous sentence is false.”
time).* [1]* [2] Some logical paradoxes are known to be
invalid arguments but are still valuable in promoting Other paradoxes involve false statements (“impossible is
critical thinking.* [3] not a word in my vocabulary”, a simple paradox) or half-
Some paradoxes have revealed errors in definitions as- truths and the resulting biased assumptions. This form is
sumed to be rigorous, and have caused axioms of math- common in howlers.
ematics and logic to be re-examined. One example is For example, consider a situation in which a father and
Russell's paradox, which questions whether a “list of his son are driving down the road. The car crashes into a
all lists that do not contain themselves”would include it- tree and the father is killed. The boy is rushed to the near-
self, and showed that attempts to found set theory on the est hospital where he is prepared for emergency surgery.
identification of sets with properties or predicates were On entering the surgery suite, the surgeon says, “I can't
flawed.* [4] Others, such as Curry's paradox, are not yet operate on this boy. He's my son.”
resolved. The apparent paradox is caused by a hasty generalization,
Examples outside logic include the Ship of Theseus from for if the surgeon is the boy's father, the statement cannot
philosophy (questioning whether a ship repaired over be true. The paradox is resolved if it is revealed that the
time by replacing each of its wooden parts would remain surgeon is a woman —the boy's mother.
the same ship). Paradoxes can also take the form of im- Paradoxes which are not based on a hidden error gener-
ages or other media. For example, M.C. Escher featured ally occur at the fringes of context or language, and re-
perspective-based paradoxes in many of his drawings, quire extending the context or language in order to lose
with walls that are regarded as floors from other points of
their paradoxical quality. Paradoxes that arise from ap-
view, and staircases that appear to climb endlessly.* [5]parently intelligible uses of language are often of interest
In common usage, the word “paradox”often refers to to logicians and philosophers. “This sentence is false”
statements that are ironic or unexpected, such as “the is an example of the well-known liar paradox: it is a sen-
paradox that standing is more tiring than walking”.* [2] tence which cannot be consistently interpreted as either
0.14. PARADOX 79

true or false, because if it is known to be false, then it is paradox, which falsely generalizes from true specific
known that it must be true, and if it is known to be true, statements.
then it is known that it must be false. Russell's paradox,
which shows that the notion of the set of all those sets that • A paradox that is in neither class may be an
do not contain themselves leads to a contradiction, was in- antinomy, which reaches a self-contradictory result
strumental in the development of modern logic and set by properly applying accepted ways of reasoning.
theory. For example, the Grelling–Nelson paradox points
out genuine problems in our understanding of the
Thought experiments can also yield interesting para- ideas of truth and description.
doxes. The grandfather paradox, for example, would
arise if a time traveller were to kill his own grandfather A fourth kind has sometimes been described since
before his mother or father had been conceived, thereby Quine's work.
preventing his own birth. This is a specific example of
the more general observation of the butterfly effect, or
• A paradox that is both true and false at the same time
that a time-traveller's interaction with the past —how-
and in the same sense is called a dialetheia. In West-
ever slight —would entail making changes that would, in
ern logics it is often assumed, following Aristotle,
turn, change the future in which the time-travel was yet
that no dialetheia exist, but they are sometimes ac-
to occur, and would thus change the circumstances of the
cepted in Eastern traditions (e.g. in the Mohists,* [7]
time-travel itself.
the Gongsun Longzi,* [8] and in Zen* [9]) and in
Often a seemingly paradoxical conclusion arises from an paraconsistent logics. It would be mere equivoca-
inconsistent or inherently contradictory definition of the tion or a matter of degree, for example, to both af-
initial premise. In the case of that apparent paradox of a firm and deny that “John is here”when John is
time traveler killing his own grandfather it is the incon- halfway through the door but it is self-contradictory
sistency of defining the past to which he returns as being to simultaneously affirm and deny the event in some
somehow different from the one which leads up to the fu- sense.
ture from which he begins his trip but also insisting that
he must have come to that past from the same future as
the one that it leads up to. 0.14.3 Paradox in philosophy
A taste for paradox is central to the philosophies of
0.14.2 Quine's classification of paradoxes Laozi, Heraclitus, Bhartrhari, Meister Eckhart, Hegel,
Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and G.K. Chesterton, among
W. V. Quine (1962) distinguished between three classes many others. Søren Kierkegaard, for example, writes, in
of paradoxes: the Philosophical Fragments, that

But one must not think ill of the paradox,

• A veridical paradox produces a result that appears for the paradox is the passion of thought, and
absurd but is demonstrated to be true neverthe- the thinker without the paradox is like the lover
less. Thus, the paradox of Frederic's birthday in without passion: a mediocre fellow. But the ul-
The Pirates of Penzance establishes the surprising timate potentiation of every passion is always
fact that a twenty-one-year-old would have had only to will its own downfall, and so it is also the ul-
five birthdays, if he had been born on a leap day. timate passion of the understanding to will the
Likewise, Arrow's impossibility theorem demon- collision, although in one way or another the
strates difficulties in mapping voting results to the collision must become its downfall. This, then,
will of the people. The Monty Hall paradox demon- is the ultimate paradox of thought: to want to
strates that a decision which has an intuitive 50-50 discover something that thought itself cannot
chance in fact is heavily biased towards making a think.* [10]
decision which, given the intuitive conclusion, the
player would be unlikely to make. In 20th century
science, Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel and 0.14.4 Paradox in medicine
Schrödinger's cat are famously vivid examples of a
theory being taken to a logical but paradoxical end. A paradoxical reaction to a drug is the opposite of
what one would expect, such as becoming agitated by a
• A falsidical paradox establishes a result that not only sedative or sedated by a stimulant. Some are common
appears false but actually is false, due to a fallacy and are used regularly in medicine, such as the use of
in the demonstration. The various invalid mathe- stimulants such as Adderall and Ritalin in the treatment
matical proofs (e.g., that 1 = 2) are classic exam- of attention deficit disorder, while others are rare and can
ples, generally relying on a hidden division by zero. be dangerous as they are not expected, such as severe ag-
Another example is the inductive form of the horse itation from a benzodiazepine.
80 CONTENTS

0.14.5 See also [7] The Logicians (Warring States period),“Miscellaneous

paradoxes” Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
• Animalia Paradoxa
[8] Graham, Angus Charles. (1990). Studies in Chinese Phi-
• Antinomy losophy and Philosophical Literature, p. 334., p. 334, at
Google Books
• Aporia
[9] Chung-ying Cheng (1973) "On Zen (Ch’an) Language
• Contradiction and Zen Paradoxes" Journal of Chinese Philosophy, V. 1
• Dilemma (1973) pp. 77-102

• Ethical dilemma [10] Kierkegaard, Søren (1985). Hong, Howard V.; Hong,
Edna H., eds. Philosophical Fragments. Princeton Uni-
• Formal fallacy versity Press. p. 37. ISBN 9780691020365.

• Four-valued logic
Bibliography
• Impossible object
• List of paradoxes • William Poundstone, 1989, Labyrinths of Reason:
Paradox, Puzzles, and the Frailty of Knowledge,
• Mu (negative) Anchor
• Oxymoron
• Mark Sainsbury, 1988, Paradoxes, Cambridge:
• Paradox of value Cambridge University Press

• Paradoxes of material implication • Roy Sorensen, 2005, A Brief History of the Para-
dox: Philosophy and the Labyrinths of the Mind,
• Plato's beard Oxford University Press
• Self-refuting ideas
• Syntactic ambiguity 0.14.7 External links
• Temporal paradox
• Some paradoxes
• Twin paradox
• Cantini, Andrea (Winter 2012). “Paradoxes and
• Zeno's paradoxes Contemporary Logic”. In Zalta, Edward N.
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.

0.14.6 References • Spade, Paul Vincent (Fall 2013). “Insolubles”. In

Zalta, Edward N. Stanford Encyclopedia of Philoso-
Notes phy.

[1] “Paradox”. Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2013-08-30. • Paradoxes at DMOZ

[2] “Paradox”. Free Online Dictionary, Thesaurus and En- • “Zeno and the Paradox of Motion” at Math-
cyclopedia. Retrieved 2013-01-22. Pages.com.
[3] Eliason, James L. (March–April 1996). “Using Para-
doxes to Teach Critical Thinking in Science”. Journal of • “Logical Paradoxes”entry in the Internet Encyclo-
College Science Teaching 15 (5): 341–44. (subscription pedia of Philosophy
required (help)).

[4] Crossley, J.N.; Ash, C.J.; Brickhill, C.J.; Stillwell, J.C.;

Williams, N.H. (1972). What is mathematical logic?. 0.15 Philosophic burden of proof
London-Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press. pp.
59–60. ISBN 0-19-888087-1. Zbl 0251.02001. This article is about burden of proof as a philosophical
[5] Skomorowska, Amira (ed.). “The Mathematical Art of concept. For other uses, see Burden of proof (disam-
M.C. Escher”. Lapidarium notes. Retrieved 2013-01-22. biguation).
[6] Hughes, Patrick; Brecht, George (1975). Vicious Cir-
cles and Infinity - A Panoply of Paradoxes. Garden City, The philosophical burden of proof or onus (probandi)
New York: Doubleday. pp. 1–8. ISBN 0-385-09917-7. is the obligation on a party in an epistemic dispute to pro-
LCCN 74-17611. vide sufficient warrant for their position.
0.15. PHILOSOPHIC BURDEN OF PROOF 81

0.15.1 Holder of the burden default position. The justification for this zero-evidence
epistemic position of non-belief is only over the lack of
When debating any issue, there is an implicit burden of evidence supporting the claim. Instead, the burden of
proof on the person asserting a claim. An argument from proof, or the responsibility to provide evidence and rea-
ignorance occurs when either a proposition is assumed soning for one claim or the other, lies with those seeking
to be true because it has not yet been proved false or a to persuade someone holding the default position or the
proposition is assumed to be false because it has not yet null hypothesis.
been proved true.* [1]* [2] This has the effect of shifting
the burden of proof to the person criticizing the proposi-
tion, but is not valid reasoning.* [3] 0.15.5 See also
While certain kinds of arguments, such as logical • Evidentialism
syllogisms, require mathematical or strictly logical proofs,
the standard for evidence to meet the burden of proof • Legal burden of proof
is usually determined by context and community stan-
• Metaphysics
dards.* [4]* [5]
• Parsimony

0.15.2 In public discourse • Pragma-dialectics

• Scientific consensus
Burden of proof is also an important concept in the public
arena of ideas. Once participants in discourse establish • Scientific method
common assumptions, the mechanism of burden of proof
helps to ensure that all parties contribute productively, us- • Statistical hypothesis testing
ing relevant arguments.* [6]* [7]* [8]* [9] • Russell's teapot
• Justificationism
0.15.3 Proving a negative

When the assertion to prove is a negative claim, the bur- 0.15.6 References
den takes the form of a negative proof, proof of impos-
[1] “Argumentum ad Ignorantiam”. Philosophy 103: In-
sibility, or mere evidence of absence. If this negative as- troduction to Logic. Lander University. 2004. Archived
sertion is in response to a claim made by another party from the original on 30 April 2009. Retrieved 2009-04-
in a debate, asserting the falsehood of the positive claim 29.
shifts the burden of proof from the party making the first
claim to the one asserting its falsehood, as the position“I [2] Dowden, Bradley. “Appeal to Ignorance”. Internet En-
do not believe that X is true”is different from the explicit cyclopedia of Philosophy.
*
denial “I believe that X is false”. [10] [3] Michalos, Alex (1969). Principles of Logic. Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall. p. 370. usually one who makes an
assertion must assume the responsibility of defending it. If
0.15.4 Example this responsibility or burden of proof is shifted to a critic,
the fallacy of appealing to ignorance is committed.
Matt Dillahunty gives the example of a large jar full of
[4] Leite, Adam (2005). “A Localist Solution to
gumballs to illustrate the burden of proof.* [11]* [12] It is
the Regress of Justification”. Australasian Jour-
a fact of reality that the number of gumballs in the jar nal of Philosophy 83 (3): 395–421 [p. 418].
is either even or odd, but the degree of belief/disbelief doi:10.1080/00048400500191974. [t]he point of artic-
a person could hold is more nuanced depending upon the ulating reasons in defense of one’s belief is to establish
evidence available. We can choose to consider two claims that one is justified in believing as one does.
about the situation, given as
[5] Leite, Adam (2005). “A Localist Solution to
the Regress of Justification”. Australasian Jour-
1. The number of gumballs is even. nal of Philosophy 83 (3): 395–421 [p. 403].
doi:10.1080/00048400500191974. justificatory conver-
2. The number of gumballs is odd. sation...[is]...characterized by a person’s sincere attempt
to vindicate his or her entitlement to a belief by providing
These two claims can be considered independently. Be- adequate reasons in its defense and responding to objec-
fore we have any information about the number of gum- tions.
balls, we have no means of distinguishing either of the [6] Goldman, Alvin (1994). “Argumentation and Social
two claims. When we have no evidence favoring either Epistemology”. Journal of Philosophy 91 (1): 27–49.
proposition, we must suspend belief in both. This is the JSTOR 2940949.
82 CONTENTS

[7] Eemeren, Frans van; Grootendorst, Rob (2004). A Sys- 0.16.2 References
tematic Theory of Argumentation. Cambridge: Cam-
bridge University Press. p. 60. ISBN 0521830753. • Cicero, De officiis 3.89.
[t]here is no point in venturing to resolve a difference
of opinion through an argumentative exchange of views • Lactantius, Divinae institutiones 16.10.
if there is no mutual commitment to a common starting
point.

[8] Brandom, Robert (1994). Making it Explicit. Cambridge:

Harvard University Press. p. 222. ISBN 067454319X.
0.17 Poisoning the well
[t]here are sentence types that would require a great deal
of work for one to get into a position to challenge, such This article is about the rhetorical device. For other uses,
as 'Red is a color,' 'There have been black dogs,' 'Light- see Poisoning the well (disambiguation).
ing frequently precedes thunder,' and similar common-
places. These are treated as 'free moves' by members of
our speech community—they are available to just about Poisoning the well (or attempting to poison the well)
anyone any time to use as premises, to assert unchal- is a rhetorical device where adverse information about a
lenged. target is preemptively presented to an audience, with the
intention of discrediting or ridiculing everything that the
[9] Adler, Jonathan (2002). Belief’s Own Ethics. Cambridge: target person is about to say. Poisoning the well can be a
MIT Press. pp. 164–167. ISBN 0262011921.
special case of argumentum ad hominem, and the term
[10] T. Edward Dame (2009). Attacking Faulty Reasoning: was first used with this sense by John Henry Newman
A Practical Guide to Fallacy-Free Arguments. Cengage in his work Apologia Pro Vita Sua (1864).* [1] The ori-
Learning. p. 17. ISBN 9780495095064. gin of the term lies in well poisoning, an ancient wartime
[11] “The Atheist Experience”. Episode 808. 7 April 2013.
practice of pouring poison into sources of fresh water be-
channelAustin 16. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v= fore an invading army, to diminish the attacking army's
Ek4M1trIYr8. strength.

[12] Matt Dillahunty (2013). Does God Exist? (Debate). Texas

State University. 0.17.1 Examples

If Adam tells Bob, "Chris is a fascist so do not listen

0.16 Plank of Carneades to him”, then Adam has committed the fallacy of poi-
soning the well; if Bob takes Adam's advice then he is
In ethics, the plank of Carneades is a thought experi- also a victim of the fallacy of poisoning the well. Assum-
ment first proposed by Carneades of Cyrene; it explores ing that Chris is not merely going to tell Bob that he is
the concept of self-defense in relation to murder. not a fascist then there is a fallacy because it is irrelevant
to the cogency of Chris' argument(s) whether he is or is
In the thought experiment, there are two shipwrecked
not a fascist. It is possible to be a fascist and also to have
sailors, A and B. They both see a plank that can only sup-
cogent arguments on some arbitrary matter, e.g. Chris
port one of them and both of them swim towards it. Sailor
may wish to persuade Bob that the Earth is not flat; be-
A gets to the plank first. Sailor B, who is going to drown,
ing a fascist does not preclude the possibility of having a
pushes A off and away from the plank and, thus, proxi-
cogent argument that the Earth is not flat.
mately, causes A to drown. Sailor B gets on the plank and
is later saved by a rescue team. The thought experiment
poses the question of whether Sailor B can be tried for
murder because if B had to kill A in order to live, then it
0.17.2 Structure
would arguably be in self-defense.
Poisoning the well can take the form of an (explicit or im-
The Case of the Speluncean Explorers by legal philoso- plied) argument, and is considered by some philosophers
pher Lon Fuller is a similar exploration of morality and an informal fallacy.* [1]
legality in extremis.
A poisoned-well “argument”has the following form:

0.16.1 See also 1. Unfavorable information (be it true or false,

relevant or irrelevant) about person A (the tar-
• Duress get) is presented by another. (e.g.,“Before you
• Trolley problem listen to my opponent, may I remind you that
he has been in jail.”)
• Deontology
2. Implicit conclusion:“Therefore, any claims
• Utilitarianism made by person A cannot be relied upon”.
 0.18. QUIS CUSTODIET IPSOS CUSTODES? 83

A subcategory of this Quis custodiet ipsos custodes? is a Latin phrase found

form is the application of in the work of the Roman poet Juvenal from his Satires
an unfavorable attribute (Satire VI, lines 347–8). It is literally translated as “Who
to any future opponents, will guard the guards themselves?", though is also
in an attempt to discour- known by variant translations.
age debate. (For exam- The original context deals with the problem of ensuring
ple, “That's my stance marital fidelity, though it is now commonly used more
on funding the public ed- generally to refer to the problem of controlling the actions
ucation system, and any-
of persons in positions of power, an issue discussed by
one who disagrees with Plato in The Republic. It is not clear whether the phrase
me hates children.”) Any
was written by Juvenal, or whether the passage in which
person who steps forward it appears was interpolated into his works.
to dispute the claim will
then risk applying the tag
to him or herself in the 0.18.1 Original context
process.
The phrase, as it is normally quoted in Latin, comes from
A poisoned-well “argument”can also be in this form: the Satires of Juvenal, the 1st/2nd century Roman satirist.
Although in its modern usage the phrase has univer-
1. Unfavorable definitions (be it true or false) sal, timeless applications to concepts such as tyrannical
which prevent disagreement (or enforce affir- governments, uncontrollably oppressive dictatorships,
mative position) and police or judicial corruption and overreach, in con-
text within Juvenal's poem it refers to the impossibility of
2. Any claims without first agreeing with above
enforcing moral behaviour on women when the enforcers
definitions are automatically dismissed.
(custodes) are corruptible (Satire 6.346–348):

0.17.3 See also {|

• Ad hominem |
• Appeal to ridicule audio quid ueteres olim moneatis amici,
“pone seram, cohibe.”sed quis custodiet ipsos—
• Black propaganda
custodes? cauta est et ab illis incipit uxor.
• Framing (social sciences) |
• Fruit of the poisonous tree I hear always the admonishment of my friends:
“Bolt her in, constrain her!" But who will guard
• Guilt by association the guardians? The wife plans ahead and begins with
• Procatalepsis them.
|}
• Scorched earth

Modern editors regard these three lines as an

0.17.4 References interpolation inserted into the text. In 1899 an under-
graduate student at Oxford, E.O. Winstedt, discovered a
[1] Philosophical society.com – Logical Fallacies manuscript (now known as O, for Oxoniensis) containing
34 lines which some believe to have been omitted from
other texts of Juvenal's poem.* [1] The debate on this
0.17.5 External links
manuscript is ongoing, but even if the verses are not by
• Newman Reader – Apologia (1865) – Preface Juvenal, it is likely that it preserves the original context
of the phrase.* [2] If so, the original context is as follows
(O 29–33):
0.18 Quis custodiet ipsos custodes?
{|
“Who watches the watchmen”redirects here. For
the Star Trek the Next Generation episode, see Who |
Watches the Watchers. …noui
consilia et ueteres quaecumque monetis amici,
 84 CONTENTS

“pone seram, cohibes.”sed quis custodiet ipsos— 0.18.4 References

custodes? qui nunc lasciuae furta puellae
hac mercede silent crimen commune tacetur. [1] E.O. Winstedt 1899,“A Bodleian MS of Juvenal”, Clas-
sical Review 13: 201–205.
|
…I know [2] Recently J.D. Sosin 2000, “Ausonius' Juvenal and the
the plan that my friends always advise me to adopt: Winstedt fragment”, Classical Philology 95.2: 199–206
“Bolt her in, constrain her!" But who can watch has argued for an early date for the poem.
the watchmen? They keep quiet about the girl's
[3] Jayapalan, N. (2002). Comprehensive Study of Plato. At-
secrets and get her as their payment; everyone hushes it
lantic Publishers & Dist. p. p. 10.
up.
|} [4] Plato (2008) [c. 380 BC]. The Republic. Benjamin
Jowett, transl; EBook produced by Sue Asscher and David
Widger. Project Gutenberg. How then may we devise one
of those needful falsehoods of which we lately spoke – just
one royal lie which may deceive the rulers, if that be pos-
0.18.2 Reference to political power sible, and at any rate the rest of the city?

[5] Book III, XII, 403E, p. 264 (Greek) and p. 265 (English),
This phrase is used generally to consider the embodiment
in volume I, of Plato, The Republic (ΠΟΛΙΤΕΙΑ), with
of the philosophical question as to how power can be held
an English translation by Paul Shorey, London, William
to account. In a political context, the concept, though not Heinemann Ltd.; New York: G. P. Putnam’s sons, 1930,
the phrase, is often sourced to Plato's Republic. There as cited by Leonid Hurwicz,”But Who Will Guard the
is no exact parallel in the Republic, but it is used by Guardians?", Nobel Prize Lecture, December 8, 2007,
modern authors to express Socrates' concerns about the Accessed 4-27-2011.
guardians, the solution to which is to properly train their
souls. Plato's Republic though was hardly ever refer- [6] Plato (1992). Republic. Translated by G.M.A. Grube, re-
enced by classical Latin authors like Juvenal, and it has vised by C.D.C. Reeve. Indianapolis: Hackett.
been noted that it simply disappeared from literary aware-
ness for a thousand years except for traces in the writ-
ings of Cicero and St. Augustine.* [3] In the Republic, 0.18.5 External links
a putatively perfect society is described by Socrates, the
main character in this Socratic dialogue. Socrates pro- • Satire VI in Latin, at The Latin Library
posed a guardian class to protect that society, and the cus-
todes (watchmen) from the Satires are often interpreted • Satire VI in English (translation by G.G. Ramsay) at
as being parallel to the Platonic guardians (phylakes in the Internet Ancient History Sourcebook
Greek). Socrates' answer to the problem is, in essence,
that the guardians will be manipulated to guard them-
selves against themselves via a deception often called the
"noble lie" in English.* [4] As Leonid Hurwicz pointed
0.19 Ship of Theseus
out in his 2007 lecture on accepting the Nobel Memorial
Prize in Economic Sciences, one of Socrates' interlocu- This article is about Theseus' Paradox. For the 2013
tors in the Republic, Glaucon, even goes so far as to say Indian film, see Ship of Theseus (film).
“it would be absurd that a guardian should need a guard.”
*
[5] But Socrates returns to this point at 590d, where he The ship of Theseus, also known as Theseus' paradox,
says that the best person “has a divine ruler within him- is a thought experiment that raises the question of whether
self,”and that “it is better for everyone to be ruled by an object which has had all of its components replaced
divine reason, preferably within himself and his own, oth- remains fundamentally the same object. The paradox
erwise imposed from without.”* [6] is most notably recorded by Plutarch in Life of Theseus
from the late first century. Plutarch asked whether a ship
which was restored by replacing each and every one of its
0.18.3 See also wooden parts remained the same ship.
The paradox had been discussed by more ancient philoso-
• Police misconduct#Video and audio recording phers such as Heraclitus, Socrates, and Plato prior to
Plutarch's writings; and more recently by Thomas Hobbes
and John Locke. Several variants are known, notably
• Sousveillance “grandfather's axe”. This thought experiment is“a model
for the philosophers"; some say,“it remained the same,”
• Watchmen some saying, “it did not remain the same”.* [1]
0.19. SHIP OF THESEUS 85

0.19.1 Variations of the paradox replaced!

—Ray Broadus Browne, Objects of Special
Ancient philosophy Devotion: Fetishism in Popular Culture, p.
134* [6]
This particular version of the paradox was first introduced
in Greek legend as reported by the historian, biographer,
and essayist Plutarch, This has also been recited as "Abe Lincoln's axe";* [7]
Lincoln was well known for his ability with an axe, and
axes associated with his life are held in various muse-
“The ship wherein Theseus and the youth
ums.* [8]
of Athens returned from Crete had thirty oars,
and was preserved by the Athenians down The French equivalent is the story of Jeannot's knife,
even to the time of Demetrius Phalereus, for where the eponymous knife has had its blade changed fif-
they took away the old planks as they decayed, teen times and its handle fifteen times, but is still the same
putting in new and stronger timber in their knife.* [9] In some Spanish-speaking countries, Jeannot's
places, in so much that this ship became a knife is present as a proverb, though referred to simply as
standing example among the philosophers, for “the family knife”. The principle, however, remains the
the logical question of things that grow; one same.
side holding that the ship remained the same, The 1872 story "Dr. Ox's Experiment" by Jules Verne has
and the other contending that it was not the a reference to Jeannot's knife apropos the Van Tricasse's
same.” family. In this family, since 1340, each time one of the
—Plutarch, Theseus* [2] spouses died, the other remarried with someone younger,
who took the family name. Thus, the family can be said
to have been a single marriage lasting through centuries,
Plutarch thus questions whether the ship would remain rather than a series of generations. A similar concept,
the same if it were entirely replaced, piece by piece. Cen- but involving more than two persons at any given time, is
turies later, the philosopher Thomas Hobbes introduced a described in some detail in Robert Heinlein's novel The
further puzzle, wondering what would happen if the orig- Moon Is a Harsh Mistress as a line marriage.
inal planks were gathered up after they were replaced,
and used to build a second ship.* [3] Hobbes asked which
ship, if either, would be considered the original Ship of Modern day
Theseus.
The French critic and essayist Roland Barthes refers at
Another early variation involves a scenario in which least twice to a ship that is entirely rebuilt, in the preface to
Socrates and Plato exchange the parts of their carriages his Essais Critiques (1971) and later in his Roland Barthes
one by one until, finally, Socrates's carriage is made up par Roland Barthes (1975); in the latter the persistence of
of all the parts of Plato's original carriage and vice versa. the form of the ship is seen as a key structuralist principle.
The question is whether, or at what point, they exchanged He calls this ship the Argo, on which Theseus was said to
their carriages.* [4] have sailed with Jason; he may have confused the Argo
(referred to in passing in Plutarch's Theseus at 19.4) with
the ship that sailed from Crete (Theseus, 23.1).
Enlightenment era
Writing for ArtReview, Sam Jacob noted that Sugababes,
*
John Locke proposed a scenario regarding a favorite sock a British band, [10]“were formed in 1998 [..] but one by
that develops a hole. He pondered whether the sock one they left, till by September 2009 none of the founders
would still be the same after a patch was applied to the remained in the band; each had been replaced by another
hole, and if it would be the same sock, would it still be the member, just like the planks of Theseus’s boat.”* [11]
same sock after a second patch was applied, and a third, The three original members reunited in 2011 under the
etc., until all of the material of the original sock has been name Mutya Keisha Siobhan, with the “original”Sug-
replaced with patches.* [5] ababes still in existence.* [12]
George Washington's axe (sometimes“my grandfather's In the "Heroes and Villains" episode of popular BBC sit-
axe”) is the subject of an apocryphal story of unknown com Only Fools and Horses, Trigger (a roadsweeper) de-
origin in which the famous artifact is“still George Wash- clares he has won an award for keeping the same broom
ington's axe”despite having had both its head and handle for 20 years —“17 new heads and 14 new handles”.* [13]
replaced. This has become known as the“Trigger's broom”para-
dox.* [14]* [15]
...as in the case of the owner of George
Washington's axe which has three times had 0.19.2 Proposed resolutions
its handle replaced and twice had its head
 86 CONTENTS

Heraclitus marble”). Colloquially, "gleich" is also used in place of

"selbe", however.
The Greek philosopher Heraclitus attempted to solve the
paradox by introducing the idea of a river where water re-
plenishes it. Arius Didymus quoted him as saying“upon Four-dimensionalism
those who step into the same rivers, different and again
different waters flow”.* [16] Plutarch disputed Heraclitus' Main article: Perdurantism
claim about stepping twice into the same river, citing that
it cannot be done because “it scatters and again comes Ted Sider and others have proposed that considering ob-
together, and approaches and recedes”.* [17] jects to extend across time as four-dimensional causal se-
ries of three-dimensional 'time slices' could solve the ship
of Theseus problem because, in taking such an approach,
Aristotle's causes each time-slice and all four dimensional objects remain
numerically identical to themselves while allowing indi-
According to the philosophical system of Aristotle and vidual time-slices to differ from each other. The afore-
his followers, four causes or reasons describe a thing; mentioned river, therefore, comprises different three-
these causes can be analyzed to get to a solution to the dimensional time-slices of itself while remaining numer-
paradox. The formal cause or 'form' is the design of a ically identical to itself across time; one can never step
thing, while the material cause is the matter of which the into the same river time-slice twice, but one can step into
thing is made. The “what-it-is”of a thing, according the same (four-dimensional) river twice.* [18]
to Aristotle, is its formal cause, so the ship of Theseus is
the 'same' ship, because the formal cause, or design, does
not change, even though the matter used to construct it 0.19.3 See also
may vary with time. In the same manner, for Heraclitus's
paradox, a river has the same formal cause, although the • Haecceity
material cause (the particular water in it) changes with
time, and likewise for the person who steps in the river. • Identity and change
Another of Aristotle's causes is the 'end' or final cause, • Mereological essentialism
which is the intended purpose of a thing. The ship of
Theseus would have the same ends, those being, myth- • Neurathian bootstrap
ically, transporting Theseus, and politically, convincing
the Athenians that Theseus was once a living person, • S. (Dorst novel)
though its material cause would change with time. The
efficient cause is how and by whom a thing is made, for • Ship of Theseus film
example, how artisans fabricate and assemble something; • Sorites paradox
in the case of the ship of Theseus, the workers who built
the ship in the first place could have used the same tools • Śūnyatā
and techniques to replace the planks in the ship.
• The Fifth Elephant, a novel by Terry Pratchett in
which
Definitions of “the same” the “Ship of Theseus”is a prominent thematic el-
ement
One common argument found in the philosophical liter-
ature is that in the case of Heraclitus' river one is tripped • "The Man That Was Used Up" short story by Edgar
up by two different definitions of “the same”. In one Allan Poe
sense, things can be“qualitatively identical”, by sharing
• USS Niagara (1813)
some properties. In another sense, they might be “nu-
merically identical”by being “one”. As an example, • USS Constellation (1854)
consider two different marbles that look identical. They
would be qualitatively, but not numerically, identical. A • Vehicle restoration
marble can be numerically identical only to itself.
Note that some languages differentiate between these two
forms of identity. In German, for example, "gleich" ( 0.19.4 References
“equal”) and "selbe" (“self-same”) are the pertinent
[1] Rea, M., 1995: “The Problem of Material Constitution,”
terms, respectively. At least in formal speech, the former The Philosophical Review, 104: 525-552.
refers to qualitative identity (e.g. die gleiche Murmel,“the
same [qualitative] marble”) and the latter to numerical [2] Plutarch. “Theseus”. The Internet Classics Archive.
identity (e.g. die selbe Murmel, “the same [numerical] Retrieved 2008-07-15.
0.20. THOUGHT EXPERIMENT 87

[3] Page 89:The Ship of Theseus, Person and Object: A

Metaphysical Study, By Roderick M. Chisholm - Google
Books

[4] Michael Cannon Rea (editor), Material Constitution: A

Reader, Rowman & Littlefield, 1997, p. 210, ISBN 978-
0847683833

[5] Cohen, M. (2010). Philosophy for Dummies. Chichester:

John Wiley & Sons.

[6] Browne, Ray Broadus (1982). Objects of Special Devo-

tion: Fetishism in Popular Culture. Popular Press. p. 134. A famous example, Schrödinger's cat (1935), presents a cat that
ISBN 0-87972-191-X. might be alive or dead, depending on an earlier random event. It
illustrates the problem of the Copenhagen interpretation applied
[7] “Atomic Tune-Up: How the Body Rejuvenates Itself”. to everyday objects.
National Public Radio. 2007-07-14. Retrieved 2009-11-
11.
“A thought experiment is a device with which one per-
[8] Bruce Rushton (2008-02-22). “Ax turns out to be Lin-forms an intentional, structured process of intellectual de-
coln's last swing”. Rockford Register-Star. Retrieved
liberation in order to speculate, within a specifiable prob-
2009-11-11.
lem domain, about potential consequents (or antecedents)
[9] “Dumas in his Curricle”. Blackwood's Edinburgh Mag- for a designated antecedent (or consequent)" (Yeates,
azine LV (CCCXLI): 351. January–June 1844. 2004, p. 150).
[10] Sugababes crown girl group list Famous examples of thought experiments include
Schrödinger's cat, illustrating quantum indeterminacy
[11] Jacob, Sam (December 2011).“What the Sugababes can through the manipulation of a perfectly sealed envi-
tell us about the internal workings of the iPhone”. ArtRe- ronment and a tiny bit of radioactive substance, and
view Ltd. Archived from the original on 2013-08-31. Re- Maxwell's demon, which attempts to demonstrate the
trieved 2012-12-14.
ability of a hypothetical finite being to violate the second
[12] Bray, Elisa (4 August 2012). “Will the real Sugababes law of thermodynamics.
please stand up?". The Independent.

[13] “Heroes and Villains”. BBC. Retrieved 16 January 2014. 0.20.1 Overview
[14] “TRIGGER’S BROOM (REVISITED)". robertjack-
son.info. Retrieved 16 January 2014. The ancient Greek δείκνυμι (transl.: deiknymi), or
thought experiment, “was the most ancient pattern of
[15] Van Inwagen, Peter. e-Study Guide for: Metaphysics: mathematical proof” , and existed before Euclidean math-
Third Edition. Retrieved 16 January 2014. ematics,* [2] where the emphasis was on the concep-
tual, rather than on the experimental part of a thought-
[16] Didymus, Fr 39.2, Dox. gr. 471.4
experiment. Perhaps the key experiment in the history of
[17] Plutarch. penelope.uchicago.edu “On the 'E' at Delphi” modern science is Galileo's demonstration that falling ob-
. Retrieved 2008-07-15. jects must fall at the same rate regardless of their masses.
This is widely thought* [3] to have been a straightforward
[18] David Lewis,“Survival and Identity”in Amelie O. Rorty physical demonstration, involving climbing up the Lean-
[ed.] The Identities of Persons (1976; U. of California P.)
ing Tower of Pisa and dropping two heavy weights off
Reprinted in his Philosophical Papers I.
it, whereas in fact, it was a logical demonstration, using
the 'thought experiment' technique. The 'experiment' is
described by Galileo in Discorsi e dimostrazioni matem-
0.20 Thought experiment atiche (1638) (literally, 'Discourses and Mathematical
Demonstrations') thus:
A thought experiment or Gedankenexperiment (from
German) considers some hypothesis, theory,* [1] or Salviati. If then we take two bodies whose
principle for the purpose of thinking through its conse- natural speeds are different, it is clear that on
quences. Given the structure of the experiment, it may uniting the two, the more rapid one will be
or may not be possible to actually perform it, and if it can partly retarded by the slower, and the slower
be performed, there need be no intention of any kind to will be somewhat hastened by the swifter. Do
actually perform the experiment in question. you not agree with me in this opinion?
The common goal of a thought experiment is to explore Simplicio. You are unquestionably right.
the potential consequences of the principle in question: Salviati. But if this is true, and if a large
88 CONTENTS

stone moves with a speed of, say, eight while calque) from Mach's Gedankenexperiment, and it first ap-
a smaller moves with a speed of four, then peared in the 1897 English translation of one of Mach’s
when they are united, the system will move papers.* [9] Prior to its emergence, the activity of posing
with a speed less than eight; but the two stones hypothetical questions that employed subjunctive reason-
when tied together make a stone larger than ing had existed for a very long time (for both scientists
that which before moved with a speed of eight. and philosophers). However, people had no way of cate-
Hence the heavier body moves with less speed gorizing it or speaking about it. This helps to explain the
than the lighter; an effect which is contrary to extremely wide and diverse range of the application of the
your supposition. Thus you see how, from your term“thought experiment”once it had been introduced
assumption that the heavier body moves more into English.
rapidly than ' the lighter one, I infer that the
heavier body moves more slowly.* [4]
0.20.4 Uses
Although the extract does not convey the elegance and
power of the 'demonstration' terribly well, it is clear that Thought experiments, which are well-structured, well-
it is a 'thought' experiment, rather than a practical one. defined hypothetical questions that employ subjunctive
Strange then, as Cohen says, that philosophers and scien- reasoning (irrealis moods) – “What might happen (or,
tists alike refuse to acknowledge either Galileo in partic- what might have happened) if . . . " – have been used
ular, or the thought experiment technique in general for to pose questions in philosophy at least since Greek an-
its pivotal role in both science and philosophy. (The ex- tiquity, some pre-dating Socrates (see Rescher 1991). In
ception proves the rule —the iconoclastic philosopher of physics and other sciences many famous thought experi-
science, Paul Feyerabend, has also observed this method- ments date from the 19th and especially the 20th Century,
ological prejudice.* [5]) but examples can be found at least as early as Galileo.
Instead, many philosophers prefer to consider 'Thought In thought experiments we gain new information by re-
Experiments' to be merely the use of a hypothetical arranging or reorganizing already known empirical data
scenario to help understand the way things actually are. in a new way and drawing new (a priori) inferences from
them or by looking at these data from a different and un-
usual perspective. In Galileo’s thought experiment, for
0.20.2 Variety example, the rearrangement of empirical experience con-
sists in the original idea of combining bodies of different
Thought experiments have been used in a variety of fields, weight.* [10]
including philosophy, law, physics, and mathematics. In
Thought experiments have been used in philosophy
philosophy, they have been used at least since classical an-
(especially ethics), physics, and other fields (such
tiquity, some pre-dating Socrates. In law, they were well-
as cognitive psychology, history, political science,
known to Roman lawyers quoted in the Digest.* [6] In
economics, social psychology, law, organizational stud-
physics and other sciences, notable thought experiments
ies, marketing, and epidemiology). In law, the synonym
date from the 19th and especially the 20th century, but
“hypothetical”is frequently used for such experiments.
examples can be found at least as early as Galileo.
Regardless of their intended goal, all thought experiments
display a patterned way of thinking that is designed to
0.20.3 Origins and use of the literal term allow us to explain, predict and control events in a better
and more productive way.
Johann Witt-Hansen established that Hans Christian
Ørsted was the first to use the Latin-German mixed
term Gedankenexperiment (lit. thought experiment) circa Theoretical consequences
1812.* [7] Ørsted was also the first to use its entirely Ger-
man equivalent, Gedankenversuch, in 1820. In terms of their theoretical consequences, thought exper-
Much later, Ernst Mach used the term Gedankenexperi- iments generally:
ment in a different way, to denote exclusively the imag-
inary conduct of a real experiment that would be sub- • challenge (or even refute) a prevailing theory, of-
sequently performed as a real physical experiment by his ten involving the device known as reductio ad ab-
students.* [8] Physical and mental experimentation could surdum, (as in Galileo's original argument, a proof
then be contrasted: Mach asked his students to provide by contradiction),
him with explanations whenever the results from their
subsequent, real, physical experiment differed from those • confirm a prevailing theory,
of their prior, imaginary experiment.
The English term thought experiment was coined (as a • establish a new theory, or
0.20. THOUGHT EXPERIMENT 89

• simultaneously refute a prevailing theory and estab- 0.20.5 In science

lish a new theory through a process of mutual exclu-
sion. Scientists tend to use thought experiments in the form of
imaginary,“proxy”experiments which they conduct prior
to a real, “physical”experiment (Ernst Mach always ar-
Practical applications gued that these gedankenexperiments were“a necessary
precondition for physical experiment”). In these cases,
Thought experiments can produce some very important the result of the “proxy”experiment will often be so
and different outlooks on previously unknown or unac- clear that there will be no need to conduct a physical ex-
cepted theories. However, they may make those theo- periment at all.
ries themselves irrelevant, and could possibly create new Scientists also use thought experiments when partic-
problems that are just as difficult, or possibly more diffi- ular physical experiments are impossible to conduct
cult to resolve. (Carl Gustav Hempel labeled these sorts of experi-
In terms of their practical application, thought experi- ment "theoretical experiments-in-imagination"), such as
ments are generally created in order to: Einstein's thought experiment of chasing a light beam,
leading to Special Relativity. This is a unique use of a
scientific thought experiment, in that it was never carried
• challenge the prevailing status quo (which includes out, but led to a successful theory, proven by other em-
activities such as correcting misinformation (or mis- pirical means.
apprehension), identify flaws in the argument(s) pre-
sented, to preserve (for the long-term) objectively
established fact, and to refute specific assertions 0.20.6 Relation to real experiments
that some particular thing is permissible, forbidden,
known, believed, possible, or necessary); The relation to real experiments can be quite complex,
as can be seen again from an example going back to Al-
• extrapolate beyond (or interpolate within) the bert Einstein. In 1935, with two coworkers, he published
boundaries of already established fact; a famous paper on a newly created subject called later
the EPR effect (EPR paradox). In this paper, starting
• predict and forecast the (otherwise) indefinite and from certain philosophical assumptions,* [11] on the ba-
unknowable future; sis of a rigorous analysis of a certain, complicated, but
in the meantime assertedly realizable model, he came
• explain the past; to the conclusion that quantum mechanics should be de-
scribed as “incomplete”. Niels Bohr asserted a refu-
• the retrodiction, postdiction and hindcasting of the tation of Einstein's analysis immediately, and his view
(otherwise) indefinite and unknowable past; prevailed.* [12]* [13]* [14] After some decades, it was as-
serted that feasible experiments could prove the error of
• facilitate decision making, choice and strategy se- the EPR paper. These experiments tested the Bell in-
lection; equalities published in 1964 in a purely theoretical pa-
per. The above-mentioned EPR philosophical starting
• solve problems, and generate ideas; assumptions were considered to be falsified by empirical
fact (e.g. by the optical real experiments of Alain Aspect).
• move current (often insoluble) problems into an- Thus thought experiments belong to a theoretical dis-
other, more helpful and more productive problem cipline, usually to theoretical physics, but often to
space (e.g., see functional fixedness); theoretical philosophy. In any case, it must be distin-
guished from a real experiment, which belongs naturally
• attribute causation, preventability, blame and re- to the experimental discipline and has“the final decision
sponsibility for specific outcomes; on true or not true", at least in physics.

• assess culpability and compensatory damages in so-

cial and legal contexts; 0.20.7 Causal reasoning

• ensure the repeat of past success; or The first characteristic pattern that thought experiments
display is their orientation in time.* [15] They are either:
• examine the extent to which past events might have
occurred differently. • Antefactual speculations: those experiments which
speculate about what might have happened prior to
• ensure the (future) avoidance of past failures. a specific, designated event, or
 90 CONTENTS

• Postfactual speculations: those experiments which

speculate about what may happen subsequent to (or
consequent upon) a specific, designated event.

The second characteristic pattern is their movement in

time in relation to“the present moment standpoint”of the
individual performing the experiment; namely, in terms
of:
Temporal representation of a counterfactual thought experi-
ment.* [18]
• Their temporal direction: are they past-oriented or
future-oriented?
Semifactual
• Their temporal sense:

(a) in the case of past-oriented thought experi-

ments, are they examining the consequences of
temporal“movement”from the present to the
past, or from the past to the present? or,
(b) in the case of future-oriented thought
experiments, are they examining the conse-
quences of temporal “movement”from the
present to the future, or from the future to the
Temporal representation of a semifactual thought experi-
present?
ment.* [19]

0.20.8 Seven Types Semifactual* [20] thought experiments speculate on the ex-
tent to which things might have remained the same, de-
spite there being a different past; and asks the question
Even though X happened instead of E, would Y have still
occurred? (e.g., Even if the goalie had moved left, rather
than right, could he have intercepted a ball that was trav-
eling at such a speed?).
Semifactual speculations are an important part of clinical
medicine.

Temporal representation of a prefactual thought experi- Prediction

ment.* [16]

Generally speaking, there are seven types of thought ex-

periments in which one reasons from causes to effects, or
effects to causes:* [17]

Prefactual

Prefactual (before the fact) thought experiments speculate

on possible future outcomes, given the present, and ask
“What will be the outcome if event E occurs?" Temporal representation of prediction, forecasting and nowcast-
ing.* [21]

Counterfactual
The activity of prediction attempts to project the circum-
stances of the present into the future. According to David
Counterfactual (contrary to established fact) thought ex-
Sarewitz and Roger Pielke (1999, p123), scientific pre-
periments speculate on the possible outcomes of a dif-
diction takes two forms:
ferent past; and ask “What might have happened if A
had happened instead of B?" (e.g.,“If Isaac Newton and
Gottfried Leibniz had cooperated with each other, what (1)“The elucidation of invariant —and there-
would mathematics look like today?"). fore predictive —principles of nature”; and
0.20. THOUGHT EXPERIMENT 91

(2) “[Using] suites of observational data and The activity of retrodiction (or postdiction) involves mov-
sophisticated numerical models in an effort to ing backwards in time, step-by-step, in as many stages as
foretell the behavior or evolution of complex are considered necessary, from the present into the spec-
phenomena”.* [22] ulated past, in order to establish the ultimate cause of a
specific event (e.g., Reverse engineering and Forensics).
Although they perform different social and scientific Given that retrodiction is a process in which “past ob-
functions, the only difference between the qualitatively servations, events and data are used as evidence to infer
identical activities of predicting, forecasting, and now- the process(es) the produced them”and that diagnosis
casting is the distance of the speculated future from the “involve[s] going from visible effects such as symptoms,
present moment occupied by the user.* [23] Whilst the ac- signs and the like to their prior causes”,* [30] the essen-
tivity of nowcasting, defined as “a detailed description tial balance between prediction and retrodiction could be
of the current weather along with forecasts obtained by characterized as:
extrapolation up to 2 hours ahead”, is essentially con-
cerned with describing the current state of affairs, it is
retrodiction : diagnosis :: pre-
common practice to extend the term“to cover very-short-
diction : prognosis
range forecasting up to 12 hours ahead”(Browning, 1982,
p.ix).* [24]* [25]
regardless of whether the prognosis is of the course of the
disease in the absence of treatment, or of the application
Hindcasting of a specific treatment regimen to a specific disorder in a
particular patient.

Backcasting

Temporal representation of hindcasting.* [26]

The activity of hindcasting involves running a forecast

model after an event has happened in order to test
whether the model's simulation is valid. Temporal representation of backcasting.* [31]
In 2003, Dake Chen and his colleagues “trained”a
computer using the data of the surface temperature of The activity of backcasting* [32] involves establishing the
the oceans from the last 20 years.* [27] Then, using data description of a very definite and very specific future sit-
that had been collected on the surface temperature of the uation. It then involves an imaginary moving backwards
oceans for the period 1857 to 2003, they went through in time, step-by-step, in as many stages as are considered
a hindcasting exercise and discovered that their simula- necessary, from the future to the present, in order to re-
tion not only accurately predicted every El Niño event for veal the mechanism through which that particular speci-
the last 148 years, it also identified the (up to 2 years) fied future could be attained from the present.* [33]
looming foreshadow of every single one of those El Niño Backcasting is not concerned with predicting the future:
events.* [28]
The major distinguishing charac-
Retrodiction (or postdiction) teristic of backcasting analyses is
the concern, not with likely en-
ergy futures, but with how desir-
able futures can be attained. It is
thus explicitly normative, involving
'working backwards' from a partic-
ular future end-point to the present
to determine what policy measures
would be required to reach that fu-
ture.* [34]

Temporal representation of retrodiction or postdiction.* [29] According to Jansen (1994, p. 503:* [35]
92 CONTENTS

Within the framework of techno- It is generally hoped that there is universal agreement
logical development,“forecasting” about the intuitions that a thought experiment elicits.
concerns the extrapolation of de- (Hence, in assessing their own thought experiments,
velopments towards the future and philosophers may appeal to “what we should say,”or
the exploration of achievements some such locution.) A successful thought experiment
which can be realized through will be one in which intuitions about it are widely shared.
technology in the long term. But often, philosophers differ in their intuitions about the
Conversely, the reasoning behind scenario.
“backcasting”is: on the basis
Other philosophical uses of imagined scenarios arguably
of an interconnecting picture of are thought experiments also. In one use of scenarios,
demands which technology has
philosophers might imagine persons in a particular situa-
to meet in the future —“sus- tion (maybe ourselves), and ask what they would do.
tainability criteria” —to direct
and determine the process that For example, John Rawls asks us to imagine a group of
technology development must take persons in a situation where they know nothing about
and possibly also the pace at which themselves, and are charged with devising a social or po-
this development process must be litical organization (See the veil of ignorance). The use
put into effect. of the state of nature to imagine the origins of govern-
Backcasting [is] both an important ment, as by Thomas Hobbes and John Locke, may also
aid in determining the direction be considered a thought experiment. Søren Kierkegaard
technology development must take explored the possible ethical and religious implications
and in specifying the targets to be of Abraham's binding of Isaac in Fear and Trembling
set for this purpose. As such, back- Similarly, Friedrich Nietzsche, in On the Genealogy of
casting is an ideal search toward de- Morals, speculated about the historical development of
termining the nature and scope of Judeo-Christian morality, with the intent of questioning
the technological challenge which its legitimacy.
is posed by sustainable develop- An early written thought experiment was Plato's allegory
ment, and it can thus serve to direct of the cave.* [36] Another historic thought experiment
the search process toward new — was Avicenna's "Floating Man" thought experiment in
sustainable —technology. the 11th century. He asked his readers to imagine them-
selves suspended in the air isolated from all sensations
in order to demonstrate human self-awareness and self-
0.20.9 In philosophy consciousness, and the substantiality of the soul.* [37]

In philosophy, a thought experiment typically presents an

imagined scenario with the intention of eliciting an in-
Possibility
tuitive or reasoned response about the way things are in
the thought experiment. (Philosophers might also supple-
ment their thought experiments with theoretical reason- The scenario presented in a thought experiment must be
possible in some sense. In many thought experiments,
ing designed to support the desired intuitive response.)
The scenario will typically be designed to target a partic- the scenario would be nomologically possible, or possible
according to the laws of nature. John Searle's Chinese
ular philosophical notion, such as morality, or the nature
of the mind or linguistic reference. The response to the room is nomologically possible.
imagined scenario is supposed to tell us about the nature Some thought experiments present scenarios that are not
of that notion in any scenario, real or imagined. nomologically possible. In his Twin Earth thought ex-
For example, a thought experiment might present a sit- periment, Hilary Putnam asks us to imagine a scenario in
uation in which an agent intentionally kills an innocent which there is a substance with all of the observable prop-
for the benefit of others. Here, the relevant question erties of water (e.g., taste, color, boiling point), but which
is not whether the action is moral or not, but more is chemically different from water. It has been argued
broadly whether a moral theory is correct that says moral- that this thought experiment is not nomologically possi-
ity is determined solely by an action's consequences (See ble, although it may be possible in some other sense, such
Consequentialism). John Searle imagines a man in a as metaphysical possibility. It is debatable whether the
locked room who receives written sentences in Chinese, nomological impossibility of a thought experiment ren-
and returns written sentences in Chinese, according to ders intuitions about it moot.
a sophisticated instruction manual. Here, the relevant In some cases, the hypothetical scenario might be con-
question is not whether or not the man understands Chi- sidered metaphysically impossible, or impossible in any
nese, but more broadly, whether a functionalist theory of sense at all. David Chalmers says that we can imagine that
mind is correct. there are zombies, or persons who are physically identi-
0.20. THOUGHT EXPERIMENT 93

cal to us in every way but who lack consciousness. This • Maxwell's demon (thermodynamics) 1871
is supposed to show that physicalism is false. However,
some argue that zombies are inconceivable: we can no • Monkey and the Hunter, The (gravitation)
more imagine a zombie than we can imagine that 1+1=3. • Moving magnet and conductor problem
Others have claimed that the conceivability of a scenario
may not entail its possibility. • Newton's cannonball (Newton's laws of motion)
• Popper's experiment (quantum mechanics)
Other criticisms
• Quantum pseudo telepathy (quantum mechanics)
The use of thought experiments in philosophy has re- • Quantum suicide (quantum mechanics)
ceived other criticisms, especially in the philosophy of
mind. Daniel Dennett has derisively referred to certain • Schrödinger's cat (quantum mechanics)
types of thought experiments such as the Chinese Room
experiment as "intuition pumps", claiming they are sim- • Sticky bead argument (general relativity)
ply thinly veiled appeals to intuition which fail when care- • Renninger negative-result experiment (quantum
fully analyzed. Another criticism that has been voiced mechanics)
is that some science fiction-type thought experiments are
too wild to yield clear intuitions, or that any resulting in- • Twin paradox (special relativity)
tuitions could not possibly pertain to the real world.
• Wheeler's delayed choice experiment (quantum me-
chanics)
0.20.10 Famous thought experiments • Wigner's friend (quantum mechanics)
Physics
Philosophy
Thought experiments are popular in physics and include:
The field of philosophy makes extensive use of thought
• Bell's spaceship paradox (special relativity) experiments:

• Brownian ratchet (Richard Feynman's "perpetual • Artificial brain

motion" machine that does not violate the second
law and does no work at thermal equilibrium) • Avicenna's Floating Man

• Bucket argument – argues that space is absolute, not • Bellum omnium contra omnes
relational
• Big Book (ethics)
• Double-slit experiment (quantum mechanics)
• Brain-in-a-vat (epistemology, philosophy of mind)
• Elitzur–Vaidman bomb-tester (quantum mechanics)
• Brainstorm machine
• Einstein's box • Buridan's ass
• EPR paradox (quantum mechanics) (forms of this • Changing places (reflexive monism, philosophy of
have actually been performed) mind)
• Feynman sprinkler (classical mechanics) • China brain (physicalism, philosophy of mind)
• Galileo's ship (classical relativity principle) 1632 • Chinese room (philosophy of mind, artificial intelli-
gence, cognitive science)
• Galileo's Leaning Tower of Pisa experiment (rebut-
tal of Aristotelian Gravity) • Coherence (philosophical gambling strategy)
• GHZ experiment (quantum mechanics) • Condillac's Statue (epistemology)
• Heisenberg's microscope (quantum mechanics) • Experience machine (ethics)
• Kepler's Dream (change of point of view as support • Gettier problem (epistemology)
for the Copernican hypothesis)
• Ḥayy ibn Yaqẓān (epistemology)
• Ladder paradox (special relativity)
• Hilary Putnam's Twin Earth thought experiment in
• Laplace's demon the philosophy of language and philosophy of mind
94 CONTENTS

• How many men? (taxation as theft) Computer science

• Inverted spectrum • Halting problem (limits of computability)
• Kavka's toxin puzzle • Turing machine (limits of computability)
• Mary's room (philosophy of mind)
• Two Generals' Problem
• Molyneux's Problem (admittedly, this oscillated be-
• Dining Philosophers (computer science)
tween empirical and a-priori assessment)
• Newcomb's paradox
Economics
• Original position (politics)
• Broken window fallacy (law of unintended conse-
• Philosophical zombie (philosophy of mind, artificial quences, opportunity cost)
intelligence, cognitive science)
• Laffer Curve
• Plank of Carneades
• Prisoner's Dilemma Miscellaneous
• Ship of Theseus, The (concept of identity)
• Buttered cat paradox
• Simulated reality (philosophy, computer science,
cognitive science) • Braitenberg vehicles (robotics, neural control and
sensing systems) (some have actually been built)
• Social contract theories
• Doomsday argument (anthropic principle)
• Survival lottery, The (ethics)
• Dyson sphere
• Swamp man (personal identity, philosophy of mind)
• The Lady, or the Tiger? (human nature)* [38]
• Shoemaker's "Time Without Change" (metaphysics)
• The Planiverse
• Ticking time bomb scenario (ethics)
• Teleportation (metaphysics)
0.20.11 See also
• The Transparent eyeball
• Alternate history (fiction)
• Trolley problem (ethics)
• Black box
• The Violinist (ethics)
• Brainstorm machine
• Utility monster (ethics)
• Ding an sich
• Zeno's paradoxes (classical Greek problems of the
infinite) • Futures studies

• Futures techniques
Mathematics
• Intuition pump
• Balls and vase problem (infinity and cardinality)
• Mapping (see entry under conceptual metaphor)
• Gabriel's Horn (infinity)
• N-universes
• Infinite monkey theorem (probability)
• Nearly possible worlds (see under Possible world)
• Lottery paradox (probability)
• Possible world
• Sleeping beauty paradox (probability)
• Pure thought
Biology • Scenario planning

• Levinthal paradox • Scenario test

• Rotating locomotion in living systems • Theoretical physics

0.20. THOUGHT EXPERIMENT 95

0.20.12 References [14] d'Espagnat, B. (2006). On Physics and Philosophy,

Princeton University Press, Princeton, ISBN 978-0-691-
[1] "[C]onjectures or hypotheses ... are really to be regarded 11964-9
as thought“experiments”through which we wish to dis-
cover whether something can be explained by a specific [15] Yeates, 2004, pp.138-143.
assumption in connection with other natural laws.”—Hans
Christian Ørsted(“First Introduction to General Physics” [16] Taken from Yeates, 2004, p.143.
¶16-¶18, part of a series of public lectures at the Uni-
[17] See Yeates, 2004, pp.138-159.
versity of Copenhagen. Copenhagen 1811, in Danish,
printed by Johan Frederik Schulz. In Kirstine Meyer's [18] Taken from Yeates, 2004, p.144.
1920 edition of Ørsted's works, vol.III pp. 151-190. )
“First Introduction to Physics: the Spirit, Meaning, and [19] Taken from Yeates, 2004, p.144.
Goal of Natural Science”. Reprinted in German in 1822,
Schweigger's Journal für Chemie und Physik 36, pp. 458– [20] The term semifactual was coined by Nelson Goodman
488, as translated in Ørsted 1997, pp. 296–298 in 1947 (Goodman, N., “The Problem of Counterfac-
tual Conditionals”, The Journal of Philosophy, Vol.44,
[2] Szábo, Árpád. (1958) " 'Deiknymi' als Mathematischer No.5, (27 February 1947), pp.113-128). Goodman's orig-
Terminus fur 'Beweisen' ", Maia N.S. 10 pp. 1–26 as inal concept has been subsequently developed and ex-
cited by Imre Lakatos (1976) in Proofs and Refutations panded by (a) Daniel Cohen (Cohen, D., “Semifactuals,
p.9. (John Worrall and Elie Zahar, eds.) Cambridge Uni- Even-Ifs, and Sufficiency”, International Logic Review,
versity Press ISBN 0-521-21078-X. The English transla- Vol.16, (1985), pp.102-111), (b) Stephen Barker (Barker,
tion of the title of Szábo's article is "'Deiknymi' as a math- S., "Even, Still and Counterfactuals”, Linguistics and Phi-
ematical expression for 'to prove'", as translated by András losophy, Vol.14, No.1, (February 1991), pp.1-38; Barker,
Máté, p.285 S., “Counterfactuals, Probabilistic Counterfactuals and
Causation”, Mind, Vol.108, No.431, (July 1999), pp.427-
[3] Cohen, Martin,“Wittgenstein's Beetle and Other Classic 469), and (c) Rachel McCloy and Ruth Byrne (McCloy,
Thought Experiments”, Blackwell, (Oxford), 2005, pp. R. & Byrne, R.M.J., “Semifactual 'Even If' Thinking”
55–56. , Thinking and Reasoning, Vol.8, No.1, (February 2002),
[4] “Galileo on Aristotle and Acceleration”. Retrieved 2008- pp.41-67).
05-24. [21] Taken from Yeates, 2004, p.145.
[5] See, for example, Paul Feyerabend, 'Against Method',
[22] Sarewitz, D. & Pielke, R.,“Prediction in Science and Pol-
Verso (1993)
icy”, Technology in Society, Vol.21, No.2, (April 1999),
[6] Catholic Encyclopedia (1913)/Pandects“every logical rule pp.121-133.
of law is capable of illumination from the law of the Pan-
[23] Nowcasting (obviously based on forecasting) is also
dects.”
known as very-short-term forecasting; thus, also indicat-
[7] Witt-Hansen (1976). Although Experiment is a German ing a very-short-term, mid-range, and long-range forecast-
word, it is derived from Latin. The synonym Versuch has ing continuum.
purely Germanic roots.
[24] Browning, K.A. (ed.), Nowcasting, Academic Press,
[8] Mach, Ernst (1883), The Science of Mechanics (6th edi- (London), 1982.
tion, translated by Thomas J. McCormack), LaSalle, Illi-
nois: Open Court, 1960. pp. 32-41, 159-62. [25] Murphy, and Brown —Murphy, A.H. & Brown, B.G.,
“Similarity and Analogical Reasoning: A Synthesis”,
[9] Mach, Ernst (1897), “On Thought Experiments”, in pp.3-15 in Browning, K.A. (ed.), Nowcasting, Academic
Knowledge and Error (translated by Thomas J. McCor- Press, (London), 1982 —describe a large range of spe-
mack and Paul Foulkes), Dordrecht Holland: Reidel, cific applications for meteorological nowcasting over wide
1976, pp. 134-47. range of user demands:
(1) Agriculture: (a) wind and precipitation forecasts for
[10] Brendal, Elke, “Intuition Pumps and the Proper Use of effective seeding and spraying from aircraft; (b) precipita-
Thought Experiments”. Dialectica. V.58, Issue 1, p 89– tion forecasts to minimize damage to seedlings; (c) mini-
108, March 2004 mum temperature, dewpoint, cloud cover, and wind speed
forecasts to protect crops from frost; (d) maximum tem-
[11] Jaynes, E.T. (1989).Clearing up the Mysteries, opening
perature forecasts to reduce adverse effects of high tem-
talk at the 8th International MAXENT Workshop, St
peratures on crops and livestock; (e) humidity and cloud
John's College, Cambridge UK.
cover forecasts to prevent fungal disease crop losses ; (f)
[12] French, A.P., Taylor, E.F. (1979/1989). An Introduc- hail forecasts to minimize damage to livestock and green-
tion to Quantum Physics, Van Nostrand Reinhold (Inter- houses; (g) precipitation, temperature, and dewpoint fore-
national), London, ISBN 0-442-30770-5. casts to avoid during- and after-harvest losses due to crops
rotting in the field; (h) precipitation forecasts to minimize
[13] Wheeler, J.A, Zurek, W.H., editors (1983). Quantum losses in drying raisins; and (i) humidity forecasts to re-
Theory and Measurement, Princeton University Press, duce costs and losses resulting from poor conditions for
Princeton. drying tobacco.
96 CONTENTS

(2) Construction: (a) precipitation and wind speed fore- [32] The term backcasting was coined by John Robinson:
casts to avoid damage to finished work (e.g. concrete) Robinson, J.B., “Energy Backcasting: A Proposed
and minimize costs of protecting exposed surfaces, struc- Method of Policy Analysis”, Energy Policy, Vol.10, No.4
tures, and work sites; and (b) precipitation, wind speed, (December 1982), pp.337-345; Robinson, J.B., “Un-
and high/low temperature forecasts to schedule work in learning and Backcasting: Rethinking Some of the Ques-
an efficient manner. tions We Ask About the Future”, Technological Forecast-
(3) Energy: (a) temperature, humidity, wind, cloud, etc. ing and Social Change, Vol.33, No.4, (July 1988), pp.325-
forecasts to optimize procedures related to generation and 338; Robinson, J., “Future Subjunctive: Backcasting as
distribution of electricity and gas; (b) forecasts of thun- Social Learning”, Futures, Vol.35, No.8, (October 2003),
derstorms, strong winds, low temperatures, and freezing pp.839-856.
precipitation minimize damage to lines and equipment
and to schedule repairs. [33] Robinson's backcasting approach is very similar to the an-
(4) Transportation: (a) ceiling height and visibility, winds ticipatory scenarios of Ducot and Lubben (Ducot, C. &
and turbulence, and surface ice and snow forecasts min- Lubben, G.J., “A Typology for Scenarios”, Futures,
imize risk, maximize efficiency in pre-flight and in-flight Vol.11, No.1, (February 1980), pp.51-57), and Bunn
decisions and other adjustments to weather-related fluctu- and Salo (Bunn, D.W. & Salo, A.A., “Forecasting with
ations in traffic; (b) forecasts of wind speed and direction, scenarios”, European Journal of Operational Research,
as well as severe weather and icing conditions along flight Vol.68, No.3, (13 August 1993), pp.291-303).
paths facilitate optimal airline route planning; (c) fore-
casts of snowfall, precipitation, and other storm-related [34] p.814, Dreborg, K.H.,“Essence of Backcasting”, Futures,
events allow truckers, motorists, and public transportation Vol.28, No.9, (November 1996), pp.813-828.
systems to avoid damage to weather-sensitive goods, select
[35] Jansen, L.,“Towards a Sustainable Future, en route with
optimum routes, prevent accidents, minimize delays, and
Technology”, pp.496-525 in Dutch Committee for Long-
maximize revenues under conditions of adverse weather.
Term Environmental Policy (ed.), The Environment: To-
(5) Public Safety & General Public: (a) rain, snow, wind,
wards a Sustainable Future (Environment & Policy, Vol-
and temperature forecasts assist the general public in plan-
ume 1), Kluwer Academic Publishers, (Dortrecht), 1994.
ning activities such as commuting, recreation, and shop-
ping; (b) forecasts of temperature/humidity extremes (or [36] Plato. Rep. vii, I–III, 514–518B.
significant changes) alert hospitals, clinics, and the public
to weather conditions that may seriously aggravate cer- [37] Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Oliver Leaman (1996), History
tain health-related illnesses; (c) forecasts related to po- of Islamic Philosophy, p. 315, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-
tentially dangerous or damaging natural events (e.g., tor- 13159-6.
nados, severe thunderstorms, severe winds, storm surges,
avalanches, precipitation, floods) minimize loss of life and[38] While the problem presented in this short story's scenario
property damage; and (d) forecasts of snowstorms, surface is not unique, it is extremely unusual. Most thought exper-
icing, visibility, and other events (e.g. floods) enable high- iments are intentionally (or, even, sometimes unintention-
way maintenance and traffic control organizations to take ally) skewed towards the inevitable production of a par-
appropriate actions to reduce risks of traffic accidents and ticular solution to the problem posed; and this happens
protect roads from damage. because of the way that the problem and the scenario are
framed in the first place. In the case of The Lady, or the
[26] Taken from Yeates, 2004, p.145.
Tiger?, the way that the story unfolds is so “end-neutral”
[27] Chen, D., Cane, M.A., Kaplan, A., Zebiak, S.E. & Huang, that, at the finish, there is no “correct”solution to the
D., “Predictability of El Niño Over the Past 148 Years” problem. Therefore, all that one can do is to offer one's
, Nature, Vol.428, No.6984, (15 April 2004), pp.733- own innermost thoughts on how the account of human na-
736; Anderson, D.,“Testing Time for El Niño”, Nature, ture that has been presented might unfold ? according to
Vol.428, No.6984, (15 April 2004), pp.709, 711. one's own experience of human nature ? which is, ob-
viously, the purpose of the entire exercise. The extent to
[28] Not only did their hindcasting demonstrate that the com- which the story can provoke such an extremely wide range
puterized simulation models could predict the onset of El of (otherwise equipollent) predictions of the participants'
Niño climatic events from changes in the temperature of subsequent behaviour is one of the reasons the story has
the ocean's surface temperature that occur up to two years been so popular over time.
earlier —meaning that there was now, potentially, at least
2 years' lead time —but the results also implied that El
Niño events seemed to be the effects of some causal reg- 0.20.13 Significant articles
ularity; and, therefore, were not due to simple chance, or
to some other “chaotic”event.
• Brendal, Elke,“Intuition Pumps and the Proper Use
[29] Taken from Yeates, 2004, p.146. of Thought Experiments”, Dialectica, Vol.58, No.1,
(March 2004, pp.89–108.
[30] p.24, Einhorn, H.J. & Hogarth, R.M., “Prediction, Di-
agnosis, and Causal Thinking in Forecasting”, Journal of • Dennett, D.C., “Intuition Pumps”, pp. 180–197
Forecasting, (January–March 1982), Vol.1, No.1, pp.23-
in Brockman, J., The Third Culture: Beyond the Sci-
36.
entific Revolution, Simon & Schuster, (New York),
[31] Taken from Yeates, 2004, p.147. 1995.
0.20. THOUGHT EXPERIMENT 97

• Cucic, D.A. & Nikolic, A.S.,“A short insight about • Cohnitz, D., Gedankenexperimente in der Philoso-
thought experiment in modern physics”, 6th Inter- phie, Mentis Publ., (Paderborn, Germany), 2006.
national Conference of the Balkan Physical Union
BPU6, Istanbul – Turkey, 2006. • Craik, K.J.W., The Nature of Explanation, Cam-
bridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1943.
• Galton, F., “Statistics of Mental Imagery”, Mind,
Vol.5, No.19, (July 1880), pp. 301–318. • Cushing, J.T., Philosophical Concepts in Physics:
The Historical Relation Between Philosophy and Sci-
• Hempel, C.G.,“Typological Methods in the Natural entific Theories, Cambridge University Press, (Cam-
and Social Sciences”, pp. 155–171 in Hempel, C.G. bridge), 1998.
(ed.), Aspects of Scientific Explanation and Other Es-
says in the Philosophy of Science, The Free Press, • DePaul, M. & Ramsey, W. (eds.), Rethinking In-
(New York), 1965. tuition: The Psychology of Intuition and Its Role in
Philosophical Inquiry, Rowman & Littlefield Pub-
• Jacques, V., Wu, E., Grosshans, F., Treussart, lishers, (Lanham), 1998.
F., Grangier, P. Aspect, A., & Roch, J. (2007).
Experimental Realization of Wheeler's Delayed- • Gendler, T.S., Thought Experiment: On the Pow-
Choice Gedanken Experiment, Science, 315, p. ers and Limits of Imaginary Cases, Garland, (New
966–968. York), 2000.
• Kuhn, T., “A Function for Thought Experiments” • Gendler, T.S. & Hawthorne, J., Conceivability
, in The Essential Tension (Chicago: University of and Possibility, Oxford University Press, (Oxford),
Chicago Press, 1979), pp. 240– 2002.
• Mach, E., “On Thought Experiments”, pp. 134– • Häggqvist, S., Thought Experiments in Philosophy,
147 in Mach, E., Knowledge and Error: Sketches on Almqvist & Wiksell International, (Stockholm),
the Psychology of Enquiry, D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1996.
(Dordrecht), 1976. [Translation of Erkenntnis und
Irrtum (5th edition, 1926.]. • Hanson, N.R., Patterns of Discovery: An Inquiry
into the Conceptual Foundations of Science, Cam-
• Popper, K., “On the Use and Misuse of Imaginary
bridge University Press, (Cambridge), 1962.
Experiments, Especially in Quantum Theory”, pp.
442–456, in Popper, K., The Logic of Scientific Dis- • Harper, W.L., Stalnaker, R. & Pearce, G. (eds.), Ifs:
covery, Harper Torchbooks, (New York), 1968. Conditionals, Belief, Decision, Chance, and Time, D.
Reidel Publishing Co., (Dordrecht), 1981.
• Rescher, N. (1991), “Thought Experiment in Pre-
Socratic Philosophy”, in Horowitz, T.; Massey, • Hesse, M.B., Models and Analogies in Science,
G.J., Thought Experiments in Science and Philoso- Sheed and Ward, (London), 1963.
phy, Rowman & Littlefield, (Savage), pp. 31–41.
• Holyoak, K.J. & Thagard, P., Mental Leaps: Anal-
• Witt-Hansen, J.,“H.C. Ørsted, Immanuel Kant and
ogy in Creative Thought, A Bradford Book, The MIT
the Thought Experiment”, Danish Yearbook of Phi-
Press, (Cambridge), 1995.
losophy, Vol.13, (1976), pp. 48–65.
• Horowitz, T. & Massey, G.J. (eds.), Thought Exper-
iments in Science and Philosophy, Rowman & Little-
0.20.14 Bibliography field, (Savage), 1991.
• Adams, Scott, God's Debris: A Thought Experiment, • Kahn, H., Thinking About the Unthinkable, Discus
Andrews McMeel Publishing, (USA), 2001 Books, (New York), 1971.
• Brendal, Elke,“Intuition Pumps and the Proper Use
• Kuhne, U., Die Methode des Gedankenexperiments,
of Thought Experiments”. Dialectica. V.58, Issue
Suhrkamp Publ., (Frankfurt/M, Germany), 2005.
1, p 89–108, March 2004
• Leatherdale, W.H., The Role of Analogy, Model
• Browning, K.A. (ed.), Nowcasting, Academic Press,
and Metaphor in Science, North-Holland Publishing
(London), 1982.
Company, (Amsterdam), 1974.
• Buzzoni, M., Thought Experiment in the Natural Sci-
ences, Koenigshausen+Neumann, Wuerzburg 2008 • Ørsted, Hans Christian (1997). Selected Scien-
tific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted. Princeton.
• Cohen, Martin, “Wittgenstein's Beetle and Other ISBN 0-691-04334-5.. Translated to English by
Classic Thought Experiments”, Blackwell (Oxford) Karen Jelved, Andrew D. Jackson, and Ole Knud-
2005 sen, (translators 1997).
98 CONTENTS

• Roese, N.J. & Olson, J.M. (eds.), What Might 0.21 Time travel
Have Been: The Social Psychology of Counterfac-
tual Thinking, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, (Mah- “Time machine”redirects here. For other uses, see
wah), 1995. Time machine (disambiguation) and Time travel (disam-
biguation).
• Shanks, N. (ed.), Idealization IX: Idealization in
Contemporary Physics (Poznan Studies in the Phi-
losophy of the Sciences and the Humanities, Volume Time travel is the concept of moving between differ-
63), Rodopi, (Amsterdam), 1998. ent points in time in a manner analogous to moving be-
tween different points in space, generally using a theoret-
• Shick, T. & Vaugn, L., Doing Philosophy: An Intro- ical invention known as a time machine. Time travel is
duction through Thought Experiments (Second Edi- a recognized concept in philosophy and fiction, but has a
tion), McGraw Hill, (New York), 2003. very limited support in theoretical physics, usually only in
conjunction with quantum mechanics or Einstein–Rosen
• Sorensen, R.A., Thought Experiments, Oxford Uni- bridges.
versity Press, (Oxford), 1992.
A science fiction novel written in 1895 called The Time
• Tetlock, P.E. & Belkin, A. (eds.), Counterfactual Machine, by H. G. Wells, was instrumental in moving the
Thought Experiments in World Politics, Princeton concept of time travel to the forefront of the public imag-
University Press, (Princeton), 1996. ination, but the earlier short story "The Clock That Went
Backward", by Edward Page Mitchell, involves a clock
• Thomson, J.J. {Parent, W. (ed.)}, Rights, Restitu- that, by means unspecified, allows three men to travel
* *
tion, and Risks: Essays in Moral Theory, Harvard backward in time. [1] [2] Non-technological forms of
University Press, (Cambridge), 1986 . time travel had appeared in a number of earlier stories
such as Charles Dickens' A Christmas Carol. Historically,
• Vosniadou, S. & Ortony. A. (eds.), Similarity and the concept dates back to the early mythologies of Hin-
Analogical Reasoning, Cambridge University Press, duism (such as the Mahabharata). More recently, with
(Cambridge), 1989. advancing technology and a greater scientific understand-
ing of the universe, the plausibility of time travel has
• Wilkes, K.V., Real People: Personal Identity with- been explored in greater detail by science fiction writers,
out Thought Experiments, Oxford University Press, philosophers, and physicists.
(Oxford), 1988.

• Yeates, L.B., Thought Experimentation: A Cognitive

0.21.1 History of the time travel concept
Approach, Graduate Diploma in Arts (By Research)
dissertation, University of New South Wales, 2004.
Forward time travel

There is no widespread agreement as to which written

0.20.15 External links
work should be recognized as the earliest example of
a time travel story, since a number of early works fea-
• Thought experiment entry in the Stanford Encyclo-
ture elements ambiguously suggestive of time travel. An-
pedia of Philosophy
cient folk tales and myths sometimes involved something
• Thought experiment at PhilPapers akin to traveling forward in time; for example, in Hindu
mythology, the Mahabharata mentions the story of the
• Thought experiment at the Indiana Philosophy On- King Raivata Kakudmi, who travels to heaven to meet
tology Project the creator Brahma and is shocked to learn that many ages
have passed when he returns to Earth.* [3]* [4]
• Philosophy Bites podcast: Nigel Warburton inter- The Buddhist Pāli Canon also mentions time moving at
views Julian Baggini on Thought Experiments different paces, and in the Payasi Sutta, one of Buddha's
chief disciples Kumara Kassapa explains to the skeptic
• Stevinus, Galileo, and Thought Experiments Short Payasi that “In the Heaven of the Thirty Three Devas,
essay by S. Abbas Raza of 3 Quarks Daily time passes at a different pace, and people live much
longer.“In the period of our century; one hundred years,
• Thought experiment generator, an entertaining vi-
only a single day; twenty four hours would have passed for
sual aid to running your own thought experiment
them.”* [5]
• Articles on Thought Experiments in the PhilSci In Islam, there is some reference to time travel. The
Archive, an electronic archive for preprints in the Quran tells about several individuals who go to sleep in
philosophy of science. a cave only to wake up after 309 years. There is also a
 0.21. TIME TRAVEL 99

reference about time variation where it states “one day 200 years in the future after falling into a state of sleep
for God (Allah) is one thousand years of what you (hu- resembling hibernation or suspended animation.
man beings) count”. A similar idea is described in the
Christian New Testament book of II Peter, where Peter
states that“With the Lord a day is like a thousand years, Backward time travel
and a thousand years are like a day.”(2 Peter 3:8) In the
Old Testament book of Psalms the writer states in rela- Backward time travel seems to be a more modern idea,
tion to God: “For a thousand years in your sight are but but its origin is also somewhat ambiguous. One early
like yesterday when it is in the past”. (Psalms 90:4) story with hints of backward time travel is Memoirs of the
Twentieth Century (1733) by Samuel Madden, which is
Another of the earliest known stories to involve travel- mainly a series of letters from British ambassadors in var-
ing forward in time to a distant future was the Japanese ious countries to the British Lord High Treasurer, along
tale of "Urashima Tarō",* [6] first described in the with a few replies from the British Foreign Office, all
Nihongi (720).* [7] It was about a young fisherman named purportedly written in 1997 and 1998 and describing the
Urashima Taro who visits an undersea palace and stays conditions of that era.* [10] However, the framing story is
there for three days. After returning home to his village, that these letters were actual documents given to the nar-
he finds himself 300 years in the future, when he is long rator by his guardian angel one night in 1728; for this rea-
forgotten, his house in ruins, and his family long dead. son, Paul Alkon suggests in his book Origins of Futuristic
Another very old example of this type of story can be Fiction that“the first time-traveler in English literature is
found in the Talmud with the story of Honi HaM'agel a guardian angel who returns with state documents from
who went to sleep for 70 years and woke up to a world 1998 to the year 1728”,* [11] although the book does
where his grandchildren were grandparents and where all not explicitly show how the angel obtained these docu-
his friends and family were dead.* [8] ments. Alkon later qualifies this by writing, “It would
be stretching our generosity to praise Madden for being
the first to show a traveler arriving from the future”, but
also says that Madden “deserves recognition as the first
to toy with the rich idea of time-travel in the form of an
artifact sent backward from the future to be discovered in
the present.”* [10]

Statue of Rip Van Winkle in Irvington, New York

A more recent story involving travel to the future is Louis-

Sébastien Mercier's L'An 2440, rêve s'il en fût jamais (
“The Year 2440: A Dream If Ever There Were One”), a
utopian novel in which the main character is transported
to the year 2440. An extremely popular work (it went
through 25 editions after its first appearance in 1771), it
describes the adventures of an unnamed man who, after
engaging in a heated discussion with a philosopher friend
about the injustices of Paris, falls asleep and finds himself
in a Paris of the future. Robert Darnton writes that“de-
spite its self-proclaimed character of fantasy...L'An 2440
demanded to be read as a serious guidebook to the fu-
ture.”* [9]
More recently, Washington Irving's 1819 story "Rip Van
Winkle" tells of a man named Rip Van Winkle who takes
a nap on a mountain and wakes up 20 years in the future,
when he has been forgotten, his wife dead, and his daugh- Mr. and Mrs. Fezziwig dance in a vision the Ghost of Christmas
ter grown up.* [6] Sleep was also used for time travel Past shows Scrooge.
in Faddey Bulgarin's story "Pravdopodobnie Nebylitsi" in
which the protagonist wakes up in the 29th century, and In 1836 Alexander Veltman published Predki Kalimerosa:
H.G. Wells' The Sleeper Awakes, about a man who wakes Aleksandr Filippovich Makedonskii (The Forebears of
100 CONTENTS

Kalimeros: Alexander, son of Philip of Macedon), which into slavery. This was the first known story to feature
has been called the first original Russian science fiction an alternate history being created as a result of time
novel and the first novel to use time travel.* [12] In it, the travel.* [18]
narrator rides to ancient Greece on a hippogriff, meets The first time travel story to feature time travel by means
Aristotle, and goes on a voyage with Alexander the Great of a machine of some kind was the short story "The Clock
before returning to the 19th century. that Went Backward" by Edward Page Mitchell,* [19]
In the science fiction anthology Far Boundaries (1951), which appeared in the New York Sun in 1881. However,
the editor August Derleth identifies the short story“Miss- the mechanism is borderline fantasy in this case—a clock
ing One's Coach: An Anachronism”, written for the that, when wound, begins to run backward and transports
Dublin Literary Magazine* [13] by an anonymous author people in the vicinity backward in time, with no expla-
in 1838, as a very early time travel story.* [14] In this nation as to where the clock came from or how it gained
story, the narrator is waiting under a tree to be picked this ability.* [20]
up by a coach which will take him out of Newcastle, Mark Twain's A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur's
when he suddenly finds himself transported back over a Court (1889), in which the protagonist finds himself in the
thousand years. He encounters the Venerable Bede in a time of King Arthur after a fight in which he is hit with a
monastery, and gives him somewhat ironic explanations sledgehammer, was another early time travel story which
of the developments of the coming centuries. However, helped bring the concept to a wide audience, and was also
the story never makes it clear whether these events actu- one of the first stories to show history being changed by
ally occurred or were merely a dream: the narrator says a time traveler's actions.
that when he initially found a comfortable-looking spot in
the roots of the tree, he sat down, “and as my sceptical Enrique Gaspar y Rimbau's 1887 book El
reader will tell me, nodded and slept”, but then says that Anacronópete* [21] was the first story to feature a
he is“resolved not to admit”this explanation. A number vessel that had been engineered by an inventor to
of dreamlike elements of the story may suggest otherwise transport its riders through time.* [22] Andrew Sawyer
to the reader, such as the fact that none of the members has commented that the story “does seem to be the first
of the monastery seem to be able to see him at first, and literary description of a time machine noted so far”,
the abrupt ending in which Bede has been delayed talking adding that “Edward Page Mitchell's story The Clock
to the narrator and so the other monks burst in thinking That Went Backward (1881) is usually described as the
that some harm has come to him and suddenly the narra- first time-machine story, but I'm not sure that a clock
tor finds himself back under the tree in the present (Au- quite counts.”* [23] This notion of a vehicle designed for
gust 1837), with his coach having just passed his spot on time travel gained popularity with the H. G. Wells story
the road leaving him stranded in Newcastle for another The Time Machine, published in 1895 (preceded by a
night.* [15] less influential story of time travel which Wells wrote in
1888, titled "The Chronic Argonauts"). The term “time
Charles Dickens' 1843 book A Christmas Carol is consid- machine”, coined by Wells, is now universally used to
ered by some* [16] to be one of the first depictions of time refer to such a vehicle.
travel in both directions, as the main character, Ebenezer
Scrooge, is transported to Christmases past, present and Since that time, both science and fiction (see Time travel
yet to come. However, these might be considered mere in fiction) have expanded on the concept of time travel.
visions rather than actual time travel, since Scrooge only
viewed each time-period passively, unable to interact with
them.
0.21.2 Theory
A clearer example of backward time travel is found in the
popular 1861 book Paris avant les hommes (Paris before Some theories, most notably special and general relativ-
Men) by the French botanist and geologist Pierre Boitard,
ity, suggest that suitable geometries of spacetime or spe-
published posthumously. In this story, the main charac- cific types of motion in space might allow time travel
ter is transported into the prehistoric past by the magic
into the past and future if these geometries or motions
of a “lame demon”(a French pun on Boitard's name), were possible.* [24] In technical papers, physicists gener-
where he encounters such extinct animals as a Plesiosaur,
ally avoid the commonplace language of “moving”or
as well as Boitard's imagined version of an apelike hu-“traveling”through time (“movement”normally refers
man ancestor, and is able to actively interact with someonly to a change in spatial position as the time coordinate
of them.* [17] is varied), and instead discuss the possibility of closed
In 1881, Edward Everett Hale published “Hands Off” timelike curves, which are worldlines that form closed
, about an unnamed being (possibly the soul of a per- loops in spacetime, allowing objects to return to their own
son who had recently died) free to travel through time past. There are known to be solutions to the equations of
and space, who interferes with Earth history in Ancient general relativity that describe spacetimes which contain
Egypt, preventing Joseph (son of Jacob) from being sold closed timelike curves (such as Gödel spacetime), but the
physical plausibility of these solutions is uncertain.
 0.21. TIME TRAVEL 101

Relativity predicts that if one were to move away from may be closed.* [27] These semiclassical arguments led
the Earth at relativistic velocities and return, more time Hawking to formulate the chronology protection conjec-
would have passed on Earth than for the traveler, so in this ture, suggesting that the fundamental laws of nature pre-
sense it is accepted that relativity allows “travel into the vent time travel,* [28] but physicists cannot come to a def-
future”(according to relativity there is no single objec- inite judgment on the issue without a theory of quantum
tive answer to how much time has really passed between gravity to join quantum mechanics and general relativity
the departure and the return, but there is an objective into a completely unified theory.* [29]
answer to how much proper time has been experienced
by both the Earth and the traveler, i.e., how much each
has aged; see twin paradox). On the other hand, many 0.21.3 Time travel to the past in physics
in the scientific community believe that backward time
travel is highly unlikely. Any theory that would allow time Time travel to the past is theoretically allowed using the
travel would introduce potential problems of causality. following methods:* [30]
The classic example of a problem involving causality is
the "grandfather paradox": what if one were to go back
• Traveling faster than the speed of light
in time and kill one's own grandfather before one's father
was conceived? But some scientists believe that para- • The use of cosmic strings and black holes
doxes can be avoided, by appealing either to the Novikov
self-consistency principle or to the notion of branching • Wormholes and Alcubierre drive
parallel universes (see the 'Paradoxes' section below).

Via faster-than-light (FTL) travel

Tourism in time
If one were able to move information or matter from one
Stephen Hawking has suggested that the absence of point to another faster than light, then according to the
tourists from the future is an argument against the exis- theory of relativity, there would be some inertial frame of
tence of time travel: this is a variant of the Fermi para- reference in which the signal or object was moving back-
dox. Of course, this would not prove that time travel is ward in time. This is a consequence of the relativity of
physically impossible, since it might be that time travel simultaneity in special relativity, which says that in some
is physically possible but that it is never developed (or cases different reference frames will disagree on whether
is cautiously never used); and even if it were developed, two events at different locations happened “at the same
Hawking notes elsewhere that time travel might only be time”or not, and they can also disagree on the order of the
possible in a region of spacetime that is warped in the two events. Technically, these disagreements occur when
correct way, and that if we cannot create such a region the spacetime interval between the events is 'space-like',
until the future, then time travelers would not be able meaning that neither event lies in the future light cone
to travel back before that date, so "[t]his picture would of the other.* [31] If one of the two events represents the
explain why”the world hasn't already been overrun by sending of a signal from one location and the second event
“tourists from the future.”* [25] This simply means that, represents the reception of the same signal at another lo-
until a time machine were actually to be invented, we cation, then as long as the signal is moving at the speed of
would not be able to see time travelers. Carl Sagan also light or slower, the mathematics of simultaneity ensures
once suggested the possibility that time travelers could that all reference frames agree that the transmission-event
be here, but are disguising their existence or are not rec- happened before the reception-event.* [31]
ognized as time travelers, because bringing unintentional
changes to the time-space continuum might bring about However, in the case of a hypothetical signal moving
undesired outcomes to those travelers. It might also alter faster than light, there would always be some frames in
established past events.* [26] There is also the possibility which the signal was received before it was sent, so that
that if events were changed, we would never notice it be- the signal could be said to have moved backward in time.
cause all events following and our memories would have And since one of the two fundamental postulates of spe-
been instantly altered to remain congruent with the newly cial relativity says that the laws of physics should work
established timeline. the same way in every inertial frame, then if it is possible
for signals to move backward in time in any one frame,
it must be possible in all frames. This means that if ob-
General relativity server A sends a signal to observer B which moves FTL
(faster than light) in A's frame but backward in time in B's
However, the theory of general relativity does suggest a frame, and then B sends a reply which moves FTL in B's
scientific basis for the possibility of backward time travel frame but backward in time in A's frame, it could work
in certain unusual scenarios, although arguments from out that A receives the reply before sending the original
semiclassical gravity suggest that when quantum effects signal, a clear violation of causality in every frame. An
are incorporated into general relativity, these loopholes illustration of such a scenario using spacetime diagrams
102 CONTENTS

can be found here.* [32] The scenario is sometimes re- through the wormhole, no matter how the two ends move
ferred to as a tachyonic antitelephone. around.* [35] This means that an observer entering the ac-
According to special relativity, it would take an infi- celerated end would exit the stationary end when the sta-
nite amount of energy to accelerate a slower-than-light tionary end was the same age that the accelerated end had
object to the speed of light. Although relativity does been at the moment before entry; for example, if prior
not forbid the theoretical possibility of tachyons which to entering the wormhole the observer noted that a clock
move faster than light at all times, when analyzed using at the accelerated end read a date of 2007 while a clock
quantum field theory, it seems that it would not actually be at the stationary end read 2012, then the observer would
exit the stationary end when its clock also read 2007, a
possible to use them to transmit information faster than
light. [33] There is also no widely agreed-upon evidence trip backward in time as seen by other observers outside.
*
One significant limitation of such a time machine is that
for the existence of tachyons; the faster-than-light neu-
trino anomaly had opened the possibility that neutrinos it is only possible to go as* far back in time as the initial
creation of the machine; [36] in essence, it is more of
might be tachyons, but the results of the experiment were
found to be invalid upon further analysis. a path through time than it is a device that itself moves
through time, and it would not allow the technology itself
to be moved backward in time. This could provide an al-
Special spacetime geometries ternative explanation for Hawking's observation: a time
machine will be built someday, but has not yet been built,
The general theory of relativity extends the special the- so the tourists from the future cannot reach this far back
ory to cover gravity, illustrating it in terms of curvature in time.
in spacetime caused by mass-energy and the flow of mo- According to current theories on the nature of worm-
mentum. General relativity describes the universe under holes, construction of a traversable wormhole would re-
a system of field equations, and there exist solutions to quire the existence of a substance with negative energy
these equations that permit what are called "closed time- (often referred to as "exotic matter"). More technically,
like curves", and hence time travel into the past.* [24] the wormhole spacetime requires a distribution of en-
The first of these was proposed by Kurt Gödel, a solution ergy that violates various energy conditions, such as the
known as the Gödel metric, but his (and many others') ex- null energy condition along with the weak, strong, and
ample requires the universe to have physical characteris- dominant energy conditions.* [37] However, it is known
tics that it does not appear to have.* [24] Whether general that quantum effects can lead to small measurable viola-
relativity forbids closed time-like curves for all realistic tions of the null energy condition,* [37] and many physi-
conditions is unknown. cists believe that the required negative energy may ac-
tually be possible due to the Casimir effect in quan-
Using wormholes tum physics.* [38] Although early calculations suggested a
very large amount of negative energy would be required,
Main article: Wormhole later calculations showed that the amount of negative en-
ergy can be made arbitrarily small.* [39]

Wormholes are a hypothetical warped spacetime which In 1993, Matt Visser argued that the two mouths of
are also permitted by the Einstein field equations of gen- a wormhole with such an induced clock difference
eral relativity,* [34] although it would not be possible to could not be brought together without inducing quan-
travel through a wormhole unless it were what is known tum field and gravitational effects that would either make
as a traversable wormhole. the wormhole collapse or the two mouths repel each
other.* [40] Because of this, the two mouths could not
A proposed time-travel machine using a traversable be brought close enough for causality violation to take
wormhole would (hypothetically) work in the following place. However, in a 1997 paper, Visser hypothesized
way: One end of the wormhole is accelerated to some that a complex "Roman ring" (named after Tom Roman)
significant fraction of the speed of light, perhaps with configuration of an N number of wormholes arranged in
some advanced propulsion system, and then brought back a symmetric polygon could still act as a time machine,
to the point of origin. Alternatively, another way is to although he concludes that this is more likely a flaw in
take one entrance of the wormhole and move it to within classical quantum gravity theory rather than proof that
the gravitational field of an object that has higher grav- causality violation is possible.* [41]
ity than the other entrance, and then return it to a po-
sition near the other entrance. For both of these meth-
ods, time dilation causes the end of the wormhole that Other approaches based on general relativity
has been moved to have aged less than the stationary end,
as seen by an external observer; however, time connects Another approach involves a dense spinning cylinder usu-
differently through the wormhole than outside it, so that ally referred to as a Tipler cylinder, a GR solution dis-
synchronized clocks at either end of the wormhole will al- covered by Willem Jacob van Stockum* [42] in 1936 and
ways remain synchronized as seen by an observer passing Kornel Lanczos* [43] in 1924, but not recognized as al-
0.21. TIME TRAVEL 103

lowing closed timelike curves* [44] until an analysis by allow time travel even without exotic matter (though it is
Frank Tipler* [45] in 1974. If a cylinder is infinitely long also possible such a theory would place even more restric-
and spins fast enough about its long axis, then a spaceship tions on time travel, or rule it out completely as postulated
flying around the cylinder on a spiral path could travel by Hawking's chronology protection conjecture).
back in time (or forward, depending on the direction of
its spiral). However, the density and speed required is so
great that ordinary matter is not strong enough to con- Experiments carried out
struct it. A similar device might be built from a cosmic
string, but none are known to exist, and it does not seem Certain experiments carried out give the impression of re-
to be possible to create a new cosmic string. versed causality but are subject to interpretation. For ex-
ample, in the delayed choice quantum eraser experiment
Physicist Robert Forward noted that a naïve application performed by Marlan Scully, pairs of entangled photons
of general relativity to quantum mechanics suggests an- are divided into “signal photons”and “idler photons”
other way to build a time machine. A heavy atomic nu- , with the signal photons emerging from one of two loca-
cleus in a strong magnetic field would elongate into a tions and their position later measured as in the double-
cylinder, whose density and “spin”are enough to build slit experiment, and depending on how the idler photon is
a time machine. Gamma rays projected at it might allow measured, the experimenter can either learn which of the
information (not matter) to be sent back in time; however, two locations the signal photon emerged from or“erase”
he pointed out that until we have a single theory combin- that information. Even though the signal photons can
ing relativity and quantum mechanics, we will have no be measured before the choice has been made about the
idea whether such speculations are nonsense. idler photons, the choice seems to retroactively determine
A more fundamental objection to time travel schemes whether or not an interference pattern is observed when
based on rotating cylinders or cosmic strings has been one correlates measurements of idler photons to the cor-
put forward by Stephen Hawking, who proved a theorem responding signal photons. However, since interference
showing that according to general relativity it is impossi- can only be observed after the idler photons are measured
ble to build a time machine of a special type (a “time and they are correlated with the signal photons, there is
machine with the compactly generated Cauchy horizon” no way for experimenters to tell what choice will be made
) in a region where the weak energy condition is satisfied, in advance just by looking at the signal photons, and un-
meaning that the region contains no matter with negative der most interpretations of quantum mechanics the results
energy density (exotic matter). Solutions such as Tipler's can be explained in a way that does not violate causality.
assume cylinders of infinite length, which are easier to an- The experiment of Lijun Wang might also show causal-
alyze mathematically, and although Tipler suggested that ity violation since it made it possible to send packages
a finite cylinder might produce closed timelike curves if of waves through a bulb of caesium gas in such a way
the rotation rate were fast enough,* [46] he did not prove that the package appeared to exit the bulb 62 nanosec-
this. But Hawking points out that because of his theo- onds before its entry. But a wave package is not a single
rem, “it can't be done with positive energy density ev- well-defined object but rather a sum of multiple waves of
erywhere! I can prove that to build a finite time machine, different frequencies (see Fourier analysis), and the pack-
you need negative energy.”* [47] This result comes from age can appear to move faster than light or even backward
Hawking's 1992 paper on the chronology protection con- in time even if none of the pure waves in the sum do so.
jecture, where he examines “the case that the causality This effect cannot be used to send any matter, energy, or
violations appear in a finite region of spacetime without information faster than light,* [49] so this experiment is
curvature singularities”and proves that "[t]here will be understood not to violate causality either.
a Cauchy horizon that is compactly generated and that in
general contains one or more closed null geodesics which The physicists Günter Nimtz and Alfons Stahlhofen, of
will be incomplete. One can define geometrical quanti- the University of Koblenz, claim to have violated Ein-
ties that measure the Lorentz boost and area increase on stein's theory of relativity by transmitting photons faster
going round these closed null geodesics. If the causal- than the speed of light. They say they have conducted an
ity violation developed from a noncompact initial sur- experiment in which microwave photons traveled “in-
face, the averaged weak energy condition must be vio- stantaneously”between a pair of prisms that had been
lated on the Cauchy horizon.”* [48] However, this theo- moved up to 3 ft (0.91 m) apart, using a phenomenon
rem does not rule out the possibility of time travel 1) by known as quantum tunneling. Nimtz told New Scientist
means of time machines with the non-compactly gener- magazine: “For the time being, this is the only viola-
ated Cauchy horizons (such as the Deutsch-Politzer time tion of special relativity that I know of.”However, other
machine) and 2) in regions which contain exotic matter physicists say that this phenomenon does not allow in-
(which would be necessary for traversable wormholes or formation to be transmitted faster than light. Aephraim
the Alcubierre drive). Because the theorem is based on Steinberg, a quantum optics expert at the University of
general relativity, it is also conceivable a future theory of Toronto, Canada, uses the analogy of a train traveling
quantum gravity which replaced general relativity would from Chicago to New York, but dropping off train cars
at each station along the way, so that the center of the
104 CONTENTS

train moves forward at each stop; in this way, the speed

of the center of the train exceeds the speed of any of the
individual cars.* [50]
traveling twin
Some physicists have performed experiments that at-
tempted to show causality violations, but so far without
success. The “Space-time Twisting by Light”(STL) simultaneity
experiment run by physicist Ronald Mallett attempts to planes (ret. trip)
stationary
observe a violation of causality when a neutron is passed twin simultaneity
through a circle made up of a laser whose path has been planes (trip out)
twisted by passing it through a photonic crystal. Mal-
lett has some physical arguments that suggest that closed
timelike curves would become possible through the cen-
ter of a laser that has been twisted into a loop. However,
other physicists dispute his arguments (see objections).
Shengwang Du claims in a peer-reviewed journal to have Twin paradox diagram
observed single photons' precursors, saying that they
travel no faster than c in a vacuum. His experiment in-
volved slow light as well as passing light through a vac- things up so that in a small amount of his own subjective
uum. He generated two single photons, passing one time, a large amount of subjective time has passed for
through rubidium atoms that had been cooled with a laser other people on Earth. For example, an observer might
(thus slowing the light) and passing one through a vac- take a trip away from the Earth and back at relativistic
uum. Both times, apparently, the precursors preceded velocities, with the trip only lasting a few years according
the photons' main bodies, and the precursor traveled at c to the observer's own clocks, and return to find that thou-
in a vacuum. According to Du, this implies that there is sands of years had passed on Earth. It should be noted,
no possibility of light traveling faster than c (and, thus, vi- though, that according to relativity there is no objective
olating causality).* [51] Some members of the media took answer to the question of how much time“really”passed
this as an indication of proof that time travel was impos- during the trip; it would be equally valid to say that the
sible.* [52]* [53] trip had lasted only a few years or that the trip had lasted
thousands of years, depending on the choice of reference
frame.
Non-physics-based experiments Several exper-
iments have been carried out to try to entice future This form of “travel into the future”is theoretically
humans, who might invent time travel technology, to allowed (and has been demonstrated at very small time
*
come back and demonstrate it to people of the present scales) using the following methods: [30]
time. Events such as Perth's Destination Day (2005)
or MIT's Time Traveler Convention heavily publicized • Using velocity-based time dilation under the theory
permanent “advertisements”of a meeting time and of special relativity, for instance:
place for future time travelers to meet. Back in 1982,
• Traveling at almost the speed of light to a dis-
a group in Baltimore, Maryland., identifying itself as
tant star, then slowing down, turning around,
the Krononauts, hosted an event of this type welcoming
and traveling at almost the speed of light back
visitors from the future.* [54]* [55] These experiments
to Earth* [59] (see the Twin paradox)
only stood the possibility of generating a positive result
demonstrating the existence of time travel, but have • Using gravitational time dilation under the theory of
failed so far —no time travelers are known to have general relativity, for instance:
attended either event. It is hypothetically possible that
future humans have traveled back in time, but have • Residing inside of a hollow, high-mass object;
traveled back to the meeting time and place in a parallel • Residing just outside of the event horizon of a
* black hole, or sufficiently near an object whose
universe. [56]
mass or density causes the gravitational time
Another factor is that for all the time travel devices con-
dilation near it to be larger than the time dila-
sidered under current physics (such as those that operate
tion factor on Earth.
using wormholes), it is impossible to travel back to before
the time machine was actually made.* [57]* [58]
Additionally, it might be possible to see the distant future
of the Earth using methods which do not involve relativity
0.21.4 Time travel to the future in physics at all, although it is even more debatable whether these
should be deemed a form of “time travel":
There are various ways in which a person could “travel
into the future”in a limited sense: the person could set • Hibernation
0.21. TIME TRAVEL 105

• Suspended animation distant observers by residing inside a spherical shell with

a diameter of 5 meters and the mass of Jupiter.* [30] For
such a person, every one second of their“personal”time
Time dilation
would correspond to four seconds for distant observers.
Of course, squeezing the mass of a large planet into such
a structure is not expected to be within our technological
capabilities in the near future.
There is a great deal of experimental evidence supporting
the validity of equations for velocity-based time dilation
in special relativity* [61] and gravitational time dilation in
general relativity.* [62]* [63]* [64] However, with current
technologies it is only possible to cause a human traveler
to age less than companions on Earth by a very small frac-
tion of a second, the current record being about 20 mil-
liseconds for the cosmonaut Sergei Avdeyev.

Time perception

Time perception can be apparently sped up for living or-

ganisms through hibernation, where the body tempera-
ture and metabolic rate of the creature is reduced. A
more extreme version of this is suspended animation,
where the rates of chemical processes in the subject
would be severely reduced.
Time dilation and suspended animation only allow
“travel”to the future, never the past, so they do not vio-
Transversal time dilation late causality, and it is debatable whether they should be
called time travel. However time dilation can be viewed
Main article: Time dilation as a better fit for our understanding of the term “time
travel”than suspended animation, since with time dila-
Time dilation is permitted by Albert Einstein's special and tion less time actually does pass for the traveler than for
general theories of relativity. These theories state that, those who remain behind, so the traveler can be said to
relative to a given observer, time passes more slowly for have reached the future faster than others, whereas with
bodies moving quickly relative to that observer, or bodies suspended animation this is not the case.
that are deeper within a gravity well.* [60] For example,
a clock which is moving relative to the observer will be
measured to run slow in that observer's rest frame; as a Research
clock approaches the speed of light it will almost slow to a
stop, although it can never quite reach light speed so it will It is hypothesized forward time travel could be experi-
never completely stop. For two clocks moving inertially mentally proven using circulating lasers instead of super
(not accelerating) relative to one another, this effect is re- massive objects. If a subatomic particle with a short life-
ciprocal, with each clock measuring the other to be tick- time were to be observed lasting longer this would suggest
ing slower. However, the symmetry is broken if one clock it had traveled into the future at an accelerated rate.* [65]
accelerates, as in the twin paradox where one twin stays
on Earth while the other travels into space, turns around
(which involves acceleration), and returns—in this case 0.21.5 Other ideas from mainstream
both agree the traveling twin has aged less. General rel- physics
ativity states that time dilation effects also occur if one
clock is deeper in a gravity well than the other, with the Paradoxes
clock deeper in the well ticking more slowly; this effect
must be taken into account when calibrating the clocks Main article: Temporal paradox
on the satellites of the Global Positioning System, and it
could lead to significant differences in rates of aging for Parallel universes might provide a way out of paradoxes.
observers at different distances from a black hole. Everett's many-worlds interpretation (MWI) of quan-
It has been calculated that, under general relativity, a per- tum mechanics suggests that all possible quantum events
son could travel forward in time at a rate four times that of can occur in mutually exclusive histories.* [66] These
106 CONTENTS

alternate, or parallel, histories would form a branch- mation faster than classical signals. The fact that these
ing tree symbolizing all possible outcomes of any in- quantum phenomena apparently do not allow FTL time
teraction. If all possibilities exist, any paradoxes could travel is often overlooked in popular press coverage of
be explained by having the paradoxical events happen- quantum teleportation experiments. How the rules of
ing in a different universe. This concept is most of- quantum mechanics work to preserve causality is an ac-
ten used in science-fiction, but some physicists such as tive area of research.
David Deutsch have suggested that if time travel is possi-
ble and the MWI is correct, then a time traveler should
indeed end up in a different history than the one he
started from.* [67]* [68]* [69] On the other hand, Stephen
0.21.6 Philosophical understandings of
Hawking has argued that even if the MWI is correct, time travel
we should expect each time traveler to experience a sin-
gle self-consistent history, so that time travelers remain Main article: Philosophy of space and time
within their own world rather than traveling to a differ-
ent one.* [25] And the physicist Allen Everett argued that Theories of time travel are riddled with questions about
Deutsch's approach “involves modifying fundamental causality and paradoxes. Compared to other fundamen-
principles of quantum mechanics; it certainly goes be- tal concepts in modern physics, time is still not under-
yond simply adopting the MWI”. Everett also argues stood very well. Philosophers have been theorizing about
that even if Deutsch's approach is correct, it would imply the nature of time since before the era of the ancient
that any macroscopic object composed of multiple par- Greek philosophers. Some philosophers and physicists
ticles would be split apart when traveling back in time who study the nature of time also study the possibility of
through a wormhole, with different particles emerging in time travel and its logical implications. The probability
different worlds.* [70] of paradoxes and their possible solutions are often con-
Daniel Greenberger and Karl Svozil proposed that sidered.
quantum theory gives a model for time travel without For more information on the philosophical considerations
paradoxes.* [71]* [72] The quantum theory observation of time travel, consult the work of David Lewis. For more
causes possible states to 'collapse' into one measured information on physics-related theories of time travel,
state; hence, the past observed from the present is deter- consider the work of Kurt Gödel (especially his theorized
ministic (it has only one possible state), but the present universe) and Lawrence Sklar.
observed from the past has many possible states until our
actions cause it to collapse into one state. Our actions will
then be seen to have been inevitable.
Presentism vs. eternalism

The relativity of simultaneity in modern physics favors

Using quantum entanglement
the philosophical view known as eternalism or four-
dimensionalism (Sider, 2001), in which physical ob-
Main article: Quantum mechanics of time travel
jects are either temporally extended spacetime worms, or
spacetime worm stages, and this view would be favored
Quantum-mechanical phenomena such as quantum tele- further by the possibility of time travel (Sider, 2001).
portation, the EPR paradox, or quantum entanglement Eternalism, also sometimes known as “block universe
might appear to create a mechanism that allows for faster- theory”, builds on a standard method of modeling time
than-light (FTL) communication or time travel, and in as a dimension in physics, to give time a similar ontology
fact some interpretations of quantum mechanics such to that of space (Sider, 2001). This would mean that time
as the Bohm interpretation presume that some informa- is just another dimension, that future events are“already
tion is being exchanged between particles instantaneously there”, and that there is no objective flow of time. This
in order to maintain correlations between particles.* [73] view is disputed by Tim Maudlin in his The Metaphysics
This effect was referred to as "spooky action at a dis- Within Physics.
tance" by Einstein. Presentism is a school of philosophy that holds that nei-
Nevertheless, the fact that causality is preserved in quan- ther the future nor the past exist, and there are no non-
tum mechanics is a rigorous result in modern quantum present objects. In this view, time travel is impossible
field theories, and therefore modern theories do not al- because there is no future or past to travel to. However,
low for time travel or FTL communication. In any spe- some 21st-century presentists have argued that although
cific instance where FTL has been claimed, more detailed past and future objects do not exist, there can still be def-
analysis has proven that to get a signal, some form of inite truths about past and future events, and thus it is
classical communication must also be used.* [74] The no- possible that a future truth about a time traveler deciding
communication theorem also gives a general proof that to travel back to the present date could explain the time
quantum entanglement cannot be used to transmit infor- traveler's actual appearance in the present.* [75]* [76]
0.21. TIME TRAVEL 107

The grandfather paradox Consider now the fact that in Tim's universe his grandfa-
ther actually died in 1993 and not in 1955. This new fact
Main article: Grandfather paradox about Tim's situation reveals that him killing his grandfa-
ther is not compossible with the current set of facts. Tim
cannot kill his grandfather because his grandfather died
One subject often brought up in philosophical discussion
in 1993 and not when he was young. Thus, Lewis con-
of time is the idea that, if one were able to go back in
cludes, the statements “Tim doesn’t but can, because
time, paradoxes could ensue if the time traveler were to
he has what it takes”, and, “Tim doesn’t, and can’t,
change things. The best examples of this are the grandfa-
because it is logically impossible to change the past”, are
ther paradox and the idea of autoinfanticide. The grand-
not contradictions; they are both true given the relevant
father paradox is a hypothetical situation in which a time
set of facts. The usage of the word “can”is equivocal:
traveler goes back in time and attempts to kill his pater-
he “can”and “can not”under different relevant facts.
nal grandfather at a time before his grandfather met his
grandmother. If he did so, then his father never would So what must happen to Tim as he takes aim? Lewis be-
have been born, and neither would the time traveler him- lieves that his gun will jam, a bird will fly in the way, or
self, in which case the time traveler never would have Tim simply slips on a banana peel. Either way, there will
gone back in time to kill his grandfather. be some logical force of the universe that will prevent
Tim every time from killing his grandfather.* [78]
Autoinfanticide works the same way, where a traveler
goes back and attempts to kill himself as an infant. If
he were to do so, he never would have grown up to go
back in time to kill himself as an infant.
0.21.7 Ideas from fiction
This discussion is important to the philosophy of time Further information: Time travel in fiction
travel because philosophers question whether these para-
doxes make time travel impossible. Some philosophers
answer the paradoxes by arguing that it might be the case
that backward time travel could be possible but that it Rules of time travel
would be impossible to actually change the past in any
way,* [77] an idea similar to the proposed Novikov self- Time travel themes in science fiction and the me-
consistency principle in physics. dia can generally be grouped into three general cate-
gories (based on effect —methods are extremely var-
ied and numerous) each of which can be further subdi-
Theory of compossibility vided.* [79]* [80]* [81]* [82] However, there are no formal
names for these three categories, so concepts rather than
David Lewis's analysis of compossibility and the impli- formal names will be used with notes regarding what cat-
cations of changing the past is meant to account for the egories they are placed under (Note: These classifications
possibilities of time travel in a one-dimensional concep- do not address the method of time travel itself, i.e. how to
tion of time without creating logical paradoxes. Consider travel through time, but instead call to attention differing
Lewis’example of Tim. Tim hates his grandfather and rules of what happens to history.). As used in this section,
would like nothing more than to kill him. The only prob- timeline refers to all physical events in history, so that in
lem for Tim is that his grandfather died years ago. Tim time travel stories where events can be changed, the time
wants so badly to kill his grandfather himself that he con- traveler can create a new or altered timeline. This us-
structs a time machine to travel back to 1955 when his age of “timeline”is fairly common in time travel fic-
grandfather was young and kill him then. Assuming that tion,* [83] and is distinct from the usage of “timeline”
Tim can travel to a time when his grandfather is still alive, to refer to a type of chart created by humans to illustrate
the question must then be raised: can Tim kill his grand- a particular series of events (see timeline). This concept
father? is also distinct from the concept of a world line, a term
For Lewis, the answer lies within the context of the usage from Einstein's theory of relativity which refers to the en-
of the word“can”. Lewis explains that the word“can” tire history of a single object (usually idealized as a point
must be viewed against the context of pertinent facts relat- particle) that forms a distinct path through 4-dimensional
ing to the situation. Suppose that Tim has a rifle, years of spacetime.
rifle training, a straight shot on a clear day and no outside
force to restrain Tim's trigger finger. Can Tim shoot his 1. There is a single fixed history, which
grandfather? Considering these facts, it would appear that is self-consistent and unchangeable. In this
Tim can in fact kill his grandfather. In other words, all version, everything happens on a single time-
of the contextual facts are compossible with Tim killing line which does not contradict itself and can-
his grandfather. However, when reflecting on the com- not interact with anything potentially existing
possibility of a given situation, we must gather the most outside of it.
inclusive set of facts that we are able to.
108 CONTENTS

traveler is rendered a noncorpo-

real phantom unable to physically
interact with the past such as in
some Pre-Crisis Superman stories
and Michael Garrett's “Brief En-
counter”in Twilight Zone Magazine
May 1981.

2. History is flexible and is subject to

change (Plastic Time)
A man traveling a few seconds into the past in a single self-
consistent timeline. This scenario raises questions about free will, 2.1 Changes to history are easy and
since once the traveler has decided to enter the time machine, then can impact the traveler, the world,
as soon as his own double appears, there is absolutely no way for or both
him to change his mind.
Examples include Doctor
Who and the Back to
1.1 This can be simply achieved the Future trilogy. In
by applying the Novikov self- some cases, any result-
consistency principle, named after ing paradoxes can be dev-
Igor Dmitrievich Novikov. The astating, threatening the
principle states that the timeline is very existence of the uni-
totally fixed, and any actions taken verse. In other cases the
by a time traveler were part of his- traveler simply cannot re-
tory all along, so it is impossible for turn home. The extreme
the time traveler to “change”his- version of this (Chaotic
tory in any way. The time traveler's Time) is that history is
actions may be the cause of events very sensitive to changes
in their own past though, which with even small changes
leads to the potential for circu- having large impacts such
lar causation and the predestination as in Ray Bradbury's "A
paradox; for examples of circular Sound of Thunder".
causation, see Robert A. Heinlein's
story "By His Bootstraps". In fic- In Doctor Who the
tion, these phenomena are often re- Doctor claims time
ferred to as “stable time loops”. can be changed at any
The Novikov self-consistency prin- moment. In the Fourth
ciple proposes that the local laws Doctor serial Pyramids
of physics in a region of spacetime of Mars his companion
containing time travelers cannot be Sarah Jane Smith says
any different from the local laws they can leave 1911,
of physics in any other region of despite the alien Sutekh
spacetime.* [84] trying to break free, as
she comes from 1980 and
1.2 Alternatively, new physical laws knows the world wasn't
take effect regarding time travel destroyed in 1911. The
that thwart attempts to change the Doctor takes her to 1980
past (contradicting the assumption and shows the world has
mentioned in 1.1 above that the been destroyed because
laws that apply to time travelers are they didn't stop Sutekh.
the same ones that apply to every- The Doctor claims a man
one else). These new physical laws can change the course
can be as unsubtle as to reject time of history, but it takes a
travelers who travel to the past to being of Sutekh's power
change it by pulling them back to to destroy the future.
the point from when they came as
Michael Moorcock's The Dancers 2.2 History is change resistant in di-
at the End of Time or where the rect relationship to the importance
0.21. TIME TRAVEL 109

of the event i.e., small trivial events providing the same out-
can be readily changed but large come. Using this model,
ones take great effort. if a time traveler were
In the Twilight Zone to go back in time and
kill Adolf Hitler, another
episode "Back There" a
traveler tries to prevent Nazi would simply take
his place and commit his
the assassination of
President Lincoln and same actions, leaving the
broader course of history
fails, but his actions have
made subtle changes to unchanged.
the status quo in his own
time (e.g. a man who In the Doctor Who
had been the butler of his episode "The Waters of
gentleman's club is now a Mars", Captain Adelaide
rich tycoon). Brooke's death on Mars is
the most singular catalyst
of human travel outside
In the Twilight Zone the solar system. At first,
episode "The 7th Is Made the Tenth Doctor realizes
Up of Phantoms" three her death is a“fixed point
modern-day soldiers on in time”and does not
maneuvers in Montana intervene, but later defies
near the site of the this rule, realising that
historic Battle of Little he is the last Time Lord
Big Horn vanish and and therefore is in charge
find themselves back at of the laws of time, and
that 1876 action; they transports her and her
join the fight but the crew to Earth. Rather
outcome of the battle – than allow human his-
the famous “last stand” tory to change, Captain
of George Armstrong Brooke commits suicide
Custer – remains the on Earth, leaving history
same despite the trio's mostly unchanged. Sim-
superior modern-day ilarly in "Vincent and
weapons. However, their the Doctor" the Eleventh
names are later found by Doctor and Amy Pond
their present-day army change history so artist
companions inscribed on Vincent Van Gogh will
the battlefield memorial know he is appreciated in
roll of those who were the future. Despite this,
killed there. he still commits suicide.

In the 2002 film adap- 2.3 There is a fixed timeline that his-
tation of The Time Ma- tory likes to travel, however large
chine, it is explained via enough changes to events can alter
a vision why Hartdegen history altogether. In other words,
could not save his sweet- small events which are not too sig-
heart Emma —doing so nificant will not have a noticeable
would have resulted in his change in history's final outcome
never developing the time In TimeRiders, the main
machine he used to try characters go back
and save her. in time to stop the
Assassination of John F.
In The Saga of Dar- Kennedy in 1963. One
ren Shan, major events of the team, who stays
in the past cannot be in the present, sees the
changed, but their de- world change slightly
tails can change while as Kennedy was never
110 CONTENTS

killed, however it quickly time, he/she ends up in a new timeline where

reverts to the original historical events can differ from the timeline
timeline as there was he/she came from, but his/her original time-
another killer in 1963 line does not cease to exist (this means the
posted in case the first grandfather paradox can be avoided since even
killer (whom the main if the time traveler's grandparent is killed at a
characters stopped) failed young age in the new timeline, he/she still sur-
in the assassination. vived to have children in the original timeline,
so there is still a causal explanation for the trav-
The main plot of the tele- eler's existence). Time travel may actually cre-
vision series Doraemon ate a new timeline that diverges from the orig-
involves a robotic cat who inal timeline at the moment the time traveler
tries to change the life of appears in the past, or the traveler may arrive
one Nobita. He is sent in an already existing parallel universe (though
from the 22nd century unless the parallel universe's history was iden-
by Nobita's grandson, but tical to the time traveler's history up until the
when Nobita questions if point where the time traveler appeared, it is
the future were to be questionable whether the latter version quali-
changed how he still ex- fies as 'time travel').
ists, his grandson uses an
analogy to that of travel- James P. Hogan's The Proteus Op-
ing from one city to an- eration fully explains parallel uni-
other. There are many verse time travel in chapter 20
methods of doing so, such where it has Einstein explaining
as by plane, by boat or by that all the possible outcomes al-
train, but the end result is ready exist and all time travel does
the same and you arrive at is change which already existing
your destination. branch you will experience.

Doctor Who has featured many al-

ternate timelines such as that in
Day of the Daleks (see above).
In Pyramids of Mars the Doctor
claims, “Every point in time has
its alternative.”

Though Star Trek has a long tra-

dition of using the 2.1 mecha-
nism, as seen in "The City on
the Edge of Forever", "Tomorrow
Is Yesterday", "Time and Again",
"Future's End", "Before and Af-
ter", "Endgame" and as late as
Enterprise's Temporal Cold War
episodes, "Parallels" had an exam-
ple of what Data called “quantum
realities”. He states, “But there
is a theory in quantum physics that
all possibilities that can happen do
happen in alternate quantum real-
ities,”suggesting the writers were
Time travel under the parallel universe hypothesis. This scenario
thinking of the many-worlds inter-
has the potential to preserve free will, but breaks symmetry be-
tween universes. pretation of quantum mechanics.

Michael Crichton's novel Timeline

3. Alternate timelines. In this version of time takes the approach that all time
travel, there are multiple coexisting alternate travel really is travel to an already
histories, so that when the traveler goes back in existing parallel universe where
0.21. TIME TRAVEL 111

time passes at a slower rate than fore any of the events occur, cre-
our own but actions in any of these ating a fourth timeline. No mat-
parallel universes may have already ter what any character does in the
occurred in our past. It is unclear past, their own original timeline is
from the novel if any sizable change unchanged.
in events of these parallel universe
can be made.
In Déjà Vu the main character trav-
els several times between parallel
In the “Homeline”setting of
timelines to solve a criminal case.
GURPS Infinite Worlds there are
Timelines are very similar and he
“echos”—parallel universes–
fails to solve and stop the crime in
branching from an early part of
first two attempts but succeeds in
Homeline's history, but changes to
the last timeline. The main hero in
an echo's history does not affect
the last timeline dies while stopping
Homeline's history. However
the crime, so the paradox of meet-
tampering with an echo's history
ing his double is avoided.
can cause the parallel universe to
shift quanta, making access to that
echo harder if not impossible. In Terminator 2: The New John
Connor Chronicles by Russell
An example in this category might Blackford Skynet and the resis-
dictate that the alternative version tance have created at least three
of the past lies not in some other timelines due to use of Time
dimension, but simply at a distant Displacement Equipment. The
location in space or a future pe- resistance in one timeline discovers
riod of time that replicates condi- how to travel from one timeline to
tions in the traveler's past. For ex- another, and fears that Skynet will
ample, in a Futurama episode titled learn this and destroy humanity
"The Late Philip J. Fry", Professor throughout the Terminator multi-
Farnsworth designs a forward-only verse. Therefore, they set out to
time travel device. Trapped in the destroy Skynet in each timeline.
future, he and two colleagues travel
forward all the way to the end of the
In the Japanese visual novel,
universe, at which point they wit-
"Steins;Gate" the protagonist
ness a new Big Bang which gives
Okabe Rintarou learns to travel
rise to a new universe whose history
in between “World lines”that
mirrors their own history. Then
act as alternate timelines based on
they continue to go forward until
changes done to the world through
they reach the exact time of their
his abilities to send text messages
initial departure, in which they ac-
into the past. These changes were
cidentally kill that Universe's ver-
calculated by a device known as a
sions of themselves and take their
“Divergence Meter”that would
place. Although this journey is not
measure changes by number values
truly backward time travel, the final
below 0, with a measure above 1
result is the same.
indicating a shift in line stronger
enough to shift to him to a world
In the Japanese manga, Dragon Ball with a drastically changed history.
Z, the character Trunks travels back
in time to warn the characters of
their imminent deaths. This does In Marvel Comics it is claimed time
not change his timeline, but creates travel creates alternate timelines.
a new one in which they do not die. The time-traveler Kang the Con-
Later two of the characters destroy queror creates alternate versions
the lab where a monster called Cell of himself due to his time travel.
is being created, creating a third However travel through these al-
timeline. Later it is revealed that ternate timelines is possible, which
Trunks is killed by Cell in the fu- Kang uses to kill all alternate ver-
ture, then travels to three years be- sions of him.
112 CONTENTS

Immutable timelines Time travel in a type 1 universe of dying (which would cause a paradox), he ex-
does not allow paradoxes such as the grandfather para- periences a return to the End of Time
dox to occur, where one deduces both a conclusion and
its opposite (in the case of the grandfather paradox, one Example 2: Time travelers sometimes visit the
can start with the premise of the time traveler killing his End of Time from their own epochs in the past.
grandfather, and reach the conclusion that the time trav- Those that attempt to return to their own period
eler will not be able to kill his grandfather since he was are likely to reappear inadvertently at the End
never born) though it can allow other paradoxes to occur. of Time.

In 1.1, the Novikov self-consistency principle asserts that

the existence of a method of time travel constrains events The general consequences are that time travel to the trav-
to remain self-consistent. This will cause any attempt eler's past is difficult, and many time travelers find them-
to violate such consistency to fail, even if seemingly ex- selves adventuring deeper and deeper into their future.
tremely improbable events are required.
If interaction with the past is not possible then the traveler
simply becomes an invisible insubstantial phantom unable
Example: You have a device that can send to interact with the past as in the case of James Harrigan
a single bit of information back to itself at a in Michael Garrett's “Brief Encounter”.
precise moment in time. You receive a bit
While a Type 1 universe will prevent a grandfather
at 10:00:00 p.m., then no bits for thirty sec-
paradox it does not prevent paradoxes in other aspects
onds after that. If you send a bit back to
of physics such as the predestination paradox and the
10:00:00 p.m., everything works fine. How-
bootstrap paradox (GURPS Infinite Worlds calls this
ever, if you try to send a bit to 10:00:15 p.m.
“Free Lunch Paradox”).
(a time at which no bit was received), your
transmitter will mysteriously fail. Or your dog The predestination paradox is where the traveler's actions
will distract you for fifteen seconds. Or your create some type of causal loop, in which some event A in
transmitter will appear to work, but as it turns the future helps cause event B in the past via time travel,
out your receiver failed at exactly 10:00:15 and the event B in turn is one of the causes of A. For
p.m., etc. Examples of this kind of universe instance, a time traveler might go back to investigate a
are found in Robert Forward's novel Timemas- specific historical event like the Great Fire of London,
ter, the Twilight Zone episode "No Time Like and their actions in the past could then inadvertently end
the Past", and the 1980 Jeannot Szwarc film up being the original cause of that very event.
Somewhere In Time (based on Richard Mathe- Examples of this kind of causal loop are found in Robert
son's novel Bid Time Return). Forward's novel Timemaster, the Twilight Zone episode
"No Time Like the Past", EC Comics stories like “Man
In 1.2, time travel is constrained to prevent paradox. How who was Killed in Time”(Weird Science #5), “Why
this occurs is dependent on whether interaction with the Papa Left Home”(Weird Science #11),“Only Time will
past is possible. Tell”(Weird Fantasy #1), “The Connection”(Weird
If interaction with the past is possible and one attempts Fantasy #9), “Skeleton Key”(Weird Fantasy #16),
to make a paradox, one undergoes involuntary or uncon- and “Counter Clockwise”(Weird Fantasy #18), the
trolled time travel. In the time-travel stories of Connie 1980 Jeannot Szwarc film Somewhere In Time (based on
Willis, time travelers encounter “slippage”which pre- Richard Matheson's novel Bid Time Return) the Michael
vents them from either reaching the intended time or Moorcock novel Behold the Man, and La Jetée/12 Mon-
translates them a sufficient distance from their destina- keys.
tion at the intended time, as to prevent any paradox from Causal loops are also featured in 1972's Doctor Who, in
occurring. the three part The Day of the Daleks, where three freedom
fighters from the future attempt to kill a British diplomat
Example: A man who travels into the past with they believe responsible for World War Three, and the
intentions to kill Hitler finds himself on a Mon- subsequent easy conquest of Earth by the Daleks. In the
tana farm in late April 1945. future they were taught an explosion at the diplomat's (Sir
Reginald Styles) mansion with foreign delegates inside
caused the nations of the world to attack each other. The
In the "The Dancers at the End of Time" series, Michael Doctor (Jon Pertwee), figures out that they caused the ex-
Moorcock invented a plot device called the Morphail Ef- plosion all along by way of a temporal paradox. However
fect. This causes a time traveler to be ejected from the this event is averted when the freedom fighter is warned
time in which he or she is about to cause a paradox. after the Doctor returns to the 20th Century. A more
clear example occurs in The Curse of Fenric, where the
Example 1: A man from the End of Time pe- Doctor's companion Ace saves her mother in 1943, thus
riod travels to the past and is executed. Instead enabling her existence.
0.21. TIME TRAVEL 113

In the 2006 crime thriller Déjà Vu there appears to be The philosopher Kelley L. Ross argues in “Time Travel
causal loops, as Agent Doug Carlin decides to send a mes- Paradoxes”* [86] that in an ontological paradox scenario
sage back in time to save his partner's life, but this will involving a physical object, there can be a violation of the
eventually cause his death. Later in the movie, though, second law of thermodynamics. Ross uses Somewhere in
Carlin is able to change events and create an alternate re- Time as an example where Jane Seymour's character gives
ality. This apparent paradox can be explained by multiple Christopher Reeve's character a watch she has owned for
previous unseen time travels in a type 3 universe. many years, and when he travels back in time he gives the
In the video game Escape from Monkey Island there's a same watch to Jane Seymour's character 60 years in the
past. As Ross states
section in which the player, controlling Guybrush Three-
pwood, gets some items from his future self in the Swamp
of Time. Soon after that, he will become the future Guy- “The watch is an impossible object. It vi-
brush and will have to give the items to his past self in the olates the Second Law of Thermodynamics,
same order. This is an example of causal loop because the Law of Entropy. If time travel makes that
those items were created purely from the time travel. If watch possible, then time travel itself is impos-
the player doesn't repeat every action properly, it will sible. The watch, indeed, must be absolutely
cause a paradox that sends Guybrush back to the entrance identical to itself in the 19th and 20th centuries,
of the swamp, implying a type 1.2 universe. since Reeve carries it with him from the future
instantaneously into the past and bestows it on
Seymour. The watch, however, cannot be iden-
tical to itself, since all the years in which it is
in the possession of Seymour and then Reeve
it will wear in the normal manner. Its entropy
will increase. The watch carried back by Reeve
will be more worn than the watch that would
have been acquired by Seymour.”

On the other hand, the second law of thermodynamics

is understood by modern physicists to be a statistical law
rather than an absolute one, so spontaneous reversals of
A version of the ontological or bootstrap paradox. The appear- entropy or failure to increase in entropy are not impos-
ance of the traveler is the result of his disappearance a few sec- sible, just improbable (see for example the fluctuation
onds later. In this scenario, the traveler is traveling along a closed theorem). In addition, the second law of thermody-
timelike curve. namics only states that entropy should increase in sys-
tems which are isolated from interactions with the ex-
The Novikov self-consistency principle can also result in ternal world, so Igor Novikov (creator of the Novikov
an ontological paradox (also known as the knowledge or self-consistency principle) has argued that in the case
information paradox, or bootstrap paradox)* [85] where of macroscopic objects like the watch whose worldlines
the very existence of some object or information is a time form closed loops, the outside world can expend energy
loop. GURPS Infinite Worlds gives the example (from The to repair wear/entropy that the object acquires over the
Eyre Affair) of a time traveler going to Shakespeare's time course of its history, so that it will be back in its original
with a book of all his works. Shakespeare pressed for condition when it closes the loop.* [87]
time simply copies the information in the book from the
future. The paradox is that nobody actually writes the
plays. Mutable timelines Time travel in a Type 2 universe
In The Final Countdown (film), a modern-day nuclear- is much more complex. The biggest problem is how to
powered United States Navy aircraft carrier passes explain changes in the past. One method of explanation
through a strange storm and ends up near Pearl Harbor is that once the past changes, so do the memories of all
the day before the Japanese surprise attack of Dec. 7, observers. This would mean that no observer would ever
1941. However, a second storm the following morning observe the changing of the past (because they will not
prevents the ship's commander from interfering with the remember changing the past). This would make it hard
historical timeline and using his ship's awesome firepower to tell whether you are in a Type 1 universe or a Type
to thwart the attack, by pulling the ship back to the present 2 universe. You could, however, infer such information
day. But in the process, one of his senior officers is left by knowing if a) communication with the past were pos-
behind in 1941 – creating a bootstrap paradox, as that of- sible or b) it appeared that the time line had never been
ficer, armed with his extensive modern-day knowledge of changed as a result of an action someone remembers tak-
naval ships and aviation, will, in the future that unfolds, ing, although evidence exists that other people are chang-
play a crucial and significant role in the construction and ing their time lines fairly often.
future history of that very ship. An example of this kind of universe is presented in Thrice
114 CONTENTS

Upon a Time, a novel by James P. Hogan. The Back to the weak”change, or was it just a local-time alteration which
Future trilogy films also seem to feature a single mutable had no extended effect on the larger timeline? As the
timeline (see the "Back to the Future FAQ" for details universe in Déjà Vu seems not entirely immune to para-
on how the writers imagined time travel worked in the doxes (some arguably minute paradoxes do occur), both
movies' world). By contrast, the short story “Brooklyn versions seem to be equally possible.
Project”by William Tenn provides a sketch of life in a
Type 2 world where no one even notices as the timeline
changes repeatedly. Alternate histories In Type 3, any event that appears
to have caused a paradox has instead created a new time
In type 2.1, attempts are being made at changing the line. The old time line remains unchanged, with the time
timeline, however, all that is accomplished in the first traveler or information sent simply having vanished, never
tries is that the method in which decisive events occur to return. A difficulty with this explanation, however, is
is changed; final conclusions in the bigger scheme cannot that conservation of mass-energy would be violated for
be brought to a different outcome. the origin timeline and the destination timeline. A pos-
As an example, the movie Déjà Vu depicts a paper note sible solution to this is to have the mechanics of time
sent to the past with vital information to prevent a terror- travel require that mass-energy be exchanged in precise
ist attack. However, the vital information results in the balance between past and future at the moment of travel,
killing of an ATF agent, but does not prevent the terrorist or to simply expand the scope of the conservation law
attack; the very same agent died in the previous version of to encompass all timelines. Some examples of this kind
the timeline as well, albeit under different circumstances. of time travel can be found in David Gerrold's book The
Finally, the timeline is changed by sending a human into Man Who Folded Himself and The Time Ships by Stephen
the past, arguably a“stronger”measure than simply send- baxter, plus several episodes of the TV shows Stargate,
ing back a paper note, which results in preventing both a Star Trek: The Next Generation and the android saga in
murder and the terrorist attack. As in the Back to the Fu- the anime Dragon Ball Z, as well as in The Legend of
ture movie trilogy, there seems to be a ripple effect too Zelda series of Video Games – which feature a heavy in-
as changes from the past “propagate”into the present, fluence of time and alternate realities, based on various
and people in the present have altered memory of events outcomes of a single scenario. In a slightly different ex-
that occurred after the changes made to the timeline. ercise of conservation, Robert Heinlein's The Door Into
Summer required that one send an equivalent mass into
The science fiction writer Larry Niven suggests in his es-
both the future and past but you couldn't choose which
say “The Theory and Practice of Time Travel”that in
'direction' each mass went.
a type 2.1 universe, the most efficient way for the uni-
verse to “correct”a change is for time travel to never In Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkaban by J. K.
be discovered, and that in a type 2.2 universe, the very Rowling, Harry Potter and his friend Hermione Granger
large (or infinite) number of time travelers from the end- travel back in time because, as Harry says “There must
less future will cause the timeline to change wildly until be something that happened around then that Professor
it reaches a history in which time travel is never discov- Dumbledore wants us to change.”The book only presents
ered. However, many other “stable”situations might the altered time line (twice) and not the unaltered
also exist in which time travel occurs but no paradoxes one.* [88]
are created; if the changeable-timeline universe finds it- In Groundhog Day (film) the central character (a
self in such a state no further changes will occur, and to snarky and arrogant TV weatherman unwillingly as-
the inhabitants of the universe it will appear identical to signed to cover the annual Groundhog Day festivities in
the type 1.1 scenario. This is sometimes referred to as Punxsutawney, Pennsylvania) becomes caught in a time
the “Time Dilution Effect”. loop that effectively produces multiple time lines – he
Few if any physicists or philosophers have taken seriously awakens each new morning to find himself still stuck in
the possibility of“changing”the past except in the case of the town on Feb. 2. Only he is aware of the time shift
multiple universes, and in fact many have argued that this and has memories of his previous interactions each“day”
idea is logically incoherent,* [77] so the mutable timeline with the townspeople and the members of his own news
idea is rarely considered outside of science fiction. crew; for them, each day begins totally anew, like a slate
that has been wiped clean. At first, he uses his retained
Also, deciding whether a given universe is of Type 2.1
knowledge to unfairly try to take advantage of the others,
or 2.2 can not be done objectively, as the categorization
knowing there will be no long-term consequences; when
of timeline-invasive measures as “strong”or “weak”
he tires of that, he grows despondent and tries to“escape”
is arbitrary, and up to interpretation: An observer can
his time loop, multiple times, by killing himself, only to
disagree about a measure being “weak”, and might, in
awaken again each morning still caught in the same sit-
the lack of context, argue instead that simply a mishap
uation. He gradually and eventually transforms himself,
occurred which then led to no effective change.
becoming a better person, both in terms of learning new
An example would be the paper note sent back to the past abilities, such as how to play the piano and speak French,
in the film Déjà Vu, as described above. Was it a “too and, more importantly, in learning how to treat other peo-
0.21. TIME TRAVEL 115

ple better, and only in that way is he able to finally escape the Looking-Glass (1871): the White Queen is liv-
his time trap. ing backward, hence her memory is working both
ways. Her kind of time travel is uncontrolled: she
moves through time with a constant speed of −1 and
Gradual and instantaneous she cannot change it. T.H. White, in the first part of
his Arthurian novel The Once and Future King, The
In literature, there are two methods of time travel: Sword in the Stone (1938) used the same idea: the
wizard Merlyn lives backward in time, because he
was born “at the wrong end of time”and has to
live backward from the front. “Some people call
it having second sight”, he says. This method of
gradual time travel is not as popular in modern sci-
ence fiction, though a form of it does occur in the
film Primer.

Time travel or spacetime travel

An objection that is sometimes raised against the concept

A gradual time travel, as in the movie Primer. When the time of time machines in science fiction is that they ignore the
machine is red, everything inside is going through time at nor-
motion of the Earth between the date the time machine
mal rate, but backward. During entry/exit it seems there would
departs and the date it returns. The idea that a traveler can
have to be fusion/separation between the forward and reversed
versions of the traveler. go into a machine that sends him or her to 1865 and step
out into exactly the same spot on Earth might be said to ig-
nore the issue that Earth is moving through space around
the Sun, which is moving in the galaxy, and so on, so that
1. The most commonly used method of time travel in
advocates of this argument imagine that “realistically”
science fiction is the instantaneous movement from
the time machine should actually reappear in space far
one point in time to another, like using the con-
away from the Earth's position at that date. However, the
trols on a CD player to skip to a previous or next
theory of relativity rejects the idea of absolute time and
song, though in most cases, there is a machine of
space; in relativity there can be no universal truth about
some sort, and some energy expended in order to
the spatial distance between events which occur at dif-
make this happen (like the time-traveling DeLorean
ferent times* [89] (such as an event on Earth today and an
in Back to the Future or the TARDIS (Time and
event on Earth in 1865), and thus no objective truth about
Relative Dimension in Space) that traveled through
which point in space at one time is at the “same posi-
time in Doctor Who). In some cases, there is not
tion”that the Earth was at another time. In the theory of
even the beginning of a scientific explanation for this
special relativity, which deals with situations where grav-
kind of time travel; it's popular probably because it
ity is negligible, the laws of physics work the same way in
is more spectacular and makes time travel simple.
every inertial frame of reference and therefore no frame's
The“Universal Remote”used by Adam Sandler in
perspective is physically better than any other frame's,
the movie Click works in the same manner, although
and different frames disagree about whether two events
only in one direction, the future. While his charac-
at different times happened at the “same position”or
ter Michael Newman can travel back to a previous
“different positions”. In the theory of general relativity,
point it is merely a playback with which he cannot
which incorporates the effects of gravity, all coordinate
interact.
systems are on equal footing because of a feature known
2. In The Time Machine, H. G. Wells explains that as “diffeomorphism invariance”.* [90]
we are moving through time with a constant speed. Nevertheless, the idea that the Earth moves away from the
Time travel then is, in Wells' words, “stopping or time traveler when he takes a trip through time has been
accelerating one's drift along the time-dimension, used in a few science fiction stories, such as the 2000 AD
or even turning about and traveling the other way.” comic Strontium Dog, in which Johnny Alpha uses“Time
George Pal, director of the 1960 adaptation based Bombs”to propel an enemy several seconds into the fu-
on Wells's classic, accordingly chose to depict time ture, during which time the movement of the Earth causes
travel by employing time-lapse photography. To the unfortunate victim to re-appear in space. Much ear-
expand on the audio playback analogy used above, lier, Clark Ashton Smith used this form of time travel
this would be like rewinding or fast forwarding an in several stories such as "The Letter from Mohaun Los"
analogue audio cassette and playing the tape at a (1932) where the protagonist ends up on a planet mil-
chosen point. Perhaps the oldest example of this lions of years in the future which “happened to occupy
method of time travel is in Lewis Carroll's Through the same space through which Earth had passed”. Other
116 CONTENTS

science fiction stories try to anticipate this objection and [8]“Choni HaMe'agel”. Jewish search. Retrieved November
offer a rationale for the fact that the traveler remains on 6, 2009.
Earth, such as the 1957 Robert Heinlein novel The Door
[9] Robert Darnton, The Forbidden Best-Sellers of Pre-
into Summer where Heinlein essentially handwaved the is- Revolutionary France (New York: W.W. Norton, 1996),
sue with a single sentence: “You stay on the world line 120.
you were on.”In his 1980 novel The Number of the Beast
a “continua device”allows the protagonists to dial in [10] Alkon, Paul K. (1987). Origins of Futuristic Fiction. The
the coordinates of space and time and it instantly moves University of Georgia Press. pp. 95–96. ISBN 0-8203-
them there—without explaining how such a device might 0932-X.
work. [11] Alkon, Paul K. (1987). Origins of Futuristic Fiction. The
The television series Seven Days also dealt with this prob- University of Georgia Press. p. 85. ISBN 0-8203-0932-
lem; when the chrononaut would be 'rewinding', he would X.
also be propelling himself backward around the Earth's [12] Akutin, Yury (1978) Александр Вельтман и его роман
orbit, with the intention of landing at some chosen spa- "Странник" (Alexander Veltman and his novel Strannik,
tial location, though seldom hitting the mark precisely. In in Russian).
Piers Anthony's Bearing an Hourglass, the potent Hour-
glass of the Incarnation of Time naturally moves the In- [13] “Missing One's Coach: An Anachronism”. Dublin Uni-
carnation in space according to the numerous movements versity magazine 11. March 1838.
of the globe through the solar system, the solar system [14] Derleth, August (1951). Far Boundaries. Pellegrini &
through the galaxy, etc.; but by carefully negating some Cudahy. p. 3.
of the movements he can also travel in space within the
limits of the planet. The television series Doctor Who [15] Derleth, August (1951). Far Boundaries. Pellegrini &
avoided this issue by establishing early on in the series Cudahy. pp. 11–38.
that TARDISes are able to move about in space in addi- [16] Flynn, John L.“Time Travel Literature”. Archived from
tion to traveling in time. the original on 2006-09-29. Retrieved 2006-10-28.

[17] Rudwick, Martin J. S. (1992). Scenes From Deep Time.

0.21.8 See also The University of Chicago Press. pp. 166–169. ISBN
0-226-73105-7.

0.21.9 Notes [18] Nahin, Paul J. (2001). Time machines: time travel in
physics, metaphysics, and science fiction. Springer. p. 54.
[1] “Curiosities : “The Clock That Went Backward,”by ISBN 0-387-98571-9.
Edward Page Mitchell (1881)". sfsite.com.
[19] Page Mitchell, Edward. “The Clock That Went Back-
[2] Vandermeer. The Time Traveler's Almanac. TOR. pp. ward” (PDF). Retrieved 4 December 2011.
154, 450. The Clock That Went Backward, released in
[20] Nahin, Paul J. (2001). Time machines: time travel in
1881 in The Sun is the first time-travel story ever pub-
physics, metaphysics, and science fiction. Springer. p. 55.
lished, coming out several years before HG Well's The
ISBN 0-387-98571-9.
Time Machine. Although it is popularly believed that The
Chronic Argonauts was the first fiction published with a [21] Uribe, Augusto (June 1999). “The First Time Machine:
time-travel theme, another story, also in this anthology, Enrique Gaspar's Anacronópete”. The New York Review
predates it by almost a decade: Edward Page Mitchell's of Science Fiction. 11, no. 10 (130): 12.
The Clock That Went Backward
[22] Noted in the Introduction to an English translation of the
[3] mythfolklore.net, Revati, Encyclopedia for Epics of An- book, The Time Ship: A Chrononautical Journey, trans-
cient India lated by Yolanda Molina-Gavilán and Andrea L. Bell.

[4] mayapur.com, Lord Balarama, Sri Mayapur [23] Westcott, Kathryn. “HG Wells or Enrique Gaspar:
Whose time machine was first?". Archived from the orig-
[5] Indian Philosophy – Debiprasad Chattopadhyaya: Peo- inal on 29 March 2014. Retrieved 1 August 2014.
ple's Publishing House, New Delhi. (First Published:
1964, 7th Edition: 1993) [24] Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps. W.
W. Norton. p. 499. ISBN 0-393-31276-3.
[6] Yorke, Christopher (February 2006). “Malchronia: Cry-
[25] Hawking, Stephen.“Space and Time Warps”. Retrieved
onics and Bionics as Primitive Weapons in the War on
2012-02-26.
Time”. Journal of Evolution and Technology 15 (1): 73–
85. Retrieved 2009-08-29. [26] “NOVA Online – Sagan on Time Travel”. Pbs.org. Re-
trieved 2010-05-25.
[7] Rosenberg, Donna (1997). Folklore, myths, and legends:
a world perspective. McGraw-Hill. p. 421. ISBN 0-8442- [27] Visser, Matt (2002).“The quantum physics of chronology
5780-X. protection”. arXiv:gr-qc/0204022 [gr-qc].
0.21. TIME TRAVEL 117

[28] Hawking, Stephen (1992). “Chronology pro- [44] Earman, John (1995). Bangs, Crunches, Whimpers, and
tection conjecture”. Physical Review D 46 Shrieks: Singularities and Acausalities in Relativistic Space-
(2): 603. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46..603H. times. Oxford University Press. p. 21. ISBN 0-19-
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.46.603. 509591-X.

[29] Hawking, Stephen; Kip Thorne, Igor Novikov, Timothy [45] Tipler, Frank J (1974). “Rotating Cylinders and the
Ferris, Alan Lightman (2002). The Future of Spacetime. Possibility of Global Causality Violation”. Physical Re-
W. W. Norton. p. 150. ISBN 0-393-02022-3. view D 9 (8): 2203. Bibcode:1974PhRvD...9.2203T.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.9.2203.
[30] Gott, J. Richard (2002). “Time Travel in Einstein's Uni-
verse”. p.33-130 [46] Earman, John (1995). Bangs, Crunches, Whimpers, and
Shrieks: Singularities and Acausalities in Relativistic Space-
[31] Jarrell, Mark.“The Special Theory of Relativity”(PDF). times. Oxford University Press. p. 169. ISBN 0-19-
pp. 7–11. Archived from the original on 2006-09-13. 509591-X.
Retrieved 2006-10-27.
[47] Hawking, Stephen; Kip Thorne, Igor Novikov, Timothy
[32] “Sharp Blue: Relativity, FTL and causality – Richard Ferris, Alan Lightman (2002). The Future of Spacetime.
Baker”. Theculture.org. Retrieved 2010-05-25. W. W. Norton. p. 96. ISBN 0-393-02022-3.

[33] Chase, Scott I. “Tachyons entry from Usenet Physics [48] Hawking, Stephen (1992). “Chronology pro-
FAQ”. Retrieved 2006-10-27. tection conjecture”. Physical Review D 46
(2): 603–611. Bibcode:1992PhRvD..46..603H.
[34] Visser, Matt (1996). Lorentzian Wormholes. Springer- doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.46.603.
Verlag. p. 100. ISBN 1-56396-653-0.
[49] Wright, Laura (November 6, 2003).“Score Another Win
for Albert Einstein”. Discover.
[35] Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps. W.
W. Norton. p. 502. ISBN 0-393-31276-3. [50] Anderson, Mark (August 18–24, 2007). “Light seems to
defy its own speed limit”. New Scientist 195 (2617). p.
[36] Thorne, Kip S. (1994). Black Holes and Time Warps. W.
10.
W. Norton. p. 504. ISBN 0-393-31276-3.
[51] ust.hk; The Hong Kong University of Science & Technol-
[37] Visser, Matt (1996). Lorentzian Wormholes. Springer- ogy. Retrieved 2011-09-05.
Verlag. p. 101. ISBN 1-56396-653-0.
[52] It's official: Time machines won't work – latimes.com.
[38] Cramer, John G.. “NASA Goes FTL Part 1: Wormhole Los Angeles Times. (2011-07-25). Retrieved 2011-09-05.
Physics”. Archived from the original on 2006-06-27. Re-
trieved 2006-12-02. [53] dailymail.co.uk; Time travel is sci-fi fantasy: Scientists
prove nothing can travel faster than the speed of light |
[39] Visser, Matt; Sayan Kar; Naresh Dadhich (2003). Mail Online]. Retrieved 2011-09-05.
“Traversable wormholes with arbitrarily small
energy condition violations”. Physical Review [54] Franklin, Ben A. (March 11, 1982),“The night the plan-
Letters 90 (20): 201102.1–201102.4. arXiv:gr- ets were aligned with Baltimore lunacy”, The New York
qc/0301003. Bibcode:2003PhRvL..90t1102V. Times.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevLett.90.201102.
[55] “Museum of the Future”. Lehman.cuny.edu. Retrieved
[40] Visser, Matt (1993). “From wormhole to time ma- 2010-05-25.
chine: Comments on Hawking's Chronology Protection
[56] Jaume Garriga; Alexander Vilenkin (2001). “Many
Conjecture”. Physical Review D 47 (2): 554–565.
worlds in one”. Phys. Rev. D 64 (4): 043511.
arXiv:hep-th/9202090. Bibcode:1993PhRvD..47..554V.
arXiv:gr-qc/0102010. Bibcode:2001PhRvD..64d3511G.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.47.554.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.64.043511.
[41] Visser, Matt (1997). “Traversable wormholes: the Ro-
[57] “Taking the Cosmic Shortcut – ABC Science Online”.
man ring”. Physical Review D 55 (8): 5212–5214.
Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 2002-02-21. Re-
arXiv:gr-qc/9702043. Bibcode:1997PhRvD..55.5212V.
trieved 2010-05-25.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.55.5212.
[58] “Transcript of interview with Dr. Marc Rayman at
[42] van Stockum, Willem Jacob (1936). “The Gravitational “Space Place"". Spaceplace.nasa.gov. 2005-09-08.
Field of a Distribution of Particles Rotating about an Axis Archived from the original on June 3, 2010. Retrieved
of Symmetry”. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Ed- 2010-05-25.
inburgh.
[59] Time Can Vary? pbs.org
[43] Lanczos, Kornel (1924). “On a Stationary Cosmology
in the Sense of Einsteins Theory of Gravitation”. Gen- [60] Serway, Raymond A. (2000) Physics for Scientists and En-
eral Relativity and Gravitation (Springland Netherlands) gineers with Modern Physics, Fifth Edition, Brooks/Cole,
29 (3): 363–399. doi:10.1023/A:1010277120072. p. 1258, ISBN 0030226570.
118 CONTENTS

[61] Roberts, Tom (October 2007). “What is the experimen- [79] Grey, William (1999). “Troubles with Time Travel”.
tal basis of Special Relativity?". Retrieved 4 December Philosophy (Cambridge University Press) 74 (1): 55–70.
2009. doi:10.1017/S0031819199001047.

[62] “Scout Rocket Experiment”. Retrieved 4 December [80] Rickman, Gregg (2004). The Science Fiction Film Reader.
2009. Limelight Editions. ISBN 0-87910-994-7.

[63] “Hafele-Keating Experiment”. Retrieved 4 December [81] Nahin, Paul J. (2001). Time machines: time travel in
2009. physics, metaphysics, and science fiction. Springer. ISBN
0-387-98571-9.
[64] Pogge, Richard W. (27 April 2009).“GPS and Relativity”
. Retrieved 4 December 2009. [82] Schneider, Susan (2009). Science Fiction and Philosophy:
From Time Travel to Superintelligence. Wiley-Blackwell.
[65] Lisa Zyga (Apr 4, 2006).“Professor predicts human time ISBN 1-4051-4907-8.
travel this century”.
[83] Prucher, Jeff (2007) Brave New Words: The Oxford Dic-
[66] Vaidman, Lev.“Many-Worlds Interpretation of Quantum tionary of Science Fiction, p. 230.
Mechanics”. Retrieved 2006-10-28.
[84] Friedman, John; Michael Morris; Igor Novikov; Fer-
[67] Deutsch, David (1991). “Quantum mechanics near nando Echeverria; Gunnar Klinkhammer; Kip Thorne;
closed timelike curves”. Physical Review D 44 Ulvi Yurtsever (1990). “Cauchy problem in space-
(10): 3197–3217. Bibcode:1991PhRvD..44.3197D. times with closed timelike curves”. Physical Re-
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.44.3197. view D 42 (6): 1915. Bibcode:1990PhRvD..42.1915F.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.42.1915.
[68] See also the discussion in “Quantum Mechanics to the
Rescue?" from the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy [85] Sukys, Paul (1999). Lifting the scientific veil: science ap-
article “Time travel and Modern Physics”. preciation for the nonscientist. Ardsley House Publishers.
pp. 236–237. ISBN 0-8476-9600-6.
[69] Explained here by Dr Pieter Kok: youtube.com.
[86] Kelley L. Ross, "Time Travel Paradoxes"
[70] Everett, Allen (2004). “Time travel paradoxes, path
integrals, and the many worlds interpretation of quan- [87] Gott, J. Richard (2001). Time Travel in Einstein's Uni-
tum mechanics”. Physical Review D 69 (124023). verse. Houghton Mifflin. p. 23. ISBN 0-395-95563-7.
arXiv:gr-qc/0410035. Bibcode:2004PhRvD..69l4023E.
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.69.124023. [88] Rowling, J. K. Harry Potter and the Prisoner of Azkhaban.
Scolastic Press, 1999, p. 396. Also see Richard H. Jones,
[71] Greenberger, Daniel M.; Svozil, Karl (2005). “Quantum Time Travel and Harry Potter. Outskirts Press, 2009.
Theory Looks at Time Travel”. Quo Vadis Quantum Me-
chanics?. The Frontiers Collection. p. 63. arXiv:quant- [89] Geroch, Robert (1978). General Relativity From A to B.
ph/0506027. Bibcode:2005quant.ph..6027G. The University of Chicago Press. p. 124. ISBN 0-226-
doi:10.1007/3-540-26669-0_4. ISBN 3-540-22188-3. 28863-3.
[72] Kettlewell, Julianna (2005-06-17).“New model 'permits [90] Max Planck Institut für Gravitationsphysik (2005-09-12).
time travel'". BBC News. Retrieved 2010-05-25. “Einstein Online: Actors on a changing stage”. Einstein-
online.info. Retrieved 2010-05-25.
[73] Goldstein, Sheldon. “Bohmian Mechanics”. Retrieved
2006-10-30.

[74] Nielsen, Michael; Chuang, Isaac (2000). Quantum Com- 0.21.10 Bibliography
putation and Quantum Information. Cambridge. p. 28.
ISBN 0-521-63235-8. • Curley, Mallory (2005). Beatle Pete, Time Traveller.
Randy Press.
[75] Keller, Simon; Michael Nelson (September 2001).
“Presentists should believe in time-travel” (PDF). Aus- • Davies, Paul (1996). About Time. Pocket Books.
tralian Journal of Philosophy 79.3 (3): 333–345. ISBN 0-684-81822-1.
doi:10.1080/713931204.
• Davies, Paul (2002). How to Build a Time Machine.
[76] This view is contested by another contemporary advocate
Penguin Books Ltd. ISBN 0-14-100534-3.
of presentism, Craig Bourne, in his recent book A Future
for Presentism, although for substantially different (and • Gale, Richard M (1968). The Philosophy of Time.
more complex) reasons.
Palgrave Macmillan. ISBN 0-333-00042-0.
[77] see this discussion between two philosophers, for example
• Gott, J. Richard (2002). Time Travel in Ein-
[78] Lewis, David (1976). “The paradoxes of time travel”. stein's Universe: The Physical Possibilities of Travel
American Philosophical Quarterly 13: 145–52. arXiv:gr- Through Time. Boston: Mariner Books. ISBN 0-
qc/9603042. Bibcode:1996gr.qc.....3042K. 618-25735-7.
0.22. TURTLES ALL THE WAY DOWN 119

• Gribbin, John (1985). In Search of Schrödinger's • Professor Predicts Human Time Travel This Cen-
Cat. Corgi Adult. ISBN 0-552-12555-5. tury

• Miller, Kristie (2005). “Time travel and the open • Time Traveler Convention at MIT
future”. Disputatio 1 (19): 223–232.
• Time Machines in Physics – almost 200 citations
• Nahin, Paul J. (2001). Time Machines: Time from 1937 through 2001
Travel in Physics, Metaphysics, and Science Fic-
tion. Springer-Verlag New York Inc. ISBN 0-387- • Time Travel and Modern Physics at the Stanford En-
98571-9. cyclopedia of Philosophy

• Nahin, Paul J. (1997). Time Travel: A writer's guide • Time Travel at the Internet Encyclopedia of Philos-
to the real science of plausible time travel. Writer's ophy
Digest Books. Cincinnati, Ohio. ISBN 0-89879-
748-9 • Aparta Krystian: Conventional Models of Time and
Their Extensions in Science Fiction
• Nikolic, H (2006). “Causal paradoxes: a conflict
between relativity and the arrow of time”. Foun- • Time travellers from the future 'could be here in
dations of Physics Letters 19 (3): 259. arXiv:gr- weeks'
qc/0403121. Bibcode:2006FoPhL..19..259N.
• Time machine on arxiv.org
doi:10.1007/s10702-006-0516-5.
• Time Travel impossible, Scientists say
• Pagels, Heinz (1985). Perfect Symmetry, the Search
for the Beginning of Time. Simon & Schuster. ISBN • Time Travel a No Go? No Way
0-671-46548-1.

• Pickover, Clifford (1999). Time: A Traveler's

Guide. Oxford University Press Inc, USA. ISBN 0- 0.22 Turtles all the way down
19-513096-0.
For the Awake episode, see Turtles All the Way Down.
• Randles, Jenny (2005). Breaking the Time Barrier.
"Turtles all the way down" is a jocular expression of
Simon & Schuster Ltd. ISBN 0-7434-9259-5.

• Shore, Graham M (2003). “Construct-

ing Time Machines”. Int. J. Mod. Phys.
A, Theoretical 18 (23): 4169. arXiv:gr-
qc/0210048. Bibcode:2003IJMPA..18.4169S.
doi:10.1142/S0217751X03015118.

• Toomey, David (2007). The New Time Travelers: A

Journey to the Frontiers of Physics. W.W. Norton &
Company. ISBN 978-0-393-06013-3.

• Wittenberg, David (2013). Time Travel: The Pop-

ular Philosophy of Narrative. Fordham University
Press. ISBN 978-0-823-24997-8.

0.21.11 External links

• Black holes, Wormholes and Time Travel, a Royal
Society Lecture

• SF Chronophysics, a discussion of Time Travel as it

relates to science fiction

• On the Net: Time Travel by James Patrick Kelly

The humorous anecdote holds that the world is carried by a chain
• How Time Travel Will Work at HowStuffWorks
of increasingly large turtles, and beneath each one is yet another:
• Time Travel in Flatland? it is “turtles all the way down”.

• NOVA Online: Time Travel the infinite regress problem in cosmology posed by the
 120 CONTENTS

"unmoved mover" paradox. The metaphor in the anec- —Hawking, 1988* [1]
dote represents a popular notion of the myth that Earth
is actually flat and is supported on the back of a World
Turtle, which itself is propped up by a chain of larger and Hawking's suggested connection to Russell may be due
larger turtles. Questioning what the final turtle might be to Russell's 1927 lecture Why I Am Not a Christian. In it,
standing on, the anecdote humorously concludes that it is while discounting the First Cause argument intended to
“turtles all the way down”. be a proof of God's existence, Russell comments:
The phrase has been commonly known since at least the
early 20th century. A comparable metaphor describing “If everything must have a cause, then God
the circular cause and consequence for the same problem must have a cause. If there can be anything
is the "chicken and egg problem". The same problem in without a cause, it may just as well be the world
epistemology is known as the Münchhausen trilemma. as God, so that there cannot be any validity in
that argument. It is exactly of the same nature
as the Hindu's view, that the world rested upon
0.22.1 History an elephant and the elephant rested upon a tor-
toise; and when they said, 'How about the tor-
toise?' the Indian said, 'Suppose we change the
subject.'"

In John R. Ross's 1967 linguistics dissertation Constraints

on Variables in Syntax, the scientist is identified as the
Harvard psychologist and philosopher William James. Of
the story's provenance, Ross writes:* [2]

After a lecture on cosmology and the

structure of the solar system, William James
was accosted by a little old lady.
“Your theory that the sun is the centre of the
solar system, and the earth is a ball which
rotates around it has a very convincing ring to
it, Mr. James, but it's wrong. I've got a better
theory,”said the little old lady.
“And what is that, madam?" Inquired James
politely.
“That we live on a crust of earth which is on
the back of a giant turtle,”
Bertrand Russell
Not wishing to demolish this absurd little
theory by bringing to bear the masses of
The origins of the turtle story are uncertain. It has been
scientific evidence he had at his command,
recorded since the mid 19th century, and may possibly
James decided to gently dissuade his opponent
date to the 18th. One recent version appears in Stephen
by making her see some of the inadequacies
Hawking's 1988 book A Brief History of Time, which
of her position.
starts:
“If your theory is correct, madam,”he asked,
“what does this turtle stand on?"
A well-known scientist (some say it was “You're a very clever man, Mr. James, and
Bertrand Russell) once gave a public lecture on that's a very good question,”replied the little
astronomy. He described how the earth orbits old lady, “but I have an answer to it. And it
around the sun and how the sun, in turn, orbits is this: The first turtle stands on the back of a
around the center of a vast collection of stars second, far larger, turtle, who stands directly
called our galaxy. At the end of the lecture, a under him.”
little old lady at the back of the room got up “But what does this second turtle stand on?"
and said: “What you have told us is rubbish. persisted James patiently.
The world is really a flat plate supported on the To this the little old lady crowed triumphantly.
back of a giant tortoise.”The scientist gave a “It's no use, Mr. James – it's turtles all the way
superior smile before replying, “What is the down.”
tortoise standing on?" “You're very clever, —J. R. Ross, Constraints on Variables in
young man, very clever,”said the old lady. Syntax 1967
“But it's turtles all the way down!"
 0.22. TURTLES ALL THE WAY DOWN 121

The earliest known version of the story in its“turtle”form unsigned anecdote about a schoolboy and an old woman
appeared in 1854, in a transcript of remarks by preacher living in the woods:
Joseph Frederick Berg addressed to Joseph Barker:
“The world, marm,”said I, anxious to dis-
My opponent's reasoning reminds me of play my acquired knowledge, “is not exactly
the heathen, who, being asked on what the round, but resembles in shape a flattened or-
world stood, replied, “On a tortoise.”But on ange; and it turns on its axis once in twenty-
what does the tortoise stand? “On another four hours.”
tortoise.”With Mr. Barker, too, there are “Well, I don't know anything about its axes,”
tortoises all the way down. (Vehement and replied she, “but I know it don't turn round,
vociferous applause.) for if it did we'd be all tumbled off; and as to
—“Second Evening: Remarks of Rev. Dr. its being round, any one can see it's a square
Berg”* [3] piece of ground, standing on a rock!"
“Standing on a rock! but upon what does that
stand?"
“Why, on another, to be sure!"
“But what supports the last?"
“Lud! child, how stupid you are! There's rocks
all the way down!"* [6]

Background in Hindu mythology

Further information: World Turtle and World Elephant

The explicit reference to infinite regression (“all the way

William James Four World Elephants resting on a World Turtle

Many 20th-century attributions point to William James as down”) cannot be shown to predate the 19th century,
the source.* [4] James referred to the fable of the elephant but in the 17th and 18th centuries, there are references
and tortoise several times, but told the infinite regress to the story in the form of a World Elephant standing on
story with “rocks all the way down”in his 1882 essay, a World Turtle claimed, without good evidence, to come
“Rationality, Activity and Faith": from Hindu mythology.
Like the old woman in the story who de- Henry David Thoreau, in his journal entry of 4 May
scribed the world as resting on a rock, and then 1852,* [7] writes:
explained that rock to be supported by another
rock, and finally when pushed with questions Men are making speeches... all over the
said it was “rocks all the way down,”he who country, but each expresses only the thought,
believes this to be a radically moral universe or the want of thought, of the multitude. No
must hold the moral order to rest either on an man stands on truth. They are merely banded
absolute and ultimate should or on a series of together as usual, one leaning on another and
shoulds “all the way down.”* [5] all together on nothing; as the Hindoos made
the world rest on an elephant, and the elephant
In the form of “rocks all the way down”, the story pre- on a tortoise, and had nothing to put under the
dates James to at least 1838, when it was printed in an tortoise.
 122 CONTENTS

There is an allusion to the story in David Hume's 0.22.2 Notable modern allusions or varia-
Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion (published in tions
1779):
Since the 1980s or so the story or trope has been so well
How can we satisfy ourselves without known that frequent references were made in pop culture
going on in infinitum? And, after all, what and popular literature. Many variants now have a“scien-
satisfaction is there in that infinite progres- tist”replying to“a little old lady”, the scientist variously
sion? Let us remember the story of the Indian taking the identity of Arthur Stanley Eddington, Thomas
philosopher and his elephant. It was never Huxley, Linus Pauling, or Carl Sagan, etc., although in
more applicable than to the present subject. If the 1970s the “Hindu”or “Oriental”background still
the material world rests upon a similar ideal seems to have received more frequent mention.
world, this ideal world must rest upon some Clifford Geertz's,“Thick Description: Towards an Inter-
other; and so on, without end. It were better, pretive Theory of Culture”, in his 1973 book The Inter-
therefore, never to look beyond the present pretation of Culture still casts the dialogue as taking place
material world. between an Englishman and an Indian.* [12] Carl Sagan
—Hume, 1779* [8] recited a version of the story as an apocryphal anecdote in
his 1979 book Broca's Brain: Reflections on the Romance
of Science, as an exchange between a“Western traveler”
The first known reference to a Hindu source is found in a and an “Oriental philosopher”.
letter by Jesuit Emanual de Veiga (1549-1605), written at Robert Anton Wilson's book Prometheus Rising (1983)
Chandagiri on 18 September 1599, in which the relevant opens with the William James version of the story, the
passage reads punchline being given in the form: “It's turtles-turtles-
turtles, all the way!"
Alii dicebant terram novem constare angulis, The Discworld novels, written by Terry Pratchett (from
quibus cœlo innititur. Alius ab his dissentiens 1983) involve a fictional flat world which rests on the back
volebat terram septem elephantis fulciri, ele- of four giant elephants, all of whom stand on the back
phantes uero ne subsiderent, super testudine of a giant World-Turtle called Great A'Tuin. Once when
pedes fixos habere. Quærenti quis testudi- questioned about what the turtle sits on, it is related that
nis corpus firmaret, ne dilaberetur, respondere the turtle doesn't sit on anything; it swims.
nesciuit.
Far-Seer (1992), Part One of Robert J. Sawyer's three-
“Others hold that the earth has nine corners by part novel, the Quintaglio Ascension Trilogy, retells the
which the heavens are supported. Another dis- story, replacing turtles with armourbacks (ankylosaurs).
agreeing from these would have the earth sup-
Thomas King uses the story to frame each of his five
ported by seven elephants, and the elephants do
Massey Lectures collected in The Truth About Stories
not sink down because their feet are fixed on a
(2003).
tortoise. When asked who would fix the body
of the tortoise, so that it would not collapse, he Justice Antonin Scalia of the U.S. Supreme Court dis-
said that he did not know.”* [9] cussed his “favored version”of the tale in a footnote to
his plurality opinion in Rapanos v. United States (decided
June 19, 2006):
Veiga's account seems to have been received by Samuel
Purchas, who has a close paraphrase in his Purchas His
In our favored version, an Eastern guru
Pilgrims (1613/1626), “that the Earth had nine corners,
affirms that the earth is supported on the back
whereby it was borne up by the Heaven. Others dis-
of a tiger. When asked what supports the tiger,
sented, and said, that the Earth was borne up by seven
he says it stands upon an elephant; and when
Elephants; the Elephants feet stood on Tortoises, and they
asked what supports the elephant he says it
were borne by they know not what.”* [10]
is a giant turtle. When asked, finally, what
Purchas' account is again reflected by John Locke in his supports the giant turtle, he is briefly taken
1689 tract An Essay Concerning Human Understanding, aback, but quickly replies “Ah, after that it is
introducing the story as attributed to Hindu mythology turtles all the way down.”
as a trope referring to the problem of induction in philo- —Antonin Scalia, Antonin Scalia. “RA-
sophical debate. Locke compares one who would say that PANOS v. UNITED STATES”. Cornell Law
properties inherent in“substance”to the Indian who said School Legal Information Institute's Supreme
the world was on an elephant which was on a tortoise Court collection.
“but being again pressed to know what gave support to
the broad-backed tortoise, replied —something, he knew
not what.”* [11] “Turtles All the Way Down”is a song on Buffalo hardcore
 0.22. TURTLES ALL THE WAY DOWN 123

punk band Every Time I Die's fifth studio album New [3] Barker, Joseph (1854). Great Discussion on the Origin,
Junk Aesthetic (2009). Authority, and Tendency of the Bible, between Rev. J. F.
Berg, D.D., of Philadelphia, and Joseph Barker, of Ohio.
In Scott Westerfeld's Behemoth (2010) an Armenian Boston: J. B. Yerrinton & Son, Printers. p. 48.
grandmother says the Earth rests on the back of a turtle,
which is supported by an elephant (the reverse of Disc- [4] Robert Anton Wilson (1983). Prometheus Rising.
world). When challenged by her son about what the ele- Phoenix, AZ: New Falcon Publishers. p. 25. ISBN 1-
phant stands upon, she says“Don't try to be clever, young 56184-056-4
man. It's elephants all the way down!" [5] William, James (July 1882). “Rationality, Activity and
"Turtles All the Way Down" was the title of the final Faith”. The Princeton Review: 82.
episode of Awake (2012), and was the final line of the [6] “Unwritten Philosophy”. New York Mirror 16 (12).
female psychiatrist at the end. 1838-09-15. p. 91.
“Turtles All the Way Down”is a song by country out-
[7] The Picket Line —Excerpts from H.D. Thoreau's journals
law artist Sturgill Simpson, which discusses human un-
derstanding of space and time. It appears on his 2014 [8] Dialogues Concerning Natural Religion/Part 4
album Metamodern Sounds in Country Music.* [13]
[9] J. Charpentier, 'A Treatise on Hindu Cosmography from
A teacher in Lev Grossman's The Magicians (2009) relays the Seventeenth Century (Brit. Mus. MS. Sloane 2748
the Russell version of the story while discussing the na- A).' Bulletin of the School of Oriental Studies, University
ture of magic. In the sequel The Magician's Land (2014), of London 3(2) (1924), pp. 317-342, citing John Hay, De
the giant turtle cries“It's turtles all the way down”after rebus Japonicis, Indicis, and Peruanis epistulæ recentiores
Janet magically freezes his habitat. (Antwerp, 1605, p. 803f.)

In calculus,“Turtles all the Way Down”refers to repeated [10] Will Sweetman, Indology mailing list, citing Dieter Hen-
applications of the chain rule for multiply-composed rich, 'Die “wahrhafte Schildkröte"' Hegel-Studien 2
functions. (1963), pp. 281-91, and J. Charpentier, 'A Treatise on
Hindu Cosmography from the Seventeenth Century (Brit.
Mus. MS. Sloane 2748 A).' Bulletin of the School of Ori-
0.22.3 See also ental Studies, University of London 3(2) (1924), pp. 317-
342.
• Cartesian theater [11] Locke, John (1689). An Essay Concerning Human Under-
• Cosmological argument standing, Book II, Chapter XXIII, section 2

• Discworld [12] Geertz, Clifford (1973). The Interpretation of Cultures.

New York, NY: Basic Books. pp. 28–29. ISBN
• God of the gaps 0465097197.

• Kurma [13] http://gardenandgun.com/article/

sturgill-simpson-country-philosopher
• Matryoshka doll
• Münchhausen trilemma
• Primum Mobile
• Primum movens
• Yertle the Turtle
• Transfinite induction
• Teleological argument

0.22.4 Footnotes
[1] Hawking, Stephen (1988). A Brief History of Time. Ban-
tam Books. ISBN 978-0-553-05340-1.

[2] John R. Ross (1967). Constraints on variables in syntax.

(Doctoral dissertation, Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology). Available at MIT Theses (http://hdl.handle.net/
1721.1/15166). See page iv of the ms., page 4 of the elec-
tronic file.
Chapter 1

Dilemmas

1.1 Crocodile dilemma 1.1.2 Notes

[1] Barile, Margherita. “Crococile Dilemma – MathWorld”
The crocodile paradox is a paradox in logic in the same
. Retrieved 2009-09-05.
family of paradoxes as the liar paradox.* [1] The premise
states that a crocodile, who has stolen a child, promises [2] J. Siekmann, ed. (1989). Lecture Notes in Artificial Intel-
the father that his son will be returned if and only if he can ligence. Springer-Verlag. p. 14. ISBN 3540530827.
correctly predict whether or not the crocodile will return
[3] Young, Ronald E (2005). Traveling East. iUniverse. pp.
the child. 8–9. ISBN 0595795846.
The transaction is logically smooth but unpredictable if
[4] Murray, Richard (1847). Murray's Compendium of logic.
the father guesses that the child will be returned, but a p. 159.
dilemma arises for the crocodile if he guesses that the
child will not be returned. In the case that the crocodile
decides to keep the child, he violates his terms: the fa-
ther's prediction has been validated, and the child should 1.2 Double bind
be returned. However, in the case that the crocodile de-
cides to give back the child, he still violates his terms, Not to be confused with double-blind.
even if this decision is based on the previous result: the
father's prediction has been falsified, and the child should A double bind is an emotionally distressing dilemma
not be returned. The question of what the crocodile in communication in which an individual (or group) re-
should do is therefore paradoxical, and there is no jus- ceives two or more conflicting messages, and one mes-
tifiable solution.* [2]* [3]* [4] sage negates the other. This creates a situation in which
The crocodile dilemma serves to expose some of the log- a successful response to one message results in a failed
ical problems presented by metaknowledge. In this re- response to the other (and vice versa), so that the person
gard, it is similar in construction to the unexpected hang- will automatically be wrong regardless of response. The
ing paradox, which Richard Montague (1960) used to double bind occurs when the person cannot confront the
demonstrate that the following assumptions about knowl- inherent dilemma, and therefore can neither resolve it nor
edge are inconsistent when tested in combination:* [2] opt out of the situation.
Double bind theory was first described by Gregory Bate-
(i) If ρ is known to be true, then son and his colleagues in the 1950s.* [1]
ρ.
Double binds are often utilized as a form of control with-
(ii) It is known that (i). out open coercion —the use of confusion makes them
both difficult to respond to as well as to resist.* [2]
(iii) If ρ implies σ, and ρ is A double bind generally includes different levels of ab-
known to be true, then σ is also straction in the order of messages and these messages can
known to be true. either be stated explicitly or implicitly within the context
of the situation, or they can be conveyed by tone of voice
It also bears similarities to the liar paradox. Ancient or body language. Further complications arise when fre-
Greek sources were the first to discuss the crocodile quent double binds are part of an ongoing relationship to
dilemma.* [1] which the person or group is committed.* [3]* [4]
Double bind theory is more clearly understood in the con-
1.1.1 See also text of complex systems and cybernetics because human
communication and the mind itself function in an inter-
• List of paradoxes active manner similar to ecosystems. Complex systems

124
1.2. DOUBLE BIND 125

theory helps us to understand the interdependence of the 5. If necessary, a “tertiary injunction”is imposed
different parts of a message and provides an ordering in on the subject to prevent them from escaping the
what looks like chaos. dilemma. See phrase examples below for clarifica-
tion.

1.2.1 Explanation 6. Finally, Bateson states that the complete list of the
previous requirements may be unnecessary, in the
The double bind is often misunderstood to be a simple event that the subject is already viewing their world
contradictory situation, where the subject is trapped by in double bind patterns. Bateson goes on to give the
two conflicting demands. While it's true that the core of general characteristics of such a relationship:
the double bind is two conflicting demands, the differ-
ence lies in how they are imposed upon the subject, what
the subject's understanding of the situation is, and who (a) When the subject is involved in an intense rela-
(or what) imposes these demands upon the subject. Un- tionship; that is, a relationship in which he feels
like the usual no-win situation, the subject has difficulty it is vitally important that he discriminate accu-
in defining the exact nature of the paradoxical situation rately what sort of message is being communi-
in which he or she is caught. The contradiction may be cated so that he may respond appropriately;
unexpressed in its immediate context and therefore invis- (b) And, the subject is caught in a situation in which
ible to external observers, only becoming evident when a the other person in the relationship is expressing
prior communication is considered. Typically, a demand two orders of message and one of these denies
is imposed upon the subject by someone who they respect the other;
(such as a parent, teacher or doctor) but the demand itself
(c) And, the subject is unable to comment on the
is inherently impossible to fulfill because some broader
messages being expressed to correct his discrim-
context forbids it. For example, this situation arises when
ination of what order of message to respond
a person in a position of authority imposes two contra-
to: i.e., he cannot make a metacommunicative
dictory conditions but there exists an unspoken rule that
statement.
one must never question authority.
Gregory Bateson and his colleagues defined the double
Thus, the essence of a double bind is two conflicting de-
bind as follows* [3] (paraphrased):
mands, each on a different logical level, neither of which
can be ignored or escaped. This leaves the subject torn
1. The situation involves two or more people, one of both ways, so that whichever demand they try to meet, the
whom (for the purpose of the definition), is desig- other demand cannot be met.“I must do it, but I can't do
nated as the“subject”. The others are people who it”is a typical description of the double-bind experience.
are considered the subject's superiors: figures of au-
For a double bind to be effective, the subject must be
thority (such as parents), whom the subject respects.
unable to confront or resolve the conflict between the de-
mand placed by the primary injunction and that of the
2. Repeated experience: the double bind is a recurrent
secondary injunction. In this sense, the double bind dif-
theme in the experience of the subject, and as such,
ferentiates itself from a simple contradiction to a more
cannot be resolved as a single traumatic experience.
inexpressible internal conflict, where the subject really
3. A “primary injunction" is imposed on the subject wants to meet the demands of the primary injunction, but
by the others in one of two forms: fails each time through an inability to address the situa-
tion's incompatibility with the demands of the secondary
• (a) “Do X, or I will punish you"; injunction. Thus, subjects may express feelings of ex-
treme anxiety in such a situation, as they attempt to fulfil
• (b) “Do not do X, or I will punish you”. the demands of the primary injunction albeit with obvi-
• (or both a and b) ous contradictions in their actions.

The punishment may include the withdrawing of

love, the expression of hate and anger, or abandon- 1.2.2 History
ment resulting from the authority figure's expression
of helplessness. The term double bind was first used by the anthropologist
Gregory Bateson and his colleagues (including Don D.
4. A“secondary injunction”is imposed on the subject, Jackson, Jay Haley and John H. Weakland) in the mid-
conflicting with the first at a higher and more abstract 1950s in their discussions on complexity of communi-
level. For example: “You must do X, but only do cation in relation to schizophrenia. Bateson made clear
it because you want to”. It is unnecessary for this that such complexities are common in normal circum-
injunction to be expressed verbally. stances, especially in “play, humor, poetry, ritual and
126 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

fiction”(see Logical Types below). Their findings indi- ignore the command nor comment on the contradiction.
cated that the tangles in communication often diagnosed Often, the contradiction in communication isn't apparent
as schizophrenia are not necessarily the result of an or- to bystanders unfamiliar with previous communications.
ganic brain dysfunction. Instead, they found that destruc-
tive double binds were a frequent pattern of communica-
tion among families of patients, and they proposed that 1.2.5 Phrase examples
growing up amidst perpetual double binds could lead to
learned patterns of confusion in thinking and communi- • Mother telling her child: “You must love me”.
cation.
The primary injunction here is the command
itself: “you must"; the secondary injunction is
the unspoken reality that love is spontaneous,
1.2.3 Complexity in communication that for the child to love the mother genuinely,
it can only be of his or her own accord.
Human communication is complex (see Albert Mehra-
bian) and context is an essential part of it. Communi-
• Grown-up-in-authority to child: “Speak when
cation consists of the words said, tone of voice, and body
you're spoken to”and “Don't talk back!"
language. It also includes how these relate to what has
been said in the past; what is not said, but is implied; how
These phrases have such time-honoured status
these are modified by other nonverbal cues, such as the
that the contradiction between them is rarely
environment in which it is said, and so forth. For exam-
perceived: If the child speaks when spoken to
ple, if someone says“I love you”, one takes into account
then he cannot avoid answering back. If he
who is saying it, their tone of voice and body language,
does not answer back then he fails to speak
and the context in which it is said. It may be a declara-
when spoken to. Whatever the child does he
tion of passion or a serene reaffirmation, insincere and/or
is always in the wrong.
manipulative, an implied demand for a response, a joke,
its public or private context may affect its meaning, and
• Child-abuser to child: “You should have escaped
so forth.
from me earlier, now it's too late—because now, no-
Conflicts in communication are common and often we body will believe that you didn't want what I have
ask “What do you mean?" or seek clarification in other done”, while at the same time blocking all of the
ways. This is called meta-communication: communica- child's attempts to escape.
tion about the communication. Sometimes, asking for
clarification is impossible. Communication difficulties in Child-abusers often start the double-bind rela-
ordinary life often occur when meta-communication and tionship by "grooming" the child, giving little
feedback systems are lacking or inadequate or there isn't concessions, or gifts or privileges to them, thus
enough time for clarification. the primary injunction is: “You should like
Double binds can be extremely stressful and become de- what you are getting from me!"
structive when one is trapped in a dilemma and punished
When the child begins to go along (i.e. be-
for finding a way out. But making the effort to find the
gins to like what she or he is receiving from
way out of the trap can lead to emotional growth.[body
the person), then the interaction goes to the
language and double-bind see (* [5])]
next level and small victimization occurs, with
the secondary injunction being: “I am punish-
ing you! (for whatever reason the child-abuser
1.2.4 Examples is coming up with (e.g. “because you were
bad/naughty/messy”, or“because you deserve
The classic example given of a negative double bind is of a
it”, or “because you made me do it”, etc )).
mother telling her child that she loves him or her, while at
the same time turning away in disgust.* [6] (The words are
If child shows any resistance (or tries to escape)
socially acceptable; the body language is in conflict with
from the abuser, then the words: “You should
it). The child doesn't know how to respond to the conflict
have escaped from me earlier (...)" serve as the
between the words and the body language and, because
third level or tertiary injunction.
the child is dependent on the mother for basic needs, he
or she is in a quandary. Small children have difficulty
Then the loop starts to feed on itself, allowing
articulating contradictions verbally and can neither ignore
for ever worse victimization to occur.
them nor leave the relationship.
Another example is when one is commanded to“be spon- • Mother to son:“Leave your sister alone!", while the
taneous”. The very command contradicts spontaneity, son knows his sister will approach and antagonize
but it only becomes a double bind when one can neither him to get him into trouble.
1.2. DOUBLE BIND 127

The primary injunction is the command, which 1.2.8 Science

he will be punished for breaking. The sec-
ondary injunction is the knowledge that his One of the causes of double binds is the loss of feedback
sister will get into conflict with him, but his systems. Gregory Bateson and Lawrence S. Bale describe
mother will not know the difference and will double binds that have arisen in science that have caused
default to punishing him. He may be under the decades-long delays of progress in science because sci-
impression that if he argues with his mother, he ence (who is this 'science' fellow?) had defined something
may be punished. One possibility for the son as outside of its scope (or “not science”)--see Bateson
to escape this double bind is to realize that his in his Introduction to Steps to an Ecology of Mind (1972,
sister only antagonizes him to make him feel 2000), pp. xv-xxvi; and Bale in his article, Gregory Bate-
anxious (if indeed it is the reason behind his son, Cybernetics and the Social/Behavioral Sciences (esp.
sister's behavior). pp. 1–8) on the paradigm of classical science vs. that of
systems theory/cybernetics. (See also Bateson's descrip-
If he were not bothered about punishment, his tion in his Forward of how the double bind hypothesis
sister might not bother him. He could also fell into place).
leave the situation entirely, avoiding both the
mother and the sister. The sister can't claim
to be bothered by a non-present brother, and 1.2.9 Schizophrenia
the mother can't punish (nor scapegoat) a non-
present son. There are other solutions that are The Double Bind Theory was first articulated in relation-
realised through creative application of logic ship to schizophrenia, but Bateson and his colleagues hy-
and reasoning. pothesized that schizophrenic thinking was not necessar-
ily an inborn mental disorder but a learned confusion in
thinking. It is helpful to remember the context in which
1.2.6 Positive double binds these ideas were developed. Bateson and his colleagues
were working in the Veteran's Administration Hospital
Bateson also described positive double binds, both in re- (1949–1962) with World War II veterans. As soldiers
lation to Zen Buddhism with its path of spiritual growth, they'd been able to function well in combat, but the ef-
and the use of therapeutic double binds by psychiatrists fects of life-threatening stress had affected them. At that
to confront their patients with the contradictions in their time, 18 years before Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder was
life in such a way that would help them heal. One of Bate- officially recognized, the veterans had been saddled with
son's consultants, Milton H. Erickson (5 volumes, edited the catch-all diagnosis of schizophrenia. Bateson didn't
by Rossi) eloquently demonstrated the productive possi- challenge the diagnosis but he did maintain that the seem-
bilities of double binds through his own life, showing the ing nonsense the patients said at times did make sense
technique in a brighter light. within context, and he gives numerous examples in sec-
tion III of Steps to an Ecology of Mind, “Pathology in
Relationship”. For example, a patient misses an appoint-
1.2.7 Theory of logical types
ment, and when Bateson finds him later the patient says
Cybernetics contains Russell and Whitehead's Theory of 'the judge disapproves'; Bateson responds, “You need a
Logical Types: there is a logical discontinuity between defense lawyer”see following (pp. 195–6) Bateson also
set and element, and in some cases the set cannot be an surmised that people habitually caught in double binds
element of itself. These types must not be muddled and in childhood would have greater problems—that in the
must be kept separate. For example “the name of a case of the schizophrenic, the double bind is presented
class cannot also be a member of the class”. A mes- continually and habitually within the family context from
sage is made up of words and the context that modifies infancy on. By the time the child is old enough to have
it. The context is of a higher logical type than the words. identified the double bind situation, it has already been in-
For example, the word “cat”cannot scratch you. The ternalized, and the child is unable to confront it. The solu-
real animal and the word cat are of two different logical tion then is to create an escape from the conflicting logical
types.* [7] Another example—this one of purely nonver- demands of the double bind, in the world of the delusional
bal communication among animals is: two puppies are system (see in Towards a Theory of Schizophrenia —Il-
playing and they growl at each other and nip each other lustrations from Clinical Data).
gently. The first level of the message could be described One solution to a double bind is to place the problem in a
as,“I am threatening you; I will bite you”A higher level larger context, a state Bateson identified as Learning III,
of the message is,“this is play fighting; I won't hurt you.” a step up from Learning II (which requires only learned
(See chapters: A Theory of Play and Fantasy and To- responses to reward/consequence situations). In Learning
wards a Theory of Schizophrenia--subsection The Base in III, the double bind is contextualized and understood as
Communications Theory, both in Steps to an Ecology of an impossible no-win scenario so that ways around it can
Mind). be found.
128 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

Bateson's double bind theory was never followed up by helped to prevent the species from becoming extinct,
research into whether family systems imposing system- and at the same time, the horn threatens the species
atic double binds might be a cause of schizophrenia. This with extinction. The horn therefore has a contradictory
complex theory has been only partly tested, and there are role in Rhinoceros survival (and evolution), exactly as a
gaps in the current psychological and experimental evi- schizophrenic symptom has a contradictory role in the
dence required to establish causation. The current under- psychological development of the identified patient—it
standing of schizophrenia takes into account a complex simultaneously protects and threatens.
interaction of genetic, neurological as well as emotional The pressures that drive evolution therefore represent a
stressors, including family interaction and it has been ar-
genuine double bind. And there is truly no escape: “It
gued that if the double bind theory overturns findings always happens.”No species can escape natural selection,
suggesting a genetic basis for schizophrenia then more
including our own.
comprehensive psychological and experimental studies
are needed, with different family types and across var- Bateson suggested that all evolution is driven by the dou-
ious family contexts.* [8] ble bind, whenever circumstances change: If any environ-
ment becomes toxic to any species, that species will die
Psychiatrists and psychologists manipulate and lie to their out unless it transforms into another species, in which
patients and turn them into scapegoats. Even if there is case, the species becomes extinct anyway.
a catastrophic failure of parenting it will not be articu-
lated by the mental health profession. People with unre- Most significant here is Bateson's exploration of what he
*
solvable conflicts in their youth are treated like prisoners. later came to call 'the pattern that connects' [10]—that
This rebirthing is effectively a form of brainwashing. In problems of communication which span more than one
these circumstances a belief in the double bind theory of level (e.g., the relationship between the individual and
schizophrenia is untenable. the family) should also be expected to be found spanning
other pairs of levels in the hierarchy (e.g. the relationship
between the genotype and the phenotype):
1.2.10 Evolution of Species as a Logical “We are very far, then, from being able to pose specific
Level Distinct from Survival of the questions for the geneticist; but I believe that the wider
implications of what I have been saying modify somewhat
Individual the philosophy of genetics. Our approach to the problems
of schizophrenia by way of a theory of levels or logical
After many years of research into schizophrenia, Bate- types has disclosed first that the problems of adaptation
son continued to explore problems of communication and and learning and their pathologies must be considered in
learning, first with dolphins, and then with the more ab- terms of a hierarchic system in which stochastic change
stract processes of evolution. Bateson emphasised that occurs at the boundary points between the segments of
any communicative system characterized by different the hierarchy. We have considered three such regions
logical levels might be subject to double bind problems. of stochastic change—the level of genetic mutation, the
Especially including the communication of characteris- level of learning, and the level of change in family or-
tics from one generation to another (genetics and evolu- ganization. We have disclosed the possibility of a rela-
tion). tionship of these levels which orthodox genetics would
"...evolution always followed the pathways of viability. deny, and we have disclosed that at least in human soci-
As Lewis Carroll has pointed out, the theory [of natu- eties the evolutionary system consists not merely in the
ral selection] explains quite satisfactorily why there are selective survival of those persons who happen to select
no bread-and-butter-flies today.”* [9] appropriate environments but also in the modification of
family environment in a direction which might enhance
Bateson used the fictional Bread and Butter Fly (from
the phenotypic and genotypic characteristics of the indi-
Through the Looking Glass, and What Alice Found
vidual members.”* [11]
There) to illustrate the double bind in terms of natural
selection. The gnat points out that the insect would be
doomed if he found his food (which would dissolve his
1.2.11 Usage in Zen Buddhism
own head), and starve if he did not. Alice suggests that
this must happen quite often, to which the gnat replies“it According to philosopher and theologian Alan Watts, the
always happens”. double bind has long been used in Zen Buddhism as
An example from zoology might be the Rhinoceros horn. a therapeutic tool. The Zen Master purposefully im-
This appendage evolved as a 'defensive weapon'. But the poses the double bind upon his students (through vari-
Rhino is now almost extinct because its horn—the very ous “skilful means”, called upaya), hoping that they
thing which gave it an evolutionary advantage against li- achieve enlightenment (satori). One of the most promi-
ons and other predators —is imagined to be a power- nent techniques used by Zen Masters (especially those of
ful supernatural medicine by some humans. The horn the Rinzai school) is called the koan, in which the master
protects the individual, which in evolutionary time has gives his or her students a question, and instructs them
 1.2. DOUBLE BIND 129

to pour all their mental energies into finding the answer more attentive the child is to these seductive
to it. As an example of a koan, a student can be asked words, and the more earnestly he responds to
to present to the master their genuine self, “Show me the suggestions emanating from all sides, the
who you really are”. According to Watts, the student more devastating will be the eventual conflicts.
will eventually realize there is nothing they can do, yet The child possesses no perspective that will al-
also nothing they cannot do, to present their actual self; low him to see things as they are. He has no ba-
thus, they truly learn the Buddhist concept of anatman sis for reasoned judgements, no means of fore-
(non-self) via reductio ad absurdum. seeing the metamorphosis of his model into a
rival. This model's opposition reverberates in
• Zen koan: “Be genuine”or “Who are you?" his mind like a terrible condemnation; he can
only regard it as an act of excommunication.
The future orientation of his desires—that is,
Argued by Watts to be the underlying theme of
the choice of his future models—will be sig-
all Zen koans, the idea here is to present your
nificantly affected by the dichotomies of his
true self to the roshi (master). The more the
childhood. In fact, these models will determine
students try, the phonier they are, and even the
the shape of his personality.
“act”of not trying is just another version of
trying. If desire is allowed its own bent, its
mimetic nature will almost always lead it into
a double bind. The unchanneled mimetic im-
1.2.12 Girard's mimetic double bind pulse hurls itself blindly against the obstacle
of a conflicting desire. It invites its own re-
René Girard, in his literary theory of mimetic de- buffs and these rebuffs will in turn strengthen
sire,* [12] proposes what he calls a “model-obstacle”, a the mimetic inclination. We have, then, a self-
role model who demonstrates an object of desire and yet, perpetuating process, constantly increasing in
in possessing that object, becomes a rival who obstructs simplicity and fervor. Whenever the disciple
fulfillment of the desire.* [13] According to Girard, the borrows from his model what he believes to
“internal mediation”of this mimetic dynamic “oper- be the “true”object, he tries to possess that
ates along the same lines as what Gregory Bateson called truth by desiring precisely what this model de-
the ‘double bind’.”* [14] Girard found in Sigmund sires. Whenever he sees himself closest to
Freud's psychoanalytic theory, a precursor to mimetic de- the supreme goal, he comes into violent con-
sire.* [15] “The individual who 'adjusts' has managed to flict with a rival. By a mental shortcut that
relegate the two contradictory injunctions of the double is both eminently logical and self-defeating,
bind—to imitate and not to imitate—to two different do- he convinces himself that the violence itself is
mains of application. This is, he divides reality in such a the most distinctive attribute of this supreme
way as to neutralize the double bind.”* [16] While criti- goal! Ever afterward, violence will invariably
cal of Freud's doctrine of the unconscious mind, Girard awaken desire...
sees the ancient Greek tragedy, Oedipus the King, and —René Girard, Violence and the Sacred
key elements of Freud's Oedipus complex, patricidal and “From Mimetic Desire to the Monstrous
incestuous desire, to serve as prototypes for his own anal- Double”, pp.156–157
ysis of the mimetic double bind.* [16]

Far from being restricted to a limited num-

ber of pathological cases, as American theo- 1.2.13 Neuro-linguistic programming
reticians suggest, the double bind—a contra-
dictory double imperative, or rather a whole The field of neuro-linguistic programming also makes use
network of contradictory imperatives —is an of the expression “double bind”. Grinder and Bandler
extremely common phenomenon. In fact, it is (both of whom had personal contact with Bateson) as-
so common that it might be said to form the serted that a message could be constructed with multiple
basis of all human relationships. messages, whereby the recipient of the message is given
Bateson is undoubtedly correct in believing the impression of choice—although both options have the
that the effects of the double bind on the child same outcome at a higher level of intention. This is called
are particularly devastating. All the grown-up a “double bind”in NLP terminology,* [17] and has ap-
voices around him, beginning with those of the plications in both sales and therapy. In therapy, the prac-
father and mother (voices which, in our soci- titioner may seek to challenge destructive double binds
ety at least, speak for the culture with the force that limit the client in some way and may also construct
of established authority) exclaim in a variety double binds in which both options have therapeutic con-
of accents, “Imitate us!”“Imitate me!”“I sequences. In a sales context, the speaker may give the re-
bear the secret of life, of true being!”The spondent the illusion of choice between two possibilities.
130 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

For example, a salesperson might ask:“Would you like to 1.2.15 Notes

pay cash or by credit card?", with both outcomes presup-
posing that the person will make the purchase; whereas [1] Bateson, G., Jackson, D. D., Haley, J. & Weakland, J.
the third option (that of not buying) is intentionally ex- (1956), Towards a Theory of Schizophrenia. in Behavioral
cluded from the spoken choices. Science, Vol 1, 251–264

Note that in the NLP context, the use of the phrase“dou- [2] Bateson, G. (1972). Double bind, 1969. Steps to an ecol-
ble bind”does not carry the primary definition of two ogy of the mind: A revolutionary approach to man's un-
conflicting messages; it is about creating a false sense of derstanding of himself, 271-278. Chicago: University of
choice which ultimately binds to the intended outcome. Chicago Press
In the“cash or credit card?" example, this is not a“Bate-
son double bind”since there is no contradiction, although [3] Bateson, G., Jackson, D. D., Haley, J. & Weakland, J.,
it still is an“NLP double bind”. Similarly if a salesman 1956, Toward a theory of schizophrenia. (in: 'Behavioral
were selling a book about the evils of commerce, it could Science', vol.1, 251–264)
perhaps be a“Bateson double bind”if the buyer happened
to believe that commerce was evil, yet felt compelled or [4] Bateson, Gregory (1972). Steps to an Ecology of Mind:
obliged to buy the book. Collected Essays in Anthropology, Psychiatry, Evolution,
and Epistemology. University Of Chicago Press.

[5] Zysk, Wolfgang (2004), ″Körpersprache – Eine neue

1.2.14 See also Sicht″, Doctoral Dissertation 2004, University Duisburg-
Essen (Germany).
• Ambiguity
[6] Koopmans, Mathijs. Schizophrenia and the Family: Dou-
• No-win situation ble Bind Theory Revisited 1997.

• Zeno's Paradoxes [7] Bateson (1972) Steps to an Ecology of Mind.

• Buridan's bridge [8] Koopmans, Mathijs (1997).“Schizophrenia and the Fam-

ily: Double Bind Theory Revisited”.
• Catch-22 (logic)
[9] Bateson, Gregory (April 1967). “Cybernetic Explana-
• Cognitive dissonance tion”. American Behavioral Scientist 10 (8): 29–32.

• Loaded question [10] Bateson, Gregory (1979). Mind and Nature. ISBN 1-
57273-434-5.
• Dialectic
[11] Bateson, Gregory (1960). A.M.A. Archives of General
• False dilemma Psychiatry 2: 477–491. Missing or empty |title= (help)

• Master suppression techniques [12] “Introduction—René Girard”. 5 November 2010.“The

hypothesis”. Version française «L'hypothèse».
• Mutually exclusive events
[13] Girard, René (1965). Deceit, Desire, and the Novel: Self
and Other in Literary Structure. Deceit, Desire, and the
• Ronald David Laing
Novel. p. 101. LCCN 65028582.
• Expressed emotion
[14] Fleming, C. (2004). René Girard: Violence and Mimesis.
Key Contemporary Thinkers. p. 20. ISBN 978-0-7456-
• Procrastination 2947-6. LCCN ocm56438393.

• Self and others [15] Meloni, Maurizio (2002). “A Triangle of Thoughts: Gi-
rard, Freud, Lacan”. Journal Of European Psychoanal-
• Self-reference ysis. Winter-Spring (14).

• Zugzwang [16] Girard, René; Gregory, Patrick (2005). Violence and the
Sacred. Continuum Impacts. pp. 187–188, 156–157.
• Doublethink ISBN 978-0-8264-7718-7. LCCN 77004539.

• Four sides model [17] Bandler, R., Grinder, J. (1981) Reframing: Neuro-
Linguistic Programming and the Transformation of
• Psychological manipulation Meaning Real People Press. ISBN 0-911226-25-7
1.3. EUTHYPHRO DILEMMA 131

1.2.16 References 1.3.1 The dilemma

• Watts, Alan (1999). The Way of Zen. Vintage. Socrates and Euthyphro discuss the nature of piety in
ISBN 0-375-70510-4. Plato's Euthyphro. Euthyphro proposes (6e) that the pi-
ous (τὸ ὅσιον) is the same thing as that which is loved by
• Bateson, Gregory. (1972, 1999) Steps to an Ecology the gods (τὸ θεοφιλές), but Socrates finds a problem with
of Mind: Collected Essays in Anthropology, Psychia- this proposal: the gods may disagree among themselves
try, Evolution, and Epistemology.Part III: Form and (7e). Euthyphro then revises his definition, so that piety
Pathology in Relationship. University of Chicago is only that which is loved by all of the gods unanimously
Press, 1999, originally published, San Francisco: (9e).
Chandler Pub. Co., 1972.
At this point the dilemma surfaces. Socrates asks whether
• Gibney, Paul (May 2006) The Double Bind the gods love the pious because it is the pious, or whether
Theory: Still Crazy-Making After All These the pious is pious only because it is loved by the gods
Years. in Psychotherapy in Australia. Vol. (10a). Socrates and Euthyphro both accept the first op-
12. No. 3. http://www.psychotherapy.com.au/ tion: surely the gods love the pious because it is the pious.
TheDoubleBindTheory.pdf But this means, Socrates argues, that we are forced to re-
ject the second option: the fact that the gods love some-
• Koopmans, Matthijs (1998) Schizophrenia and the thing cannot explain why the pious is the pious (10d).
Family II: Paradox and Absurdity in Human Com- Socrates points out that if both options were true, they
munication Reconsidered. http://www.goertzel. together would yield a vicious circle, with the gods loving
org/dynapsyc/1998/KoopmansPaper.htm the pious because it is the pious, and the pious being the
pious because the gods love it. And this in turn means,
• Zysk, Wolfgang (2004), ″Körpersprache – Eine Socrates argues, that the pious is not the same as the god-
neue Sicht″, Doctoral Dissertation 2004, University beloved, for what makes the pious the pious is not what
Duisburg-Essen (Germany). makes the god-beloved the god-beloved. After all, what
makes the god-beloved the god-beloved is the fact that
the gods love it, whereas what makes the pious the pi-
1.2.17 External links ous is something else (9d-11a). Thus Euthyphro's theory
does not give us the very nature of the pious, but at most
• http://www.mri.org/dondjackson/brp.htm a quality of the pious (11ab).
• http://www.behavenet.com/capsules/treatments/
famsys/dblebnd.htm
1.3.2 In philosophical theism
• http://www.laingsociety.org/cetera/pguillaume.
htm The dilemma can be modified to apply to philosophical
theism, where it is still the object of theological and philo-
• Reference in Encyclopedia of NLP sophical discussion, largely within the Christian, Jew-
ish, and Islamic traditions. As German philosopher and
• Double-bind loop feeding on itself, an illustration by mathematician Gottfried Leibniz presented this version
chart (and a poem) of the dilemma: “It is generally agreed that whatever
God wills is good and just. But there remains the question
whether it is good and just because God wills it or whether
1.3 Euthyphro dilemma God wills it because it is good and just; in other words,
whether justice and goodness are arbitrary or whether
they belong to the necessary and eternal truths about the
The Euthyphro dilemma is found in Plato's dialogue
nature of things.”* [1]
Euthyphro, in which Socrates asks Euthyphro, “Is the
pious (τὸ ὅσιον) loved by the gods because it is pious, or
is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" (10a) Explanation of the dilemma
The dilemma has had a major effect on the philosophi-
cal theism of the monotheistic religions, but in a modified The first horn The first horn of the dilemma (i.e.
form: “Is what is morally good commanded by God be- that which is right is commanded by God because
cause it is morally good, or is it morally good because it it is right) goes by a variety of names, including
is commanded by God?" Ever since Plato's original dis- intellectualism, rationalism, realism, naturalism, and
cussion, this question has presented a problem for some objectivism. Roughly, it is the view that there are inde-
theists, though others have thought it a false dilemma, and pendent moral standards: some actions are right or wrong
it continues to be an object of theological and philosoph- in themselves, independent of God's commands. This is
ical discussion today. the view accepted by Socrates and Euthyphro in Plato's
132 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

*
dialogue. The Mu'tazilah school of Islamic theology also [20] Similar concerns drove the medieval volun-
defended the view (with, for example, Nazzam main- tarists Duns Scotus and William of Ockham.* [21]
taining that God is powerless to engage in injustice or As contemporary philosopher Richard Swinburne
lying),* [2] as did the Islamic philosopher Averroes.* [3] puts the point, this horn“seems to place a restriction
Thomas Aquinas never explicitly addresses the Euthy- on God's power if he cannot make any action which
phro dilemma, but Aquinas scholars often put him on he chooses obligatory... [and also] it seems to limit
this side of the issue.* [4]* [5] Aquinas draws a distinc- what God can command us to do. God, if he is to be
tion between what is good or evil in itself and what is God, cannot command us to do what, independently
good or evil because of God's commands,* [6] with un- of his will, is wrong.”* [22]
changeable moral standards forming the bulk of natural
law.* [7] Thus he contends that not even God can change • Freedom of the will: Moreover, these moral stan-
the Ten Commandments (adding, however, that God can dards would limit God's freedom of will: God could
change what individuals deserve in particular cases, in not command anything opposed to them, and per-
what might look like special dispensations to murder or haps would have no choice but to command in ac-
steal).* [8] Among later Scholastics, Gabriel Vásquez is cordance with them.* [23] As Mark Murphy puts the
particularly clear-cut about obligations existing prior to point,“if moral requirements existed prior to God's
anyone's will, even God's.* [9]* [10] Modern natural law willing them, requirements that an impeccable God
theory saw Grotius and Leibniz also putting morality could not violate, God's liberty would be compro-
prior to God's will, comparing moral truths to unchange- mised.”* [24]
able mathematical truths, and engaging voluntarists like
Pufendorf in philosophical controversy.* [11] Cambridge • Morality without God: If there are moral standards
Platonists like Benjamin Whichcote and Ralph Cudworth independent of God, then morality would retain its
mounted seminal attacks on voluntarist theories, paving authority even if God did not exist. This conclusion
the way for the later rationalist metaethics of Samuel was explicitly (and notoriously) drawn by early mod-
Clarke and Richard Price;* [12]* [13]* [14] what emerged ern political theorist Hugo Grotius: “What we have
was a view on which eternal moral standards, though been saying [about the natural law] would have a de-
dependent on God in some way, exist independently of gree of validity even if we should concede that which
God's will and prior to God's commands. Contemporary cannot be conceded without the utmost wickedness,
philosophers of religion who embrace this horn of the Eu- that there is no God, or that the affairs of men are
thyphro dilemma include Richard Swinburne* [15]* [16] of no concern to him”* [25] On such a view, God
and T. J. Mawson* [17] (though see below for complica- is no longer a “law-giver”but at most a “law-
tions). transmitter”who plays no vital role in the founda-
tions of morality.* [26] Nontheists have capitalized
on this point, largely as a way of disarming moral
Problems arguments for God's existence: if morality does not
depend on God in the first place, such arguments
• Sovereignty: If there are moral standards indepen-
stumble at the starting gate.* [27]
dent of God's will, then "[t]here is something over
which God is not sovereign. God is bound by the
laws of morality instead of being their establisher. The second horn The second horn of the dilemma (i.e.
Moreover, God depends for his goodness on the ex- that which is right is right because it is commanded by
tent to which he conforms to an independent moral God) is sometimes known as divine command theory or
standard. Thus, God is not absolutely independent.” voluntarism. Roughly, it is the view that there are no
*
[18] 18th-century philosopher Richard Price, who moral standards other than God's will: without God's
takes the first horn and thus sees morality as“neces- commands, nothing would be right or wrong. This view
sary and immutable”, sets out the objection as fol- was partially defended by Duns Scotus, who argued that
lows:“It may seem that this is setting up something not all Ten Commandments belong to the Natural Law.
distinct from God, which is independent of him, and Scotus held that while our duties to God (found on the
equally eternal and necessary.”* [19] first tablet) are self-evident, true by definition, and un-
changeable even by God, our duties to others (found on
• Omnipotence: These moral standards would limit the second tablet) were arbitrarily willed by God and are
God's power: not even God could oppose them within his power to revoke and replace.* [28]* [29]* [30]
by commanding what is evil and thereby making William of Ockham went further, contending that (since
it good. This point was influential in Islamic the- there is no contradiction in it) God could command us
ology: “In relation to God, objective values ap- not to love God* [31] and even to hate God.* [32] Later
peared as a limiting factor to His power to do as He Scholastics like Pierre D'Ailly and his student Jean de
wills... Ash'ari got rid of the whole embarrassing Gerson explicitly confronted the Euthyphro dilemma,
problem by denying the existence of objective val- taking the voluntarist position that God does not “com-
ues which might act as a standard for God's action.” mand good actions because they are good or prohibit
 1.3. EUTHYPHRO DILEMMA 133

evil ones because they are evil; but... these are there- • No reasons for God: This arbitrariness would also
fore good because they are commanded and evil because jeopardize God's status as a wise and rational being,
prohibited.”* [33] Protestant reformers Martin Luther one who always acts on good reasons. As Leibniz
and John Calvin both stressed the absolute sovereignty writes: “Where will be his justice and his wisdom
of God's will, with Luther writing that “for [God's] will if he has only a certain despotic power, if arbitrary
there is no cause or reason that can be laid down as a will takes the place of reasonableness, and if in ac-
rule or measure for it”,* [34] and Calvin writing that cord with the definition of tyrants, justice consists in
“everything which [God] wills must be held to be righ- that which is pleasing to the most powerful? Besides
teous by the mere fact of his willing it.”* [35] The vol- it seems that every act of willing supposes some rea-
untarist emphasis on God's absolute power was carried son for the willing and this reason, of course, must
further by Descartes, who notoriously held that God had precede the act.”* [48]
freely created the eternal truths of logic and mathematics,
and that God was therefore capable of giving circles un- • Anything goes:* [49] This arbitrariness would also
equal radii,* [36] giving triangles other than 180 inter- mean that anything could become good, and any-
nal degrees, and even making contradictions true.* [37] thing could become bad, merely upon God's com-
Descartes explicitly seconded Ockham: “why should mand. Thus if God commanded us“to gratuitously
[God] not have been able to give this command [i.e., the inflict pain on each other”* [50] or to engage in“cru-
command to hate God] to one of his creatures?"* [38] elty for its own sake”* [51] or to hold an “annual
Thomas Hobbes notoriously reduced the justice of God sacrifice of randomly selected ten-year-olds in a par-
to “irresistible power”* [39] (drawing the complaint of ticularly gruesome ritual that involves excruciating
Bishop Bramhall that this “overturns... all law”).* [40] and prolonged suffering for its victims”,* [52] then
And William Paley held that all moral obligations bottom we would be morally obligated to do so. As 17th-
out in the self-interested “urge”to avoid Hell and enter century philosopher Ralph Cudworth put it: “noth-
Heaven by acting in accord with God's commands.* [41] ing can be imagined so grossly wicked, or so foully
Islam's Ash'arite theologians, al-Ghazali foremost among unjust or dishonest, but if it were supposed to be
them, embraced voluntarism: scholar George Hourani commanded by this omnipotent Deity, must needs
writes that the view “was probably more prominent upon that hypothesis forthwith become holy, just,
and widespread in Islam than in any other civilization.” and righteous.”* [53]
*
[42]* [43] Wittgenstein said that of“the two interpreta-
tions of the Essence of the Good”, that which holds that • Moral contingency: If morality depends on the
“the Good is good, in virtue of the fact that God wills it” perfectly free will of God, morality would lose its
is“the deeper”, while that which holds that“God wills necessity: “If nothing prevents God from loving
the good, because it is good”is“the shallow, rationalistic things that are different from what God actually
one, in that it behaves 'as though' that which is good could loves, then goodness can change from world to world
be given some further foundation”.* [44] Today, divine or time to time. This is obviously objectionable to
command theory is defended by many philosophers of re- those who believe that claims about morality are,
ligion, though typically in a restricted form (see below). if true, necessarily true.”* [49] In other words, no
action is necessarily moral: any right action could
Problems This horn of the dilemma also faces several have easily been wrong, if God had so decided,
problems: and an action which is right today could easily be-
come wrong tomorrow, if God so decides. Indeed,
• No reasons for morality: If there is no moral stan- some have argued that divine command theory is
dard other than God's will, then God's commands incompatible with ordinary conceptions of moral
are arbitrary (i.e., based on pure whimsy or caprice). supervenience.* [54]
This would mean that morality is ultimately not
based on reasons: “if theological voluntarism is • Why do God's commands obligate?: Mere com-
true, then God's commands/intentions must be ar- mands do not create obligations unless the comman-
bitrary; [but] it cannot be that morality could wholly der has some commanding authority. But this com-
depend on something arbitrary... [for] when we say manding authority cannot itself be based on those
that some moral state of affairs obtains, we take very commands (i.e., a command to obey com-
it that there is a reason for that moral state of af- mands), otherwise a vicious circle results. So, in or-
fairs obtaining rather than another.”* [45] And as der for God's commands to obligate us, he must de-
Michael J. Murray and Michael Rea put it, this rive commanding authority from some source other
would also“cas[t] doubt on the notion that morality than his own will. As Cudworth put it: “For it was
is genuinely objective.”* [46] An additional problem never heard of, that any one founded all his author-
is that it is difficult to explain how true moral actions ity of commanding others, and others [sic] obliga-
can exist if one acts only out of fear of God or in an tion or duty to obey his commands, in a law of his
attempt to be rewarded by him.* [47] own making, that men should be required, obliged,
134 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

or bound to obey him. Wherefore since the thing lyzes morality in terms of God's will: and indeed, in
willed in all laws is not that men should be bound a later discussion of divine command theory, Moore
or obliged to obey; this thing cannot be the product concluded that “when we assert any action to be
of the meer [sic] will of the commander, but it must right or wrong, we are not merely making an asser-
proceed from something else; namely, the right or tion about the attitude of mind towards it of any be-
authority of the commander.”* [55] To avoid the cir- ing or set of beings whatever.”* [65]
cle, one might say our obligation comes from grat-
itude to God for creating us. But this presupposes
• No morality without God: If all morality is a mat-
some sort of independent moral standard obligating
ter of God's will, then if God does not exist, there is
us to be grateful to our benefactors. As 18th-century
no morality. This is the thought captured in the slo-
philosopher Francis Hutcheson writes:“Is the Rea-
gan (often attributed to Dostoevsky) "If God does
son exciting to concur with the Deity this, 'The De-
not exist, everything is permitted." Divine command
ity is our Benefactor?' Then what Reason excites
theorists disagree over whether this is a problem for
to concur with Benefactors?"* [56] Or finally, one
their view or a virtue of their view. Many argue
might resort to Hobbes's view: “The right of na-
that morality does indeed require God's existence,
ture whereby God reigneth over men, and punisheth
and that this is in fact a problem for atheism. But
those that break his laws, is to be derived, not from
divine command theorist Robert Merrihew Adams
his creating them (as if he required obedience, as
contends that this idea (“that no actions would be
of gratitude for his benefits), but from his irresistible
ethically wrong if there were not a loving God”) is
power.”* [57] In other words, might makes right.
one that “will seem (at least initially) implausible
to many”, and that his theory must“dispel [an] air
• God's goodness: If all goodness is a matter of God's of paradox.”* [66]
will, then what shall become of God's goodness?
Thus William P. Alston writes,“since the standards
of moral goodness are set by divine commands, to Responses to the dilemma
say that God is morally good is just to say that he
obeys his own commands... that God practises what Many philosophers and theologians have addressed the
he preaches, whatever that might be;"* [50] Hutche- Euthyphro dilemma since the time of Plato, though not al-
son deems such a view “an insignificant tautology, ways with reference to the Platonic dialogue. According
amounting to no more than this, 'That God wills to scholar Terence Irwin, the issue and its connection with
what he wills.'"* [58] Alternatively, as Leibniz puts Plato was revived by Ralph Cudworth and Samuel Clarke
it, divine command theorists “deprive God of the in the 17th and 18th centuries.* [67] More recently, it
designation good: for what cause could one have has received a great deal of attention from contemporary
to praise him for what he does, if in doing some- philosophers working in metaethics and the philosophy of
thing quite different he would have done equally religion. Philosophers and theologians aiming to defend
well?"* [59] A related point is raised by C. S. Lewis: theism against the threat of the dilemma have developed
“if good is to be defined as what God commands, a variety of responses.
then the goodness of God Himself is emptied of
meaning and the commands of an omnipotent fiend
would have the same claim on us as those of the Independent moral standards Contemporary
'righteous Lord.'"* [60] Or again Leibniz:“this opin- philosophers Joshua Hoffman and Gary S. Rosenkrantz
ion would hardly distinguish God from the devil.” take the first horn of the dilemma, branding divine
*
[61] That is, since divine command theory trivial- command theory a “subjective theory of value”that
izes God's goodness, it is incapable of explaining the makes morality arbitrary.* [68] They accept a theory of
difference between God and an all-powerful demon. morality on which “right and wrong, good and bad, are
in a sense independent of what anyone believes, wants, or
• The is-ought problem and the naturalistic fallacy: prefers.”* [69] They do not address the aforementioned
According to David Hume, it is hard to see how problems with the first horn, but do consider a related
moral propositions featuring the relation ought could problem concerning God's omnipotence: namely, that
ever be deduced from ordinary is propositions, such it might be handicapped by his inability to bring about
as“the being of a God.”* [62] Divine command the- what is independently evil. To this they reply that God
ory is thus guilty of deducing moral oughts from or- is omnipotent, even though there are states of affairs he
dinary ises about God's commands.* [63] In a similar cannot bring about: omnipotence is a matter of “maxi-
vein, G. E. Moore argued (with his open question ar- mal power”, not an ability to bring about all possible
gument) that the notion good is indefinable, and any states of affairs. And supposing that it is impossible for
attempts to analyze it in naturalistic or metaphysical God not to exist, then since there cannot be more than
terms are guilty of the so-called “naturalistic fal- one omnipotent being, it is therefore impossible for any
lacy.”* [64] This would block any theory which ana- being to have more power than God (e.g., a being who
1.3. EUTHYPHRO DILEMMA 135

is omnipotent but not omnibenevolent). Thus God's ultimately on this goodness and badness.* [86] God could
omnipotence remains intact.* [70] not issue horrible commands: God's own essential good-
Richard Swinburne and T. J. Mawson have a slightly ness* [63]* [87]* [88] or loving character* [89] would keep
more complicated view. They both take the first horn him from issuing any unsuitable commands. Our obli-
of the dilemma when it comes to necessary moral truths. gation to obey God's commands does not result in cir-
But divine commands are not totally irrelevant, for God cular reasoning; it might instead be based on a grati-
and his will can still have an impact on contingent moral tude whose appropriateness is itself independent of di-
truths.* [71]* [72]* [16]* [17] On the one hand, the most vine commands.* [90] These proposed solutions are con-
troversial,* [91] and some steer the view back into prob-
fundamental moral truths hold true regardless of whether
God exists or what God has commanded: “Genocide lems associated with the first horn.* [92] But by freeing
up a realm of value independent of God's will, this view
and torturing children are wrong and would remain so
whatever commands any person issued.”* [22] This is might result in a satisfactory form of divine command
theory.
because, according to Swinburne, such truths are true as
a matter of logical necessity: like the laws of logic, one One problem remains for such views: if God's own es-
cannot deny them without contradiction.* [73] This par- sential goodness does not depend on divine commands,
allel offers a solution to the aforementioned problems of then on what does it depend? Something other than God?
God's sovereignty, omnipotence, and freedom: namely, Here the restricted divine command theory is commonly
that these necessary truths of morality pose no more of a combined with a view reminiscent of Plato: God is iden-
threat than the laws of logic.* [74]* [75]* [76] On the other tical to the ultimate standard for goodness.* [93] Alston
hand, there is still an important role for God's will. First, offers the analogy of the standard meter bar in France.
there are some divine commands that can directly cre- Something is a meter long inasmuch as it is the same
ate moral obligations: e.g., the command to worship on length as the standard meter bar, and likewise, something
Sundays instead of on Tuesdays.* [77] Notably, not even is good inasmuch as it approximates God. If one asks
these commands, for which Swinburne and Mawson take why God is identified as the ultimate standard for good-
the second horn of the dilemma, have ultimate, under- ness, Alston replies that this is “the end of the line,”
ived authority. Rather, they create obligations only be- with no further explanation available, but adds that this is
cause of God's role as creator and sustainer and indeed no more arbitrary than a view that invokes a fundamen-
owner of the universe, together with the necessary moral tal moral standard.* [94] On this view, then, even though
truth that we owe some limited consideration to benefac- goodness is independent of God's will, it still depends on
tors and owners.* [78]* [79] Second, God can make an in- God, thus God's sovereignty remains intact.
direct moral difference by deciding what sort of universe This solution has been criticized by Wes Morriston. If we
to create. For example, whether a public policy is morally
identify the ultimate standard for goodness with God's na-
good might indirectly depend on God's creative acts: the ture, then it seems we are identifying it with certain prop-
policy's goodness or badness might depend on its effects,
erties of God (e.g., being loving, being just). If so, then
and those effects would in turn depend on the sort of uni- the dilemma resurfaces: is God good because he has those
verse God has decided to create.* [80]* [81]
properties, or are those properties good because God has
them?* [95] Nevertheless, Morriston concludes that the
Restricted divine command theory One common re- appeal to God's essential goodness is the divine-command
sponse to the Euthyphro dilemma centers on a distinc- theorist's best bet. To produce a satisfying result, how-
tion between value and obligation. Obligation, which ever, it would have to give an account of God's goodness
concerns rightness and wrongness (or what is required, that does not trivialize it and does not make God subject
forbidden, or permissible), is given a voluntarist treat- to an independent standard of goodness.* [96]
ment. But value, which concerns goodness and badness,
is treated as independent of divine commands. The result False dilemma response Augustine, Anselm, and
is a restricted divine command theory that applies only to Aquinas all wrote about the issues raised by the Euthy-
a specific region of morality: the deontic region of obliga- phro dilemma, although, like William James* [97] and
tion. This response is found in Francisco Suárez's discus- Wittgenstein* [44] later, they did not mention it by name.
sion of natural law and voluntarism in De legibus* [82] and As philosopher and Anselm scholar Katherin A. Rogers
has been prominent in contemporary philosophy of reli- observes, many contemporary philosophers of religion
gion, appearing in the work of Robert M. Adams,* [83] suppose that there are true propositions which exist as
Philip L. Quinn,* [84] and William P. Alston.* [85] platonic abstracta independently of God.* [98] Among
A significant attraction of such a view is that, since it these are propositions constituting a moral order, to
allows for a non-voluntarist treatment of goodness and which God must conform in order to be good.* [99] Clas-
badness, and therefore of God's own moral attributes, sical Judaeo-Christian theism, however, rejects such a
some of the aforementioned problems with voluntarism view as inconsistent with God's omnipotence, which re-
can perhaps be answered. God's commands are not arbi- quires that God and what he has made is all that there
trary: there are reasons which guide his commands based is.* [98] “The classical tradition,”Rogers notes, “also
136 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

steers clear of the other horn of the Euthyphro dilemma, Sacks wrote, “In Judaism, the Euthyphro dilemma
divine command theory.”* [100] From a classical theis- does not exist.”* [108] Jewish philosophers Avi Sagi
tic perspective, therefore, the Euthyphro dilemma is false. and Daniel Statman criticized the Euthyphro dilemma as
As Rogers puts it, “Anselm, like Augustine before him “misleading”because“it is not exhaustive": it leaves out
and Aquinas later, rejects both horns of the Euthyphro a third option, namely that God “acts only out of His
dilemma. God neither conforms to nor invents the moral nature.”* [109]
order. Rather His very nature is the standard for value.”
*
[98]
Moral philosopher Peter Singer, disputing the perspective Aquinas *
Like Aristotle, Aquinas rejected Platon-
that“God is good”and could never advocate something ism. [110] In his view, to speak of abstractions not only
like torture, states that those who propose this are“caught as existent, but as more perfect exemplars than fully des-
in a trap of their own making, for what can they possibly ignated particulars, is to put a premium on generality and
*
mean by the assertion that God is good? That God is vagueness. [111] On this analysis, the abstract “good”
approved of by God?" [101]* in the first horn of the Euthyphro dilemma is an unnec-
essary obfuscation. Aquinas frequently quoted with ap-
proval Aristotle's definition, “Good is what all desire.”
Jewish thought The basis of the false dilemma re- * [112]* [113] As he clarified,“When we say that good is
sponse —God's nature is the standard for value —pre- what all desire, it is not to be understood that every kind
dates the dilemma itself, appearing first in the thought of of good thing is desired by all, but that whatever is desired
the eighth-century BC Hebrew prophets, Amos, Hosea, has the nature of good.”* [114] In other words, even those
Micah and Isaiah. (Amos lived some three centuries who desire evil desire it“only under the aspect of good,”
before Socrates and two before Thales, traditionally re- i.e., of what is desirable.* [115]“Evil, be thou my good,”
garded as the first Greek philosopher.)“Their message,” says Milton's Satan.* [116] The difference between desir-
writes British scholar Norman H. Snaith, “is recognized ing good and desiring evil is that in the former, will and
by all as marking a considerable advance on all previ- reason are in harmony, whereas in the latter, they are in
ous ideas,”* [102] not least in its “special consideration discord.* [117]
for the poor and down-trodden.”* [103] As Snaith ob-
Aquinas's discussion of sin provides a good point of en-
serves, tsedeq, the Hebrew word for righteousness,“actu-
try to his philosophical explanation of why the nature of
ally stands for the establishment of God's will in the land.”
God is the standard for value. “Every sin,”he writes,
This includes justice, but goes beyond it,“because God's
“consists in the longing for a passing [i.e., ultimately un-
will is wider than justice. He has a particular regard for
real or false] good.”* [118] Thus,“in a certain sense it is
the helpless ones on earth.”* [104] Tsedeq “is the norm
true what Socrates says, namely that no one sins with full
by which all must be judged”and it “depends entirely
knowledge.”* [119]“No sin in the will happens without
upon the Nature of God.”* [105]
an ignorance of the understanding.”* [120] God, how-
Hebrew has few abstract nouns. What the Greeks thought ever, has full knowledge (omniscience) and therefore by
of as ideas or abstractions, the Hebrews thought of as ac- definition (that of Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle as well as
tivities.* [106] In contrast to the Greek dikaiosune (jus- Aquinas) can never will anything other than what is good.
tice) of the philosophers, tsedeq is not an idea abstracted It has been claimed —for instance, by Nicolai Hartmann,
from this world of affairs. As Snaith writes: who wrote:“There is no freedom for the good that would
not be at the same time freedom for evil”* [121] —that
Tsedeq is something that happens here, and this would limit God's freedom, and therefore his om-
can be seen, and recognized, and known. It fol- nipotence. Josef Pieper, however, replies that such argu-
lows, therefore, that when the Hebrew thought ments rest upon an impermissibly anthropomorphic con-
of tsedeq (righteousness), he did not think of ception of God.* [122] In the case of humans, as Aquinas
Righteousness in general, or of Righteousness says, to be able to sin is indeed a consequence,* [123] or
as an Idea. On the contrary, he thought of even a sign, of freedom (quodam libertatis signum).* [124]
a particular righteous act, an action, concrete, Humans, in other words, are not puppets manipulated by
capable of exact description, fixed in time and God so that they always do what is right. However, “it
space.... If the word had anything like a gen- does not belong to the essence of the free will to be able
eral meaning for him, then it was as it was to decide for evil.”* [125] “To will evil is neither free-
represented by a whole series of events, the dom nor a part of freedom.”* [124] It is precisely humans'
sum-total of a number of particular happen- creatureliness —that is, their not being God and therefore
ings.* [105] omniscient —that makes them capable of sinning.* [126]
Consequently, writes Pieper, “the inability to sin should
The Hebrew stance on what came to be called the problem be looked on as the very signature of a higher freedom —
of universals, as on much else, was very different from contrary to the usual way of conceiving the issue.”* [122]
that of Plato and precluded anything like the Euthyphro Pieper concludes: “Only the will [i.e., God's] can be the
dilemma.* [107] This has not changed. In 2005, Jonathan right standard of its own willing and must will what is
 1.3. EUTHYPHRO DILEMMA 137

right necessarily, from within itself, and always. A devi- 1.3.3 In popular culture
ation from the norm would not even be thinkable. And
obviously only the absolute divine will is the right stan- In the song "No Church in the Wild" from the album
dard of its own act”* [127]* [128] —and consequently of Watch the Throne, rapper Jay-Z references the dilemma
all human acts. Thus the second horn of the Euthyphro with the line, “Is pious pious 'cause God loves pious?
dilemma, divine command theory, is also disposed of. Socrates asked whose bias do y'all seek.”* [135]

William James William James, in his essay "The 1.3.4 See also
Moral Philosopher and the Moral Life", dismisses the
first horn of the Euthyphro dilemma and stays clear of • Ethical dilemma
the second. He writes:“Our ordinary attitude of regard- • Morality
ing ourselves as subject to an overarching system of moral
relations, true 'in themselves,' is ... either an out-and-out • Ethics in the Bible
superstition, or else it must be treated as a merely provi-
sional abstraction from that real Thinker ... to whom the
existence of the universe is due.”* [129] Moral obliga- 1.3.5 Notes
tions are created by“personal demands,”whether these
demands* [130] come from the weakest creatures, from [1] Leibniz 1702(?), p. 516.
the most insignificant persons, or from God. It follows [2] Wolfson 1976, p. 579.
that “ethics have as genuine a foothold in a universe
where the highest consciousness is human, as in a uni- [3] Hourani 1962, pp. 13–40.
verse where there is a God as well.”However, whether
[4] Haldane 1989, p. 40.
“the purely human system”works “as well as the other
*
is a different question.” [129] [5] Irwin 2007, I, pp. 553–556.
For James, the deepest practical difference in the moral [6] Aquinas c. 1265–1274, 2a2ae 57.2.
life is between what he calls “the easy-going and the
strenuous mood.”* [131] In a purely human moral sys- [7] Aquinas c. 1265–1274, 2a1ae 94.5.
tem, it is hard to rise above the easy-going mood, since
[8] Aquinas c. 1265–1274, 1a2ae 100.8.
the thinker's “various ideals, known to him to be mere
preferences of his own, are too nearly of the same de- [9] Pink 2005.
nominational value;* [132] he can play fast and loose with
them at will. This too is why, in a merely human world [10] Irwin 2007, II, pp. 6–10.
without a God, the appeal to our moral energy falls short [11] See esp. Grotius 1625, 1.1.10 and Leibniz 1702(?); see
of its maximum stimulating power.”Our attitude is“en- also Leibniz 1706, pp. 64–75.
tirely different”in a world where there are none but “fi-
nite demanders”from that in a world where there is also [12] Gill 1999, esp. pp. 272–74.
“an infinite demander.”This is because “the stable and
[13] Mackie 1980, Chapters 2, 8.
systematic moral universe for which the ethical philoso-
pher asks is fully possible only in a world where there is a [14] Gill 2011.
divine thinker with all-enveloping demands”, for in that
case,“actualized in his thought already must be that eth- [15] Swinburne 1993, pp. 209–216.
ical philosophy which we seek as the pattern which our [16] Swinburne 2008.
own must evermore approach.”Even though “exactly
what the thought of this infinite thinker may be is hidden [17] Mawson 2008.
from us”, our postulation of him serves “to let loose
[18] Murray & Rea 2008, p. 247.
in us the strenuous mood”* [131] and confront us with
an existential* [133] “challenge”in which “our total [19] Price 1769, Chapter 5.
character and personal genius ... are on trial; and if we
invoke any so-called philosophy, our choice and use of [20] Hourani 1960, p. 276.
that also are but revelations of our personal aptitude or [21] Haldane 1989, pp. 42–43.
incapacity for moral life. From this unsparing practical
ordeal no professor's lectures and no array of books can [22] Swinburne 1993, p. 210.
save us.”* [131] In the words of Richard M. Gale,“God
[23] See Adams 1999, p. 47-49 for a detailed discussion of
inspires us to lead the morally strenuous life in virtue of
this problem; also see Suárez 1872, 2.6.22-23.
our conceiving of him as unsurpassably good. This sup-
plies James with an adequate answer to the underlying [24] Murphy 2012, Metaethical theological voluntarism: Con-
question of the Euthyphro.”* [134] siderations in Favor.
138 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

[25] Grotius 1625, Prolegomenon, 11. [55] Cudworth 1731, 1.2.4.

[26] Kretzmann 1999, p. 423. [56] Hutcheson 1742, I.

[27] Oppy 2009, pp. 352–356. [57] Hobbes, 31.5.
[28] Williams 2013, Ethics and Moral Psychology: The natural [58] Hutcheson 1738, 2.7.5.
law.
[59] Leibniz 1710, p. 176.
[29] Williams 2002, pp. 312–316.

[30] See Cross 1999, p. 92 for the view that our duties to oth- [60] Lewis 1943, p. 79.
ers “hold automatically [i.e., without God's commands]
[61] Leibniz 1702(?), p. 561.
unless God commands otherwise.”

[31] William of Ockham. Quodlibeta 3.13 [62] Hume 1739, 3.1.1.27.

[32] William of Ockham. Reportata 4.16; see also Osborne [63] Wierenga 1983, p. 397.
2005
[64] Moore 1903, Chapters 1, 2, 4.
[33] D'Ailly, Pierre. Questions on the Books of the Sentences
1.14; quoted in Wainwright 2005, p. 74, quoting Idziak [65] Moore 1912, p. 79.
63-4; see Wainwright 2005, p. 74 for similar quotes from
[66] Adams 1979, p. 77.
Gerson.

[34] Luther 1525, §88. [67] Irwin 2006.

[35] Calvin 1536, 3.23.2. [68] Hoffman & Rosenkrantz 2002, pp. 143–145.

[36] Descartes, III 25. [69] Hoffman & Rosenkrantz 2002, pp. 145–147.

[37] Descartes, III 235. [70] Hoffman & Rosenkrantz 2002, pp. 166, 173–176.

[38] Descartes, III 343. [71] Swinburne 1974.

[39] Hobbes. “Of Liberty and Necessity”12 [72] Swinburne 1993, Chapter 11.
[40] Hobbes. “A Defense of True Liberty”, 12f
[73] Swinburne 1993, p. 192ff.
[41] Paley, William. “Principles”2.3
[74] Swinburne 1993, Chapter 9.
[42] Hourani 1960, p. 270.
[75] Swinburne 1974, pp. 217–222.
[43] See Frank 1994, pp. 32–36 for the view that al-Ghazali in-
corporated rationalist elements that moved him away from [76] Mawson 2008, pp. 26–29.
traditional Ash'arite voluntarism.
[77] Swinburne 1974, p. 211.
[44] Janik & Toulmin 1973, p. 194. The passage is also quoted
in Baggett 2002, p. 19. [78] Swinburne 1974, pp. 211–215.

[45] Murphy 2012, Perennial difficulties for metaethical the- [79] Swinburne 2008, pp. 10–12.
ological voluntarism: Theological voluntarism and arbi-
trariness. [80] Swinburne 2008, p. 10.

[46] Murray & Rea 2008, pp. 246–247. [81] Mawson 2008, pp. 29–32.

[47] Doomen 2011. [82] Suárez 1872, 2.6 “Is the natural law truly a preceptive
divine law?".
[48] Leibniz 1686, II.
[83] Adams 1973, esp. p. 109 and Adams 1999, esp. p. 250.
[49] Murray & Rea 2008, p. 246.
[84] Quinn 2007, esp. p. 71.
[50] Alston 2002, p. 285.

[51] Adams 1973. [85] Alston 1990, pp. 306–307.

[52] Morriston 2009, p. 249. [86] Alston 1990, pp. 317–318.

[53] Cudworth 1731, 1.1.5. [87] Quinn 2007, pp. 81–85.

[54] Klagge 1984, pp. 374–375. [88] Alston 1990, p. 317.

 1.3. EUTHYPHRO DILEMMA 139

[89] Adams 1979. In this early work, Adams's view is that it is [110] Aquinas. Commentary on Aristotle's Metaphysics, Bk. 1,
logically possible but“unthinkable”that God would issue lectio 10, n. 158.
horrible commands: “the believer's concepts of ethical
rightness and wrongness would break down in the situation [111] McInerny 1982, pp. 122–123.
in which he believed that God commanded cruelty for its
own sake”(p. 324). In later work, Adams contends that [112] Aristotle, Ethics 1.1; Aquinas, Commentary on Aristotle's
“God cannot be sadistic”(Adams 1999, p. 47). Ethics 1, 9 and 11.

[90] Adams 1999, pp. 252–253. [113] Aquinas c. 1265–1274, I 5,1.

[91] For criticisms, see Chandler 1985; Morriston 2001; Shaw [114] Aquinas c. 1265–1274, I 6,2 ad 2.
2002; and Zagzebski 2004, pp. 259–261
[115] Aquinas. Commentary on Aristotle's Ethics 1,10.
[92] See Adams 1999, pp. 47–49 on the problems of divine
omnipotence and freedom of the will
[116] Milton, John. Paradise Lost IV, 110.
[93] See Adams 1999, Chapter 1; Quinn 2007; Alston 1990
distances himself from Platonism; see also Kretzmann [117] Aquinas c. 1265–1274, I/II q24, a2.
1999, pp. 375–376 for a similar solution, put in terms
of divine simplicity. [118] Aquinas c. 1265–1274, I/II 72,2.

[94] Alston 1990, pp. 318-322. [119] Aquinas c. 1265–1274, I/II 58,2 and I/II 77,2.

[95] Morriston 2001, p. 253. [120] Aquinas. Summa contra Gentiles 4,92.
[96] Morriston 2001, p. 266. [121] Hartmann, Nicolai. Ethik (3rd edition). Berlin, 1949, p.
378. Cited in Pieper 2001, pp. 78–79.
[97] James 1891.

[98] Rogers 2008, p. 8. [122] Pieper 2001, p. 79.

[99] Rogers 2008, p. 186. [123] Aquinas. De Veritate 24,3 ad 2.

[100] Rogers 2008, p. 186; see also Rogers 2000, pp. 127–133. [124] Aquinas. De Veritate 22,6.

[101] Singer, Peter (1993). Practical Ethics (3d ed.). Cam- [125] Aquinas. De Veritate 24,3 ad 2; Commentary on the Sen-
bridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 3–4. ISBN 978- tences of Peter Lombard 2d,44,1,1 ad 1.
0-521-43971-8.

[102] Snaith 1944, p. 59. Written over many centuries by many [126] Pieper 2001, p. 80.
authors, the Old Testament displays a marked ethical evo-
lution in its portrayal —and therefore understanding —of [127] Aquinas c. 1265–1274, I 63,1.
God. In its earliest-written books, God appears at times
[128] Pieper 2001, pp. 80–81.
as no more than a nationalistic tribal deity who orders the
extermination of entire peoples hostile to Israel, such as
[129] James 1891, Section II.
the Midianites (Numbers 31: 1–54) and Amalekites (1
Samuel 15: 1–25). By the time of Amos, however, such
[130] Gale 1999, p. 44: In his essay, “James used 'desire',
“primitive and immature notions”are a thing of the past
'demand' and 'claim' interchangeably, using 'desire' and
(Snaith 1944, p. 52; see also pp. 61–62, 66–67). For a
'demand' each eleven times and 'claim' five.”
recent overview, see Head 2010.

[103] Snaith 1944, pp. 68–69. It was this “bias towards the [131] James 1891, Section V.
poor and needy”(Snaith 1944, p. 70) in the message
of the Hebrew prophets and Jesus Christ that inspired [132] James is acutely aware of how hard it is to “avoid com-
the "preferential option for the poor" of late-twentieth- plete moral skepticism on the one hand, and on the other
century Latin American liberation theology. escape bringing a wayward personal standard of our own
along with us, on which we simply pin our faith.”He briefly
[104] Snaith 1944, p. 70. discusses several notions “proposed as bases of the ethi-
cal system”, but finds little to help choose among them.
[105] Snaith 1944, p. 77. (James 1891, Section III)
[106] Snaith 1944, p. 174. [133] Gale 1999, p. 40.
[107] Snaith 1944, pp. 9, 187–188.
[134] Gale 1999, p. 44.
[108] Sacks 2005, p. 164.
[135] “Kanye West – No Church in the Wild Lyrics”. Retrieved
[109] Sagi & Statman 1995, pp. 62–63. 5 November 2013.
140 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

1.3.6 References • Gill, Michael (2011). British Moralists on Human

Nature and the Birth of Secular Ethics. ISBN 978-
• Adams, Robert Merrihew (1973). “A Modified 0521184403.
Divine Command Theory of Ethical Wrongness”.
In Gene Outka and John P. Reeder. Religion and • Grotius, Hugo (2005) [1625]. Richard Tuck, ed.
Morality: A Collection of Essays. Anchor. The Rights of War and Peace. Liberty Fund. ISBN
9780865974364.
• Adams, Robert Merrihew (1979). “Divine Com-
mand Metaethics Modified Again”. Journal of Re- • Haldane, John (1989). “Realism and voluntarism
ligious Ethics 7 (1): 66–79. in medieval ethics”. Journal of Medical Ethics 15
(1): 39–44. doi:10.1136/jme.15.1.39.
• Adams, Robert Merrihew (1999). Finite and Infinite
• Head, Ronan (9 July 2010). “Missing the point
Goods: A Framework for Ethics. New York: Oxford
about atrocities in the Bible”. Church Times.
University Press. ISBN 0-19-515371-5.
• Hobbes, Thomas. Leviathan.
• Alston, William P. (1990). “Some suggestions
for divine command theorists”. In Michael Beaty. • Hoffman, Joshua; Rosenkrantz, Gary S. (2002). The
Christian Theism and the Problems of Philosophy. Divine Attributes. doi:10.1002/9780470693438.
University of Notre Dame Press. pp. 303–26. ISBN 978-1892941008.
• Alston, William P. (2002). “What Euthyphro • Hourani, George (1960). “Two Theories of Value
should have said”. In William Lane Craig. Philos- in Medieval Islam”. Muslim World 50 (4): 269–
ophy of Religion: A Reader and Guide. ISBN 978- 278. doi:10.1111/j.1478-1913.1960.tb01091.x.
0813531212.
• Hourani, George (1962). “Averroes on Good and
• Aquinas, Thomas (c. 1265–1274). Summa Theo- Evil”. Studia Islamica 16: 13–40.
logica. Check date values in: |date= (help)
• Hume, David (1739). A Treatise of Human Nature.
• Baggett, David (2002). Theistic Activism and the Eu- ISBN 978-1479321728.
thyphro Dilemma (Dissertation). • Hutcheson, Francis (1738). An Inquiry Into the
• Calvin, John (1536). Institutes of the Christian Reli- Original of Our Ideas of Beauty and Virtue; In Two
gion. Treatises.

• Chandler, John (1985).“Divine command theories • Hutcheson, Francis (1742). Illustrations on the
and the appeal to love”. American Philosophical Moral Sense. ISBN 978-0674443266.
Quarterly 22 (3): 231–239. • Irwin, Terence (2006). “Socrates and Euthyphro:
The argument and its revival”. In Lindsay Judson &
• Cross, Richard (1999). Duns Scotus. ISBN 978-
V. Karasmanēs. Remembering Socrates: Philosoph-
0195125535.
ical Essays. Oxford University Press.
• Cudworth, Ralph (1731). A Treatise concerning
• Irwin, Terence (2007). The Development of Ethics.
eternal and immutable morality.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0199693856.
• Descartes, René. John Cottingham, Dugald Mur- • James, William (1891). “The Moral Philosopher
doch, Robert Stoothoff, ed. The Philosophical Writ- and the Moral Life”. International Journal of Ethics.
ings of Descartes.
• Janik, Allan; Toulmin, Stephen (1973). Wittgen-
• Doomen, Jasper (2011). “Religion's Appeal” stein's Vienna. New York: Simon & Schuster. ISBN
. Philosophy and Theology 23 (1): 133–148. 0-671-21725-9.
doi:10.5840/philtheol20112316.
• Klagge, James C. (1984). “An alleged difficulty
• Frank, Richard M. (1994). Al-Ghazali and the concerning moral properties”. Mind 93 (371): 370–
Asharite School. ISBN 978-0822314271. 380. doi:10.1093/mind/xciii.371.370.
• Gale, Richard M. (1999). The Divided Self of • Kretzmann, Norman (1999).“Abraham, Isaac, and
William James. Cambridge University Press. ISBN Euthyphro: God and the basis of morality”. In
0-521-64269-8. Eleonore Stump and Michael J. Murray. Philosophy
of Religion: The Big Questions. Oxford: Blackwell.
• Gill, Michael (1999). “The Religious Ra- ISBN 0-631-20604-3.
tionalism of Benjamin Whichcote”. Journal
of the History of Philosophy 37 (2): 271–300. • Leibniz, Gottfried (1686). Discourse on Meta-
doi:10.1353/hph.2008.0832. physics.
1.3. EUTHYPHRO DILEMMA 141

• Leibniz, Gottfried (1989) [1702(?)]. “Reflections • Price, Richard (1769). A Review of the Principal
on the Common Concept of Justice”. In Leroy Questions of Morals.
Loemker. Leibniz: Philosophical Papers and Letters.
Dordrecht: Klumer. ISBN 978-9027706935. • Quinn, Philip (2007). “Theological
Voluntarism”. In David Copp. The
• Leibniz, Gottfried (1706). “Opinion on the Prin- Oxford Handbook of Ethical Theory.
ciples of Pufendorf”. In Riley. Political Writings. doi:10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195325911.003.0003.
pp. 64–75.
• Rogers, Katherin A. (2000). “Divine Goodness”.
• Leibniz, Gottfried (1710). Théodicée. Perfect Being Theology. Edinburgh University Press.
ISBN 978-0-7486-1012-9.
• Lewis, C. S. (1967) [1943]. “The Poison of Sub-
jectivism”. Christian Reflections. • Rogers, Katherin A. (2008). Anselm on Freedom.
Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-923167-
• Luther, Martin (1525). On the Bondage of the Will. 6.
• Mackie, J. L. (1980). Hume's Moral Theory. ISBN • Sacks, Jonathan (2005). To Heal a Fractured World:
978-0415104364. The Ethics of Responsibility. New York: Schocken
Books. ISBN 978-0-8052-1196-2.
• Mawson, T. J. (2008). “The Euthy-
phro Dilemma”. Think 7 (20): 25–33. • Sagi, Avi; Statman, Daniel (1995). Religion and
doi:10.1017/S1477175608000171. Morality. Amsterdam: Rodopi. ISBN 978-90-
5183-838-1.
• McInerny, Ralph (1982). St. Thomas Aquinas. Uni-
versity of Notre Dame Press. ISBN 0-268-01707-7. • Singer, Peter (1993). Practical Ethics (3d ed.).
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN
• Moore, G. E. (1903). Principia Ethica.
978-0-521-43971-8.
• Moore, G. E. (1912). Ethics. • Shaw, Joseph (2002). “Divine commands at the
• Morriston, Wes (2001). “Must there be a standard foundations of morality”. Canadian Journal of Phi-
of moral goodness apart from God”. Philosophia losophy 32 (3): 419–439.
Christi. 2 3 (1): 127–138. • Snaith, Norman H. (1983) [1944]. The Distinctive
• Morriston, Wes (2009). “What if God com- Ideas of the Old Testament. London: Epworth Press.
manded something terrible: a worry for divine- ISBN 0-7162-0392-8.
command meta-ethics”. Religious Studies • Suárez, Francisco (1872). Tractatus de legibus ac
(Cambridge University Press) 45: 249–267. deo legislatore: in decem libros distributus.
doi:10.1017/S0034412509990011.
• Swinburne, Richard (1974). “Duty and the Will
• Murphy, Mark (2012). “Theological Voluntarism” of God”. Canadian Journal of Philosophy 4 (2):
. In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of 213–227.
Philosophy (Fall 2012 Edition ed.).
• Swinburne, Richard (1993). The Coherence of The-
• Murray, Michael J.; Rea, Michael (2008). An Intro- ism. ISBN 978-0198240709.
duction to the Philosophy of Religion. Cambridge:
Cambridge. ISBN 978-0521619554. • Swinburne, Richard (2008). “God
and morality”. Think 7 (20): 7–15.
• Oppy, Graham (2009). Arguing about Gods. ISBN doi:10.1017/S1477175608000158.
978-0521122641.
• Wainwright, William (2005). Religion and Morality.
• Osborne, Thomas M. (2005).“Ockham as a divine- ISBN 978-0754616320.
command theorist”. Religious Studies 41 (1): 1–22.
doi:10.1017/S0034412504007218. • Wierenga, Edward (1983). “A defensible di-
vine command theory”. Noûs 17 (3): 387–407.
• Pieper, Josef (2001). The Concept of Sin. translated doi:10.2307/2215256.
by Edward T. Oakes, S.J. South Bend, Indiana: St
Augustine's Press. ISBN 978-1-890318-07-9. • Williams, Thomas (2013). “John Duns Scotus”.
In Edward N. Zalta. The Stanford Encyclopedia of
• Pink, Thomas (2005). “Action, Will, and Law Philosophy (Summer 2013 Edition ed.).
in Late Scholasticism”. Moral Philosophy on the
Threshold of Modernity: 31–50. doi:10.1007/1- • Williams, Thomas, ed. (2002). The Cambridge
4020-3001-0_3. Companion to Duns Scotus. ISBN 978-0521635639.
142 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

• Wolfson, Harry (1976). The Philosophy of the contexts, the assertion that "if you are not with us, you
Kalam. ISBN 978-0674665804. are against us"). This fallacy also can arise simply by
accidental omission of additional options rather than by
• Zagzebski, Linda (2004). Divine Motivation Theory. deliberate deception. Additionally, it can be the result
ISBN 978-0521535762. of habitual, patterned, black-and-white and/or intensely
political/politicized thinking whereby a model of binary
1.3.7 Further reading (or polar) opposites is assigned or imposed to whatever
regarded object/context, almost automatically--a process
• Jan Aertsen Medieval philosophy and the transcen- that may ignore both complexity and alternatives to more
dentals: the case of Thomas Aquinas (2004: New extreme juxtaposed archetypes; binary opposition is ex-
York, Brill) ISBN 90-04-10585-9 plored extensively in critical theory.
Some philosophers and scholars believe that “unless a
• John M. Frame Euthyphro, Hume, and the Biblical
distinction can be made rigorous and precise it isn't really
God retrieved February 13, 2007
a distinction.”* [1] An exception is analytic philosopher
• Paul Helm [ed.] Divine Commands and Morality John Searle, who called it an incorrect assumption that
(1981: Oxford, Oxford University Press) ISBN 0- produces false dichotomies.* [2] Searle insists that “it is
19-875049-8 a condition of the adequacy of a precise theory of an in-
determinate phenomenon that it should precisely charac-
• Peter J. King, Morality & religion I (PDF file) terize that phenomenon as indeterminate; and a distinc-
• Greg Koukl, Euthyphro's Dilemma, Stand to Reason tion is no less a distinction for allowing
*
for a family of
commentary, 2002 related, marginal, diverging cases.” [2] Similarly, when
two options are presented, they often are, although not
• Plato Euthyphro (any edition; the Penguin version always, two extreme points on some spectrum of possi-
can be found in The Last Days of Socrates ISBN 0- bilities; this may lend credence to the larger argument by
14-044037-2) giving the impression that the options are mutually exclu-
sive of each other, even though they need not be. Fur-
thermore, the options in false dichotomies typically are
1.3.8 External links presented as being collectively exhaustive, in which case
the fallacy may be overcome, or at least weakened, by
• Euthyphro by Plato from Project Gutenberg
considering other possibilities, or perhaps by considering
• Interactive Euthyphro Dilemma from Philosophy a whole spectrum of possibilities, as in fuzzy logic.
Experiments
• God and Morality - an article on the Euthyphro 1.4.1 Examples
Dilemma
Morton's fork

1.4 False dilemma Morton's fork, a choice between two equally unpleasant
options, is often a false dilemma. The phrase originates
from an argument for taxing English nobles:
A false dilemma (also called black-and-white think-
ing, bifurcation, denying a conjunct, the either–or fal- “Either the nobles of this country appear
lacy, false dichotomy, fallacy of exhaustive hypothe- wealthy, in which case they can be taxed for
ses, the fallacy of false choice, the fallacy of the false good; or they appear poor, in which case they
alternative, or the fallacy of the excluded middle) is are living frugally and must have immense sav-
a type of informal fallacy that involves a situation in ings, which can be taxed for good.”* [3]
which only limited alternatives are considered, when in
fact there is at least one additional option. The opposite This is a false dilemma and a "Catch-22", because it fails
of this fallacy is argument to moderation. to allow for the possibility that some members of the no-
The options may be a position that is between two ex- bility may in fact lack liquid assets, as well as the possi-
tremes (such as when there are shades of grey) or may bility that those who appear poor may actually be poor.
be completely different alternatives. Phrasing that im-
plies two options (dilemma, dichotomy, black-and-white)
False choice
may be replaced with other number-based nouns, such as
a “false trilemma" if something is reduced to only three The presentation of a false choice often reflects a delib-
options. erate attempt to eliminate several options that may oc-
False dilemma can arise intentionally, when fallacy is cupy the middle ground on an issue. A common argu-
used in an attempt to force a choice (such as, in some ment against noise pollution laws involves a false choice.
1.5. PRISONER'S DILEMMA 143

It might be argued that in New York City noise should • None of the above
not be regulated, because if it were, the city would dras-
tically change in a negative way. This argument assumes • One-party system
that, for example, a bar must be shut down to prevent dis- • Show election
turbing levels of noise emanating from it after midnight.
This ignores the fact that the bar could simply lower its • Unreason
noise levels, or install soundproofing structural elements
to keep the noise from excessively transmitting onto oth- • Behaviorism
ers' properties.
• Learned helplessness

Black-and-white thinking
1.4.3 References
See also: Splitting (psychology)
[1] Jacques Derrida (1991) Afterword: Toward An Ethic of
See also: Binary opposition
Discussion, published in the English translation of Limited
Inc., pp.123-4, 126
In psychology, a phenomenon related to the false
dilemma is black-and-white thinking. Many people rou- [2] Searle, John. (1983) The Word Turned Upside Down. The
New York Review of Books, Volume 30, Number 16, Oc-
tinely engage in black-and-white thinking, an example
tober 27, 1983.
of which is someone who categorizes other people as all
good or all bad.* [4] [3] Evans, Ivor H. (1989). Brewer's Dictionary of Phrase &
Fable, 14th edition, Harper & Row. ISBN 0-06-016200-
7.
1.4.2 See also
[4] AJ Giannini. Use of fiction in therapy. Psychiatric Times.
• Bivalence 18(7):56-57,2001.

• Correlative-based fallacies
1.4.4 External links
• Critical theory
• Degrees of truth • The Black-or-White Fallacy entry in The Fallacy
Files
• Half-truth
• Hobson's choice
1.5 Prisoner's dilemma
• Law of excluded middle
• Loaded question This article is about game theory. For the 1988 novel,
see Prisoner's Dilemma (novel). For the Doctor Who
• Love–hate relationship audiobook, see The Prisoner's Dilemma. For the 2001
play, see The Prisoner's Dilemma (play).
• Multi-valued logic
• Nolan Chart The prisoner's dilemma is a canonical example of a
game analyzed in game theory that shows why two purely
• Nondualism
“rational”individuals might not cooperate, even if it ap-
• Obscurantism pears that it is in their best interests to do so. It was origi-
nally framed by Merrill Flood and Melvin Dresher work-
• Pascal's Wager ing at RAND in 1950. Albert W. Tucker formalized the
game with prison sentence rewards and gave it the name
• Perspectivism
“prisoner's dilemma”(Poundstone, 1992), presenting it
• Principle of bivalence as follows:

• Rogerian argument
Two members of a criminal gang are arrested
• Sorites paradox and imprisoned. Each prisoner is in solitary
confinement with no means of speaking to or
• Strange loop exchanging messages with the other. The pros-
• Thinking outside the box ecutors do not have enough evidence to convict
the pair on the principal charge. They hope to
• Two-party system get both sentenced to a year in prison on a lesser
144 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

charge. Simultaneously, the prosecutors offer 1.5.1 Strategy for the classic prisoners'
each prisoner a Faustian bargain. Each pris- dilemma
oner is given the opportunity either to: betray
the other by testifying that the other commit- The normal game is shown below:
ted the crime, or to cooperate with the other
by remaining silent. Here is the offer: Here, regardless of what the other decides, each prisoner
gets a higher pay-off by betraying the other (“defecting”
• If A and B each betray the other, each of ). The reasoning involves an argument by dilemma: B
them serves 2 years in prison will either cooperate or defect. If B cooperates, A should
• If A betrays B but B remains silent, A defect, since going free is better than serving 1 year. If
will be set free and B will serve 3 years B defects, A should also defect, since serving 2 years is
in prison (and vice versa) better than serving 3. So either way, A should defect.
Parallel reasoning will show that B should defect.
• If A and B both remain silent, both of
them will only serve 1 year in prison (on In traditional game theory, some very restrictive assump-
the lesser charge) tions on prisoner behaviour are made. It is assumed that
both understand the nature of the game, and that despite
being members of the same gang, they have no loyalty to
It is implied that the prisoners will have no opportunity each other and will have no opportunity for retribution or
to reward or punish their partner other than the prison reward outside the game. Most importantly, a very nar-
sentences they get, and that their decision will not affect row interpretation of “rationality”is applied in defining
their reputation in the future. Because betraying a part- the decision-making strategies of the prisoners. Given
ner offers a greater reward than cooperating with them, these conditions and the payoffs above, prisoner A will
all purely rational self-interested prisoners would betray betray prisoner B. The game is symmetric, so Prisoner B
the other, and so the only possible outcome for two purely should act the same way. Since both “rationally”de-
rational prisoners is for them to betray each other.* [1] cide to defect, each receives a lower reward than if both
The interesting part of this result is that pursuing individ- were to stay quiet. Traditional game theory results in both
ual reward logically leads both of the prisoners to betray, players being worse off than if each chose to lessen the
when they would get a better reward if they both cooper- sentence of his accomplice at the cost of spending more
ated. In reality, humans display a systematic bias towards time in jail himself.
cooperative behavior in this and similar games, much
more so than predicted by simple models of “rational”
self-interested action.* [2]* [3]* [4]* [5] A model based on
a different kind of rationality, where people forecast how 1.5.2 Generalized form
the game would be played if they formed coalitions and
then they maximize their forecasts, has been shown to The structure of the traditional Prisoners’Dilemma can
make better predictions of the rate of cooperation in this be generalized from its original prisoner setting. Suppose
and similar games given only the payoffs of the game.* [6] that the two players are represented by the colors, red and
blue, and that each player chooses to either“Cooperate”
There is also an extended“iterated”version of the game, or “Defect”.
where the classic game is played over and over between
the same prisoners, and consequently, both prisoners con- If both players cooperate, they both receive the reward,
tinuously have an opportunity to penalize the other for R, for cooperating. If Blue defects while Red cooper-
previous decisions. If the number of times the game will ates, then Blue receives the temptation, T payoff while
be played is known to the players, then (by backward in- Red receives the “sucker's”, S, payoff. Similarly, if
duction) two classically rational players will betray each Blue cooperates while Red defects, then Blue receives the
other repeatedly, for the same reasons as the single shot sucker's payoff S while Red receives the temptation pay-
variant. In an infinite or unknown length game there is no off T. If both players defect, they both receive the pun-
fixed optimum strategy, and Prisoner's Dilemma tourna- ishment payoff P.
ments have been held to compete and test algorithms. This can be expressed in normal form:
The prisoner's dilemma game can be used as a model and to be a prisoner's dilemma game in the strong sense,
for many real world situations involving cooperative be- the following condition must hold for the payoffs:
haviour. In casual usage, the label “prisoner's dilemma”
may be applied to situations not strictly matching the for- T > R > P > S
mal criteria of the classic or iterative games: for instance, The payoff relationship R > P implies that mutual coop-
those in which two entities could gain important benefits eration is superior to mutual defection, while the payoff
from cooperating or suffer from the failure to do so, but relationships T > R and P > S imply that defection is the
find it merely difficult or expensive, not necessarily im- dominant strategy for both agents. That is, mutual defec-
possible, to coordinate their activities to achieve cooper- tion is the only strong Nash equilibrium in the game (i.e.,
ation. the only outcome from which each player could only do
 1.5. PRISONER'S DILEMMA 145

worse by unilaterally changing strategy). The dilemma will defect on the last no matter what is done, and so on.
then is that mutual cooperation yields a better outcome The same applies if the game length is unknown but has
than mutual defection but it is not the rational outcome a known upper limit.
because the choice to cooperate, at the individual level, is Unlike the standard prisoners' dilemma, in the iterated
not rational from a self-interested point of view. prisoners' dilemma the defection strategy is counter-
intuitive and fails badly to predict the behavior of human
Special case: Donation game players. Within standard economic theory, though, this
is the only correct answer. The superrational strategy in
The“donation game”[7] is a form of prisoner's dilemma the iterated prisoners' dilemma with fixed N is to coop-
*

in which cooperation corresponds to offering the other erate against a superrational opponent, and in the limit
player a benefit b at a personal cost c with b > c. Defec- of large N, experimental results on strategies agree with
tion means offering nothing. The payoff matrix is thus the superrational version, not the game-theoretic rational
one.
Note that 2R>T+S (i.e. 2(b-c)>b-c) which qualifies the
donation game to be an iterated game (see next section). For cooperation to emerge between game theoretic ratio-
nal players, the total number of rounds N must be ran-
The donation game may be applied to markets. Suppose dom, or at least unknown to the players. In this case 'al-
X grows oranges, Y grows apples. The marginal utility ways defect' may no longer be a strictly dominant strat-
of an apple to the orange-grower X is b, which is higher egy, only a Nash equilibrium. Amongst results shown by
than the marginal utility (c) of an orange, since X has a Robert Aumann in a 1959 paper, rational players repeat-
surplus of oranges and no apples. Similarly, for apple- edly interacting for indefinitely long games can sustain
grower Y, the marginal utility of an orange is b while the the cooperative outcome.
marginal utility of an apple is c. If X and Y contract to
exchange an apple and an orange, and each fulfills their
end of the deal, then each receive a payoff of b-c. If one Strategy for the iterated prisoners' dilemma
“defects”and does not deliver as promised, the defector
will receive a payoff of b, while the cooperator will lose Interest in the iterated prisoners' dilemma (IPD) was kin-
c. If both defect, then neither one gains or loses anything. dled by Robert Axelrod in his book The Evolution of Co-
operation (1984). In it he reports on a tournament he or-
ganized of the N step prisoners' dilemma (with N fixed)
1.5.3 The iterated prisoners' dilemma in which participants have to choose their mutual strat-
egy again and again, and have memory of their previous
If two players play prisoners' dilemma more than once in encounters. Axelrod invited academic colleagues all over
succession and they remember previous actions of their the world to devise computer strategies to compete in an
opponent and change their strategy accordingly, the game IPD tournament. The programs that were entered varied
is called iterated prisoners' dilemma. widely in algorithmic complexity, initial hostility, capac-
In addition to the general form above, the iterative ver- ity for forgiveness, and so forth.
sion also requires that 2R > T + S, to prevent alternating
Axelrod discovered that when these encounters were re-
cooperation and defection giving a greater reward than peated over a long period of time with many players, each
mutual cooperation.
with different strategies, greedy strategies tended to do
The iterated prisoners' dilemma game is fundamental to very poorly in the long run while more altruistic strategies
certain theories of human cooperation and trust. On the did better, as judged purely by self-interest. He used this
assumption that the game can model transactions between to show a possible mechanism for the evolution of altru-
two people requiring trust, cooperative behaviour in pop- istic behaviour from mechanisms that are initially purely
ulations may be modeled by a multi-player, iterated, ver- selfish, by natural selection.
sion of the game. It has, consequently, fascinated many The winning deterministic strategy was tit for tat, which
scholars over the years. In 1975, Grofman and Pool esti- Anatol Rapoport developed and entered into the tourna-
mated the count of scholarly articles devoted to it at over ment. It was the simplest of any program entered, con-
2,000. The iterated prisoners' dilemma has also been re- taining only four lines of BASIC, and won the contest.
ferred to as the "Peace-War game".* [8] The strategy is simply to cooperate on the first iteration
If the game is played exactly N times and both players of the game; after that, the player does what his or her
know this, then it is always game theoretically optimal to opponent did on the previous move. Depending on the
defect in all rounds. The only possible Nash equilibrium situation, a slightly better strategy can be“tit for tat with
is to always defect. The proof is inductive: one might forgiveness.”When the opponent defects, on the next
as well defect on the last turn, since the opponent will move, the player sometimes cooperates anyway, with a
not have a chance to punish the player. Therefore, both small probability (around 1–5%). This allows for occa-
will defect on the last turn. Thus, the player might as sional recovery from getting trapped in a cycle of defec-
well defect on the second-to-last turn, since the opponent tions. The exact probability depends on the line-up of
146 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

opponents. 2. Monte Carlo simulations of populations have been

By analysing the top-scoring strategies, Axelrod stated made, where individuals with low scores die off, and
several conditions necessary for a strategy to be success- those with high scores reproduce (a genetic algo-
ful. rithm for finding an optimal strategy). The mix of
algorithms in the final population generally depends
on the mix in the initial population. The introduc-
Nice The most important condition is that the strategy tion of mutation (random variation during reproduc-
must be “nice”, that is, it will not defect before tion) lessens the dependency on the initial popula-
its opponent does (this is sometimes referred to as tion; empirical experiments with such systems tend
an “optimistic”algorithm). Almost all of the top- to produce tit for tat players (see for instance Chess
scoring strategies were nice; therefore, a purely self- 1988), but there is no analytic proof that this will
ish strategy will not “cheat”on its opponent, for always occur.
purely self-interested reasons first.

Retaliating However, Axelrod contended, the success- Although tit for tat is considered to be the most robust
ful strategy must not be a blind optimist. It basic strategy, a team from Southampton University in
must sometimes retaliate. An example of a non- England (led by Professor Nicholas Jennings and consist-
retaliating strategy is Always Cooperate. This is a ing of Rajdeep Dash, Sarvapali Ramchurn, Alex Rogers,
very bad choice, as“nasty”strategies will ruthlessly Perukrishnen Vytelingum) introduced a new strategy at
exploit such players. the 20th-anniversary iterated prisoners' dilemma compe-
tition, which proved to be more successful than tit for tat.
Forgiving Successful strategies must also be forgiving. This strategy relied on cooperation between programs to
Though players will retaliate, they will once again achieve the highest number of points for a single program.
fall back to cooperating if the opponent does not The university submitted 60 programs to the competition,
continue to defect. This stops long runs of revenge which were designed to recognize each other through a se-
and counter-revenge, maximizing points. ries of five to ten moves at the start.* [10] Once this recog-
nition was made, one program would always cooperate
Non-envious The last quality is being non-envious, that and the other would always defect, assuring the maxi-
is not striving to score more than the opponent. mum number of points for the defector. If the program
realized that it was playing a non-Southampton player, it
The optimal (points-maximizing) strategy for the one- would continuously defect in an attempt to minimize the
time PD game is simply defection; as explained above, score of the competing program. As a result,* [11] this
this is true whatever the composition of opponents may strategy ended up taking the top three positions in the
be. However, in the iterated-PD game the optimal strat- competition, as well as a number of positions towards the
egy depends upon the strategies of likely opponents, and bottom.
how they will react to defections and cooperations. For This strategy takes advantage of the fact that multiple
example, consider a population where everyone defects entries were allowed in this particular competition and
every time, except for a single individual following the tit that the performance of a team was measured by that of
for tat strategy. That individual is at a slight disadvantage the highest-scoring player (meaning that the use of self-
because of the loss on the first turn. In such a population, sacrificing players was a form of minmaxing). In a com-
the optimal strategy for that individual is to defect every petition where one has control of only a single player,
time. In a population with a certain percentage of always- tit for tat is certainly a better strategy. Because of this
defectors and the rest being tit for tat players, the optimal new rule, this competition also has little theoretical sig-
strategy for an individual depends on the percentage, and nificance when analysing single agent strategies as com-
on the length of the game. pared to Axelrod's seminal tournament. However, it pro-
In the strategy called Pavlov, win-stay, lose-switch, If vided the framework for analysing how to achieve coop-
the last round outcome was P,P, a Pavlov player switches erative strategies in multi-agent frameworks, especially in
strategy the next turn, which means P,P would be consid- the presence of noise. In fact, long before this new-rules
ered as a failure to cooperate. For a certain range of pa- tournament was played, Richard Dawkins in his book The
rameters, Pavlov beats all other strategies by giving pref- Selfish Gene pointed out the possibility of such strategies
erential treatment to co-players which resemble Pavlov. winning if multiple entries were allowed, but he remarked
that most probably Axelrod would not have allowed them
Deriving the optimal strategy is generally done in two if they had been submitted. It also relies on circumvent-
ways: ing rules about the prisoners' dilemma in that there is no
communication allowed between the two players, which
1. Bayesian Nash Equilibrium: If the statistical dis- the Southampton programs arguably did with their open-
tribution of opposing strategies can be determined ing “ten move dance”to recognize one another; this
(e.g. 50% tit for tat, 50% always cooperate) an opti- only reinforces just how valuable communication can be
mal counter-strategy can be derived analytically.* [9] in shifting the balance of the game.
1.5. PRISONER'S DILEMMA 147

Stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma plicitly evaluate a large number of interactions. It can
be seen that v is a stationary vector for M n and particu-
larly M ∞ , so that each row of M ∞ will be equal to v.
In a stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma game, strate- Thus the stationary vector specifies the equilibrium out-
gies are specified by in terms of “cooperation probabili- come probabilities for X. Defining Sx = {R, S, T, P }
ties”.* [12] In an encounter between player X and player and Sy = {R, T, S, P } as the short-term payoff vectors
Y, X 's strategy is specified by a set of probabilities P of for the {cc,cd,dc,dd} outcomes (From X 's point of view),
cooperating with Y. P is a function of the outcomes of the equilibrium payoffs for X and Y can now be specified
their previous encounters or some subset thereof. If P as sx = v·Sx and sy = v·Sy , allowing the two strategies
is a function of only their most recent n encounters, it P and Q to be compared for their long term payoffs.
is called a “memory-n”strategy. A memory-1 strat-
egy is then specified by four cooperation probabilities:
P = {Pcc , Pcd , Pdc , Pdd } , where Pab is the probability
Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma strategies with memory-1
that X will cooperate in the present encounter given that
ZD Generous
the previous encounter was characterized by (ab). For strategies
Zero determinant
Strategies
example, if the previous encounter was one in which X ZD Extortion
strategies
cooperated and Y defected, then Pcd is the probability always
cooperate

that X will cooperate in the present encounter. If each of tit-for-tat

the probabilities are either 1 or 0, the strategy is called de- Cooperating

Strategies
Defecting
Strategies

terministic. An example of a deterministic strategy is the generous Always

always
defect

"tit for tat" strategy written as P={1,0,1,0}, in which X re- tit-for-tat robust
Robust under
strong selection
sponds as Y did in the previous encounter. Another is the Robust under
strong selection

win–stay, lose–switch strategy written as P={1,0,0,1}, in (Good)

win-stay-
which X responds as in the previous encounter, if it was lose-shift

a “win”(i.e. cc or dc) but changes strategy if it was

a loss (i.e. cd or dd). It has been shown that for any
The relationship between zero-determinant (ZD), cooperating
memory-n strategy there is a corresponding memory-1
and defecting strategies in the Iterated Prisoner’s Dilemma
strategy which gives the same statistical results, so that (IPD). Cooperating strategies always cooperate with other coop-
only memory-1 strategies need be considered.* [12] erating strategies, and defecting strategies always defect against
If we define P as the above 4-element strategy vector of other defecting strategies. Both contain subsets of strategies that
X and Q = {Qcc , Qcd , Qdc , Qdd } as the 4-element strat- are robust under strong selection, meaning no other memory-1
egy vector of Y, a transition matrix M may be defined for strategy is selected to invade such strategies when they are resi-
dent in a population. Only cooperating strategies contain a subset
X whose ij th entry is the probability that the outcome of
that are always robust, meaning that no other memory-1 strategy
a particular encounter between X and Y will be j given is selected to invade and replace such strategies, under both strong
that the previous encounter was i, where i and j are one and weak selection. The intersection between ZD and good co-
of the four outcome indices: cc, cd, dc, or dd. For exam- operating strategies is the set of generous ZD strategies. Extortion
ple, from X 's point of view, the probability that the out- strategies are the intersection between ZD and non-robust defect-
come of the present encounter is cd given that the previ- ing strategies. Tit-for-tat lies at the intersection of cooperating,
ous encounter was cd is equal to Mcd,cd = Pcd (1 − Qdc ) defecting and ZD strategies.
. (Note that the indices for Q are from Y 's point of
view: a cd outcome for X is a dc outcome for Y.) Under Zero-determinant strategies In 2012, William H.
these definitions, the iterated prisoner's dilemma quali- Press and Freeman Dyson published a new class of strate-
fies as a stochastic process and M is a stochastic matrix, gies for the stochastic iterated prisoner's dilemma called
allowing all of the theory of stochastic processes to be “zero-determinant”(ZD) strategies.* [12] The long term
applied.* [12] payoffs for encounters between X and Y can be expressed
One result of stochastic theory is that there exists a sta- as the determinant of a matrix which is a function of the
tionary vector v for the matrix M such that v · M = v two strategies and the short term payoff vectors: sx =
. Without loss of generality, it may be specified that v D(P, Q, Sx ) and sy = D(P, Q, Sy ) , which do not
is normalized so that the sum of its four components is involve the stationary vector v. Since the determinant
unity. The ij th entry in M n will give the probability that function sy = D(P, Q, f ) is linear in f, it follows that
the outcome of an encounter between X and Y will be αsx + βsy + γ = D(P, Q, αSx + βSy + γU ) (where
j given that the encounter n steps previous is i. In the U={1,1,1,1}). Any strategies for which D(P, Q, αSx +
limit as n approaches infinity, M will converge to a ma- βSy + γU ) = 0 is by definition a ZD strategy, and the
trix with fixed values, giving the long-term probabilities long term payoffs obey the relation αsx + βsy + γ = 0 .
of an encounter producing j which will be independent Tit-for-tat is a ZD strategy which is “fair”in the sense
of i. In other words the rows of M ∞ will be identical, of not gaining advantage over the other player. However,
giving the long-term equilibrium result probabilities of the ZD space also contains strategies that, in the case of
the iterated prisoners dilemma without the need to ex- two players, can allow one player to unilaterally set the
148 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

other player's score or alternatively, force an evolutionary Continuous iterated prisoners' dilemma
player to achieve a payoff some percentage lower than his
own. The extorted player could defect but would thereby Most work on the iterated prisoners' dilemma has fo-
hurt himself by getting lower payoff. Thus, extortion so- cused on the discrete case, in which players either co-
lutions turn the iterated prisoner's dilemma into a sort of operate or defect, because this model is relatively simple
ultimatum game. Specifically, X is able to choose a strat- to analyze. However, some researchers have looked at
egy for which D(P, Q, βSy + γU ) = 0 , unilaterally models of the continuous iterated prisoners' dilemma, in
setting sy to a specific value within a particular range of which players are able to make a variable contribution to
values, independent of Y 's strategy, offering an oppor- the other player. Le and Boyd* [17] found that in such
tunity for X to “extort”player Y (and vice versa). (It situations, cooperation is much harder to evolve than in
turns out that if X tries to set sx to a particular value, the the discrete iterated prisoners' dilemma. The basic in-
range of possibilities is much smaller, only consisting of tuition for this result is straightforward: in a continuous
complete cooperation or complete defection.* [12]) prisoners' dilemma, if a population starts off in a non-
An extension of the IPD is an evolutionary stochastic cooperative equilibrium, players who are only marginally
IPD, in which the relative abundance of particular strate- more cooperative than non-cooperators get little bene-
gies is allowed to change, with more successful strategies fit from assorting with one another. By contrast, in a
relatively increasing. This process may be accomplished discrete prisoners' dilemma, tit for tat cooperators get
by having less successful players imitate the more suc- a big payoff boost from assorting with one another in a
cessful strategies, or by eliminating less successful play- non-cooperative equilibrium, relative to non-cooperators.
ers from the game, while multiplying the more successful Since nature arguably offers more opportunities for vari-
ones. It has been shown that unfair ZD strategies are not able cooperation rather than a strict dichotomy of coop-
evolutionarily stable. The key intuition is that an evolu- eration or defection, the continuous prisoners' dilemma
tionarily stable strategy must not only be able to invade may help explain why real-life examples of tit for tat-like
another population (which extortionary ZD strategies can cooperation are extremely rare in nature (ex. Hammer-
do) but must also perform well against other players of stein* [18]) even though tit for tat seems robust in theoret-
the same type (which extortionary ZD players do poorly, ical models.
because they reduce each other's surplus).* [13]
Theory and simulations confirm that beyond a critical
population size, ZD extortion loses out in evolutionary
competition against more cooperative strategies, and as Emergence of Stable Strategies
a result, the average payoff in the population increases
when the population is bigger. In addition, there are some
Players cannot seem to coordinate mutual cooperation,
cases in which extortioners may even catalyze coopera-
thus often get locked into the inferior yet stable strat-
tion by helping to break out of a face-off between uniform
egy of defection. In this way, iterated rounds facilitate
defectors and win–stay, lose–switch agents.* [14]
the evolution of stable strategies.* [19] Iterated rounds of-
While extortionary ZD strategies are not stable in large ten produce novel strategies, which have implications to
populations, another ZD class called “generous”strate- complex social interaction. One such strategy is win-stay
gies is both stable and robust. In fact, when the popu- lose-shift. This strategy outperforms a simple Tit-For-Tat
lation is not too small, these strategies can supplant any strategy - that is, if you can get away with cheating, repeat
other ZD strategy and even perform well against a broad that behavior, however if you get caught, switch.* [20]
array of generic strategies for iterated prisoner's dilemma,
including win–stay, lose–switch. This was proven specif-
ically for the donation game by Alexander Stewart and
Joshua Plotkin in 2013.* [15] Generous strategies will co-
operate with other cooperative players, and in the face 1.5.4 Real-life examples
of defection, the generous player loses more utility than
its rival. Generous strategies are the intersection of ZD The prisoner setting may seem contrived, but there are in
strategies and so-called “good”strategies, which were fact many examples in human interaction as well as inter-
defined by Akin (2013)* [16] to be those for which the actions in nature that have the same payoff matrix. The
player responds to past mutual cooperation with future prisoner's dilemma is therefore of interest to the social
cooperation and splits expected payoffs equally if she re- sciences such as economics, politics, and sociology, as
ceives at least the cooperative expected payoff. Among well as to the biological sciences such as ethology and
good strategies, the generous (ZD) subset performs well evolutionary biology. Many natural processes have been
when the population is not too small. If the population is abstracted into models in which living beings are engaged
very small, defection strategies tend to dominate.* [15] in endless games of prisoner's dilemma. This wide appli-
cability of the PD gives the game its substantial impor-
tance.
1.5. PRISONER'S DILEMMA 149

In environmental studies In psychology

In environmental studies, the PD is evident in crises such In addiction research / behavioral economics, George
as global climate change. It is argued all countries will Ainslie points out* [25] that addiction can be cast as an
benefit from a stable climate, but any single country is of- intertemporal PD problem between the present and fu-
ten hesitant to curb CO2 emissions. The immediate ben- ture selves of the addict. In this case, defecting means
efit to an individual country to maintain current behav- relapsing, and it is easy to see that not defecting both to-
ior is perceived to be greater than the purported eventual day and in the future is by far the best outcome, and that
benefit to all countries if behavior was changed, there- defecting both today and in the future is the worst out-
fore explaining the current impasse concerning climate come. The case where one abstains today but relapses in
change.* [21] the future is clearly a bad outcome—in some sense the
An important difference between climate change politics discipline and self-sacrifice involved in abstaining today
and the prisoner's dilemma is uncertainty; the extent and have been “wasted”because the future relapse means
pace at which pollution can change climate is not known. that the addict is right back where he started and will
The dilemma faced by government is therefore different have to start over (which is quite demoralizing, and makes
from the prisoner's dilemma in that the payoffs of coop- starting over more difficult). The final case, where one
eration are unknown. This difference suggests that states engages in the addictive behavior today while abstaining
will cooperate much less than in a real iterated prisoner's “tomorrow”will be familiar to anyone who has struggled
dilemma, so that the probability of avoiding a possible cli- with an addiction. The problem here is that (as in other
mate catastrophe is much smaller than that suggested by PDs) there is an obvious benefit to defecting “today”,
a game-theoretical analysis of the situation using a real but tomorrow one will face the same PD, and the same
iterated prisoner's dilemma.* [22] obvious benefit will be present then, ultimately leading to
an endless string of defections.
Osang and Nandy provide a theoretical explanation with
proofs for a regulation-driven win-win situation along the John Gottman in his research described in “the science
lines of Michael Porter's hypothesis, in which government of trust”defines good relationships as those where part-
regulation of competing firms is substantial.* [23] ners know not to enter the (D,D) cell or at least not to get
dynamically stuck there in a loop.

In animals
In economics
Cooperative behavior of many animals can be under-
stood as an example of the prisoner's dilemma. Often Advertising is sometimes cited as a real life example of
animals engage in long term partnerships, which can be the prisoner’s dilemma. When cigarette advertising was
more specifically modeled as iterated prisoner's dilemma. legal in the United States, competing cigarette manufac-
For example, guppies inspect predators cooperatively in turers had to decide how much money to spend on ad-
groups, and they are thought to punish non-cooperative vertising. The effectiveness of Firm A’s advertising
inspectors by tit for tat strategy. was partially determined by the advertising conducted by
Firm B. Likewise, the profit derived from advertising for
Vampire bats are social animals that engage in reciprocal
Firm B is affected by the advertising conducted by Firm
food exchange. Applying the payoffs from the prisoner's
A. If both Firm A and Firm B chose to advertise dur-
dilemma can help explain this behavior:* [24]
ing a given period, then the advertising cancels out, re-
ceipts remain constant, and expenses increase due to the
• C/C: “Reward: I get blood on my unlucky nights, cost of advertising. Both firms would benefit from a re-
which saves me from starving. I have to give blood duction in advertising. However, should Firm B choose
on my lucky nights, which doesn't cost me too not to advertise, Firm A could benefit greatly by adver-
much.” tising. Nevertheless, the optimal amount of advertising
by one firm depends on how much advertising the other
• D/C: “Temptation: You save my life on my poor
undertakes. As the best strategy is dependent on what the
night. But then I get the added benefit of not hav-
other firm chooses there is no dominant strategy, which
ing to pay the slight cost of feeding you on my good
makes it slightly different from a prisoner's dilemma. The
night.”
outcome is similar, though, in that both firms would be
• C/D:“Sucker's Payoff: I pay the cost of saving your better off were they to advertise less than in the equi-
life on my good night. But on my bad night you don't librium. Sometimes cooperative behaviors do emerge in
feed me and I run a real risk of starving to death.” business situations. For instance, cigarette manufactur-
ers endorsed the creation of laws banning cigarette ad-
• D/D: “Punishment: I don't have to pay the slight vertising, understanding that this would reduce costs and
costs of feeding you on my good nights. But I run a increase profits across the industry.* [26] This analysis is
real risk of starving on my poor nights.” likely to be pertinent in many other business situations
150 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

involving advertising. Arms races

Without enforceable agreements, members of a cartel are
The Cold War and similar arms races can be modeled as a
also involved in a (multi-player) prisoners' dilemma.* [27]
Prisoner's Dilemma situation.* [31] During the Cold War
'Cooperating' typically means keeping prices at a pre-
the opposing alliances of NATO and the Warsaw Pact
agreed minimum level. 'Defecting' means selling under
both had the choice to arm or disarm. From each side's
this minimum level, instantly taking business (and prof-
point of view, disarming whilst their opponent continued
its) from other cartel members. Anti-trust authorities
to arm would have led to military inferiority and possible
want potential cartel members to mutually defect, ensur-
annihilation. Conversely, arming whilst their opponent
ing the lowest possible prices for consumers.
disarmed would have led to superiority. If both sides
chose to arm, neither could afford to attack the other,
but at the high cost of developing and maintaining a nu-
In sport
clear arsenal. If both sides chose to disarm, war would be
avoided and there would be no costs.
Doping in sport has been cited as an example of a pris-
oner's dilemma.* [28] Although the 'best' overall outcome is for both sides to
disarm, the rational course for both sides is to arm, and
Two competing athletes have the option to use an illegal this is indeed what happened. Both sides poured enor-
and dangerous drug to boost their performance. If neither mous resources into military research and armament in a
athlete takes the drug, then neither gains an advantage. If war of attrition for the next thirty years until Soviet Pres-
only one does, then that athlete gains a significant advan- ident Mikhail Gorbachev and US President Ronald Rea-
tage over their competitor (reduced only by the legal or gan negotiated arms reductions and reform in the Soviet
medical dangers of having taken the drug). If both ath- Union caused ideological differences to abate.
letes take the drug, however, the benefits cancel out and
only the drawbacks remain, putting them both in a worse
position than if neither had used doping.* [28] 1.5.5 Related games
Closed-bag exchange
Multiplayer dilemmas
Hofstadter* [32] once suggested that people often find
* problems such as the PD problem easier to understand
Many real-life dilemmas involve multiple players. [29]
Although metaphorical, Hardin's tragedy of the commons when it is illustrated in the form of a simple game, or
may be viewed as an example of a multi-player general- trade-off. One of several examples he used was “closed
ization of the PD: Each villager makes a choice for per- bag exchange":
sonal gain or restraint. The collective reward for unan-
imous (or even frequent) defection is very low payoffs Two people meet and exchange closed bags,
(representing the destruction of the “commons”). A with the understanding that one of them con-
commons dilemma most people can relate to is washing tains money, and the other contains a purchase.
the dishes in a shared house. By not washing dishes an Either player can choose to honor the deal by
individual can gain by saving his time, but if that behav- putting into his or her bag what he or she
ior is adopted by every resident the collective cost is no agreed, or he or she can defect by handing over
clean plates for anyone. an empty bag.
The commons are not always exploited: William Pound-
In this game, defection is always the best course, imply-
stone, in a book about the prisoner's dilemma (see Refer-
ing that rational agents will never play. However, in this
ences below), describes a situation in New Zealand where
case both players cooperating and both players defecting
newspaper boxes are left unlocked. It is possible for peo-
actually give the same result, assuming there are no gains
ple to take a paper without paying (defecting) but very
from trade, so chances of mutual cooperation, even in re-
few do, feeling that if they do not pay then neither will
peated games, are few.
others, destroying the system. Subsequent research by
Elinor Ostrom, winner of the 2009 Sveriges Riksbank
Prize in Economic Sciences in Memory of Alfred Nobel, Friend or Foe?
hypothesized that the tragedy of the commons is oversim-
plified, with the negative outcome influenced by outside Friend or Foe? is a game show that aired from 2002 to
influences. Without complicating pressures, groups com- 2005 on the Game Show Network in the USA. It is an ex-
municate and manage the commons among themselves ample of the prisoner's dilemma game tested on real peo-
for their mutual benefit, enforcing social norms to pre- ple, but in an artificial setting. On the game show, three
serve the resource and achieve the maximum good for pairs of people compete. When a pair is eliminated, they
the group, an example of effecting the best case outcome play a game similar to the prisoner's dilemma to deter-
for PD.* [30] mine how the winnings are split. If they both cooperate
1.5. PRISONER'S DILEMMA 151

(Friend), they share the winnings 50–50. If one cooper- • Innocent prisoner's dilemma
ates and the other defects (Foe), the defector gets all the
winnings and the cooperator gets nothing. If both defect, • Nash equilibrium
both leave with nothing. Notice that the payoff matrix • Prisoner's dilemma and cooperation an experimen-
is slightly different from the standard one given above, tal study
as the payouts for the “both defect”and the “cooper-
ate while the opponent defects”cases are identical. This • Public goods game
makes the“both defect”case a weak equilibrium, com-
• Reciprocal altruism
pared with being a strict equilibrium in the standard pris-
oner's dilemma. If a contestant know that their opponent • Swift trust theory
is going to vote “Foe”, then their own choice does not
affect their own winnings. In a certain sense, Friend or • War of attrition (game)
Foe has a payoff model between prisoner's dilemma and • Hobbesian trap
the game of Chicken.
The payoff matrix is
1.5.7 References
This payoff matrix has also been used on the British
television programmes Trust Me, Shafted, The Bank Job [1] Milovsky, Nicholas. “The Basics of Game Theory and
and Golden Balls, and on the American shows Bachelor Associated Games”. Retrieved 11 February 2014.
Pad and Take It All. Game data from the Golden
[2] Fehr, Ernst; Fischbacher, Urs (Oct 23, 2003).
Balls series has been analyzed by a team of economists, “The Nature of human altruism”. Na-
who found that cooperation was “surprisingly high”for ture (Nature Publishing Group) 425 (6960):
amounts of money that would seem consequential in the 785–791. Bibcode:2003Natur.425..785F.
real world, but were comparatively low in the context of doi:10.1038/nature02043. PMID 14574401. Re-
the game.* [33] trieved February 27, 2013.

[3] Tversky, Amos; Shafir, Eldar (2004). Preference, belief,

Iterated snowdrift and similarity: selected writings. Massachusettes Institute
of Technology Press. ISBN 9780262700931. Retrieved
Researchers from the University of Lausanne and the February 27, 2013.
University of Edinburgh have suggested that the“Iterated [4] Toh-Kyeong, Ahn; Ostrom, Elinor; Walker, James (Sep 5,
Snowdrift Game”may more closely reflect real-world so- 2002). “Incorporating Motivational Heterogeneity into
cial situations. Although this model is actually a chicken Game-Theoretic Models of Collective Action”. Public
game, it will be described here. In this model, the risk Choice 117 (3–4). Retrieved February 27, 2013. Check
of being exploited through defection is lower, and indi- date values in: |year= / |date= mismatch (help)
viduals always gain from taking the cooperative choice.
[5] Oosterbeek, Hessel; Sloof, Randolph; Van de Kuilen,
The snowdrift game imagines two drivers who are stuck Gus (Dec 3, 2003). “Cultural Differences in Ul-
on opposite sides of a snowdrift, each of whom is given timatum Game Experiments: Evidence from a Meta-
the option of shoveling snow to clear a path, or remaining Analysis”. Experimental Economics (Springer Sci-
in their car. A player's highest payoff comes from leaving ence and Business Media B.V) 7 (2): 171–188.
the opponent to clear all the snow by themselves, but the doi:10.1023/B:EXEC.0000026978.14316.74. Retrieved
opponent is still nominally rewarded for their work. February 27, 2013. Check date values in: |year= / |date=
mismatch (help)
This may better reflect real world scenarios, the re-
searchers giving the example of two scientists collaborat- [6] Capraro, V (2013). “A Model of Human Coopera-
ing on a report, both of whom would benefit if the other tion in Social Dilemmas”. PLoS ONE 8 (8): e72427.
worked harder.“But when your collaborator doesn’t do doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0072427.
any work, it’s probably better for you to do all the work [7] Hilbe, Christian; Martin A. Nowak and Karl Sigmund
yourself. You’ll still end up with a completed project.” (April 2013). “Evolution of extortion in Iterated Pris-
*
[34] oner’s Dilemma games”. PNAS 110 (17): 6913.
doi:10.1073/pnas.1214834110. Retrieved 25 November
2013.
1.5.6 See also
[8] Shy, Oz (1995). Industrial Organization: Theory and Ap-
• Centipede game plications. Massachusettes Institute of Technology Press.
ISBN 0262193663. Retrieved February 27, 2013.
• Christmas truce
[9] For example see the 2003 study“Bayesian Nash equilib-
• Evolutionarily stable strategy rium; a statistical test of the hypothesis” for discussion
of the concept and whether it can apply in real economic
• Folk theorem (game theory) or strategic situations (from Tel Aviv University).
152 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

[10] :: University of Southampton [21] “Markets & Data”. The Economist. 2007-09-27.
[11] The 2004 Prisoners' Dilemma Tournament Results show [22] Rehmeyer, Julie (2012-10-29). “Game theory suggests
University of Southampton's strategies in the first three current climate negotiations won't avert catastrophe”. Sci-
places, despite having fewer wins and many more losses ence News. Society for Science & the Public.
than the GRIM strategy. (Note that in a PD tournament,
the aim of the game is not to “win”matches – that can [23] Osang and Nandy 2003
easily be achieved by frequent defection). It should also be
[24] Dawkins, Richard (1976). The Selfish Gene. Oxford Uni-
pointed out that even without implicit collusion between
versity Press.
software strategies (exploited by the Southampton team)
tit for tat is not always the absolute winner of any given [25] George Ainslie (2001). Breakdown of Will. ISBN 0-521-
tournament; it would be more precise to say that its long 59694-7.
run results over a series of tournaments outperform its ri-
vals. (In any one event a given strategy can be slightly [26] This argument for the development of cooperation
better adjusted to the competition than tit for tat, but tit through trust is given in The Wisdom of Crowds , where
for tat is more robust). The same applies for the tit for it is argued that long-distance capitalism was able to form
tat with forgiveness variant, and other optimal strategies: around a nucleus of Quakers, who always dealt honourably
on any given day they might not 'win' against a specific with their business partners. (Rather than defecting and
mix of counter-strategies. An alternative way of putting reneging on promises – a phenomenon that had discour-
it is using the Darwinian ESS simulation. In such a sim- aged earlier long-term unenforceable overseas contracts).
ulation, tit for tat will almost always come to dominate, It is argued that dealings with reliable merchants allowed
though nasty strategies will drift in and out of the popula- the meme for cooperation to spread to other traders, who
tion because a tit for tat population is penetrable by non- spread it further until a high degree of cooperation became
retaliating nice strategies, which in turn are easy prey for a profitable strategy in general commerce
the nasty strategies. Richard Dawkins showed that here,
no static mix of strategies form a stable equilibrium and [27] Nicholson, Walter (2000). “Intermediate Microeco-
the system will always oscillate between bounds. nomics”(8th ed.). Harcourt.

[12] Press, William H.; Freeman J. Dyson (2012). “Iterated [28] Schneier, Bruce (2012-10-26). “Lance Armstrong and
Prisoner’s Dilemma contains strategies that dominate any the Prisoners' Dilemma of Doping in Professional Sports
evolutionary opponent”. PNAS Early Edition. Retrieved | Wired Opinion”. Wired.com. Retrieved 2012-10-29.
26 November 2013.
[29] Gokhale CS, Traulsen A. Evolutionary games in the multi-
[13] Adami, Christoph; Arend Hintze (2013). “Evolutionary verse. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences.
instability of Zero Determinant strategies demonstrates 2010 Mar 23;107(12):5500–4.
that winning isn't everything”. p. 3. arXiv:1208.2666.
[30]“The Volokh Conspiracy " Elinor Ostrom and the Tragedy
[14] Hilbe, Christian; Martin A. Nowak; Karl Sigmund (April of the Commons”. Volokh.com. 2009-10-12. Retrieved
2013). “Evolution of extortion in Iterated Prisoner’s 2011-12-17.
Dilemma games”. PNAS 110 (17): 6915–6516. Re-
trieved 25 November 2013. [31] Stephen J. Majeski (1984). “Arms races as iterated pris-
oner's dilemma games”. Mathematical and Social Sciences
[15] Stewart, Alexander J.; Joshua B. Plotkin (2013). “From 7 (3): 253–266. doi:10.1016/0165-4896(84)90022-2.
extortion to generosity, evolution in the Iterated Prisoner’
s Dilemma”. PNAS Early Edition. Retrieved 25 Novem- [32] Hofstadter, Douglas R. (1985). Metamagical Themas:
ber 2013. questing for the essence of mind and pattern. Bantam Dell
Pub Group. ISBN 0-465-04566-9. – see Ch.29 The Pris-
[16] Akin, Ethan (2013). “Stable Cooperative Solu-
oner's Dilemma Computer Tournaments and the Evolution
tions for the Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma”. p. 9.
of Cooperation.
arXiv:1211.0969.
[17] Le, S.; Boyd, R. (2007). “Evolutionary Dynam- [33] Van den Assem, Martijn J. (January 2012). “Split
ics of the Continuous Iterated Prisoner's Dilemma” or Steal? Cooperative Behavior When the Stakes
. Journal of Theoretical Biology 245 (2): 258–267. Are Large”. Management Science 58 (1): 2–20.
doi:10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.09.016. PMID 17125798. doi:10.1287/mnsc.1110.1413.

[18] Hammerstein, P. (2003). Why is reciprocity so rare in [34] Kümmerli, Rolf. "'Snowdrift' game tops 'Prisoner's
social animals? A protestant appeal. In: P. Hammerstein, Dilemma' in explaining cooperation”. Retrieved 11 April
Editor, Genetic and Cultural Evolution of Cooperation, 2012.
MIT Press. pp. 83–94.
[19] Spaniel, William (2011). Game Theory 101: The Com- 1.5.8 Further reading
plete Textbook.
[20] Nowak, Martin; Karl Sigmund (1993). “A strat- • Aumann, Robert (1959). “Acceptable points in
egy of win-stay, lose-shift that outperforms tit-for- general cooperative n-person games”. In Luce,
tat in the Prisoner's Dilemma game”. Nature 364. R. D.; Tucker, A. W. Contributions to the Theory
doi:10.1038/364056a0. 23 of Games IV. Annals of Mathematics Study 40.
1.7. TROLLEY PROBLEM 153

Princeton NJ: Princeton University Press. pp. 287– and that the beneficiaries of such aid will become slothful
324. MR 0104521. or otherwise negligent members of society.

• Axelrod, R. (1984). The Evolution of Cooperation. The dilemma's name is a reference to the biblical Parable
ISBN 0-465-02121-2 of the Good Samaritan.

• Bicchieri, Cristina (1993). Rationality and Coordi-

nation. Cambridge University Press. 1.6.1 See also
• Chess, David M. (December 1988). “Simulating
the evolution of behavior: the iterated prisoners' • Moral hazard
dilemma problem”. Complex Systems 2 (6): 663–
70. • Criticisms of welfare

• Dresher, M. (1961). The Mathematics of Games

of Strategy: Theory and Applications Prentice-Hall, 1.6.2 References
Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
[1] Roger E. Meiners, “Victim Compensation”, Lexington
• Greif, A. (2006). Institutions and the Path to the Books, 1978 p 99
Modern Economy: Lessons from Medieval Trade.
Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, UK.

• Rapoport, Anatol and Albert M. Chammah (1965). 1.6.3 Further reading

Prisoner's Dilemma. University of Michigan Press.
• Buchanan, J. M. (1975): The Samaritan's dilemma.
In: Altruism, morality and economic theory. In:
1.5.9 External links E.S. Phelps (ed.), New York: Russel Sage founda-
tion. Pp. 71-85.
• Prisoner's Dilemma (Stanford Encyclopedia of Phi-
losophy) • Johan Lagerlöf, Incomplete Information in the
Samaritan’s Dilemma: The Dilemma (Almost)
• The Bowerbird's Dilemma The Prisoner's Dilemma
Vanishes, Discussion Paper FS IV 99 - 12, Wis-
in ornithology – mathematical cartoon by Larry Go-
senschaftszentrum Berlin, 1999.
nick.

• Dixit, Avinash; Nalebuff, Barry (2008).“Prisoner's

Dilemma”. In David R. Henderson (ed.). Concise 1.7 Trolley problem
Encyclopedia of Economics (2nd ed.). Indianapo-
lis: Library of Economics and Liberty. ISBN 978-
0865976658. OCLC 237794267. The trolley problem is a thought experiment in ethics.
The general form of the problem is this: There is a run-
• Game Theory 101: Prisoner's Dilemma away trolley barreling down the railway tracks. Ahead,
on the tracks, there are five people tied up and unable
• Dawkins: Nice Guys Finish First to move. The trolley is headed straight for them. You
are standing some distance off in the train yard, next to
• Play Prisoner's Dilemma on oTree
a lever. If you pull this lever, the trolley will switch to
a different set of tracks. However, you notice that there
is one person on the side track. You have two options:
1.6 Samaritan's dilemma (1) Do nothing, and the trolley kills the five people on the
main track. (2) Pull the lever, diverting the trolley onto
The Samaritan's dilemma is a dilemma in the act of the side track where it will kill one person. Which is the
charity. It hinges on the idea that when presented with correct choice?
charity, in some location such as a soup kitchen, a person The problem was first introduced by Philippa Foot in
will act in one of two ways: using the charity to improve 1967,* [1] but also extensively analysed by Judith Thom-
their situation, or coming to rely on charity as a means of son,* [2]* [3] Peter Unger,* [4] and Frances Kamm as re-
survival. The term Samaritan's dilemma was coined by cently as 1996.* [5] Outside of the domain of traditional
economist James M. Buchanan.* [1] philosophical discussion, the trolley problem has been a
The argument against charity frequently cites the Samari- significant feature in the fields of cognitive science (e.g.
tan's Dilemma as reason to forgo charitable contributions. * [6]) and, more recently, of neuroethics. It has also been
It is also a common argument against Communism and a topic on various TV shows dealing with human psychol-
Socialism, claiming that state aid is equivalent to charity, ogy.
154 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

1.7.1 Overview something very heavy in front of it. As it hap-

pens, there is a very fat man next to you – your
Foot's original formulation of the problem ran as fol- only way to stop the trolley is to push him over
lows:* [1] the bridge and onto the track, killing him to
save five. Should you proceed?
Suppose that a judge or magistrate is faced with
rioters demanding that a culprit be found guilty Resistance to this course of action seems strong; most
for a certain crime and threatening otherwise people who approved of sacrificing one to save five in the
to take their own bloody revenge on a particu- first case do not approve in the second sort of case.* [8]
lar section of the community. The real culprit This has led to attempts to find a relevant moral distinc-
being unknown, the judge sees himself as able tion between the two cases.
to prevent the bloodshed only by framing some One clear distinction is that in the first case, one does not
innocent person and having him executed. Be- intend harm towards anyone – harming the one is just
side this example is placed another in which a a side effect of switching the trolley away from the five.
pilot whose aeroplane is about to crash is de- However, in the second case, harming the one is an in-
ciding whether to steer from a more to a less tegral part of the plan to save the five. This is an argu-
inhabited area. To make the parallel as close ment Shelly Kagan considers, and ultimately rejects, in
as possible it may rather be supposed that he The Limits of Morality.* [9]
is the driver of a runaway tram which he can
only steer from one narrow track on to another; A claim can be made that the difference between the two
five men are working on one track and one man cases is that in the second, you intend someone's death to
on the other; anyone on the track he enters is save the five, and this is wrong, whereas in the first, you
bound to be killed. In the case of the riots the have no such intention. This solution is essentially an ap-
mob have five hostages, so that in both exam- plication of the doctrine of double effect, which says that
ples the exchange is supposed to be one man's you may take action which has bad side effects, but delib-
life for the lives of five. erately intending harm (even for good causes) is wrong.
Act utilitarians deny this. Peter Unger (a non-utilitarian)
A utilitarian view asserts that it is obligatory to steer to rejects that it can make a substantive moral difference
the track with one man on it. According to simple utili- whether you bring the harm to the one or whether you
tarianism, such a decision would be not only permissible, move the one into the path of the harm.* [10] Note, how-
but, morally speaking, the better option (the other op- ever, that rule utilitarians do not have to accept this, and
tion being no action at all).* [7] An alternate viewpoint is can say that pushing the fat man over the bridge violates
that since moral wrongs are already in place in the sit- a rule to which adherence is necessary for bringing about
uation, moving to another track constitutes a participa- the greatest happiness for the greatest number.
tion in the moral wrong, making one partially responsi- Another distinction is that the first case is similar to a pilot
ble for the death when otherwise no one would be re- in an airplane that has lost power and is about to crash
sponsible. An opponent of action may also point to the and currently heading towards a heavily populated area.
incommensurability of human lives. Under some inter- Even if he knows for sure that innocent people will die
pretations of moral obligation, simply being present in if he redirects the plane to a less populated area – people
this situation and being able to influence its outcome con- who are “uninvolved”– he will actively turn the plane
stitutes an obligation to participate. If this were the case, without hesitation. It may well be considered noble to
then deciding to do nothing would be considered an im- sacrifice your own life to protect others, but morally or
moral act if one values five lives more than one. legally allowing murder of an innocent person in order to
save five people may be insufficient justification.
1.7.2 Related problems
The fat villain
The initial trolley problem becomes more interesting
when it is compared to other moral dilemmas. The further development of this example involves the
case, where the fat man is, in fact, the villain who put
these five people in peril. In this instance, pushing the
The fat man villain to his death, especially to save five innocent peo-
ple, seems not only morally justifiable but perhaps even
One such is that offered by Judith Jarvis Thomson: imperative. This is essentially related to another famous
thought experiment, known as ticking time bomb sce-
As before, a trolley is hurtling down a track to- nario, which forces one to choose between two morally
wards five people. You are on a bridge under questionable acts. Several papers argue that the ticking
which it will pass, and you can stop it by putting time bomb scenario is a mere variation of the trolley prob-
1.7. TROLLEY PROBLEM 155

lem. Transplant

Here is an alternative case, due to Judith Jarvis Thom-

The loop variant
son,* [3] containing similar numbers and results, but with-
out a trolley:
The claim that it is wrong to use the death of one to save
five runs into a problem with variants like this:
A brilliant transplant surgeon has five patients,
As before, a trolley is hurtling down a track each in need of a different organ, each of
towards five people. As in the first case, you whom will die without that organ. Unfortu-
can divert it onto a separate track. However, nately, there are no organs available to per-
this diversion loops back around to rejoin the form any of these five transplant operations. A
main track, so diverting the trolley still leaves healthy young traveler, just passing through the
it on a path to run over the five people. But, on city the doctor works in, comes in for a routine
this track is a single fat person who, when he checkup. In the course of doing the checkup,
is killed by the trolley, will stop it from contin- the doctor discovers that his organs are com-
uing on to the five people. Should you flip the patible with all five of his dying patients. Sup-
switch? pose further that if the young man were to dis-
appear, no one would suspect the doctor.
The only difference between this case and the original
trolley problem is that an extra piece of track has been
added, which seems a trivial difference (especially since The man in the yard
the trolley won't travel down it anyway). So, if we origi-
nally decided that it is permissible or necessary to flip the Unger argues extensively against traditional non-
switch, intuition may suggest that the answer should not utilitarian responses to trolley problems. This is one of
have changed. However, in this case, the death of the one his examples:
actually is part of the plan to save the five.
The rejoining variant may not be fatal to the “using a As before, a trolley is hurtling down a track to-
person as a means”argument. This has been suggested wards five people. You can divert its path by
by M. Costa in his 1987 article “Another Trip on the colliding another trolley into it, but if you do,
Trolley”, where he points out that if we fail to act in this both will be derailed and go down a hill, and
scenario we will effectively be allowing the five to become into a yard where a man is sleeping in a ham-
a means to save the one. If we do nothing, then the impact mock. He would be killed. Should you pro-
of the trolley into the five will slow it down and prevent ceed?
it from circling around and killing the one. As in either
case, some will become a means to saving others, then Responses to this are partly dependent on whether the
we are permitted to count the numbers. This approach reader has already encountered the standard trolley prob-
requires that we downplay the moral difference between lem (since there is a desire to keep one's responses consis-
doing and allowing. tent), but Unger notes that people who have not encoun-
tered such problems before are quite likely to say that, in
However, this line of reasoning is no longer applicable if a
slight change is made to the track arrangements such that this case, the proposed action would be wrong.
the one person was never in danger to begin with, even if Unger therefore argues that different responses to these
the 5 people were absent. Or even with no track changes, sorts of problems are based more on psychology than
if the one person is high on the gradient while the five are ethics – in this new case, he says, the only important dif-
low, such that the trolley cannot reach the one. So the ference is that the man in the yard does not seem partic-
question has not been answered. ularly “involved”. Unger claims that people therefore
Even in the situation where the people aren't tied down believe the man is not “fair game”, but says that this
due to a criminal act, but simply happen to be there with- lack of involvement in the scenario cannot make a moral
out the ability to warn them, the out-of-control trolley is difference.
similar to the out-of-control airplane. Either 5/500 or Unger also considers cases which are more complex than
1/100 people are going to die as a result of the accident the original trolley problem, involving more than just two
already in progress, and it is important to minimize the results. In one such case, it is possible to do something
loss of life, despite the fact that the 1/100 are effectively which will (a) save the five and kill four (passengers of
being“used”to spare the life of the 5/500. The 100 peo- one or more trolleys and/or the hammock-sleeper), (b)
ple (and their property) in the less-densely-populated area save the five and kill three, (c) save the five and kill two,
do in fact stop the plane too. Responsibility for this goes (d) save the five and kill one, or (e) do nothing and let five
back to any criminal negligence that caused the accident die. Most naïve subjects presented with this sort of case,
to occur in the first place. claims Unger, will choose (d), to save the five by killing
156 CHAPTER 1. DILEMMAS

one, even if this course of action involves doing some- activity in brain regions associated with higher cognitive
thing very similar to killing the fat man, as in Thomson's functions. The potential ethical ideas being broached,
case above. then, revolve around the human capacity for rational jus-
This scenario is similar to the fact that whenever a crime tification of moral decision making.
is in progress and someone calls the police, even though
it is known well in advance that calls to police each year
end up creating pedestrian and motorist deaths due to ac- 1.7.5 Psychology
cidents, very few people would consider disbanding the
police to ensure that no innocents should die en route to
The trolley problem has been the subject of many surveys
a crime scene. In the case where the five aren't tied down
in which approximately 90% of respondents have chosen
due to a criminal act, it still falls into the category of
to kill the one and save the five. * [16] If the situation
diverting a crashing plane into a less-densely-populated
is modified where the one sacrificed for the five was a
area.
relative or romantic partner, respondents are much less
likely to be willing to sacrifice their life.* [17]
1.7.3 In cognitive science In 2012, participants made their choices while wear-
ing a head mounted display device that displayed virtual
The trolley problem was first imported into cognitive sci- avatars of the trolley victims, and gave a real time sim-
ence from philosophy in a systematic way by Hauser, ulation of the approaching vehicle. As the vehicle ap-
Mikhail, et al.* [11] They hypothesized that factors such proached, the virtual avatars in the path would begin to
as gender, age, education level, and cultural background scream until impact. Subjects who were more emotion-
would have little influence on the judgments people make, ally aroused during the test were less likely to kill the
in part because those judgments are generated by an un- one.* [18]
conscious “moral grammar”* [12] that is analogous in
some respects to the unconscious linguistic grammars that
have been claimed by Noam Chomsky et al. to sup-
port ordinary language use. The data in the 2007 paper 1.7.6 Views of professional philosophers
by Hauser, Mikhail et al. only contains 33 individuals
brought up in a non-English-speaking educational system. A 2009 survey published in a 2013 paper by David Bour-
The main author, Marc Hauser, was subsequently sanc- get and David Chalmers shows that 68% of professional
tioned by his then employer, Harvard University, in eight philosophers would switch (sacrifice the one individual
(unrelated) cases of gross research malpractice and data to save five lives) in the case of the trolley problem, 8%
falsification, which arguably makes the data in any case would not switch, and the remaining 24% had another
unreliable. Subsequent cross-cultural research has found view or could not answer.* [19]
many apparent counterexamples to this idea of 'Universal
Moral Grammar'.* [13]

1.7.7 As urban legend

1.7.4 In neuroethics
In an urban legend that has been making the rounds since
In taking a neuroscientific approach to the trolley prob- at least the mid-1960s, the decision must be made by a
lem, Joshua Greene* [14] under Jonathan Cohen decided drawbridge keeper who must choose between sacrificing
to examine the nature of brain response to moral and eth- a passenger train or his own four-year-old son. There is a
ical conundra through the use of fMRI. In their more 2003 Czech short film Most or The Bridge (USA) which
well-known experiments,* [15] Greene and Cohen ana- deals with a similar plot.* [20] This version is often drawn
lyzed subjects' responses to the morality of responses in as a deliberate allegory to the belief among Christians that
both the trolley problem involving a switch, and a foot- God sacrificed his son, Jesus Christ.* [21]
bridge scenario analogous to the fat man variation of the
trolley problem. Their hypothesis suggested that encoun-
tering such conflicts evokes both a strong emotional re-
sponse and a reasoned cognitive response, and that these 1.7.8 Implications for autonomous vehi-
two responses tend to oppose one another. From the cles
fMRI results, they have found that situations highly evok-
ing a more prominent emotional response such as the fat Problems analogous to the trolley problem arise in the
man variant would result in significantly higher brain ac- design of autonomous cars, in situations where the car's
tivity in brain regions associated with response conflict. software is forced during an accident to choose be-
Meanwhile, more conflict-neutral scenarios, such as the tween multiple courses of action, all of which may cause
relatively disaffected switch variant, would produce more harm.* [22]* [23]
1.7. TROLLEY PROBLEM 157

1.7.9 See also [19] Bourget, David; Chalmers, David J. (2013). “What do
Philosophers believe?". Retrieved 11 May 2013.
1.7.10 References [20] IMDB.com
[1] Philippa Foot, The Problem of Abortion and the Doctrine [21] Snopes: The Drawbridge Keeper
of the Double Effect in Virtues and Vices (Oxford: Basil
Blackwell, 1978)(originally appeared in the Oxford Re- [22] Patrick Lin (October 8, 2013). “The Ethics of Au-
view, Number 5, 1967.) tonomous Cars”. The Atlantic.

[2] Judith Jarvis Thomson, Killing, Letting Die, and the Trol- [23] Tim Worstall (2014-06-18).“When Should Your Driver-
ley Problem, 59 The Monist 204-17 (1976) less Car From Google Be Allowed To Kill You?". Forbes.

[3] Judith Jarvis Thomson, The Trolley Problem, 94 Yale Law

Journal 1395-1415 (1985) 1.7.11 External links
[4] Peter Unger, Living High and Letting Die (Oxford: Oxford
University Press, 1996) • Should You Kill the Fat Man?

[5] Francis Myrna Kamm, Harming Some to Save Others, 57 • Forced-choice decision-making in modified trolley
Philosophical Studies 227-60 (1989) dilemma situations: a virtual reality and eye tracking
study
[6] Alexander Skulmowski1, Andreas Bunge, Kai Kaspar and
Gordon Pipa (December 16, 2014). “Forced-choice • Can Bad Men Make Good Brains Do Bad Things?
decision-making in modified trolley dilemma situations:
a virtual reality and eye tracking study”. Front. Behav. • The Trolley Problem as a retro video game
Neurosci.
• Trolley Problem - Killing and Letting Die
[7] Barcalow, Emmett, Moral Philosophy: Theories and Is-
sues. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth, 2007. Print.

[8] Peter Singer, Ethics and Intuitions The Journal of

Ethics (2005). http://www.utilitarian.net/singer/by/
200510-$-$.pdf

[9] Shelly Kagan, The Limits of Morality (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 1989)[clarify this, please]

[10] Unger, Peter. “Causing and Preventing Serious Harm.”

Philosophical Studies: An International Journal for Phi-
losophy in the Analytic Tradition 65(1992):227–255

[11] A Dissociation Between Moral Judgments and Justifica-

tions,Hauser, Cushman, Young, Jin and Mikhail, Mind &
Language, Vol. 22 No. 1 February 2007, pp. 1–21

[12] John Mikhail, Universal Moral Grammar: Theory, Evi-

dence, and the Future, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11,
143-152 (2007)

[13] Culture and the quest for universal principles in moral rea-
soning, Sonya Sachdeva et al., International Journal of
Psychology, Volume 46, Issue 3, 2011

[14] Homepage of Joshua Greene

[15] Joshua D. Greene, “The secret joke of Kant’s soul”,

in Moral Psychology, 2008, Vol. 3: The Neuroscience of
Morality, W. Sinnott-Armstrong, Ed., (Cambridge, MA:
MIT Press)

[16] http://healthland.time.com/2011/12/05/
would-you-kill-one-person-to-save-five-new-research-on-a-classic-debate/

[17] Journal of Social, Evolutionary, and Cultural Psychology

– ISSN 1933-5377 – volume 4(3). 2010

[18] Navarrete, C.D., McDonald, M., Mott, M., & Asher, B.

(2012). Virtual Morality: Emotion and Action in a Sim-
ulated 3-D Trolley Problem. Emotion. 12(2): 365-370.
 Chapter 2

Fallacies

2.1 Argumentum ad populum • My family or tribe holds this as a truth, and everyone
who disagrees is simply wrong.
“Ad populum”redirects here. For the Catholic liturgical
term, see Versus populum.
2.1.2 Explanation
In argumentation theory, an argumentum ad populum
(Latin for "appeal to the people") is a fallacious argu- The argumentum ad populum is a red herring and genetic
ment that concludes that a proposition is true because fallacy. It appeals on probabilistic terms; given that 75%
many or most people believe it: “If many believe so, of a population answer A to a question where the answer
it is so.” is unknown, the argument states that it is reasonable to
assume that the answer is indeed A. In cases where the
This type of argument is known by several names,* [1] in- answer can be known but is not known by a questioned
cluding appeal to the masses, appeal to belief, appeal entity, the appeal to majority provides a possible answer
to the majority, appeal to democracy, appeal to popu- with a relatively high probability of correctness.
larity, argument by consensus, consensus fallacy, au-
thority of the many, and bandwagon fallacy, and in There is the problem of determining just how many are
Latin as argumentum ad numerum “ ( appeal to the num- needed to have a majority or consensus. Is merely greater
ber”), and consensus gentium (“agreement of the clans” than 50% significant enough and why? Should the per-
). It is also the basis of a number of social phenomena, centage be larger, such as 80 or 90 percent, and how does
including communal reinforcement and the bandwagon that make a real difference? Is there real consensus if
effect. The Chinese proverb "three men make a tiger" there are one or even two people who have a different
concerns the same idea. claim that is proven to be true?
It is logically fallacious because the mere fact that a be-
lief is widely held is not necessarily a guarantee that the
2.1.1 Examples belief is correct; if the belief of any individual can be
wrong, then the belief held by multiple persons can also
This fallacy is sometimes committed while trying to con- be wrong. The argument that because 75% of people
vince a person that a widely popular thought is true. polled think the answer is A implies that the answer is A
fails, because, if opinion did determine truth, then there
• Nine out of ten of my constituents oppose the bill, would be no way to deal with the discrepancy between the
therefore it is a bad idea. 75% of the sample population that believe the answer is
A and 25% who are of the opinion that the answer is not
• Fifty million Elvis fans can't be wrong. A. However small a percentage of those polled give an
answer other than A, this discrepancy by definition dis-
• Everyone's doing it.
proves any guarantee of the correctness of the majority.
• In a court of law, the jury vote by majority; therefore In addition, this would be true even if the answer given by
they will always make the correct decision. those polled were unanimous, as the sample size may be
insufficient, or some fact may be unknown to those polled
• Many people buy extended warranties, therefore it that, if known, would result in a different distribution of
is wise to buy them. answers.

• Millions of people agree with my viewpoint, there- This fallacy is similar in structure to certain other falla-
fore it must be true. cies that involve a confusion between the justification of a
belief and its widespread acceptance by a given group of
• The majority of this country voted for this President, people. When an argument uses the appeal to the beliefs
therefore this president can't be wrong of a group of supposed experts, it takes on the form of

158
2.1. ARGUMENTUM AD POPULUM 159

an appeal to authority; if the appeal is to the beliefs of a is polite for men to kiss each other in greeting in
group of respected elders or the members of one's com- Russia.”
munity over a long period of time, then it takes on the
form of an appeal to tradition. Social conventions can change, however, and sometimes
One who commits this fallacy may assume that individu- very quickly. Thus, the fact that everyone in Russia this
als commonly analyze and edit their beliefs and behaviors. year thinks that it is polite to kiss cannot be used as ev-
This is often not the case (see conformity). idence that everyone always believed that, or that they
should always believe it.
The argumentum ad populum can be a valid argument in
inductive logic; for example, a poll of a sizeable popula- The philosophical question of moral relativism asks
tion may find that 90% prefer a certain brand of product whether such arguments apply to statements of morals.
over another. A cogent (strong) argument can then be
made that the next person to be considered will also pre- Language
fer that brand, and the poll is valid evidence of that claim.
However, it is unsuitable as an argument for deductive Linguistic descriptivists argue that correct grammar,
reasoning as proof, for instance to say that the poll proves spelling, and expressions are defined by the language's
that the preferred brand is superior to the competition in speakers, especially in languages which do not have a cen-
its composition or that everyone prefers that brand to the tral governing body. According to this viewpoint, if an in-
other. correct expression is commonly used, it becomes correct.
In contrast, linguistic prescriptivists believe that incorrect
Evidence expressions are incorrect regardless of how many people
use them.
• One could claim that smoking is a healthy pastime,
since millions of people do it. However, knowing
the dangers of smoking, we instead say that smoking
2.1.4 Reversals
is not a healthy pastime despite the fact that millions
In some circumstances, a person may argue that the fact
do it.
that most people believes X implies that X is false. This
• At a time in history when most people believed the line of thought is closely related to the appeal to spite fal-
world was flat, one could have claimed the world is lacy given that it invokes a person's contempt for the gen-
flat because most believed it. eral populace or something about the general populace in
order to persuade them that most are wrong about X. The
• Advocates of heliocentrism, such as Galileo Galilei
ad populum reversal commits the same logical flaw as the
were strongly suppressed, despite scientific evi-
original fallacy given that the idea “X is true”is inher-
dence, now recognized as factual, that supported he-
ently separate from the idea that “Most people believe
liocentrism at the expense of geocentrism.
X”.
For example, consider the arguments:
2.1.3 Exceptions
•“Are you going to be a mindless conformist drone
Appeal to belief is valid only when the question is whether drinking milk and water like everyone else, or will
the belief exists. Appeal to popularity is therefore you wake up and drink my product?"* [2]
valid only when the questions are whether the belief is
widespread and to what degree. I.e., ad populum only •“Everyone likes The Beatles and that probably
proves that a belief is popular, not that it is true. In means that they didn't have nearly as much talent
some domains, however, it is popularity rather than other as <Y band>, which didn't sell out.”* [3]
strengths that makes a choice the preferred one, for rea- •“The German people today consists of the
sons related to network effects. Auschwitz generation, with every person in power
being guilty in some way. How on earth can we buy
Social convention the generally held propaganda that the Soviet Union
is imperialistic and totalitarian? Clearly, it must not
Matters of social convention, such as etiquette or polite be.”* [4]
manners, depend upon the wide acceptance of the con- •“Most people still either hate gays or just barely tol-
vention. As such, argumentum ad populum is not falla- erate their existence. How can you still buy their
cious when referring to the popular belief about what is other line that claims that pederasty is wrong?"* [5]
polite or proper:
•“Everyone loves <A actor>. <A actor> must be
“Most people in Russia think that it is polite for nowhere near as talented as the devoted and serious
men to kiss each other in greeting. Therefore, it method actors that aren't so popular like <B actor>.”
160 CHAPTER 2. FALLACIES

In general, the reversal usually goes: Most people believe A [5] These ideas are paraphrased from “The Pattern of
and B are both true. B is false. Thus, A is false. The simi- Sexual Politics: Feminism, Homosexuality and Pe-
lar fallacy of chronological snobbery is not to be confused dophilia” by Harris Mirkin. See also Pro-pedophile ac-
with the ad populum reversal. Chronological snobbery is tivism#Strategies for promoting acceptance.
the claim that if belief in both X and Y was popularly
held in the past and if Y was recently proved to be un-
true then X must also be untrue. That line of argument is 2.1.7 External links
based on a belief in historical progress and not—like the
• FallacyFiles.org, Bandwagon Fallacy
ad populum reversal is—on whether or not X and/or Y is
currently popular.

2.2 Association fallacy

2.1.5 See also
“Guilt by association”redirects here. For other uses, see
2.1.6 References Guilt by Association.

[1] Austin Cline. Argumentum ad Populum An association fallacy is an inductive informal fallacy of
the type hasty generalization or red herring which asserts
[2] See: "MTN DEW is a non-conformist brand that's all
that qualities of one thing are inherently qualities of an-
about taking life to the next level.”PowerPoint Presen-
other, merely by an irrelevant association. The two types
tation
are sometimes referred to as guilt by association and
[3] These ideas are paraphrased from this presentation by au- honor by association. Association fallacies are a spe-
thors Andrew Potter and Joseph Heath in which they state: cial case of red herring, and can be based on an appeal to
emotion.
• For example, everybody would love to listen to fab-
ulous underground bands that nobody has ever head
of before, but virtually not all of us can do this. 2.2.1 Form
Once too many people find out about this great
band, then they are no longer underground. And
so we say that it's sold out or 'mainstream' or even

B
'co-opted by the system'. What is really happened
is simply that too many people have started buy-
ing their albums so that listening to them no longer
serves as a source of distinction. The real rebels
therefore have to go off and find some new band to

A
listen to that nobody else knows about in order to
preserve this distinction and their sense of superi-
ority over others.

C
[4] These ideas are paraphrased from the 'Baader Meinhof
Gang' article at the True Crime Library, which states:

• Gudrun Ensslin may have been wrong about many

or most things, she was not speaking foolishly when
she spoke of the middle-aged folk of her era as
“the Auschwitz generation.”Not all of them had
been Nazis, of course, but a great many had sup-
ported Hitler. Many had been in the Hitler Youth
and served in the armed forces, fighting Nazi wars An Euler diagram illustrating the association fallacy. Although
of conquest. A minority had ineffectively resisted A is within B and is also within C, not all of B is within C.
Nazism but, as a whole, it was a generation coping
with an extraordinary burden of guilt and shame... In notation of first-order logic, this type of fallacy can be
many of the people who joined what would come to expressed as (∃x ∈ S : φ(x)) → (∀x ∈ S : φ(x)), meaning
be known as the Baader-Meinhof Gang were moti-
“if there exists any x in the set S so that a property φ is
vated by an unconscious desire to prove to them-
selves that they would have risked their lives to de-
true for x, then for all x in S the property φ must be true.”
feat Nazism... West Germans well knew. Many of
them had relatives in East Germany and were well Premise A is a B
aware that life under communism was regimented
Premise A is also a C
and puritanical at best and often monstrously op-
pressive. Conclusion Therefore, all Bs are Cs
 2.2. ASSOCIATION FALLACY 161

The fallacy in the argument can be illustrated through the • Source S makes claim C.
use of an Euler diagram: “A”satisfies the requirement
• Group G, which is currently viewed negatively by the
that it is part of both sets “B”and “C”, but if one
recipient, also makes claim C.
represents this as an Euler diagram, it can clearly be seen
that it is possible that a part of set “B”is not part of set • Therefore, source S is viewed by the recipient of the
“C”, refuting the conclusion that “all Bs are Cs”. claim as associated to the group G and inherits how
negatively viewed it is.
2.2.2 Guilt by association An example of this fallacy would be“My opponent for of-
fice just received an endorsement from the Puppy Haters
For more details on legal and ethical aspects, see
Association. Is that the sort of person you would want to
collective guilt.
vote for?"
Further information: ad hominem

2.2.3 Honor by association

Examples
Further information: pro hominem
Some syllogistic examples of guilt by association:
The logical inverse of “guilt by association”is honor
• John is a con artist. John has black hair. Therefore, by association, where one claims that someone or some-
all people with black hair are con artists. thing must be reputable because of the people or organi-
zations that are related to it or otherwise support it. For
• Jane is good at mathematics. Jane is dyslexic. example:
Therefore, all dyslexic people are good at mathemat-
ics.
Examples
• Simon, Karl, Jared, and Brett are all friends of Josh,
and they are all petty criminals. Jill is a friend of • Citizens of Country X won more Nobel Prizes, gold
Josh; therefore, Jill is a petty criminal. medals, and literary awards than citizens of Country
Y. Therefore, a citizen of Country X is superior to a
• All dogs have four legs; my cat has four legs. There-
citizen of Country Y.
fore, my cat is a dog. (This argument is made by the
wordplay-prone Sir Humphrey Appleby in the BBC • In many advertisements, businesses heavily use the
sitcom Yes, Prime Minister). principle of honor by association. For example, an
attractive woman will say that a specific product is
A real-world example of guilt by association is that, in good. Her attractiveness gives the product good as-
response to mass shooting incidents in the U.S. and pub- sociations.
lic speculation that the perpetrators had Asperger's Syn-
drome, many people throughout society wrongfully stig-
matized and stereotyped people with the disorder as be- 2.2.4 Galileo Gambit
ing potentially violent and having the potential to become
shooters. Especially after the Sandy Hook Elementary A form of the association fallacy often used by those
School shooting, the media (after the early reporting) and denying a well-established scientific or historical proposi-
autism-advocacy organizations proffered expert opinions tion is the so-called“Galileo Gambit.”The argument goes
debunking this myth and attempting to better educate the that since Galileo was ridiculed in his time but later ac-
public about autism to dissuade the stigmatization. The knowledged to be right, that since their non-mainstream
myth of erroneously linking Asperger's Syndrome to vi- views are provoking ridicule and rejection from other *
sci-
olence also counts as an example of the logical fallacy of entists, they will later be recognized as correct too. [2]
questionable cause and scapegoating. This argument gained considerable public attention when
it was made by Rick Perry about global warming skepti-
cism in September 2011. Perry suggested that scientists
Guilt by association as an ad hominem fallacy stating “here is the fact”did not necessarily imply that
this was so, and that “Galileo got outvoted for a spell.”
Guilt by association can sometimes also be a type of ad * [3] The argument is flawed in that being ridiculed does
hominem fallacy, if the argument attacks a person be- not necessarily correlate with being right and that many
cause of the similarity between the views of someone people who have been ridiculed in history were, in fact,
making an argument and other proponents of the argu- wrong.* [4] Similarly, Daniel T. Willingham has stated
ment.* [1] that while they laughed at Galileo, “they also laughed
This form of the argument is as follows: at the Three Stooges.”* [5]
162 CHAPTER 2. FALLACIES

2.2.5 See also 2.3 Fallacy of division

• Sippenhaft A fallacy of division occurs when one reasons logically
that something true for the whole must also be true of all
• Reductio ad Hitlerum or some of its parts.
• Social stigma An example:

• Common purpose 1. A Boeing 747 can fly unaided across the ocean.

• Scapegoating 2. A Boeing 747 has jet engines.

• Stereotype 3. Therefore, one of its jet engines can fly unaided

across the ocean.
• Discrimination
The converse of this fallacy is called fallacy of composi-
• Prejudice tion, which arises when one fallaciously attributes a prop-
erty of some part of a thing to the thing as a whole. Both
fallacies were addressed by Aristotle in Sophistical Refu-
2.2.6 Notes tations.
In the philosophy of the ancient Greek Anaxagoras, as
[1]“Fallacy: Guilt By Association.”The Nizkor Project. The
Nizkor Project, n.d. Web. 12 June 2014. <http://www. claimed by the Roman atomist Lucretius,* [1] it was as-
sumed that the atoms constituting a substance must them-
nizkor.org/features/fallacies/guilt-by-association.html>.
selves have the salient observed properties of that sub-
[2] Amsden, Brian.“Recognizing Microstructural Fallacies” stance: so atoms of water would be wet, atoms of iron
. p. 22. Retrieved 24 March 2014. would be hard, atoms of wool would be soft, etc. This
doctrine is called homoeomeria, and it depends on the fal-
[3] Robbins, Martin (8 September 2011). “Is Rick Perry lacy of division.
a 21st-century Galileo?". The Guardian. Retrieved 24
March 2014. If a system as a whole has some property that none of its
constituents has (or perhaps, it has it but not as a result of
[4] Collins, Loren (2012). Bullspotting: Finding Facts in the some constituent having that property), this is sometimes
Age of Misinformation. Prometheus Books. called an emergent property of the system.

[5] Willingham, Daniel T. (2012). When Can You Trust the

Experts: How to Tell Good Science from Bad in Education. 2.3.1 Examples
Jossey-Bass.
In statistics an ecological fallacy is a logical fallacy in the
interpretation of statistical data where inferences about
2.2.7 References the nature of individuals are deduced from inference for
the group to which those individuals belong. The four
• Damer, T. Edward (2009), Attacking Faulty Rea- common statistical ecological fallacies are: confusion
soning: A Practical Guide to Fallacy-free Arguments between ecological correlations and individual correla-
(6th ed.), Wadsworth, ISBN 978-0-495-09506-4 tions, confusion between group average and total average,
Simpson's paradox, and other statistical methods.* [2]
• Fallacies: Classical and Contemporary Readings,
edited by Hans V. Hansen and Robert C. Pinto
(1995). 2.3.2 See also
• Bibliography on Fallacies: http://www.ditext.com/ • Ecological fallacy
eemeren/bib.html

2.3.3 References
2.2.8 External links
[1] Brauneis, Robert (2009). Intellectual Property Protection
of Fact-based Works: Copyright and Its Alternatives. Ed-
• The Fallacy Files Guilt by Association ward Elgar Publishing. p. 110.

• Propagandacritic.com “Transfer technique” [2] Burnham Terrell, Dailey (1967). Logic: A Modern Intro-
duction to Deductive Reasoning. Holt, Rinehart and Win-
• Propagandacritic.com “Testimonial” ston. pp. 160–163.
2.4. IGNORATIO ELENCHI 163

• Werner Ebeling; Hans-Michael Voigt. Parallel it.* [5]

Problem Solving from Nature - PPSN IV: Inter- —Arthur Ernest Davies, “Fallacies”in A
national Conference on Evolutionary Computation. Text-Book of Logic
The 4th International Conference on Parallel Prob-
lem Solving from Nature Berlin, Germany, September
22 - 26, 1996. Proceedings, Volume 114. Springer The phrase ignoratio elenchi is from Latin, meaning “an
Science & Business Media. pp. 170–173. ignoring of a refutation”. Here elenchi is the genitive sin-
gular of the Latin noun elenchus, which is from Ancient
• Richard M. Grinnell; Jr., Yvonne A. Unrau. So-
Greek ἔλεγχος (elenchos), meaning “an argument of
cial Work Research and Evaluation: Foundations of
disproof or refutation”.* [6] The translation in English
Evidence-Based Practice. Oxford University Press.
of the Latin expression has varied somewhat. Hamblin
pp. 393–394.
proposed “misconception of refutation”or “ignorance
• “Division”. The Fallacy Files. of refutation”as a literal translation,* [7] John Arthur
Oesterle preferred“ignoring the issue”,* [7] Irving Copi,
Christopher Tindale and others used “irrelevant conclu-
sion”.* [7]* [8]
2.4 Ignoratio elenchi
An example might be a situation where A and B are de-
Ignoratio elenchi, also known as irrelevant conclu- bating whether the law permits A to do something.
sion,* [1] is the informal fallacy of presenting an argu-
ment that may or may not be logically valid, but fails A: I want to use the unwritten law (the right of a
nonetheless to address the issue in question. More col- cuckolded husband to kill his unfaithful wife's
loquially, it is also known as “Missing the Point.” lover) to kill C.
Ignoratio elenchi falls into the broad class of relevance fal- B: But the law in this state specifically doesn't
*
lacies. [2] It is one of the fallacies identified by Aristotle recognize the unwritten law.
in his Organon. In a broader sense he asserted that all A: Well, it ought to recognize it.
fallacies are a form of ignoratio elenchi.* [3]* [4]
A's attempt to support his position with an argument that
Ignoratio Elenchi, according to Aristotle, the law ought to allow him to do this, would make him
is a fallacy which arises from “ignorance of guilty of ignoratio elenchi.* [9] (And if he did do that,
the nature of refutation.”In order to refute probably guilty of premeditated murder.)
an assertion, Aristotle says we must prove its Dr Johnson's unique “refutation”of Bishop Berkeley's
contradictory; the proof, consequently, of a immaterialism, his claim that matter did not actually exist
proposition which stood in any other relation but only seemed to exist,* [10] has been described as Ig-
than that to the original, would be an ignoratio noratio elenchi:* [11] during a conversation with Boswell,
elenchi …Since Aristotle, the scope of the Johnson powerfully kicked a nearby stone and proclaimed
fallacy has been extended to include all cases of Berkeley's theory,“I refute it thus!"* [12] (See also ad
of proving the wrong point…“I am required lapidem.)
to prove a certain conclusion; I prove, not that,
but one which is likely to be mistaken for it; in A related concept is that of the red herring, which is a de-
that lies the fallacy…For instance, instead of liberate attempt to divert a process of enquiry by chang-
proving that ‘this person has committed an ing the subject.* [2] Ignoratio elenchi is sometimes con-
atrocious fraud,’you prove that ‘this fraud fused with straw man argument.* [2] For example, it has
he is accused of is atrocious;’ ”…The nature been incorrectly described as “attacking what the other
of the fallacy, then, consists in substituting for fellow never said”(which is actually a straw man fallacy)
a certain issue another which is more or less by Peter Jay in an article in a 1996 article in New States-
closely related to it, and arguing the substituted man.* [13]
issue. The fallacy does not take into account
whether the arguments do or do not really
support the substituted issue, it only calls 2.4.1 See also
attention to the fact that they do not constitute
• Ad hominem
a proof of the original one…It is a particularly
prevalent and subtle fallacy and it assumes a • Begging the question
great variety of forms. But whenever it occurs
and whatever form it takes, it is brought about • Chewbacca defense
by an assumption that leads the person guilty • Enthymeme
of it to substitute for a definite subject of
inquiry another which is in close relation with • Evasion (ethics)
164 CHAPTER 2. FALLACIES

• List of fallacies 2.5 List of fallacies

• Non sequitur (logic)
For specific popular misconceptions, see List of common
• Red herring misconceptions.
• Sophism
A fallacy is incorrect argument in logic and rhetoric re-
• Straw man sulting in a lack of validity, or more generally, a lack
of soundness. Fallacies are either formal fallacies or
informal fallacies.
2.4.2 References
[1] Bishop Whately, cited by John Stuart Mill: A System of 2.5.1 Formal fallacies
Logic. London Colchester 1959 (first: 1843), pp. 542.

[2] Patrick J. Hurley (2011). A Concise Introduction to Logic. Main article: Formal fallacy
Cengage Learning. pp. 131–133. ISBN 978-0-8400-
3417-5.
A formal fallacy is an error in logic that can be seen in
[3] Aristotle (1878). The Organon, or Logical treatises, of the argument's form.* [1] All formal fallacies are specific
Aristotle 2. Octavius Freire Owen (translation). Covent types of non sequiturs.
Garden: George Bell and Sons. pp. 548–553.

[4] “Ignoratio Elenchi”. Introduction to Logic. 24 September • Anecdotal fallacy - using a personal experience or
2009. an isolated example instead of sound reasoning or
compelling evidence.
[5] Davies, Arthur Ernest (1915). A Text-Book of Logic.
R. G. Adams and company. pp. 569–576. LCCN • Appeal to probability – is a statement that takes
15027713. something for granted because it would probably be
the case (or might be the case).* [2]* [3]
[6] Liddell–Scott–Jones. A Greek-English Lexicon.
• Argument from fallacy – assumes that if an argu-
[7] Charles Leonard Hamblin (1970). Fallacies. Methuen &
Co. Ltd. p. 31.
ment for some conclusion is fallacious, then the con-
clusion is false.* [4]
[8] Christopher W. Tindale (2007). Fallacies and Argument
Appraisal. Cambridge University Press. p. 34. ISBN • Base rate fallacy – making a probability judgment
978-0-521-84208-2. based on conditional probabilities, without taking
into account the effect of prior probabilities.* [5]
[9] H. W. Fowler, A Dictionary of Modern English Usage. En-
try for ignoratio elenchi. • Conjunction fallacy – assumption that an out-
come simultaneously satisfying multiple conditions
[10] Bate 1977, p. 316
is more probable than an outcome satisfying a single
[11] Bagnall, Nicholas. Books: Paperbacks, The Sunday Tele- one of them.* [6]
graph 3 March 1996
• Masked man fallacy (illicit substitution of identicals)
[12] Boswell 1986, p. 122 – the substitution of identical designators in a true
statement can lead to a false one.* [7]
[13] Jay, Peter, Counterfeit coin, New Statesman, 23 August
1996 • Unwarranted assumption fallacy - The fallacy of un-
warranted assumption is committed when the con-
clusion of an argument is based on a premise (im-
2.4.3 External links plicit or explicit) that is false or unwarranted. An
• Appeal to Authority Breakdown, Examples, Defini- assumption is unwarranted when it is false - these
tions, & More premises are usually suppressed or vaguely written.
An assumption is also unwarranted when it is true
• Nizkor Project: Red Herring but does not apply in the given context.

• Fallacy Files: Red Herring

Propositional fallacies
• The Phrase Finder: Red Herring
• The Art of Controversy: Diversion (bilingual with A propositional fallacy is an error in logic that concerns
the original German) by Arthur Schopenhauer compound propositions. For a compound proposition to
be true, the truth values of its constituent parts must sat-
• Red herring in political speech isfy the relevant logical connectives that occur in it (most
2.5. LIST OF FALLACIES 165

commonly: <and>, <or>, <not>, <only if>, <if and only • Fallacy of the undistributed middle – the mid-
if>). The following fallacies involve inferences whose dle term in a categorical syllogism is not dis-
correctness is not guaranteed by the behavior of those log- tributed.* [11]
ical connectives, and hence, which are not logically guar-
anteed to yield true conclusions.
Types of Propositional fallacies: 2.5.2 Informal fallacies

• Affirming a disjunct – concluded that one disjunct of Main article: Informal fallacy
a logical disjunction must be false because the other
disjunct is true; A or B; A; therefore not B.* [8] Informal fallacies – arguments that are fallacious for rea-
sons other than structural (formal) flaws and usually re-
• Affirming the consequent – the antecedent in an in- quire examination of the argument's content.* [12]
dicative conditional is claimed to be true because the
consequent is true; if A, then B; B, therefore A.* [8]
• Appeal to the stone (argumentum ad lapidem) – dis-
• Denying the antecedent – the consequent in an missing a claim as absurd without demonstrating
indicative conditional is claimed to be false because proof for its absurdity.* [13]
the antecedent is false; if A, then B; not A, therefore
not B.* [8] • Argument from ignorance (appeal to ignorance, ar-
gumentum ad ignorantiam) – assuming that a claim
is true because it has not been or cannot be proven
Quantification fallacies false, or vice versa.* [14]

A quantification fallacy is an error in logic where the • Argument from (personal) incredulity (divine fal-
quantifiers of the premises are in contradiction to the lacy, appeal to common sense) – I cannot imag-
quantifier of the conclusion. ine how this could be true, therefore it must be
Types of Quantification fallacies: false.* [15]* [16]

• Argument from repetition (argumentum ad nau-

• Existential fallacy – an argument has a universal seam) – signifies that it has been discussed ex-
premise and a particular conclusion.* [9] tensively until nobody cares to discuss it any-
more.* [17]* [18]
Formal syllogistic fallacies • Argument from silence (argumentum e silentio)
– where the conclusion is based on the absence
Syllogistic fallacies – logical fallacies that occur in of evidence, rather than the existence of evi-
syllogisms. dence.* [19]* [20]

• Affirmative conclusion from a negative premise (il- • Argument to moderation (false compromise, middle
licit negative) – when a categorical syllogism has ground, fallacy of the mean, argumentum ad temper-
a positive conclusion, but at least one negative antiam) – assuming that the compromise between
premise.* [9] two positions is always correct.* [21]

• Fallacy of exclusive premises – a categorical syllo- • Argumentum ad hominem – the evasion of the ac-
gism that is invalid because both of its premises are tual topic by directing an attack at your opponent.
negative.* [9]
• Argumentum verbosium – See Proof by verbosity,
• Fallacy of four terms (quaternio terminorum) – a cat- below.
egorical syllogism that has four terms.* [10]
• Begging the question (petitio principii) – providing
• Illicit major – a categorical syllogism that is invalid what is essentially the conclusion of the argument as
because its major term is not distributed in the major a premise.* [22]* [23]* [24]* [25]
premise but distributed in the conclusion.* [9]
• (shifting the) Burden of proof (see – onus probandi)
• Illicit minor – a categorical syllogism that is invalid – I need not prove my claim, you must prove it is
because its minor term is not distributed in the minor false.
premise but distributed in the conclusion.* [9]
• Circular reasoning (circulus in demonstrando) –
• Negative conclusion from affirmative premises (il- when the reasoner begins with what he or she is try-
licit affirmative) – when a categorical syllogism has ing to end up with; sometimes called assuming the
a negative conclusion but affirmative premises. * [9] conclusion.
166 CHAPTER 2. FALLACIES

• Circular cause and consequence – where the conse- • False dilemma (false dichotomy, fallacy of bifurca-
quence of the phenomenon is claimed to be its root tion, black-or-white fallacy) – two alternative state-
cause. ments are held to be the only possible options, when
in reality there are more.* [36]
• Continuum fallacy (fallacy of the beard, line-
drawing fallacy, sorites fallacy, fallacy of the heap, • False equivalence – describing a situation of logical
bald man fallacy) – improperly rejecting a claim for and apparent equivalence, when in fact there is none.
being imprecise.* [26]
• Fallacy of many questions (complex question, fal-
• Correlative-based fallacies lacy of presupposition, loaded question, plurium in-
• Correlation proves causation (cum hoc ergo terrogationum) – someone asks a question that pre-
propter hoc) – a faulty assumption that corre- supposes something that has not been proven or ac-
lation between two variables implies that one cepted by all the people involved. This fallacy is
causes the other.* [27] often used rhetorically, so that the question lim-
its direct replies to those that serve the questioner's
• Suppressed correlative – where a correlative is
agenda.
redefined so that one alternative is made im-
possible.* [28] • Fallacy of the single cause (causal oversimplifica-
• Equivocation – the misleading use of a term with tion* [37]) – it is assumed that there is one, simple
more than one meaning (by glossing over which cause of an outcome when in reality it may have
meaning is intended at a particular time).* [29] been caused by a number of only jointly sufficient
causes.
• Ambiguous middle term – a common ambi-
guity in syllogisms in which the middle term is • Furtive fallacy – outcomes are asserted to have been
equivocated.* [30] caused by the malfeasance of decision makers.

• Ecological fallacy – inferences about the nature of • Gambler's fallacy – the incorrect belief that sepa-
specific individuals are based solely upon aggregate rate, independent events can affect the likelihood of
statistics collected for the group to which those in- another random event. If a fair coin lands on heads
dividuals belong.* [31] 10 times in a row, the belief that it is “due to the
number of times it had previously landed on tails”
• Etymological fallacy – which reasons that the origi-
is incorrect.* [38]
nal or historical meaning of a word or phrase is nec-
essarily similar to its actual present-day usage.* [32] • Hedging – using words with ambiguous meanings,
• Fallacy of accent – a specific type of ambiguity that then changing the meaning of them later.
arises when the meaning of a sentence is changed
• Historian's fallacy – occurs when one assumes that
by placing an unusual prosodic stress, or when, in
decision makers of the past viewed events from the
a written passage, it's left unclear which word the
same perspective and having the same information
emphasis was supposed to fall on.
as those subsequently analyzing the decision.* [39]
• Fallacy of composition – assuming that something (Not to be confused with presentism, which is a
true of part of a whole must also be true of the mode of historical analysis in which present-day
whole.* [33] ideas, such as moral standards, are projected into
the past.)
• Fallacy of division – assuming that something true
of a thing must also be true of all or some of its • Homunculus fallacy – where a“middle-man”is used
parts.* [34] for explanation, this sometimes leads to regressive
middle-men. Explains without actually explaining
• False attribution – an advocate appeals to an irrele-
the real nature of a function or a process. Instead,
vant, unqualified, unidentified, biased or fabricated
it explains the concept in terms of the concept it-
source in support of an argument.
self, without first defining or explaining the original
• Fallacy of quoting out of context (contextomy) concept. Explaining thought as something produced
– refers to the selective excerpting of words by a little thinker, a sort of homunculus inside the
from their original context in a way that dis- head, merely explains it as another kind of thinking
torts the source's intended meaning.* [35] (as different but the same).* [40]

• False authority (single authority) – using an expert of • Inflation of conflict – The experts of a field of knowl-
dubious credentials or using only one opinion to sell edge disagree on a certain point, so the scholars must
a product or idea. Related to the appeal to authority know nothing, and therefore the legitimacy of their
fallacy. entire field is put to question.* [41]
2.5. LIST OF FALLACIES 167

• If-by-whiskey – an argument that supports both of is-ought fallacy mentioned above. For instance, is
sides of an issue by using terms that are selectively P ∨¬P does imply ought P ∨¬P for any proposition
emotionally sensitive. P , although the naturalistic fallacy fallacy would
falsely declare such an inference invalid. Natural-
• Incomplete comparison – in which insufficient in- istic fallacy fallacy is an instance of argument from
formation is provided to make a complete compari- fallacy.
son.
• Nirvana fallacy (perfect solution fallacy) – when so-
• Inconsistent comparison – where different methods lutions to problems are rejected because they are not
of comparison are used, leaving one with a false im- perfect.
pression of the whole comparison.
• Onus probandi – from Latin “onus probandi in-
• Intentionality fallacy – the insistence that the ulti-
cumbit ei qui dicit, non ei qui negat”the burden of
mate meaning of an expression must be consistent
proof is on the person who makes the claim, not on
with the intention of the person from whom the
the person who denies (or questions the claim). It
communication originated (e.g. a work of fiction
is a particular case of the “argumentum ad igno-
that is widely received as a blatant allegory must
rantiam”fallacy, here the burden is shifted on the
necessarily not be regarded as such if the author in-
person defending against the assertion.
tended it not to be so.)* [42]

• Ignoratio elenchi (irrelevant conclusion, missing the • Petitio principii – see begging the question.
point) – an argument that may in itself be valid, but • Post hoc ergo propter hoc Latin for“after this, there-
does not address the issue in question.* [43] fore because of this”(faulty cause/effect, coinciden-
• Kettle logic – using multiple, jointly inconsistent ar- tal correlation, correlation without causation) – X
guments to defend a position. happened, then Y happened; therefore X caused Y.
The Loch Ness Monster has been seen in this loch.
• Ludic fallacy – the belief that the outcomes of non- Something tipped our boat over; it's obviously the
regulated random occurrences can be encapsulated Loch Ness Monster.* [48]
by a statistic; a failure to take into account unknown
unknowns in determining the probability of events • Proof by assertion – a proposition is repeatedly re-
taking place.* [44] stated regardless of contradiction.

• Moral high ground fallacy – in which one assumes • Proof by verbosity (argumentum verbosium, proof
a "holier-than-thou" attitude in an attempt to make by intimidation) – submission of others to an argu-
oneself look good to win an argument. ment too complex and verbose to reasonably deal
with in all its intimate details. (See also Gish Gallop
• Moralistic fallacy – inferring factual conclusions and argument from authority.)
from purely evaluative premises in violation of fact–
value distinction. For instance, inferring is from • Prosecutor's fallacy – a low probability of false
ought is an instance of moralistic fallacy. Moralistic matches does not mean a low probability of some
fallacy is the inverse of naturalistic fallacy defined false match being found.
below.
• Proving too much - using a form of argument that, if
• Moving the goalposts (raising the bar) – argument in it were valid, could be used more generally to reach
which evidence presented in response to a specific an absurd conclusion.
claim is dismissed and some other (often greater)
evidence is demanded. • Psychologist's fallacy – an observer presupposes the
objectivity of his own perspective when analyzing a
• Naturalistic fallacy – inferring evaluative conclu- behavioral event.
sions from purely factual premises* [45] in violation
of fact–value distinction. For instance, inferring • Red herring – a speaker attempts to distract an au-
ought from is (sometimes referred to as the is-ought dience by deviating from the topic at hand by intro-
fallacy) is an instance of naturalistic fallacy. Also ducing a separate argument the speaker believes is
naturalistic fallacy in a stricter sense as defined in easier to speak to.* [49]
the section “Conditional or questionable fallacies”
below is an instance of naturalistic fallacy. Natural- • Referential fallacy* [50] – assuming all words refer
istic fallacy is the inverse of moralistic fallacy. to existing things and that the meaning of words re-
side within the things they refer to, as opposed to
• Naturalistic fallacy fallacy* [46] (anti-naturalistic words possibly referring to no real object or that the
fallacy* [47]) – inferring impossibility to infer any meaning of words often comes from how we use
instance of ought from is from the general invalidity them.
168 CHAPTER 2. FALLACIES

• Regression fallacy – ascribes cause where none ex- • Inductive fallacy – A more general name to some fal-
ists. The flaw is failing to account for natural fluctu- lacies, such as hasty generalization. It happens when
ations. It is frequently a special kind of the post hoc a conclusion is made of premises that lightly support
fallacy. it.

• Reification (hypostatization) – a fallacy of ambigu- • Misleading vividness – involves describing an occur-

ity, when an abstraction (abstract belief or hypothet- rence in vivid detail, even if it is an exceptional oc-
ical construct) is treated as if it were a concrete, real currence, to convince someone that it is a problem.
event or physical entity. In other words, it is the er-
• Overwhelming exception – an accurate generaliza-
ror of treating as a “real thing”something that is
tion that comes with qualifications that eliminate so
not a real thing, but merely an idea.
many cases that what remains is much less impres-
sive than the initial statement might have led one to
• Retrospective determinism – the argument that be-
assume.* [57]
cause some event has occurred, its occurrence must
have been inevitable beforehand. • Thought-terminating cliché – a commonly used
phrase, sometimes passing as folk wisdom, used to
• Shotgun argumentation – the arguer offers such a quell cognitive dissonance, conceal lack of thought-
large number of arguments for their position that the entertainment, move on to other topics etc. but in
opponent can't possibly respond to all of them. (See any case, end the debate with a cliche—not a point.
“Argument by verbosity”and "Gish Gallop", above.)

• Special pleading – where a proponent of a position Red herring fallacies

attempts to cite something as an exemption to a gen-
erally accepted rule or principle without justifying A red herring fallacy is an error in logic where a proposi-
the exemption. tion is, or is intended to be, misleading in order to make
irrelevant or false inferences. In the general case any log-
• Wrong direction – cause and effect are reversed. ical inference based on fake arguments, intended to re-
The cause is said to be the effect and vice versa.* [51] place the lack of real arguments or to replace implicitly
the subject of the discussion.* [58]* [59]* [60]

Faulty generalizations Red herring – argument given in response to another

argument, which is irrelevant and draws attention away
from the subject of argument. See also irrelevant conclu-
Faulty generalizations – reach a conclusion from weak
sion.
premises. Unlike fallacies of relevance, in fallacies of de-
fective induction, the premises are related to the conclu-
sions yet only weakly buttress the conclusions. A faulty • Ad hominem – attacking the arguer instead of the
generalization is thus produced. argument.

• Poisoning the well – a type of ad hominem

• Accident – an exception to a generalization is ig- where adverse information about a target is
nored.* [52] presented with the intention of discrediting ev-
erything that the target person says.* [61]
• No true Scotsman – when a generalization is
• Abusive fallacy – a subtype of“ad hominem”
made true only when a counterexample is ruled
when it turns into verbal abuse of the oppo-
out on shaky grounds.* [53]
nent rather than arguing about the originally
proposed argument.* [62]
• Cherry picking (suppressed evidence, incomplete
evidence) – act of pointing at individual cases or • Vacuous truth
data that seem to confirm a particular position, while
ignoring a significant portion of related cases or data
• Appeal to authority (argumentum ab auctoritate)
that may contradict that position.* [54]
– where an assertion is deemed true because of
the position or authority of the person asserting
• False analogy – an argument by analogy in which the
it.* [63]* [64]
analogy is poorly suited.* [55]
• Appeal to accomplishment – where an asser-
• Hasty generalization (fallacy of insufficient statis- tion is deemed true or false based on the ac-
tics, fallacy of insufficient sample, fallacy of the complishments of the proposer.* [65]
lonely fact, leaping to a conclusion, hasty induction,
secundum quid, converse accident) – basing a broad • Appeal to consequences (argumentum ad conse-
conclusion on a small sample.* [56] quentiam) – the conclusion is supported by a premise
2.5. LIST OF FALLACIES 169

that asserts positive or negative consequences from • Argument from silence (argumentum ex silentio) – a
some course of action in an attempt to distract from conclusion based on silence or lack of contrary evi-
the initial discussion.* [66] dence.
• Appeal to emotion – where an argument is made due • Argumentum ad baculum (appeal to the stick, ap-
to the manipulation of emotions, rather than the use peal to force, appeal to threat) – an argument made
of valid reasoning. * [67] through coercion or threats of force to support posi-
tion.* [82]
• Appeal to fear – a specific type of appeal to
emotion where an argument is made by in- • Argumentum ad populum (appeal to widespread be-
creasing fear and prejudice towards the oppos- lief, bandwagon argument, appeal to the major-
ing side* [68]* [69] ity, appeal to the people) – where a proposition is
• Appeal to flattery – a specific type of appeal claimed to be true or good solely because many peo-
to emotion where an argument is made due to ple believe it to be so.* [83]
the use of flattery to gather support.* [70]
• Association fallacy (guilt by association) – arguing
• Appeal to pity (argumentum ad misericor- that because two things share a property they are the
diam) – an argument attempts to induce pity same.* [84]
to sway opponents.* [71]
• Appeal to ridicule – an argument is made by • Bulverism (Psychogenetic Fallacy) – inferring why
presenting the opponent's argument in a way an argument is being used, associating it to some
that makes it appear ridiculous.* [72]* [73] psychological reason, then assuming it is invalid as
a result. It is wrong to assume that if the origin of an
• Appeal to spite – a specific type of appeal to
idea comes from a biased mind, then the idea itself
emotion where an argument is made through
must also be a falsehood.* [41]
exploiting people's bitterness or spite towards
an opposing party.* [74] • Chronological snobbery – where a thesis is deemed
• Wishful thinking – a specific type of appeal to incorrect because it was commonly held when
emotion where a decision is made according to something else, clearly false, was also commonly
what might be pleasing to imagine, rather than held.* [85]* [86]
according to evidence or reason.* [75]
• Fallacy of relative privation – dismissing an argu-
• Appeal to equality – where an assertion is deemed ment due to the existence of more important, but
true or false based on an assumed pretense of equal- unrelated, problems in the world.
ity.* [76]
• Genetic fallacy – where a conclusion is suggested
• Appeal to motive – where a premise is dismissed by based solely on something or someone's origin
calling into question the motives of its proposer. rather than its current meaning or context.* [87]
• Appeal to nature – wherein judgment is based solely • Judgmental language – insulting or pejorative lan-
on whether the subject of judgment is 'natural' or guage to influence the recipient's judgment.
'unnatural'.* [77]
• Naturalistic fallacy (is–ought fallacy,* [88] naturalis-
• Appeal to novelty (argumentum novi- tic fallacy* [89]) – claims about what ought to be on
tatis/antiquitatis) – where a proposal is claimed to the basis of statements about what is.
be superior or better solely because it is new or
modern.* [78] • Reductio ad Hitlerum (playing the Nazi card) – com-
paring an opponent or their argument to Hitler or
• Appeal to poverty (argumentum ad Lazarum) – sup- Nazism in an attempt to associate a position with
porting a conclusion because the arguer is poor (or one that is universally reviled. (See also – Godwin's
refuting because the arguer is wealthy). (Opposite law)
of appeal to wealth.)* [79]
• Straw man – an argument based on misrepresenta-
• Appeal to tradition (argumentum ad antiquitatem) tion of an opponent's position.* [90]
– a conclusion supported solely because it has long
been held to be true.* [80] • Texas sharpshooter fallacy – improperly asserting a
cause to explain a cluster of data.* [91]
• Appeal to wealth (argumentum ad crumenam) – sup-
porting a conclusion because the arguer is wealthy • Tu quoque (“you too”, appeal to hypocrisy, I'm
(or refuting because the arguer is poor).* [81] rubber and you're glue) – the argument states that a
(Sometimes taken together with the appeal to certain position is false or wrong or should be disre-
poverty as a general appeal to the arguer's financial garded because its proponent fails to act consistently
situation.) in accordance with that position.* [92]
170 CHAPTER 2. FALLACIES

• Two wrongs make a right – occurs when it is as- 2.5.5 References

sumed that if one wrong is committed, another
wrong will cancel it out.* [93] Notes

[1] Bunnin & Yu 2004, “formal fallacy”.

2.5.3 Conditional or questionable fallacies [2] Leon, Joseph (23 April 2011). “Appeal to Probability”
. Logical & Critical Thinking. Archived from the original
• Broken window fallacy – an argument that disre- on 27 September 2013.
gards lost opportunity costs (typically non-obvious,
difficult to determine or otherwise hidden) associ- [3] McDonald, Simon (2009). “Appeal to probability”.
ated with destroying property of others, or other Toolkit For Thinking. Archived from the original on 19
ways of externalizing costs onto others. For exam- February 2015.
ple, an argument that states breaking a window gen- [4] Curtis, “Fallacy Fallacy”.
erates income for a window fitter, but disregards the
fact that the money spent on the new window cannot [5] “Base Rate Fallacy”. Psychology Glossary. Alley-
now be spent on new shoes.* [94] Dog.com. Retrieved 2011-02-01.

[6] Straker, David. “Conjunction Fallacy”. Changing-

• Definist fallacy – involves the confusion between two Minds.org. Retrieved 2011-02-01.
notions by defining one in terms of the other.* [95]
[7] Curtis, “The Masked Man Fallacy”.
• Naturalistic fallacy – attempts to prove a claim about
[8] Wilson 1999, p. 316.
ethics by appealing to a definition of the term“good”
in terms of either one or more claims about natural [9] Wilson 1999, p. 317.
properties (sometimes also taken to mean the appeal
[10] Pirie 2006, pp. 133–136.
to nature) or God's will.* [77]
[11] Wilson 1999, p. 316–317.
• Slippery slope (thin edge of the wedge, camel's
nose) – asserting that a relatively small first step in- [12] Bunnin & Yu 2004, “informal fallacy”.
evitably leads to a chain of related events culminat- [13] http://www.jstor.org/discover/10.2307/2709600
ing in some significant impact/event that should not
happen, thus the first step should not happen. While [14] Damer 2009, p. 165.
this fallacy is a popular one, it is, in its essence, an
[15] Carroll, Robert T.“The Skeptic's Dictionary”. divine fal-
appeal to probability fallacy. (e.g. if person x does y lacy (argument from incredulity). Retrieved 5 April 2013.
then z would [probably] occur, leading to q, leading
to w, leading to e.)* [96] This is also related to the [16] “Toolkit for Thinking”.
Reductio ad absurdum.
[17] “Repetition”. changingminds.org.

[18] http://www.toolkitforthinking.com/critical-thinking/
2.5.4 See also anatomy-of-an-argument/inductive-logic-arguments/
ad-nauseam
• List of common misconceptions [19] http://www.toolkitforthinking.com/critical-thinking/
anatomy-of-an-argument/inductive-logic-arguments/
• List of cognitive biases argument-from-silence

• List of memory biases [20] Bo Bennett. “Argument from Silence”. logicallyfalla-

cious.com.
• List of topics related to public relations and propa- [21] Damer 2009, p. 150.
ganda
[22] “Your logical fallacy is begging the question”. Thou shalt
• Sophistical Refutations, in which Aristotle presented not commit logical fallacies.
thirteen fallacies
[23] “Fallacy: Begging the Question”. nizkor.org.
• Straight and Crooked Thinking (book) [24] Bo Bennett. “Begging the Question”. logicallyfalla-
cious.com.
• Mathematical fallacy
[25] “Begging the Question”. txstate.edu.
• List of paradoxes [26] Dowden 2010, “Line-Drawing”.

• Reductio ad absurdum [27] Pirie 2006, p. 41.

2.5. LIST OF FALLACIES 171

[28] Feinberg, Joel (2007). “Psychological Egoism”. In [58] Gary Curtis. “Logical Fallacy: Red Herring”. fallacy-
Shafer-Landau, Russ. Ethical Theory: An Anthology. files.org.
Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Wiley-Blackwell. p.
193. ISBN 978-1-4051-3320-3. [59] http://logical-critical-thinking.com/logical-fallacy/
red-herring-fallacy/
[29] Damer 2009, p. 121.
[60] “Logical Fallacies”. logicalfallacies.info.
[30] Copi & Cohen 1990, p. 206.
[61] Walton 2008, p. 187.
[31] Fischer 1970, p. 119.
[62] Bo Bennett. “Ad Hominem (Abusive)". logicallyfalla-
[32] Gula 2002, p. 70. cious.com.

[33] Pirie 2006, p. 31. [63] Clark & Clark 2005, pp. 13–16.

[34] Pirie 2006, p. 53. [64] Walton 1997, p. 28.

[35] Gula 2002, p. 97. [65] Bo Bennett. “Appeal to Accomplishment”. logically-

fallacious.com.
[36] “Fallacy – False Dilemma”. Nizkor. The Nizkor Project.
Retrieved 2011-02-01. [66] Walton 2008, p. 27.

[67] Damer 2009, p. 111.

[37] Damer 2009, p. 178.
[68] Bo Bennett. “Appeal to Fear”. logicallyfallacious.com.
[38] Damer 2009, p. 186.
[69] “Appeal to Fear”. changingminds.org.
[39] Fischer 1970, p. 209.
[70] Gula 2002, p. 12.
[40] Bunnin & Yu 2004, “Homunculus”.
[71] Walton 2008, p. 128.
[41] “A List Of Fallacious Arguments”. Retrieved 6 October
2012. [72] “Appeal to Ridicule”. changingminds.org.

[42] Wimsatt, William K. and Monroe C. Beardsley.“The In- [73] Bo Bennett. “Appeal to Ridicule”. logicallyfalla-
tentional Fallacy.”Sewanee Review, vol. 54 (1946): 468- cious.com.
488. Revised and republished in The Verbal Icon: Studies
in the Meaning of Poetry, U of Kentucky P, 1954: 3-18. [74] “Appeal to Spite”. changingminds.org.

[43] Copi & Cohen 1990, p. 105. [75] Damer 2009, p. 146.

[44] Taleb, Nassim (2007). The Black Swan. Random House. [76] Bo Bennett. “B-List Fallacies”. logicallyfallacious.com.
p. 309. ISBN 1-4000-6351-5. [77] Gary Curtis. “Logical Fallacy: Appeal to Nature”. fal-
lacyfiles.org.
[45] “TheFreeDictionary”. Naturalistic fallacy.
[78] Pirie 2006, p. 116.
[46] John Searle, "How to Derive 'Ought' from 'Is'", The Philo-
sophical Review, 73:1 (January 1964), 43-58 [79] Pirie 2006, p. 104.
[47] Alex Walter, "The Anti-naturalistic Fallacy: Evolution- [80] Pirie 2006, p. 14.
ary Moral Psychology and the Insistence of Brute Facts",
Evolutionary Psychology, 4 (2006), 33-48 [81] Pirie 2006, p. 39.

[48] Damer 2009, p. 180. [82] Damer 2009, p. 106.

[49] Damer 2009, p. 208. [83] “Appeal to Widespread Belief”. Retrieved 6 October
2012.
[50] Semiotics Glossary R, Referential fallacy or illusion
[84] Gary Curtis. “Logical Fallacy: Guilt by Association”.
[51] Gula 2002, p. 135. fallacyfiles.org.

[52] Pirie 2006, p. 5. [85] http://davidlavery.net/Barfield/Encyclopedia_

Barfieldiana/Lexicon/Chronological.html
[53] Flew 1984, “No-true-Scotsman move”.
[86] http://www.davidbergan.com/Summa/Chronological_
[54] Hurley 2007, p. 155. snobbery
[55] Damer 2009, p. 151. [87] Damer 2009, p. 93.

[56] Hurley 2007, p. 134. [88] Dowden 2010, “Is-Ought”.

[57] Fischer 1970, p. 127. [89] Dowden 2010, “Naturalistic”.

172 CHAPTER 2. FALLACIES

[90] Walton 2008, p. 22. • Pirie, Madsen (2006). How to Win Every Argument:
The Use and Abuse of Logic. Continuum Interna-
[91] Curtis, “The Texas Sharpshooter Fallacy”. tional Publishing Group. ISBN 0-8264-9006-9.
[92] Pirie 2006, p. 164.
• Wilson, W. Kent (1999). “Formal fallacy”. In
[93] Johnson & Blair 1994, p. 122. Audi, Robert. The Cambridge Dictionary of Philos-
ophy (2nd ed.). Cambridge University Press. pp.
[94] Beggs, Jodi. “The Broken Window Fallacy”.
316–317. ISBN 978-0-511-07417-2.
[95] Frankena, W. K. (October 1939). “The Naturalistic Fal-
lacy”. Mind (Oxford University Press) 48 (192): 464– • Walton, Douglas (1997). Appeal to Expert Opinion:
477. JSTOR 2250706. Arguments from Authority. Pennsylvania State Uni-
versity. ISBN 0-271-01694-9 Paperback ISBN 0-
[96] Walton 2008, p. 315. 271-01695-7

Works • Walton, Douglas (2008). Informal Logic: A Prag-

matic Approach (2nd ed.). Cambridge University
• Bunnin, Nicholas; Yu, Jiyuan, eds. (2004). The Press. ISBN 978-0-511-40878-6.
Blackwell Dictionary of Western Philosophy. Black-
well. ISBN 978-1-4051-0679-5.
2.5.6 Further reading
• Clark, Jef; Clark, Theo (2005). Humbug! The Skep-
tic's Field Guide to Spotting Fallacies in Thinking. The following is a sample of books for further reading,
Nifty Books. ISBN 0-646-44477-8. Also available selected for a combination of content, ease of access via
as an ebook. the internet, and to provide an indication of published
sources that interested readers may review. The titles of
• Copi, Irving M.; Cohen, Carl (1990). Introduction
some books are self-explanatory. Good books on criti-
to Logic (8th ed.). Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-02-
cal thinking commonly contain sections on fallacies, and
325035-4.
some may be listed below.
• Curtis, Gary N. Logical Fallacies: The Fallacy Files.
Retrieved 2011-04-23. • Engel, S. Morris (1994). Fallacies and Pitfalls of
Language: The Language Trap. Dover Publica-
• Damer, T. Edward (2009). Attacking Faulty Rea-
tions. ISBN 0-486-28274-0. Retrieved 30 Novem-
soning: A Practical Guide to Fallacy-free Arguments
ber 2010.
(6th ed.). Wadsworth. ISBN 978-0-495-09506-4.
Retrieved 30 November 2010.
• Hughes, William; Lavery, Jonathan (2004). Critical
• Dowden, Bradley (December 31, 2010). “Fallacy” Thinking: An Introduction to the Basic Skills (4th
. The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. ISSN ed.). Broadview Press. ISBN 1-55111-573-5. Re-
2161-0002. Retrieved 2011-04-22. trieved 30 November 2010.

• Fischer, David Hackett (1970). Historians' Falla- • Paul, Richard; Elder, Linda (2006). Thinker's Guide
cies: Toward a Logic of Historical Thought. Harper- to Fallacies: The Art of Mental Trickery. Founda-
Collins. ISBN 978-0-06-131545-9. tion for Critical Thinking. ISBN 978-0-944583-27-
2. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
• Flew, Antony (1984). “A Dictionary of Philoso-
phy: Revised Second Edition”. A Dictionary of • Sinnott-Armstrong, Walter; Fogelin, Robert (2010).
Philosophy. Macmillan. ISBN 978-0-312-20923-0. Understanding Arguments: An Introduction to Infor-
mal Logic (8th ed.). Wadsworth Cengage Learning.
• Gula, Robert J. (2002). Nonsense: Red Herrings,
ISBN 978-0-495-60395-5. Retrieved 30 November
Straw Men and Sacred Cows: How We Abuse Logic
2010.
in Our Everyday Language. Axios Press. ISBN 978-
0-9753662-6-4.
• Thouless, Robert H (1953). Straight and Crooked
• Hurley, Patrick J. (2007). A Concise Introduction Thinking. Pan Books. Retrieved 30 November
to Logic (10th ed.). Cengage. ISBN 978-0-495- 2010.
50383-5.
• Tindale, Christopher W (2007). Fallacies and Argu-
• Johnson, Ralph H.; Blair, J. Anthony (1994). ment Appraisal. Critical Reasoning and Argumen-
Logical Self-Defense. IDEA. ISBN 978-1-932716- tation. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-
18-4. 521-84208-2. Retrieved 30 November 2010.
2.6. NIRVANA FALLACY 173

2.5.7 External links 2.6.2 Perfect solution fallacy

• Logical Fallacies, Literacy Education Online The perfect solution fallacy is an informal fallacy that
• LogicalFallacies.info occurs when an argument assumes that a perfect solution
exists and/or that a solution should be rejected because
• Informal Fallacies, Texas State University page on some part of the problem would still exist after it were im-
informal fallacies. plemented. This is an example of black and white think-
• Stephen's Guide to the Logical Fallacies (mirror) ing, in which a person fails to see the complex interplay
between multiple component elements of a situation or
• The Taxonomy of Logical Fallacies, Fallacy- problem, and as a result, reduces complex problems to a
Files.org pair of binary extremes.
• Visualization: Rhetological Fallacies, Information- It is common for arguments which commit this fallacy
IsBeautiful.net to omit any specifics about exactly how, or how badly, a
proposed solution is claimed to fall short of acceptability,
expressing the rejection in vague terms only. Alterna-
2.6 Nirvana fallacy tively, it may be combined with the fallacy of misleading
vividness, when a specific example of a solution's failure
is described in emotionally powerful detail but base rates
The nirvana fallacy is a name given to the informal fal-
are ignored (see availability heuristic).
lacy of comparing actual things with unrealistic, idealized
alternatives.* [1] It can also refer to the tendency to as- The fallacy is a type of false dilemma.
sume that there is a perfect solution to a particular prob-
lem. A closely related concept is the perfect solution
fallacy. Examples
By creating a false dichotomy that presents one option
which is obviously advantageous—while at the same time Posit (fallacious) These anti-drunk driving ad cam-
being completely implausible —a person using the nir- paigns are not going to work. People are still going
vana fallacy can attack any opposing idea because it is to drink and drive no matter what.
imperfect. Under this fallacy, the choice is not between
real world solutions; it is, rather, a choice between one re- Rebuttal Complete eradication of drunk driving is
alistic achievable possibility and another improbable so- not the expected outcome. The goal is reduc-
lution that could in some way be better. tion.

Posit (fallacious) Seat belts are a bad idea. People are

2.6.1 History
still going to die in car crashes.
The nirvana fallacy was given its name by economist
Rebuttal While seat belts cannot make driving
Harold Demsetz in 1969,* [2]* [3] who said:* [1]
100% safe, they do reduce one's likelihood of
dying in a car crash.
The view that now pervades much public
policy economics implicitly presents the rel- Posit (fallacious) The Umpire Decision Review System
evant choice as between an ideal norm and (in cricket) is a bad idea. It can't fix all missed calls.
an existing 'imperfect' institutional arrange-
ment. This nirvana approach differs consid- Rebuttal While not all umpiring errors are cor-
erably from a comparative institution approach rected under the UDRS, it does reduce the
in which the relevant choice is between alter- number of errors made.
native real institutional arrangements.

A related quotation from Voltaire is:

2.6.3 See also
Le mieux est l'ennemi du bien
• Wishful thinking
often translated as:
• Nirvana
The perfect is the enemy of the good (literally:
The best is the enemy of the good.) • Dukkha

from "La Bégueule" (1772). • Wabi-sabi

174 CHAPTER 2. FALLACIES

2.6.4 References using things the observer knows about himself or herself.
Such a bias leads the observer to presuppose knowledge
[1] H. Demsetz,“Information and Efficiency: Another View- or skills, or lack of such, possessed by another person.
point,”Journal of Law and Economics 12 (April 1969): For example, “I (or everyone I know or most people I
1, quoted in Kirzner, Israel M. (1978). Competition and
know) don't know very much about chemistry. Therefore
Entrepreneurship. p. 231. ISBN 0-226-43776-0.
I can assume that this other person knows very little about
[2] Leeson, Peter T. (2007-08-06). “Anarchy unbound, or: chemistry.”This assumption may be true in any number
why self-governance works better than you think”. Cato of specific cases, making inductive reasoning based on
Unbound. Cato Institute. Retrieved 2009-07-01. this assumption cogent, but is not applicable in the gen-
[3] Shapiro, Daniel (2007). Is the welfare state justified?.
eral case (there are many people who are very knowledge-
New York: Cambridge University Press. p. 4. ISBN 0- able in the field of chemistry), and therefore deductive
521-86065-2. reasoning based on this assumption may be invalid.
These alternative statements, however, do not match what
William James characterized when he named the fal-
2.6.5 Further reading lacy.* [1]
• Browne, M Neil; Keeley, Stuart M (2004). Asking
the right questions: a guide to critical thinking (7th.
2.7.2 Notes
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Prentice
Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-182993-0. OCLC 50813342.
[1] William James, Principles of Psychology volume I. chapter
vii. p. 196, 1890.

2.7 Psychologist's fallacy [2] James Mark Baldwin, Dictionary of Philosophy and Psy-
chology volume II. p. 382/2, 1902.
The psychologist's fallacy is a fallacy that occurs when [3] British Journal of Psychology. XXI. p. 243, 1931.
an observer assumes that his/her subjective experience
reflects the true nature of an event. The fallacy was named
by William James in the 19th century: 2.7.3 See also
The great snare of the psychologist is the • Historian's fallacy
confusion of his own standpoint with that of
the mental fact about which he is making his • Mind projection fallacy
report. I shall hereafter call this the ‘psychol-
ogist's fallacy’par excellence.* [1]
2.8 Texas sharpshooter fallacy
2.7.1 Alternative statements of the fallacy
The Texas sharpshooter fallacy is an informal fallacy
Some sources state the Psychologist's Fallacy as if it were which is committed when differences in data are ignored,
about two people—the observer and the observed—rather but similarities are stressed. From this reasoning a false
than about one observer and a fact. For example, conclusion is inferred.* [1] This fallacy is the philosoph-
ical/rhetorical application of the multiple comparisons
Psychologist's fallacy, the fallacy, to which problem (in statistics) and apophenia (in cognitive psy-
the psychologist is peculiarly liable, of reading chology). It is related to the clustering illusion, which
into the mind he is examining what is true of refers to the tendency in human cognition to interpret pat-
his own; especially of reading into lower minds terns where none actually exist.
what is true of higher.* [2] The name comes from a joke about a Texan who fires
some gunshots at the side of a barn, then paints a target
A danger to be avoided known as the‘psy- centered on the biggest cluster of hits and claims to be a
chologist's fallacy’. This arises from the fact sharpshooter.* [2]* [3]
that the experimenter is apt to suppose that the
subject will respond to a stimulus or an order
in the same way as he himself would respond 2.8.1 Structure
in the circumstances.* [3]
The Texas sharpshooter fallacy often arises when a per-
In this alternative form, the fallacy is described as a spe- son has a large amount of data at their disposal, but only
cific form of the“similar to me”stereotype: what is un- focuses on a small subset of that data. Some factor other
known about another person is assumed, for simplicity, than the one attributed may give all the elements in that
2.8. TEXAS SHARPSHOOTER FALLACY 175

subset some kind of common property (or pair of com- 2.8.3 See also
mon properties, when arguing for correlation). If the per-
son attempts to account for the likelihood of finding some • Anthropic principle
subset in the large data with some common property by a
factor other than its actual cause, then that person is likely • Availability heuristic
committing a Texas Sharpshooter fallacy.
• Confirmation bias
The fallacy is characterized by a lack of a specific hy-
pothesis prior to the gathering of data, or the formulation • Final cause
of a hypothesis only after data have already been gath-
• Hoyle's fallacy
ered and examined.* [4] Thus, it typically does not apply
if one had an ex ante, or prior, expectation of the partic- • Look-elsewhere effect
ular relationship in question before examining the data.
For example one might, prior to examining the informa- • Postdiction
tion, have in mind a specific physical mechanism imply-
ing the particular relationship. One could then use the in- • Ramsey theory
formation to give support or cast doubt on the presence of
that mechanism. Alternatively, if additional information • Overfitting
can be generated using the same process as the original
information, one can use the original information to con- Related fallacies
struct a hypothesis, and then test the hypothesis on the
new data. See hypothesis testing. What one cannot do is • Cum hoc ergo propter hoc
use the same information to construct and test the same
hypothesis (see hypotheses suggested by the data) —to • Post hoc ergo propter hoc
do so would be to commit the Texas sharpshooter fallacy.
• Correlative based fallacies

• Moving the goalpost, a related fallacy used to obtain

the opposite conclusion.
2.8.2 Examples

2.8.4 References
• A Swedish study in 1992 tried to determine whether
or not power lines caused some kind of poor health [1] Bennett, Bo,“Texas sharpshooter fallacy”, Logically Fal-
effects. The researchers surveyed everyone living lacious, retrieved October 2014, description: ignoring the
within 300 meters of high-voltage power lines over difference while focusing on the similarities, thus coming
a 25-year period and looked for statistically sig- to an inaccurate conclusion
nificant increases in rates of over 800 ailments.
The study found that the incidence of childhood [2] Atul Gawande (1999-08-02). “The cancer-cluster myth”
. The New Yorker. Retrieved 2009-10-10.
leukemia was four times higher among those that
lived closest to the power lines, and it spurred calls [3] Carroll, Robert Todd (2003). The Skeptic's Dictionary: a
to action by the Swedish government. The problem collection of strange beliefs, amusing deceptions, and dan-
with the conclusion, however, was that the number gerous delusions. John Wiley & Sons. p. 375. ISBN
of potential ailments, i.e. over 800, was so large that 0471272426. Retrieved 2012-03-25. The term refers to
it created a high probability that at least one ailment the story of the Texan who shoots holes in the side of a
would exhibit the appearance of a statistically signif- barn and then draws a bull's-eye around the bullet holes
icant difference by chance alone. Subsequent stud-
[4] Thompson, William C. (July 18, 2009).“Painting the tar-
ies failed to show any links between power lines and get around the matching profile: the Texas sharpshooter
childhood leukemia, neither in causation nor even in fallacy in forensic DNA interpretation”. Law, Proba-
correlation.* [5] bility, & Risk 8 (3): 257–258. doi:10.1093/lpr/mgp013.
Retrieved 2012-03-25. Texas sharpshooter fallacy...this
article demonstrates how post hoc target shifting occurs
• This fallacy is often found in modern-day inter- and how it can distort the frequency and likelihood ra-
pretations of the quatrains of Nostradamus. Nos- tio statistics used to characterize DNA matches, making
tradamus' quatrains are often liberally translated matches appear more probative than they actually are.
from the original (archaic) French, stripped of
[5] “FRONTLINE: previous reports: transcripts: currents of
their historical context, and then applied to sup- fear”. PBS. 1995-06-13. Retrieved 2012-07-03.
port the conclusion that Nostradamus predicted a
given modern-day event, after the event actually oc- [6] “Nostradamus Predicted 9/11?". snopes.com. Retrieved
curred.* [6] 2012-07-03.
176 CHAPTER 2. FALLACIES

2.8.5 External links

• Fallacy files entry
Chapter 3

Paradoxes

3.1 Coastline paradox

An example of the coastline paradox. If the coastline of

Great Britain is measured using units 100 km (62 mi)
long, then the length of the coastline is approximately
2,800 km (1,700 mi). With 50 km (31 mi) units, the
total length is approximately 3,400 km (2,100 mi),
approximately 600 km (370 mi) longer.

The coastline paradox is the counterintuitive observa-

tion that the coastline of a landmass does not have a well-
defined length. This results from the fractal-like proper-
ties of coastlines. The first recorded observation of this
phenomenon was by Lewis Fry Richardson* [1] and it was
expanded by Benoit Mandelbrot.* [2]
More concretely, the length of the coastline depends on
the method used to measure it. Since a landmass has fea-
tures at all scales, from hundreds of kilometres in size to
tiny fractions of a millimetre and below, there is no obvi-
ous size of the smallest feature that should be measured
around, and hence no single well-defined perimeter to the
landmass. Various approximations exist when specific as-
sumptions are made about minimum feature size.

177
178 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

3.1.1 Mathematical aspects

The basic concept of length originates from Euclidean
distance. In the familiar Euclidean geometry, a straight
line represents the shortest distance between two points; This Sierpiński curve (a type of Space-filling curve),
this line has only one length. The geodesic length on the which repeats the same pattern on a smaller and smaller
surface of a sphere, called the great circle length, is mea- scale, continues to increase in length. If understood to
sured along the surface curve which exists in the plane iterate within an infinitely subdivisible geometric space,
containing both end points of the path and the centre of its length approaches infinity. At the same time, the area
the sphere. The length of basic curves is more compli- enclosed by the curve does converge to a precise figure
cated but can also be calculated. Measuring with rulers, —just as, analogously, the land mass of an island can be
one can approximate the length of a curve by adding the calculated more easily than the length of its coastline.
sum of the straight lines which connect the points:

The length of a “true fractal”always diverges to in-

finity.* [3] However, this figure relies on the assumption
that space can be subdivided indefinitely. The truth value
of this assumption—which underlies Euclidean geometry
and serves as a useful model in everyday measurement
—is a matter of philosophical speculation, and may or
Using a few straight lines to approximate the length of may not reflect the changing realities of 'space' and 'dis-
a curve will produce a low estimate. Using shorter and tance' on the atomic level (approximately the scale of a
shorter lines will produce sums that approach the curve's nanometer). The Planck length, many orders of magni-
true length. A precise value for this length can be es- tude smaller than an atom, is proposed as the smallest
tablished using calculus, a branch of mathematics which measurable unit possible in the universe.
enables calculation of infinitely small distances. The fol- Coastlines differ from mathematical fractals because they
lowing animation illustrates how a smooth curve can be are formed by numerous small events, which create pat-
meaningfully assigned a precise length: terns only statistically.* [4]

3.1.2 Practical

In reality, permanent features of the coastline of order

of size 1 cm or less do not exist, because of erosion and
However, not all curves can be measured in this way. A other action of the sea. In most places the minimum size
fractal is by definition a curve whose complexity changes is much larger than this. Thus the concept of an infinite
with measurement scale. Whereas approximations of a fractal is not applicable to the coastline.
smooth curve get closer and closer to a single value as For practical considerations, an appropriate choice of
measurement precision increases, the measured value of minimum feature size is on the order of the units being
fractals may change wildly. used to measure. If a coastline is measured in kilometres,
then small variations much smaller than one kilometre are
easily ignored. To measure the coastline in centimetres,
tiny variations the size of centimetres must be considered.
However, at scales on the order of centimetres various ar-
bitrary and non-fractal assumptions must be made, such
as where an estuary joins the sea, or where in a broad
tidal flat the coastline measurements ought to be taken.
Using different measurement methodologies for differ-
ent units also destroys the usual certainty that units can
be converted by a simple multiplication.
Extreme cases of the coastline paradox include the fjord-
heavy coastlines of Norway, Chile and the Pacific North-
west of North America. From the southern tip of
Vancouver Island northwards to the southern tip of the
Alaska Panhandle, the convolutions of the coastline of the
Canadian province of British Columbia make it over 10%
of the entire Canadian coastline (including the maze of is-
3.2. FERMI PARADOX 179

lands of the Arctic archipelago)—25,725 km (15,985 mi) 3.2 Fermi paradox

out of 243,042 km (151,019 mi) over a linear distance of
only 965 km (600 mi).* [5] This article is about the absence of evidence for extrater-
restrial intelligence. For the type of estimation problem,
see Fermi problem.
3.1.3 See also The Fermi paradox (or Fermi's paradox) is the
apparent contradiction between high estimates of the
• Coast#Coastline problem
probability of the existence of extraterrestrial civilization
• Fractal dimension and humanity's lack of contact with, or evidence for, such
civilizations.* [1] The basic points of the argument, made
• How Long Is the Coast of Britain? Statistical Self- by physicists Enrico Fermi and Michael H. Hart, are:
Similarity and Fractional Dimension

• Paradox of the heap • The Sun is a typical star, and relatively young. There
are billions of stars in the galaxy that are billions of
• Zeno's paradoxes years older.
• Alaska boundary dispute Alaskan and Canadian • With high probability, some of these stars will have
claims to the Alaskan Panhandle differed greatly, Earth-like planets.* [2] Assuming the Earth is typ-
based on competing interpretations of the ambigu- ical, some of these planets may develop intelligent
ous phrase setting the border at“a line parallel to the life.
windings of the coast”, applied to the fjord-dense
region. • Some of these civilizations may develop interstellar
travel, a technology Earth is investigating even now
(such as the 100 Year Starship).
3.1.4 Notes
• Even at the slow pace of currently envisioned inter-
[1] Weisstein, Eric W., “Coastline Paradox”, MathWorld. stellar travel, the galaxy can be completely colonized
in a few tens of millions of years.
[2] Mandelbrot, Benoit (1983). The Fractal Geometry of Na-
ture. W.H. Freeman and Co. 25–33. ISBN 978-0-7167-
1186-5. According to this line of thinking, the Earth should al-
ready have been colonized, or at least visited. But Fermi
[3] Post & Eisen, p. 550. saw no convincing evidence of this, nor of signs of intel-
ligence (see Empirical resolution attempts) elsewhere in
[4] Heinz-Otto Peitgen, Hartmut Jürgens, Dietmar Saupe,
Chaos and Fractals: New Frontiers of Science; Spring, our galaxy or (to the extent it would be detectable) else-
2004; p. 424. where in the observable universe. Hence Fermi's ques-
tion, “Where is everybody?"* [3]
[5] Sebert, L.M., and M. R. Munro. 1972. Dimensions and
Areas of Maps of the National Topographic System of
Canada. Technical Report 72-1. Ottawa: Department 3.2.1 Overview
of Energy, Mines and Resources, Surveys and Mapping
Branch. The age of the universe and its vast number of stars
suggest that unless the Earth is very atypical, extrater-
Bibliography restrial life should be common.* [4] In an informal dis-
cussion in 1950, the physicist Enrico Fermi questioned
• Post, David G., and Michael Eisen. "How Long is why, if a multitude of advanced extraterrestrial civiliza-
the Coastline of Law? Thoughts on the Fractal Na- tions exists in the Milky Way galaxy, evidence such as
ture of Legal Systems". Journal of Legal Studies spacecraft or probes is not seen. A more detailed ex-
XXIX(1), January 2000. amination of the implications of the topic began with a
paper by Michael H. Hart in 1975,* [5] and it is some-
times referred to as the Fermi–Hart paradox.* [6] Other
3.1.5 External links common names for the same phenomenon are Fermi's
question (“Where are they?"), the Fermi Problem, the
• "Coastlines" at Fractal Geometry (ed. Michael Great Silence,* [7]* [8]* [9]* [10]* [11] and silentium uni-
Frame, Benoit Mandelbrot, and Nial Neger; main- versi* [11]* [12] (Latin for “silence of the universe”).
tained for Math 190a at Yale University) There have been attempts to resolve the Fermi paradox
• The Atlas of Canada – Coastline and Shoreline by locating evidence of extraterrestrial civilizations, along
with proposals that such life could exist without human
• NOAA GeoZone Blog on Digital Coast knowledge. Counterarguments suggest that intelligent
180 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

extraterrestrial life does not exist or occurs so rarely or

briefly that humans will never make contact with it.* [13]
Starting with Hart, a great deal of effort has gone into de-
veloping scientific hypotheses about, and possible models
of, extraterrestrial life, and the Fermi paradox has be-
come a theoretical reference point in much of this work.
The problem has spawned numerous scholarly works ad-
dressing it directly, while questions that relate to it have
been addressed in fields as diverse as astronomy, biol-
ogy, ecology, and philosophy. The emerging field of
astrobiology has brought an interdisciplinary approach to
the Fermi paradox and the question of extraterrestrial life.

3.2.2 Basis
The Fermi paradox is a conflict between an argument of
scale and probability and a lack of evidence. A more
complete definition could be stated thus:
The first aspect of the paradox, “the argument by scale”
, is a function of the raw numbers involved: there are an
estimated 200–400 billion* [14] (2–4 ×1011 ) stars in the
Milky Way and 70 sextillion (7×1022 ) in the visible uni-
verse.* [15] Even if intelligent life occurs on only a mi-
nuscule percentage of planets around these stars, there
might still be a great number of civilizations extant in the
Milky Way galaxy alone. This argument also assumes the
mediocrity principle, which is an argument from proba-
bility that we should not expect the Earth to be special,
but merely a typical planet, subject to the same laws, ef-
fects, and likely outcomes as any other world.
The second cornerstone of the Fermi paradox is a re-
joinder to the argument by scale: given intelligent life's
ability to overcome scarcity, and its tendency to colonize
new habitats, it seems likely that at least some civiliza-
tions would be technologically advanced, seek out new re-
sources in space and then colonize first their own star sys-
tem and subsequently the surrounding star systems. Since
there is no conclusive or certifiable evidence on Earth or
elsewhere in the known universe of other intelligent life
after 13.8 billion years of the universe's history, we have
the conflict requiring a resolution. Some examples of
possible resolutions are that intelligent life is rarer than
we think, that our assumptions about the general devel-
opment or behavior of intelligent species are flawed, or,
more radically, that our current scientific understanding
of the nature of the universe or reality itself is seriously
incomplete.
The Fermi paradox can be asked in two ways. The first is,
“Why are no aliens or their artifacts physically here?" If
interstellar travel is possible, even the“slow”kind nearly
within the reach of Earth technology, then it would only
A graphical representation of the Arecibo message – Humanity's take from 5 million to 50 million years to colonize the
first attempt to use radio waves to actively communicate its exis- galaxy.* [16] This is a relatively small amount of time on a
tence to alien civilizations geological scale, let alone a cosmological one. Since there
are many stars older than the Sun, or since intelligent life
might have evolved earlier elsewhere, the question then
 3.2. FERMI PARADOX 181

becomes why the galaxy has not been colonized already. galactic center.”Herbert York recollects that Fermi then
Even if colonization is impractical or undesirable to all made a series of rapid calculations using estimated fig-
alien civilizations, large-scale exploration of the galaxy is ures. (Fermi was known for his ability to make good es-
still possible using various means of exploration and the- timates from first principles and minimal data, see Fermi
oretical probes. However, no signs of either colonization problem.) York writes that Enrico Fermi “followed up
or exploration have been generally acknowledged. with a series of calculations on the probability of earth-
Travel times may well explain the lack of physical pres- like planets, the probability of life given an earth, the
ence on Earth of alien inhabitants of far away galaxies, probability of humans given life, the likely rise and du-
ration of high technology, and so on. He concluded on
but a sufficiently advanced civilization* [Note 1] could
potentially be observable over a significant fraction of the the basis of such calculations that we ought to have been
visited long ago and many times over.”If so, Fermi an-
size of the observable universe.* [17] Even if such civi-
lizations are rare, the scale argument indicates they should ticipated and pre-dated many of the elements that went
into the Drake equation.* [20]
exist somewhere at some point during the history of the
universe, and since they could be detected from far away
over a considerable period of time, many more potential Alternative names
sites for their origin are within range of our observation.
However, no incontrovertible signs of such civilizations Although Fermi's name is most commonly associated
have been detected. with the paradox, he was neither the first nor the last to
It is unclear whether the paradox is stronger for our galaxy ask the question.
or for the universe as a whole.* [Note 2] An earlier implicit mention was by Konstantin Tsi-
olkovsky in an unpublished manuscript from 1933.* [21]
He noted“people deny the presence of intelligent beings
3.2.3 Name on the planets of the universe”because "(i) if such beings
exist they would have visited Earth, and (ii) if such civil-
In 1950, while working at Los Alamos National Labora- isations existed then they would have given us some sign
tory, Fermi had a casual conversation while walking to of their existence.”This was not a paradox for others,
lunch with colleagues Emil Konopinski, Edward Teller who took this to imply the absence of ETs, but it was for
and Herbert York.* [18] The men discussed a recent spate him, since he himself was a strong believer in extrater-
of UFO reports and an Alan Dunn cartoon* [19] face- restrial life and the possibility of space travel. Therefore
tiously blaming the disappearance of municipal trash- he speculated that mankind is not yet ready for higher be-
cans on marauding aliens. They then had a more seri- ings to contact us.* [22] That Tsiolkovsky himself may not
ous discussion regarding the chances of humans observ- have been the first to discover the paradox is suggested by
ing faster-than-light travel by some material object within his above-mentioned reference to other people's reasons
the next ten years. Teller thinks Fermi directed the ques- for denying the existence of Extraterrestrial Civilisations
tion at him, asking “Edward, what do you think? How (ETCs).
probable is it that within the next ten years we shall have
clear evidence of a material object moving faster than In addition, others re-discovered the paradox after Fermi,
light?" Teller answered one in a million. Teller remem- but before it was popularized. In 2002, Stephen Webb
bers Fermi said, “This is much too low. The probability pointed out that “It has been independently discov-
is more like ten percent”[the probability of a 'Fermi mir- ered four times: it might more properly be called the
acle']. Konopinski did not remember the exact numbers Tsiolkovsky-Fermi-Viewing-Hart paradox.”* [23]
“except that they changed rapidly as Edward and Fermi
bounced arguments off each other.”* [20]
3.2.4 Drake equation
The conversation shifted to other subjects, until during
lunch Fermi suddenly exclaimed,“Where are they?" (al- Main article: Drake equation
ternatively, “Where is everybody?"). Teller remembers,
“The result of his question was general laughter because The theories and principles in the Drake equation are
of the strange fact that in spite of Fermi's question coming closely related to the Fermi paradox. The equation was
from the clear blue, everybody around the table seemed formulated by Frank Drake in 1961, a decade after the
to understand at once that he was talking about extrater- objections raised by Enrico Fermi, in an attempt to find
restrial life.”* [20] a systematic means to evaluate the numerous probabili-
Edward Teller further remembers, “I do not believe ties involved in the existence of alien life. The specula-
that much came of this conversation, except perhaps a tive equation factors in: the rate of star formation in the
statement that the distances to the next location of liv- galaxy; the fraction of stars with planets and the num-
ing beings may be very great and that, indeed, as far ber per star that are habitable; the fraction of those plan-
as our galaxy is concerned, we are living somewhere in ets which develop life, the fraction of intelligent life, and
the sticks, far removed from the metropolitan area of the the further fraction of detectable technological intelligent
182 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

life; and finally the length of time such civilizations are cannot be explained without positing an intelligent civi-
detectable. The fundamental problem is that the last four lization as the source. This has been suspected several
terms (fraction of planets with life, odds life becomes times. Pulsars, when first discovered, were called little
intelligent, odds intelligent life becomes detectable, and green men (LGM), because of the precise repetition of
detectable lifetime of civilizations) are completely un- their pulses (they rival the best atomic clocks). Likewise
known. We have only one example, rendering statistical Seyfert galaxies were suspected to be “industrial acci-
estimates impossible, and even the example we have is dents”* [28] because their enormous and directed energy
subject to a strong anthropic bias. output had no initial explanation. Eventually, natural ex-
planations not involving intelligent life have been found
A deeper objection is that the very form of the Drake
equation assumes that civilizations arise and then die out for all such observations to date,* [29] but the possibility
of discovery remains.* [30] Proposed examples include
within their original star systems. If interstellar colo-
nization is possible, then this assumption is invalid, and asteroid mining that would change the appearance of de-
bris disks around stars,* [31] spectral lines from nuclear
the equations of population dynamics would apply in-
stead.* [24] waste disposal in stars,* [32] or large-scale use of solar
power changing the light curve of planets measured near
The Drake equation has been used by both optimists and eclipse.* [33]
pessimists with wildly differing results. Carl Sagan, us-
ing optimistic numbers, suggested as many as one mil- The other way astronomy might settle the Fermi paradox
lion communicating civilizations in the Milky Way in is through a search specifically dedicated to finding evi-
1966, though he later suggested that the actual number dence of life.
could be far smaller. Frank Tipler and John D Barrow
used pessimistic numbers and concluded that the aver- Radio emissions
age number of civilizations in a galaxy is much less than
one.* [25]* [Note 3] Frank Drake himself has commented Further information: SETI, Project Ozma, Project Cy-
that the Drake equation is unlikely to settle the Fermi clops, Project Phoenix (SETI), SERENDIP and Allen
paradox; instead it is just a way of“organizing our igno- Telescope Array
rance”on the subject.* [26] Radio technology and the ability to construct a radio

3.2.5 Empirical resolution attempts

One obvious way to resolve the Fermi paradox would be

to find conclusive evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence.
Efforts to find such evidence have been made since 1960,
and several are ongoing.* [27] As human beings do not
possess interstellar travel capability, such searches are be-
ing remotely carried out at great distances and rely on
analysis of very subtle evidence. This limits possible
discoveries to civilizations which alter their environment
in a detectable way, or produce effects that are observ-
able at a distance, such as radio emissions. It is very
unlikely that non-technological civilizations will be de- Radio telescopes are often used by SETI projects
tectable from Earth in the near future.
One difficulty in searching is avoiding an overly telescope are presumed *
to be a natural advance for tech-
anthropocentric viewpoint. Conjecture on the type of ev- nological species, [34] theoretically creating effects that
idence likely to be found often focuses on the types of ac- might be detected over interstellar distances. Sensitive
tivities that humans have performed, or likely would per- observers of the Solar System, for example, would note
form given more advanced technology. Intelligent aliens unusually intense radio waves for a G2 star due to Earth's
might avoid these “expected”activities, or perform ac- television and telecommunication broadcasts. In the ab-
tivities dissimilar to those of humans. sence of an apparent natural cause, alien observers might
infer the existence of a terrestrial civilization. It should
be noted however that even much more sensitive radio
Mainstream astronomy and SETI telescopes than those currently available on Earth would
not be able to detect non-directional radio signals even
There are two ways that astronomy might find evidence at a fraction of a light year, so it is questionable whether
of an extraterrestrial civilization. One is that conven- any such signals *
could be detected by an extraterrestrial
tional astronomers, studying stars, planets, and galax- civilization. [35]
ies, might serendipitously observe some phenomenon that Therefore, the careful searching of radio emissions from
3.2. FERMI PARADOX 183

space for non-natural signals may lead to the detection claim to have done so was made in 2004* [38]); rather,
of alien civilizations. Such signals could be either “ac- their existence is usually inferred from the effects they
cidental”by-products of a civilization, or deliberate at- have on the stars they orbit. This means that usually only
tempts to communicate, such as the Communication with the mass and orbit of an exoplanet can be deduced. This
Extraterrestrial Intelligence's Arecibo message. A num- information, along with the stellar classification of its sun,
ber of astronomers and observatories have attempted and and educated guesses as to its composition (usually based
are attempting to detect such evidence, mostly through on the mass of the planet, and its distance from its sun),
the SETI organization, although other approaches, such allows only for rough approximations of the planetary en-
as optical SETI, also exist. vironment.
Several decades of SETI analysis have not revealed any
main sequence stars with unusually bright or meaning-
fully repetitive radio emissions, although there have been
several candidate signals. On August 15, 1977 the "Wow!
signal" was picked up by The Big Ear radio telescope.
However, the Big Ear only looked at each point on the sky
for 72 seconds, and re-examinations of the same spot have
found nothing. In 2003, Radio source SHGb02+14a was
isolated by SETI@home analysis, although it has largely
been discounted by further study. There are numerous
technical assumptions underlying SETI that may cause
human beings to miss radio emissions with present search
techniques; these are discussed below.

Direct planetary observation

Nearest terrestrial (“rocky”) exoplanets at a distance of up to 50

light-years from the Solar System: ---- - lying inside their star's
habitable zone

Prior to 2009, methods for exoplanet detection were not

likely to detect life-bearing Earth-like worlds. Methods
such as gravitational microlensing can detect the presence
of“small”worlds, potentially even smaller than the Earth,
but can only detect such worlds for very brief moments of
A composite picture of Earth at night, created with data from the
time, and no follow-up is possible. Other methods such
Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP) Operational
Linescan System (OLS). Large-scale artificial lighting as pro-
as radial velocity, astrometry, and the transit method al-
duced by the human civilization is detectable from space.* [36] low prolonged observations of exoplanet effects, but only
work with worlds that are many times the mass of Earth,
Detection and classification of exoplanets has come out at least when performed while looking through the atmo-
of recent refinements in mainstream astronomical instru- sphere. These seem unlikely candidates to harbor Earth-
ments and analysis. While this is a new field in astronomy like life. However, exoplanet detection and classifica-
—the first published paper claiming to have discovered an tion is a very active sub-discipline in astronomy, with 424
exoplanet was released in 1989—it is possible that plan- such planets being detected between 1988 and 2010,* [39]
ets which are likely able to support life will be found in and the first possibly terrestrial planet discovered within
the near future. a star's habitable zone being found in 2007.* [40] New
refinements in exoplanet detection methods, and use of
Direct evidence for the existence of life may eventually be existing methods from space, (such as the Kepler Mis-
observable, such as the detection of biotic signature gases sion, launched in 2009) are starting to (as of 2014) detect
(such as methane and oxygen)—or even the industrial air and characterize terrestrial-size planets, and determine if
pollution of a technologically advanced civilization—in they are within the habitable zones of their stars. Such ob-
an exoplanet's atmosphere by means of spectrographic servational refinements may allow us to better gauge how
analysis.* [37] With improvements in our observational common potentially habitable worlds are. Using meth-
capabilities, it may eventually even be possible to detect ods like the Drake equation with this data would there-
direct evidence such as that which humanity produces fore allow a much better idea of how common life in the
(see right). universe might be; this would have a profound influence
However, exoplanets are rarely directly observed (the first over the expectations behind the Fermi paradox itself.
184 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

Alien constructs Robert Freitas and Francisco Valdes.* [45] Many of the
projects that fall under this umbrella are considered
“fringe”science by astronomers and none of the projects
Probes, colonies, and other artifacts Further infor- has located any artifacts.
mation: Von Neumann probe and Bracewell probe
Should alien artifacts be discovered, even here on Earth,
they may not be recognizable as such. The products of
As noted, given the size and age of the universe, and an alien mind and an advanced alien technology might
the relative rapidity at which dispersion of intelligent life not be perceptible or recognizable as artificial constructs.
can in principle occur, evidence of alien colonization at- Exploratory devices in the form of bio-engineered life
tempts might plausibly be discovered. Evidence of explo- forms created through synthetic biology would presum-
ration not containing extraterrestrial life, such as probes ably disintegrate after a point, leaving no evidence; an
and information gathering devices, may also await discov- alien information gathering system based on molecular
ery. nanotechnology could be all around us at this very mo-
Some theoretical exploration techniques such as the Von ment, completely undetected. The same might be true
Neumann probe (a self-replicating device) could exhaus- of civilizations that actively hide their investigations from
tively explore a galaxy the size of the Milky Way in as us, for possible reasons described further in this article.
little as half a million years, with comparatively little in- Also, Clarke's third law suggests that an alien civilization
vestment in materials and energy relative to the results. If well in advance of humanity's might have means of inves-
even a single civilization in the Milky Way attempted this, tigation that are not yet conceivable to human beings.
such probes could spread throughout the entire galaxy.
Evidence of such probes might be found in the Solar Sys- Advanced stellar-scale artifacts Further informa-
tem—perhaps in the asteroid belt where raw materials tion: Dyson sphere, Kardashev scale, Alderson disk,
would be plentiful and easily accessed (not within a deep Matrioshka brain, Stellar engine
gravity well).* [41] In 1959, Freeman Dyson observed that every developing
Another possibility for contact with an alien probe—one
that would be trying to find human beings—is an alien
Bracewell probe. Such a device would be an autonomous
space probe whose purpose is to seek out and commu- Radius 1.5×10 m
nicate with alien civilizations (as opposed to Von Neu-
11

mann probes, which are usually described as purely ex-

ploratory). These were proposed as an alternative to car-
rying a slow speed-of-light dialogue between vastly dis-
tant neighbours. Rather than contending with the long
Sun
delays a radio dialogue would suffer, a probe housing an Venus
artificial intelligence would seek out an alien civilization Mercury
to carry on a close range communication with the discov-
ered civilization. The findings of such a probe would still
have to be transmitted to the home civilization at light
DYSON SPHERE
speed, but an information-gathering dialogue could be 3 m thickness
*
conducted in real time. [42]
Since the 1950s, direct exploration has been carried Infrared Radiation
out on a small fraction (Freitas* [43] estimates 10* −5 to
10* −11) of the Solar System and no evidence that it has
ever been visited by alien colonists, or probes, has been A variant of the speculative Dyson sphere. Such large scale arti-
discovered. Detailed exploration of areas of the Solar facts would drastically alter the spectrum of a star.
System where resources would be plentiful—such as the
asteroids,* [41] the Kuiper belt, the Oort cloud and the human civilization constantly increases its energy con-
planetary ring systems —may yet produce evidence of sumption, and, theoretically, a civilization of sufficient
alien exploration, though these regions are vast and dif- age would require all the energy produced by its star. The
ficult to investigate. There have been preliminary ef- Dyson Sphere was the thought experiment that he derived
forts in this direction in the form of the SETA (Search as a solution: a shell or cloud of objects enclosing a star to
for Extraterrestrial Artifacts) and SETV (Search for Ex- harness as much radiant energy as possible. Such a feat
traterrestrial Visitation) projects to search for extraterres- of astroengineering would drastically alter the observed
trial artifacts or other evidence of extraterrestrial visita- spectrum of the star involved, changing it at least partly
tion within the Solar System.* [44] There have also been from the normal emission lines of a natural stellar atmo-
attempts to signal, attract, or activate alleged Bracewell sphere to that of a black body radiation, probably with a
probes in Earth's local vicinity, including by scientists peak in the infrared. Dyson himself speculated that ad-
3.2. FERMI PARADOX 185

vanced alien civilizations might be detected by examin- No other civilizations have arisen See also: Rare
ing the spectra of stars and searching for such an altered Earth hypothesis
spectrum.* [46]
Since then, several other theoretical stellar-scale Those who believe that extraterrestrial intelligent life
megastructures have been proposed, but the central idea does not exist argue that the conditions needed for life—
remains that a highly advanced civilization—Type II or or at least complex life—to evolve are rare or even unique
greater on the Kardashev scale —could alter its envi- to Earth. This is known as the Rare Earth hypothesis,
ronment enough so as to be detectable from interstellar which attempts to resolve the Fermi paradox by reject-
distances.* [47]* [48] ing the mediocrity principle, and asserting that Earth is
However, such constructs may be more difficult to de- not typical, but unusual or even unique. While a unique
tect than originally thought. Dyson spheres might have Earth has historically been assumed on philosophical or
different emission spectra depending on the desired in- religious grounds, the Rare Earth Hypothesis uses quan-
ternal environment; life based on high-temperature reac- tifiable and statistical arguments to argue that multicellu-
tions may require a high temperature environment, with lar life is exceedingly rare in the universe because Earth-
resulting “waste radiation”in the visible spectrum, not like planets are themselves exceedingly rare or many im-
the infrared.* [49] Additionally, a variant of the Dyson probable coincidences have converged to make complex
sphere has been proposed which would be difficult to ob- life on Earth possible.* [53] It is possible that complex life
serve from any great distance; a Matrioshka brain is a se- may evolve through other mechanisms than those found
ries of concentric spheres, each radiating less energy per specifically here on Earth,* [53] but the fact that in the
area than its inner neighbour. The outermost sphere of history of life on the Earth only one species has devel-
such a structure could be close to the temperature of the oped a civilization to the point of being capable of space
interstellar background radiation, and thus be all but in- flight and radio technology lends more credence to the
visible. idea of technologically advanced civilizations being rare
in the universe.
There have been some preliminary attempts to find ev-
idence of the existence of Dyson spheres or other large For example, the emergence of intelligence may have
been an evolutionary accident. Geoffrey Miller proposes
Type-II or Type-III Kardashev scale artifacts that would
alter the spectra of their core stars.* [50]* [51] These sur-that human intelligence is the result of runaway sexual
selection, which takes unpredictable directions. Steven
veys have not located anything yet, though they are still
incomplete. Similarly, direct observation of thousands of Pinker, in his book How the Mind Works, cautions that
galaxies has shown no explicit evidence of artificial con- the idea that evolution of life (once it has reached a cer-
struction or modifications. tain minimum complexity) is bound to produce intelligent
beings relies on the fallacy of the “ladder of evolution":
Since evolution does not strive for a goal but just happens,
it uses the adaptation most useful for a given ecological
3.2.6 Explaining the paradox hypotheti- niche, and the fact that, on Earth, this led to technologi-
cally cal intelligence only once so far may suggest that this out-
come of natural selection is rare and hence by no means
Certain theoreticians accept that the apparent absence of a certain development of the evolution of a tree of life.
evidence implies the absence of extraterrestrials and at-
tempt to explain why. Others offer possible frameworks Another hypothesis along these lines is that, even if con-
in which the silence may be explained without ruling out ditions needed for life are common in the universe, the
the possibility of such life, including assumptions about initial abiogenesis on a potentially life-bearing planet –
extraterrestrial behaviour and technology. Each of these the formation of life itself – the existence of a complex
hypothesized explanations is essentially an argument for array of molecules that are simultaneously capable of re-
decreasing the value of one or more of the terms in the production, extraction of base components from the envi-
Drake equation. The arguments are not, in general, mu- ronment, and obtaining energy in a form that can be used
tually exclusive. For example, it could be both that life to maintain the reaction, might ultimately be very rare.
is rare and that technical civilizations are short lived, or Additionally, in the nondirectional meandering from ini-
many other combinations of the explanations below.* [52] tial life to humans, other low-probability happenings
may have been the transition from prokaryotic cells to
eukaryotic cells (with separate nucleus, organelles, spe-
Few, if any, other civilizations currently exist cialization, and a cytoskeleton allowing the cell to take on
various shapes) and the transition from single-cellular life
One explanation is that the human civilization is alone (or to multicellular life, which was recorded in the Cambrian
very nearly so) in the galaxy. Several theories along these Explosion of 530 million years ago when significant num-
lines have been proposed, explaining why intelligent life bers of organisms evolved hard body parts, although mul-
might be either very rare, or very short lived. Implications ticellular life perhaps first started to evolve a couple of
of these hypotheses are examined as the Great Filter.* [9]
186 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

hundred million years before that. Single celled life planet covered with water, where intelligent life takes the
emerged c. 3.5 billion years ago, and for most of Earth's form of creatures similar to dolphins, it may be difficult
history and for reasons not fully understood there have or impossible to discover fire or forge metals.
only been single-celled creatures. And even fundamental Another possibility is that Earth is the first planet in
conditions such as the chemical composition of the nurs- the Milky Way on which industrial civilization can
ery nebula from which a planetary system forms could arise.* [57] However, critics note that, according to cur-
have unusual or detrimental consequences for the emer- rent understanding, many Earth-like planets were created
gence and survival of life. many billions of years prior to Earth, so this explanation
And there are many other potential branching points. For requires repudiation of the mediocrity principle.* [58]
example, perhaps the transition from ocean creatures to Insofar as the Rare Earth Hypothesis privileges life on
land-dwelling creatures crucially depends on an unusually Earth and its process of formation, it is a variant of the
large moon. Many astronomers refer to our Earth-Moon anthropic principle. The variant of the anthropic princi-
pairing as a double planet. This ratio between parent and ple states the universe seems uniquely suited towards de-
satellite is rare in our planetary system. There is no ob- veloping human intelligence. This philosophical stance
servational data on the numbers of “double planets”in opposes not only the mediocrity principle, but also the
other planetary systems. The size of Earth's moon has wider Copernican principle, which suggests there is no
several consequences that could be advantageous to the privileged location in the universe.
development of life:
Opponents dismiss both Rare Earth and the anthropic
principle as tautological —if a condition must exist in
1. The obliquity of Earth's axis of rotation is 23.5°
the universe for human life to arise, then the universe
with ±1.5° variation over 41,000 years. Mars has an
must already meet that condition, as human life exists—
obliquity of 25° with ±10° variation over 100,000
and as an argument from incredulity or lack of imagina-
years, and calculations indicate over longer time
tion. According to this analysis, the Rare Earth hypothe-
periods, Mars' obliquity changes chaotically, per-
sis confuses a description of how life on Earth arose with
haps ranging from 0° to 60° over the last 10 mil-
a uniform conclusion of how life must arise.* [59] While
lion years. With no Moon to act as a stabilizing in-
the probability of the specific conditions on Earth being
fluence, Earth's obliquity might also wander chaoti-
widely replicated is low, we do not know what complex
cally.* [54]
life may require in order to evolve.* [60]* [61]
2. The distance of the moon relative to Earth results in
tides in the liquid ocean. During the Precambrian
period, the moon was closer, and therefore the tides It is the nature of intelligent life to destroy it-
stronger and longer. A longer tidal plain would allow self This is the argument that technological civiliza-
a bigger transitional plane for life to evolve from the tions may usually or invariably destroy themselves be-
ocean to land.* [55] fore or shortly after developing radio or space flight tech-
nology.* [1]* [62] Possible means of annihilation include
3. The presence of the moon itself is perhaps the re- nuclear war, biological warfare or accidental contami-
sult of an astronomical collision with Earth. The nation, climate change, nanotechnological catastrophe,
collision with an astronomical body may also be ill-advised physics experiments,* [Note 4] a badly pro-
the cause of Earth's molten iron core, which is the grammed super-intelligence, or a Malthusian catastro-
cause of the Van Allen radiation belts. The Van phe after the deterioration of a planet's ecosphere. This
Allen belts prevent the solar wind from removing the general theme is explored both in fiction and in main-
Earth's atmosphere, and atmosphere prevents cos- stream scientific hypothesizing.* [63] Indeed, there are
mic radiation from reaching the surface of Earth, probabilistic arguments which suggest that human extinc-
both of which are advantageous to the development tion may occur sooner rather than later. In 1966, Sagan
of life.* [56] Not only does an atmosphere allow for and Shklovskii speculated that technological civilizations
atmosphere developed biomes, but it also helps de- will either tend to destroy themselves within a century
flect or diffuse further bolide impacts on the surface. of developing interstellar communicative capability or
master their self-destructive tendencies and survive for
*
It is also possible that intelligence is common, but indus- billion-year timescales. [64] Self-annihilation may also
trial civilization is not. For example, the rise of indus- be viewed in terms of thermodynamics: insofar as life is
trialism on Earth was driven by the presence of conve- an ordered system that can sustain itself against the ten-
nient energy sources such as fossil fuels. If such energy dency to disorder, the “external transmission”or inter-
sources are rare or nonexistent elsewhere, then it may be stellar communicative phase may be the point *at which
far more difficult for an intelligent alien race to advance the system becomes unstable and self-destructs. [65]
technologically to the point where humans could commu- From a Darwinian perspective, self-destruction would
nicate with it. There may also be other unique factors on be an ironic outcome of evolutionary success. The
which our civilization is dependent. For example, in a evolutionary psychology that developed during the com-
 3.2. FERMI PARADOX 187

petition for scarce resources over the course of human civilization, assuring that any new civilizations will start
evolution has left the species subject to aggressive, in- off far away from preexisting ones.
stinctual drives. These compel humanity to consume re-
sources, extend longevity, and to reproduce—in part, the
very motives that led to the development of technolog- Life is periodically destroyed by naturally occurring
events On Earth, there have been numerous major
ical society. It seems likely that intelligent extraterres-
extinction events that destroyed the majority of complex
trial life would evolve in a similar fashion and thus face
species alive at the time. The extinction of the dinosaurs
the same possibility of self-destruction. And yet, to pro-
vide a good answer to Fermi's Question, self-destruction is the best known example. These are believed to be
caused by events such as impact from a large meteorite,
by technological species (or any sociological explanation)
would have to be a near universal occurrence. Otherwise, massive volcanic eruptions, or astronomical events such
as gamma ray bursts.* [70] It may be the case that such
the few civilizations to which it does not apply would col-
onize the galaxy. extinction events are common throughout the universe
and periodically destroy intelligent life (or at least destroy
This argument does not require the civilization to en-
their civilizations) before the species is able to develop the
tirely self-destruct, only to become once again non-
technology to communicate with other species.* [71]
technological. In other ways it could persist and even
thrive according to evolutionary standards, which pos-
tulate producing offspring as the sole goal of life—not Human beings were created alone Religious and
“progress”, be it in terms of technology or even intelli- philosophical speculation about extraterrestrial intelli-
gence.* [66] gent life long predates modern scientific inquiry into the
subject. Greek philosophers Leucippus, Democritus,
and Epicurus (5th and 4th centuries BC) suggested that
It is the nature of intelligent life to destroy others
there may be other inhabited worlds. Some religious
See also: Technological singularity and Von Neumann
thinkers, including the Jewish philosopher Rabbi Hasdai
probe
Crescas (c. 1340–1410/1411) and the Christian philoso-
pher Nicholas of Cusa (1401–1464), also put forward
Another possibility is that an intelligent species beyond a their views of the possibility of such extraterrestrial in-
certain point of technological capability will destroy other telligence.
intelligence as it appears, as is exemplified by the the-
On the other hand, philosophers such as Aristotle and
orised extermination of Neanderthals by early humans.
religious thinkers such as Thomas Aquinas claim that
The idea that something, or someone, is destroying in-
human beings are unique in the divine plan and coun-
telligent life in the universe has been well explored in
sel against belief in intelligent life on other worlds.* [72]
science fiction* [Note 5] and scientific literature.* [7] A
Aristotle believed the element of the heavens was Fire,
species might undertake such extermination out of expan-
as opposed to Earth, and so the heavens could not sup-
sionist motives, paranoia, or simple aggression. In 1981,
port life.* [73] Thomas Aquinas additionally believed the
cosmologist Edward Harrison argued that such behavior
uniqueness of God implied the uniqueness of Earth, and
would be an act of prudence: an intelligent species that
also notes the Bible refers to the world in the singu-
has overcome its own self-destructive tendencies might
lar.* [74]
view any other species bent on galactic expansion as a
kind of virus.* [67] It has also been suggested that a suc- Religious reasons for doubting the existence of extrater-
cessful alien species would be a superpredator, as is Homo restrial intelligent life resemble some forms of the Rare
sapiens.* [68] Earth Hypothesis. The argument here would be a
teleological form of the strong anthropic principle: the
This hypothesis requires at least one civilization to have
universe was designed for the express purpose of creat-
arisen in the past, and the first civilization would not have
ing human (and only human) intelligence.* [75] This ar-
faced this problem.* [69] However, it could still be that
gument presupposes that a prior advanced intelligence ex-
Earth is alone now. Like exploration, the extermina-
isted in order to create human life, which might pose the
tion of other civilizations might be carried out with self-
question whether that intelligence was the only one to ex-
replicating spacecraft. Under such a scenario,* [Note 5]
ist before it created us, but the perspective is a philosoph-
even if a civilization that created such machines were
ical and abstract one.
to disappear, the probes could outlive their creators, de-
stroying civilizations far into the future.
This scenario reduces the number of visible civilizations Inflation hypothesis and the youngness argument
in two ways, by destroying some civilizations, and by forc- Cosmologist Alan Guth proposed a multi-verse solution
ing others to remain quiet, under fear of discovery so we to the Fermi paradox. In this scenario, using the syn-
would see no signs of them, making their lack of interac- chronous gauge probability distribution, young universes
tion a choice. This may also make it impossible for life exceedingly outnumber older ones (by a factor of e* 1037
to evolve in regions of the universe close to a developed for every second of age). Therefore, averaged over all
 188 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

universes, universes with civilizations will almost always This is similar to the transmission of information from an-
have just one, the first to develop. However, Guth notes cient civilizations to the present,* [78] and humanity has
“Perhaps this argument explains why SETI has not found undertaken similar activities like the Arecibo message,
any signals from alien civilizations, but I find it more plau- which could transfer information about Earth's intelligent
sible that it is merely a symptom that the synchronous species, even if it never yields a response (or does not
gauge probability distribution is not the right one.”* [76] yield a response in time for humanity to receive it). It is
also possible that archaeological evidence of past civiliza-
tions may be detected through deep space observations—
They do exist, but we see no evidence especially if they left behind large artifacts such as Dyson
spheres.
It may be that technological extraterrestrial civilizations
The problem of distance is compounded by the fact that
exist but that human beings cannot communicate with
timescales affording a “window of opportunity”for de-
them because of constraints such as problems of scale or
tection or contact might be quite small. Advanced civ-
technology. Perhaps their nature is too alien for mean-
ilizations may periodically arise and fall throughout our
ingful communication or their methods of communica-
galaxy, but this may be such a rare event, relatively speak-
tion are too alien to even be recognized as technology.
ing, that the odds of two or more such civilizations exist-
Even on our own planet, there are immense differences
ing at the same time are low. There may have been in-
between a blue whale and a common ant. The differences
telligent civilizations in the galaxy before the emergence
may be even greater between human beings and members
of intelligence on Earth, and there may be intelligent civ-
of extraterrestrial civilizations. Perhaps, also, they may
not wish to communicate with us. ilizations after its extinction, but it is possible that hu-
man beings are the only intelligent civilization in exis-
tence now. The term“now”is somewhat complicated by
Communication is improbable due to problems of the finite speed of light and the nature of spacetime under
scale See also: Relativity of simultaneity relativity. Assuming that an extraterrestrial intelligence is
not able to travel to our vicinity at faster-than-light speeds,
in order to detect an intelligence 1,000 light-years dis-
tant, that intelligence will need to have been active 1,000
years ago. Strictly speaking, only the portions of the uni-
verse lying within the past light cone of Earth need be
considered, since any civilizations outside it could not be
detected. Another issue is the possibly very small length
of time (even in historical timescales) that a civilization
might be “loudly”broadcasting material that could be
reasonably detected (see below).
A related argument holds that other civilizations exist,
and are transmitting and exploring, but their signals and
probes simply have not arrived yet.* [79] However, critics
have noted that this is unlikely, since it requires that hu-
manity's advancement has occurred at a very special point
in time, while the Milky Way is in transition from empty
to full. This is a tiny fraction of the life of a galaxy un-
NASA's conception of the Terrestrial Planet Finder
der ordinary assumptions and calculations resulting from
them, so the likelihood that we're in the midst of this tran-
Intelligent civilizations are too far apart in space or sition is considered low in the paradox.* [80] Work on the
time It may be that non-colonizing technologically ca- theory of neocatastrophism, wherein galactic and even
pable alien civilizations exist, but that they are simply too super-galactic dynamics are seen as possibly frequently
far apart for meaningful two-way communication.* [77] If injurious to extant biospheres in a way that is roughly
two civilizations are separated by several thousand light analogous to the way geological and climatological catas-
years, it is very possible that one or both cultures may trophes have occasionally set back biological develop-
become extinct before meaningful dialogue can be estab- ments on Earth, might be given as a partial, if not full, res-
lished. Human searches may be able to detect their ex- olution to the paradox, as advanced species might well be
istence, but communication will remain impossible be- fragile to major events at a pace that would argue against
cause of distance. This problem might be ameliorated a short transition.
somewhat if contact/communication is made through a
Bracewell probe. In this case at least one partner in the
exchange may obtain meaningful information. Alterna- It is too expensive to spread physically throughout
tively, a civilization may simply broadcast its knowledge, the galaxy See also: Project Daedalus, Project Orion
and leave it to the receiver to make what they may of it. (nuclear propulsion) and Project Longshot
3.2. FERMI PARADOX 189

nomic incentives to travel out of a star system are inhib-

*
Many assumptions about the ability of an alien culture to ited. [83]
colonize other stars are based on the idea that interstellar
travel is technologically feasible. While the current un-
Human beings have not been searching long enough
derstanding of physics rules out the possibility of faster
Humanity's ability to detect and comprehend intelligent
than light travel, it appears that there are no major theo-
extraterrestrial life has existed for only a very brief period
retical barriers to the construction of “slow”interstellar
—from 1937 onwards, if the invention of the radio tele-
ships, even though the engineering required is consider-
scope is taken as the dividing line—and Homo sapiens is a
ably beyond present capabilities. This idea underlies the
geologically recent species. The whole period of modern
concept of the Von Neumann probe and the Bracewell
human existence to date (about 200,000 years) is a very
probe as evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence.
brief period on a cosmological scale, while radio trans-
It is possible, however, that present scientific knowledge missions have only been propagated since 1895. Thus
cannot properly gauge the feasibility and costs of such in- it remains possible that human beings have neither been
terstellar colonization. Theoretical barriers may not yet searching long enough to find other intelligences, nor
be understood and the cost of materials and energy for been in existence long enough to be found.
such ventures may be so high as to make it unlikely that
One million years ago there would have been no humans
any civilization could afford to attempt it. Even if in-
for any extraterrestrial emissaries to meet. For each fur-
terstellar travel and colonization are possible, they may
ther step back in time, there would have been increas-
be difficult, leading to a colonization model based on
* ingly fewer indications to such emissaries that intelligent
percolation theory. [81] Colonization efforts may not oc-
life would develop on Earth. In a large and already an-
cur as an unstoppable rush, but rather as an uneven ten-
cient universe, a space-faring alien species may well have
dency to“percolate”outwards, within an eventual slowing
had many other more promising worlds to visit and revisit.
and termination of the effort given the enormous costs in-
Even if alien emissaries visited in more recent times, they
volved and the fact that colonies will inevitably develop a
may have been interpreted by early human cultures as su-
culture and civilization of their own. Colonization may
pernatural entities.
thus occur in “clusters,”with large areas remaining un-
colonized at any one time. This hypothesis is more plausible if alien civilizations
tend to stagnate or die out, rather than expand. In addi-
A similar argument holds that interstellar physical travel
tion, “the probability of a site never being visited, even
may be possible, but is much more expensive than inter-
[with an] infinite time limit, is a non-zero value.”* [84]
stellar communication. Furthermore, to an advanced civ-
Thus, even if intelligent life expands elsewhere, it remains
ilization, travel itself may be replaced by communication,
* statistically possible that such extraterrestrial life might
through mind uploading and similar technologies. [82]
never discover Earth.
Therefore the first civilization may have physically ex-
plored or colonized the galaxy, but subsequent civiliza-
tions find it cheaper, faster, and easier to get information Communication is improbable for technical reasons
through contacting existing civilizations rather than phys- Radio wave communication may be realistically impossi-
ically exploring or traveling themselves. In this scenario, ble, as waves of the electromagnetic variety that we use
since there is little or no physical travel, and directed to communicate appear to be the fastest moving waves,
communications are hard to see except to the intended and the only kind that can move through a vacuum, but
receiver, there could be many technical and interacting would still take thousands of years or more to reach the
civilizations with few signs visible across interstellar dis- receiving end. Another possibility is that extraterrestrials
tances. may use a form of communication that our devices can't
Another economic argument is that although advanced detect, or simply are made not to.
virtual civilizations —possibly en route developmentally
to a Matrioshka Brain —could engage in travel to other
star systems, they choose not to. This is not due to Humans are not listening properly There are some
a lack of curiosity, but more through a set of energy- assumptions that underlie the SETI search programs that
information economic choices, whereby in an informa- may cause searchers to miss signals that are present. For
tion market predicated on available stellar energy and example, the radio searches to date would completely
planetary matter for building more computing capacity, miss highly compressed data streams (which would be al-
the most successful virtual intelligences have to remain most indistinguishable from "white noise" to anyone who
central to the star. Energy and proximity (and therefore did not understand the compression algorithm). Extrater-
wireless communication bandwidth and speed) are much restrials might also use frequencies that scientists have de-
greater closer to the matter and energy sources of the star, cided are unlikely to carry signals, or do not penetrate our
and larger planets, and so to be successful requires focus atmosphere (e.g., gamma rays), or use modulation strate-
on their home planetary system. In this scenario, eco- gies that are not being looked for. The signals might be at
a data rate that is too fast for our electronics to handle, or
 190 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

too slow to be recognized as attempts at communication. directional) antennas for long-distance transmission is
“Simple”broadcast techniques might be employed, but wasteful of spectrum, yet this “waste”is precisely what
sent from non-main sequence stars which are searched makes these systems conspicuous at interstellar distances.
with lower priority; current programs assume that most Humans are moving to directional or guided transmission
alien life will be orbiting Sun-like stars.* [85] channels such as electrical cables, optical fibers, narrow-
The greatest problem is the sheer size of the radio search beam microwave and lasers, and conventional radio with
needed to look for signals (effectively spanning the en- non-directional antennas is increasingly reserved for low-
tire visible universe), the limited amount of resources power, short-range applications such as cell phones and
Wi-Fi networks. These signals are far less detectable
committed to SETI, and the sensitivity of modern instru-
ments. SETI estimates, for instance, that with a radio from space. Analog television, developed in the mid-20th
century, contains strong carriers to aid reception and de-
telescope as sensitive as the Arecibo Observatory, Earth's
television and radio broadcasts would only be detectable modulation. Carriers are spectral lines that are very easily
detected yet do not convey any information beyond their
at distances up to 0.3 light years.* [86] Clearly detecting
an Earth type civilization at great distances is difficult. A highly artificial nature. Nearly every SETI project is look-
ing for carriers for just this reason, and UHF TV carriers
signal is much easier to detect if the signal energy is lim-
ited to either a narrow range of frequencies (narrowband are the most conspicuous and artificial signals from Earth
transmissions), or directed at a specific part of the sky. that could be detected at interstellar distances. But ad-
Such signals can be detected at ranges of hundreds to tens vances in technology are replacing analog TV with digital
of thousands of light-years distance.* [87] However this television which uses spectrum more efficiently by elimi-
means that detectors must be listening to an appropri- nating or reducing components such as carriers that make
ate range of frequencies, and be in that region of space them so conspicuous. Using our own experience as an ex-
to which the beam is being sent. Many SETI searches, ample, we could set the date of radio-visibility for Earth
starting with the venerable Project Cyclops, go so far as as December 12, 1901, when Guglielmo Marconi sent
to assume that extraterrestrial civilizations will be broad- radio signals from Cornwall, England, to Newfoundland,
casting a deliberate signal (like the Arecibo message), in Canada.* [89] Visibility is now ending, or at least becom-
order to be found. ing orders of magnitude more difficult, as analog TV is
being phased out. And so, if our experience is typical,
Thus to detect alien civilizations through their radio emis- a civilization remains radio-visible for approximately a
sions, Earth observers either need more sensitive instru- hundred years. So a civilization may have been very vis-
ments or must hope for fortunate circumstances: that the ible from 1325 to 1483, but we were just not listening at
broadband radio emissions of alien radio technology are that time. This is essentially the solution, “Everyone is
much stronger than our own (e.g., gamma-ray bursts); listening, no one is sending.”
that one of SETI's programs is listening to the correct fre-
quencies from the right regions of space; or that aliens are More hypothetically, advanced alien civilizations evolve
beyond broadcasting at all in the electromagnetic spec-
sending focused transmissions such as the Arecibo mes-
sage in our general direction. trum and communicate by principles of physics we don't
yet understand. Some scientists have hypothesized that
advanced civilizations may send neutrino signals.* [90] If
Aliens aren't monitoring Earth because Earth is not such signals exist they could be detectable by neutrino
superhabitable The Milky Way contains billions of detectors that are now under construction.* [91] If stable
worlds that may support life. Listening for radio signals wormholes could be created and used for communica-
from all planets may be too complex, or may require too tions then interstellar broadcasts would become largely
many separate telescopes and monitoring devices. If that redundant. Thus it may be that other civilizations would
is the case, aliens may focus on superhabitable* [88] plan- only be detectable for a relatively short period of time
ets, and ignore marginally habitable planets such as the between the discovery of radio and the switch to more
Earth. efficient technologies.
One counter to this argument is that although broad-
Civilizations broadcast detectable radio signals only cast communication may become difficult to detect, other
for a brief period of time It may be that alien civiliza- uses for radio such as radar and power transmission can-
tions are detectable through their radio emissions for only not be replaced by low power technologies or fiber optics.
a short time, reducing the likelihood of spotting them. These will potentially remain visible even after broadcast
There are two possibilities in this regard: civilizations emission are replaced by less observable technology.* [92]
outgrow radio through technological advance or, con- A different argument is that resource depletion will soon
versely, resource depletion cuts short the time in which result in a decline in technological capability. Human civ-
a species broadcasts. ilization has been capable of interstellar radio communi-
The first idea, that civilizations advance beyond radio, cation for only a few decades and is already rapidly deplet-
is based in part on the "fiber optic objection": the use ing fossil fuels and confronting possible problems such as
of high power radio with low-to-medium gain (i.e., non- peak oil. It may only be a few more decades before en-
3.2. FERMI PARADOX 191

ergy becomes too expensive, and the necessary electron- replicating probes or broadcasting messages prior to tran-
ics and computers too difficult to manufacture, for us to scension might emerge if such one-way messaging would
continue the search. If the same conditions regarding en- provably reduce the evolutionary diversity of all civiliza-
ergy supplies hold true for other civilizations, then radiotions receiving the messages, as they would no longer
technology may be a short-lived phenomenon. Unless two transcend in their own unique way. Smart proposes tests
civilizations happen to be near each other and develop the of the hypothesis via future high-sensitivity radio and op-
ability to communicate at the same time it would be vir- tical SETI searches, including regular ending of passive
tually impossible for any one civilization to “talk”to EM signals from Earth-like planets once they reach their
another. technological singularities, and later optical transition of
*
Critics of the resource depletion argument point out that these planets to black-hole-like objects. [94]
alternate energy sources exist, such as solar power, which
are renewable and have enormous potential relative to They are too busy online It may be that intelligent
technical barriers.* [93] For depletion of fossil fuels to alien life forms cause their own“increasing disinterest”in
end the “technological phase”of a civilization, some the outside world.* [95] Perhaps any sufficiently advanced
form of technological regression would have to invari- society will develop highly engaging media and entertain-
ably occur, preventing the exploitation of renewable en- ment well before the capacity for advanced space travel,
ergy sources. and that the rate of appeal of these social contrivances is
destined, because of their inherent reduced complexity,
to overtake any desire for complex, expensive endeavors
They tend to experience a technological singularity such as space exploration and communication. Once any
See also: Sentience Quotient and Matrioshka brain sufficiently advanced civilization becomes able to master
its environment, and most of its physical needs are met
Another possibility is that technological civilizations in- through technology, various “social and entertainment
variably experience a technological singularity and attain technologies”, including virtual reality, are postulated to
a posthuman (or more properly, post-biological) charac- become the primary drivers and motivations of that civi-
ter. Hypothetical civilizations of this sort may have ad- lization.* [96]
vanced drastically enough to render communication im-
possible. The intelligences of a post-singularity civiliza-
tion might require more information exchange than is They are too alien Another possibility is that human
possible through interstellar communication, for exam- theoreticians have underestimated how much alien life
ple. Or perhaps any information humanity might pro- might differ from that on Earth. Aliens may be psycho-
vide would appear elementary, and thus they do not try logically unwilling to attempt to communicate with hu-
to communicate, any more than human beings attempt to man beings. Perhaps human mathematics is parochial to
talk to ants—even though we do ascribe a form of intel- Earth and not shared by other life,* [97] though others ar-
ligence to them. For example, a superintelligent civiliza- gue this can only apply to abstract math since the math
tion might consist of an advanced megastructure such as associated with physics must be similar (in results, if not
a Matrioshka brain or a black hole and communicate us- in methods.)* [98]
ing neutrinos or by gamma-ray bursts at bandwidths that Physiology might also cause a communication barrier.
exceed our receiving capabilities. In Contact, Carl Sagan briefly speculated that an alien
Even more extreme forms of post-singularity have been species might have a thought process orders of magnitude
suggested, particularly in fiction: beings that divest them- slower (or faster) than humans. Such a species could con-
selves of physical form, create massive artificial virtual ceivably speak so slowly that it requires years to say even a
environments, transfer themselves into these environ- simple phrase like“Hello”. A message broadcast by that
ments through mind uploading, and exist totally within species might well seem like random background noise to
virtual worlds, ignoring the external physical universe. humans, and therefore go undetected.
Surprisingly early treatments, such as Lewis Padgett's
short story Mimsy were the Borogoves (1943), suggest a They are non-technological It may be that at least
migration of advanced beings out of the presently known some civilizations of intelligent beings are not technolog-
physical universe into a different and presumably more ical, perhaps because it is difficult in their environment,
agreeable alternative one. or because they choose not to, or for other reasons yet un-
The transcension hypothesis of singularity scholar John known. Such civilizations would be very hard for humans
Smart proposes that the evolutionary development of to detect.* [99] While there are remote sensing techniques
accelerating change may require complex systems to in- which could perhaps detect life-bearing planets without
habit increasingly local domains of space and time, lead- relying on the signs of technology,* [100]* [101] none of
ing post-singularity civilizations to black-hole-like do- them has any ability to tell if any detected life is intelli-
mains, and nonlocal access to other universal intelli- gent. Not even any theoretical methods for doing so have
gence. A powerful ethical injunction against sending self- been proposed, short of an actual physical visit by an as-
 192 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

tronaut or probe. This is sometimes referred to as the

“algae vs. alumnae”problem.* [99]

The evidence is being suppressed It is theoretically

possible that SETI groups are not reporting positive de-
tections, or governments have been blocking extrater-
restrial signals or suppressing publication of detections.
This response might be attributed to National Security
and Trade Interests from the potential use of advanced
extraterrestrial technology or weapons. It has been sug-
gested that the detection of an extraterrestrial radio sig-
nal or technology could well be the most highly classi-
fied military information that exists.* [102] Claims that
this has already happened are common in the popular
press,* [103]* [104] but the scientists involved report the
opposite experience – the press becomes informed and
interested in a potential detection even before a signal can
be confirmed.* [105] Another issue is the diverse number Schematic representation of a planetarium simulating the uni-
of organisations and governments involved in science ac- verse to humans. The "real" universe is outside the black sphere,
tivities that might chance upon detections, of which SETI the simulated one projected on/filtered through it.
forms only a small part. Numerous conspiracy theories
have been proposed, including the possibility of extrater-
restrial life at Area 51. respect to alien life. In a Universe without a hegemonic
power, random civilizations with independent principles
would, in all likelihood, make contact. This makes a
They choose not to interact with us In these scenar- crowded Universe with clearly defined rules seem more
ios, alien civilizations exist that are technically capable plausible.
of contacting Earth, but explicitly choose not to do so.
This is the official position of the Earth today; we lis- This theory may break down under the uniformity of mo-
ten (SETI), but except for a few small efforts, do not tive flaw: all it takes is a single culture or civilization to
explicitly transmit. Of course if all, or even most, civi- decide to act contrary to the imperative within our range
lizations act the same way, the galaxy could be full of civ- of detection for it to be abrogated, and the probability of
ilizations eager for contact, but everyone is listening and such *a violation increases with the number of civiliza-
no one is transmitting. This is the so-called SETI Para- tions. [16] However, perhaps a sufficiently technologi-
dox.* [106] cally and socially advanced civilization would be capable
of enforcing rules.
T. W. Hair* [110] has done Monte Carlo analysis of
They don't agree among themselves Official policy the inter-arrival times between civilizations in the galaxy
within SETI community* [107] is that "[no] response to based on common astrobiological assumptions that sug-
a signal or other evidence of extraterrestrial intelligence gest that since the initial civilization would have such
should be sent until appropriate international consulta- a commanding lead over the later arrivals, it may have
tions have taken place.”However, given the possible im- established what we call zoo hypothesis as a galac-
pact of any reply* [108] it may be very difficult to obtain tic/universal norm and the resultant“paradox”by a cul-
any consensus on “Who speaks for Earth?" and “What tural founder effect with or without the continued activity
should we say?" Other civilizations might suffer from this of the founder.
same lack of consensus, and therefore send no messages
at all. In the fictional works of Star Trek, the Prime Directive
prohibits contact with a species until they develop inter-
stellar travel technology in order to minimize influencing
Earth is deliberately not contacted (the zoo hypothe- their cultural development.
sis) Main article: Zoo hypothesis

The zoo hypothesis states that superintelligent extrater- Earth is purposely isolated (planetarium hypothesis)
restrial life exists and does not contact life on Earth to Main article: Planetarium hypothesis
allow for its natural evolution and development.* [109]
These ideas are perhaps most plausible if there is a rela- A related idea is that, beyond a certain distance, the per-
tively universal cultural or legal policy among a plurality ceived universe is a simulated reality. The planetarium
of extraterrestrial civilizations necessitating isolation with hypothesis* [111] holds that beings may have created this
3.2. FERMI PARADOX 193

simulation so that the universe appears to be empty of within the context of a wave of UFO reports, yet Fermi,
other life. Teller, York and Konopinski apparently dismissed the
possibility that flying saucers might be extraterrestrial –
despite then-contemporary US Air Force investigations
It is dangerous to communicate An alien civilization that judged a small portion of UFO reports as inexpli-
might feel it is too dangerous to communicate, either for cable by contemporary technology. Mainstream scien-
us or for them. After all, when very different civilizations tific publications have occasionally addressed the pos-
have met on Earth, the results have often been disastrous sibility of extraterrestrial contact,* [118] but the scien-
for one side or the other, and the same may well apply tific community in general has given little serious atten-
to interstellar contact.* [112] Even contact at a safe dis- tion to claims of unidentified flying objects or to the
tance could lead to infection by computer code* [113] or extraterrestrial hypothesis. Given that UFO investiga-
even ideas themselves* [114] (see meme). Perhaps pru- tors argue compelling evidence supports the reality of
dent civilizations actively hide not only from us but from UFOs as anomalies, but that extant UFO evidence does
everyone, out of fear of other civilizations.* [115] not support an extraterrestrial origin, it is suggested that
closer examination of UFO data may support or falsify
the Fermi paradox or the extraterrestrial hypothesis of
The Fermi paradox itself is what prevents communi-
UFO origins: “Any refusal of interest [by mainstream
cation Perhaps the Fermi paradox itself—or the alien
scientists] in investigating the UFO phenomenon, using
equivalent of it—is the ultimate reason for any civiliza-
an ETI [extraterrestrial intelligence] concept as one work-
tion to avoid contact with other civilizations, even if no
ing hypothesis, should surely be astonishing.”* [119] Oth-
other obstacles existed. From any one civilization's point
ers however argue that the lack of solid photographic
of view, it would be unlikely for them to be the first ones
evidence, despite billions of cell-phone, dashboard, and
to make first contact. Therefore it is likely that previous
surveillance cameras, indicates that pursuing UFO re-
civilizations faced fatal problems with first contact. So
ports is unlikely to be fruitful.* [120]
perhaps every civilization keeps quiet because of the pos-
sibility that there is a real reason for others to do so.* [7] This extraterrestrial hypothesis was jokingly suggested in
response to Fermi's paradox by his fellow physicist, the
Hungarian Leó Szilárd, who suggested to Fermi that ex-
They are here unobserved It may be that intelligent traterrestrials“are already among us—but they call them-
alien life forms not only exist, but are already present selves Hungarians",* [121]* [122] a humorous reference
here on Earth. They are not detected because they do to the peculiar Hungarian language, unrelated to most
not wish it, human beings are technically unable to, or other languages spoken in Europe.* [121]* [Note 6]
because societies refuse to admit to the evidence.* [116]
A more serious view than Szilard's joke suggests that
Several variations of this idea have been proposed:
the aliens may already be here because we may all be
Carl Sagan and Iosif Shklovsky* [117] argued for seri- aliens who arrived here long ago as microbes from outer
ous consideration of "paleocontact" with extraterrestrials space, from whom all life on Earth may be descended,
in the early historical era, and for examination of myths as a result of theories such as Svante Arrhenius's theory
and religious lore for evidence of such contact. Sagan of panspermia, and Francis Crick's Directed panspermia
and Shklovsky noted that many or most religions were speculation, as well as speculations that the discovery of
founded by men who claimed contact with supernatural Martian meteorites on Earth may mean that we all ulti-
entities who bestowed wisdom, guidance and technology, mately arrived here long ago as microbes from Mars (a
citing the fish-god Oannes as a particularly salient exam- process known as Lithopanspermia). However that would
ple. still leave the question of why advanced non-microbial
It is possible that a life form technologically advanced aliens haven't arrived here more recently.
enough to travel to Earth might also be sufficiently ad-
vanced to exist here undetected. In this view, the aliens
have arrived on Earth, or in our solar system, and are ob- Civilizations are wiped out by a Celestial Being be-
serving the planet, while concealing their presence. Ob- fore they become advanced enough to detect Many
servation could conceivably be conducted in a number of religions have as a core tenet an end-of-world scenario—
ways that would be very difficult to detect. For exam- a belief that the existence of mankind on earth is finite in
ple, a complex system of microscopic monitoring devices its duration, either because of a great coming battle that
constructed via molecular nanotechnology could be de- will arise between the forces of good and evil, or because
ployed on Earth and remain undetected, or sophisticated a god-figure will take the righteous from the earth and
instruments could conduct passive monitoring from else- destroy the world.
where while concealing themselves with stealth technolo-
Mormon cosmology in particular teaches that many
gies that need not be much more advanced than current
planets in the universe were created to house mortal
terrestrial ones. life,* [123] and that this earth is currently in just one of
UFO researchers note that the Fermi Paradox arose many stages of existence, as are the souls of mankind.
194 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

Mormonism also teaches that the earth lives out a mortal • "The Fermi Paradox Is Our Business Model"
life, just as the human body, and that it will die, or its exis- (August 11, 2010) by Charlie Jane Anders
tence will have an end.* [124] Furthermore, Mormonism •“Fermi's Urbex Paradox”by TerraHerz, pub-
teaches that the end of this earth will coincide with one lished online* [131]
part mankind progressing (individually and collectively)
towards becoming like God, becoming exalted to a higher • The Safehold series by David Weber postu-
realm, and the remainder of mankind (those who do lates that the reason for the Fermi Paradox is
not “abide by the higher law”) not progressing on to a xenophobic race that declares war on any
*
the next higher level of glory. [125] Mormonism teaches species that becomes sufficiently advanced.
that the righteous will progress to this next higher level
of existence, inheriting resurrected bodies of a level of Film
glory commensurate with that higher plane, and the most
valiant will go on to create worlds of their own, popu- • The Fermi Paradox* [132]
*
lating them with their own progeny. [126] However, we
have neither the tools nor the ability to visit* [127] nor
observe* [125] the higher glories. Music

Under this Mormon cosmological model, if earth's path • Fermi Paradox (2002), album by Tub Ring
of progression is typical of that of other worlds, then the
inhabitants of any given planet may reach radio capabil- •“The Fermi Paradox: a Song”by Hank Green, on
ity around the time of, or shortly before, the end of that YouTube* [133]
world's mortal (telestial) existence, leaving very little or
no radio footprint, and beings from the next stage of exis-
tence (terrestrial or celestial) would not be able to be de- 3.2.8 See also
tected from this mortal plane. Nevertheless, the default
• Anthropic principle
view in Mormon cosmology is that life is ubiquitous in the
universe, and should be able to be discovered by the tools • Drake equation
of modern astronomy—the whole purpose of the exis-
tence of other star systems and planets is that worlds may • Extraterrestrial hypothesis
be inhabited by Heavenly Father's children on their own
• Fermi problem
path to becoming like him,* [128] and there's no theolog-
ical reason why knowledge of their existence would be • Interstellar travel
withheld from humanity when their existence was already
made known in scripture* [129] long before the tools of • Rare earth hypothesis
astronomy were available to test this hypothesis. • Zoo hypothesis

3.2.7 In science fiction and other media 3.2.9 Notes

Many, perhaps most, of the serious explanations for the [1] The Soviet astronomer Nikolai Kardashev has stated that
Fermi Paradox have appeared in science fiction literature, an alien civilization on Kardashev scale of 3 could send
along with many that are not so serious. Less commonly signals up to 10 billion light years.
the Fermi Paradox appears in other media. Examples in- [2] Let N (r) be the number of civilizations (per unit volume)
clude: that can be seen at a radius r . Let Rg be the radius of the
galaxy. So the number of civilizations we see is:
∫ Rg ∫ ∞
Literature N (r)4πr2 dr + N (r)4πr2 dr,
0 Rg
• Books
where the first integral are those in the galaxy, and the
second those outside. Which integral is bigger depends
• Manifold: Space (2000) by Stephen Baxter and
on how fast N(r) decreases, which is completely unknown.
the other books in this series This observation is due to Kardashev.
• Existence (2012) by David Brin* [130]
[3] Note that, even though there is at least one civilization in
our galaxy (namely our own), the average or“most likely”
• Quarantine by Greg Egan.
number of civilizations in our galaxy as described by this
equation may still be smaller than one. In other words,
• Short stories the fact that there is at least one civilization in our galaxy
does not mean that this was a likely outcome. This is an
• "Fermi and Frost" (1985) by Frederik Pohl example of anthropic bias. No civilization can use itself to
3.2. FERMI PARADOX 195

estimate the average number of civilizations in a galaxy, [10] Bostrom, Nick (2007). “In Great Silence there is Great
since if there was not at least one civilization the question Hope”. Retrieved 2010-09-06.
could not arise. The Drake equation computes only the
long-term average number of civilizations; even if the av- [11] Milan M. Ćirković (2009). “Fermi's Paradox
erage number of civilizations per galaxy is less than one, – The Last Challenge for Copernicanism?". Ser-
there could be more than one in any given galaxy at any bian Astronomical Journal 178 (178): 1–20.
given time. arXiv:0907.3432. Bibcode:2009SerAJ.178....1C.
doi:10.2298/SAJ0978001C.
[4] An example of fears of civilization-destroying physics ex-
periments. This particular fear (particle colliders creat- [12] Lem, Stanisław (1983). His Master's Voice. Harvest
ing black holes, destroying the false vacuum, etc.) is Books. ISBN 0-15-640300-5.
discounted among scientists, since cosmic rays of much
[13] Urban, Tim (June 17, 2014). “The Fermi Paradox”.
higher energy have been striking the Earth and Moon for
Huffington Post. Retrieved January 6, 2015.
eons. (NYT article, Technical report).
[14] “NASA – Galaxy”. Nasa.gov. November 29, 2007.
[5] See, for example, Berserker (Saberhagen), The Heechee
Retrieved August 19, 2010.
Saga (Pohl), Revelation Space (Reynolds)
[15] Craig, Andrew (July 22, 2003). “Astronomers count the
[6] See, for example, George Marx's 1995 lecture, "Conflicts
stars”. BBC News (BBC). Retrieved April 8, 2010.
and Creativity – The Hungarian Lesson", which was based
on his 1994 book, The Voice of the Martians, Roland [16] Crawford, I.A., “Where are They? Maybe we are alone
Eötvös Physical Society ISBN 963-05-7427-6, and his ar- in the galaxy after all”, Scientific American, July 2000,
ticle Marx, George (1996). “The myth of the martians 38–43, (2000).
and the golden age of Hungarian science”. Science &
Education 5 (3): 225. Bibcode:1996Sc&Ed...5..225M. [17] Shklovskii & Sagan 1966, p. 364
doi:10.1007/BF00414313.
[18] Shostak, Seth (October 25, 2001). “Our Galaxy Should
Be Teeming With Civilizations, But Where Are They?".
3.2.10 References Space.com. Space.com. Archived from the original on
April 15, 2006. Retrieved October 14, 2014.
[1] Krauthammer, Charles (December 29, 2011). “Are we [19] Dunne, Alan (1950). “Uncaptioned cartoon”. New
alone in the universe?". The Washington Post. Retrieved Yorker, 20 May 1950. Retrieved August 19, 2010.
January 6, 2015.
[20] Jones, Eric“Where is everybody?", An account of Fermi's
[2] Schilling, Govert (June 13, 2012). “ScienceShot: Alien question”, Los Alamos Technical report LA-10311-MS,
Earths Have Been Around for a While”. Science. Re- March, 1985.
trieved January 6, 2015.
[21] Tsiolkovsky, K, 1933, The Planets are Occupied by Living
[3] Jones, E. M. (March 1, 1985). ""Where is everybody?" Beings, Archives of the Tsiolkovsky State Museum of the
An account of Fermi's question"". Los Alamos National History of Cosmonautics, Kaluga, Russia.
Laboratory (LANL), United States Department of En-
ergy. Retrieved January 12, 2013. [22] Lytkin, V., Finney, B., & Alepko, L.; Finney;
Alepko (Dec 1995). “Tsiolkovsky - Russian Cos-
[4] Sagan, Carl Cosmos, Random House 2002 ISBN 0-375- mism and Extraterrestrial Intelligence”. Quarterly Jour-
50832-5 nal of the Royal Astronomical Society 36 (4): 369.
Bibcode:1995QJRAS..36..369L.
[5] Hart, Michael H. (1975). “Explanation for the Ab-
sence of Extraterrestrials on Earth”. Quarterly Jour- [23] Webb (2002), pp22-23
nal of the Royal Astronomical Society 16: 128–135.
Bibcode:1975QJRAS..16..128H. [24] Cohen, Jack and Stewart, Ian (2002). Evolving the Alien.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc., Hoboken, NJ. ISBN 0-09-
[6] Wesson, Paul (1990). “Cosmology, extraterrestrial in- 187927-2. Chapter 6, What does a Martian look like?.
telligence, and a resolution of the Fermi-Hart paradox”.
Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 31: [25] Barrow, John D.; Tipler, Frank J. (1988). The Anthropic
161–170. Bibcode:1990QJRAS..31..161W. Cosmological Principle. Oxford University Press. p. 588.
ISBN 978-0-19-282147-8. LCCN 87028148.
[7] Brin, Glen David (1983). “The 'Great Silence': The
Controversy Concerning Extraterrestrial Intelligent Life” [26] Gowdy, Robert H., VCU Department of Physics SETI:
. Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 24: Search for ExtraTerrestrial Intelligence. The Interstellar
283–309. Bibcode:1983QJRAS..24..283B. Distance Problem, 2008

[8] James Annis (1999). “An Astrophysical Explanation for [27] See, for example, the SETI Institute, The Harvard SETI
the Great Silence”. arXiv:9901322 [astro-ph]. Home Page, or The Search for Extra Terrestrial Intelli-
gence at Berkeley
[9] Hanson, Robin (1998). “The Great Filter – Are We Al-
most Past It?". [28] Schmidt, Stanley (1976). Sins of Our Fathers. Berkeley.
196 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

[29] Pulsars are now attributed to neutron stars, and Seyfert [44] “SETV projects”. Setv.org. February 21, 2009. Re-
galaxies to an end-on view of the accretion onto the black trieved August 19, 2010.
holes.
[45] Freitas, Robert A, Jr; Valdes, F (1985). “The search
[30] “NASA/CP2007-214567: Workshop Report on the Fu- for extraterrestrial artifacts (SETA)". Acta Astronau-
ture of Intelligence In The Cosmos”. NASA. tica 12 (12): 1027. Bibcode:1985AcAau..12.1027F.
[31] Duncan Forgan, Martin Elvis; Elvis (28 March doi:10.1016/0094-5765(85)90031-1. Retrieved August
2011). “Extrasolar Asteroid Mining as Forensic 19, 2010.
Evidence for Extraterrestrial Intelligence”. In-
[46] Dyson, Freeman J. (1960). “Search for Artificial
ternational Journal of Astrobiology 10 (4): 307.
Stellar Sources of Infra-Red Radiation”. Science 131
arXiv:1103.5369. Bibcode:2011IJAsB..10..307F.
(3414): 1667–1668. Bibcode:1960Sci...131.1667D.
doi:10.1017/S1473550411000127.
doi:10.1126/science.131.3414.1667. PMID 17780673.
[32] Whitmire, Daniel P., and David P. Wright. (1980).
“Nuclear waste spectrum as evidence of technological ex- [47] Wright, J. T.; Mullan, B.; Sigurðsson, S.; Povich, M. S.
traterrestrial civilizations”. Icarus 42.1. pp. 149–156. (2014). “The Ĝ Infrared Search for Extraterrestrial Civ-
doi:10.1016/0019-1035(80)90253-5. ilizations with Large Energy Supplies. I. Background and
Justification”. arXiv:1408.1133 [physics.pop-ph].
[33] L. K. Scheffer (2010). Large Scale Use of Solar Power
May be Visible Across Interstellar Distances. Astrobiology [48] Wright, J. T.; Griffith, R.; Sigurðsson, S.; Povich,
Science Conference 2010. M. S.; Mullan, B. (2014). “The Ĝ Infrared Search
for Extraterrestrial Civilizations with Large Energy Sup-
[34] Mullen, Leslie (2002). “Alien Intelligence Depends on plies. II. Framework, Strategy, and First Result”.
Time Needed to Grow Brains”. Astrobiology Magazine. arXiv:1408.1134 [physics.pop-ph].
Space.com. Retrieved April 21, 2006.
[49] Niven, Larry, “Bigger than Worlds”, Analog, March
[35] SETI@home FAQ, How far away could we detect radio
1974.
transmissions?
[36] The Light of Alien Cities [50] Amir Alexander (23 March 2004). “Can a Star's Glow
Reveal an Advanced Civilization?". Planetary Society.
[37] Matsos, Helen (June 16, 2009). “Habitable Planet Sign-
posts”. Astrobiology magazine. Retrieved August 19, [51] “Fermilab Dyson Sphere search program”. Fermi Na-
2010. tional Accelerator Laboratory. Retrieved February 10,
2008.
[38] Chauvin, G.; Lagrange, A.-M.; Dumas, C.; Zuck-
erman, B.; Mouillet, D.; Song, I.; Beuzit, J.-L.; [52] Burchell, M.J. (2006). “W (h) ither the Drake
Lowrence, P. et al. (2004). “A giant planet candidate equation?". International Journal of Astrobiology
near a young brown dwarf”. Astronomy & Astro- 5 (3): 243–250. Bibcode:2006IJAsB...5..243B.
physics 425 (2): L29–L32. arXiv:astro-ph/0409323. doi:10.1017/S1473550406003107.
Bibcode:2004A&A...425L..29C. doi:10.1051/0004-
6361:200400056. [53] Ward, Peter D.; Brownlee, Donald (January 14, 2000).
Rare Earth: Why Complex Life is Uncommon in the Uni-
[39] Schneider, Jean (January 20, 2010). “Interactive Extra-
verse (1st ed.). Springer. p. 368. ISBN 978-0-387-
solar Planets Catalog”. The Extrasolar Planets Encyclo-
98701-9.
pedia. Retrieved August 19, 2010.
[40] Udry, S.; Bonfils, X.; Delfosse, X.; Forveille, T.; [54] Webb 2002, pp. 188–89
Mayor, M.; Perrier, C.; Bouchy, F.; Lovis, C.; Pepe,
[55] “The lunar nodal tide and the distance to tne Moon during
F.; Queloz, D.; Bertaux, J.-L. (2007). “The HARPS
the Precambrian era”. ResearchGate. Retrieved 2014-
search for southern extra-solar planets”. Astronomy
08-15.
and Astrophysics 469 (3): L43. arXiv:0704.3841.
Bibcode:2007A&A...469L..43U. doi:10.1051/0004-
[56] “Journeys to the Center of the Earth”. Discover-
6361:20077612.
Magazine.com. 2014-07-31. Retrieved 2014-08-15.
[41] Papagiannis, M. D. (1978). “Are We all Alone, or
could They be in the Asteroid Belt?". Quarterly Jour- [57] Webb 2002, p. 153
nal of the Royal Astronomical Society 19: 277–281.
[58] Webb 2002, pp. 153–56
Bibcode:1978QJRAS..19..277P.
[42] Bracewell, R. N. (1960). “Communications from Supe- [59] Andreadis, Athena “E. T., Call Springer-Verlag!" SETI
rior Galactic Communities”. Nature 186 (4726): 670. League Publications, 2000.
Bibcode:1960Natur.186..670B. doi:10.1038/186670a0.
[60] Nealson, K.H. and Conrad, P.G. (1999). “Life: past,
[43] Robert A. Freitas Jr. (November 1983). “Extraterres- present and future”. Philosophical Transactions of the
trial Intelligence in the Solar System: Resolving the Fermi Royal Society B (The Royal Society) 354 (1392): 1923–
Paradox”. Journal of the British Interplanetary Society 36. 39. doi:10.1098/rstb.1999.0532. PMC 1692713. PMID
pp. 496–500. 10670014.
3.2. FERMI PARADOX 197

[61] Bounama, C. and von Bloh, W. and Franck, S. [78] Vakoch, Douglas (November 15, 2001). “Decoding
(2007). “How Rare Is Complex Life in the Milky E.T.: Ancient Tongues Point Way To Learning Alien Lan-
Way?". Astrobiology (Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.) guages”. SETI Institute. Retrieved August 19, 2010.
7 (5): 745–756. Bibcode:2007AsBio...7..745B.
doi:10.1089/ast.2006.0084. PMID 17963474. [79] Newman, W.T. and Sagan, C. (1981). “Galactic civi-
lizations: Population. dynamics and interstellar diffusion”
[62] Vinn, O (2014). “Potential incompatibility of inherited . Icarus 46 (3): 293–327. Bibcode:1981Icar...46..293N.
behavior patterns with civilization”. PublishResearch: 1– doi:10.1016/0019-1035(81)90135-4.
3. Retrieved 2014-03-05.
[80] Brin, Glen David (1983). “The 'Great Silence': The
[63] Bostrom, Nick.“Existential Risks Analyzing Human Ex- Controversy Concerning Extraterrestrial Intelligent Life”
tinction Scenarios and Related Hazards”. Retrieved Oc- . Quarterly Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 24:
tober 4, 2009. 287, 298. Bibcode:1983QJRAS..24..283B.

[64] Darling, David. “Extraterrestrial intelligence, hazards [81] Landis, Geoffrey (1998). “The Fermi Paradox:
to”. The Encyclopedia of Astrobiology, Astronomy, and An Approach Based on Percolation Theory”. Jour-
Spaceflight. Worlds of David Darling. Retrieved May 11, nal of the British Interplanetary Society 51: 163–166.
2006. Bibcode:1998JBIS...51..163L.

[65] Hawking, Stephen. “Life in the Universe”. Public Lec- [82] Scheffer, L.K. (1994). “Machine Intelligence, the Cost
tures. University of Cambridge. Archived from the origi- of Interstellar Travel and Fermi's Paradox”. Quarterly
nal on April 21, 2006. Retrieved May 11, 2006. Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society 35: 157.
Bibcode:1994QJRAS..35..157S.
[66] Dawkins, Richard (2006). The Selfish Gene. Oxford Uni-
versity Press, USA. [83] Charles Stross (2006). Accelerando. Ace. ISBN 978-
0441014156.
[67] Soter, Steven (2005). “SETI and the Cosmic Quaran-
tine Hypothesis”. Astrobiology Magazine. Space.com. [84] Kinouchi, Osame (December 2001). “Persistence
Retrieved May 3, 2006. solves Fermi Paradox but challenges SETI projects”.
arXiv:cond-mat/0112137 [cond-mat.dis-nn].
[68] Archer, Michael (1989). “Slime Monsters Will Be Hu-
man Too”. Aust. Nat. Hist 22: 546–547. [85] Turnbull, Margaret C.; Tarter, Jill C. (2003). “Target
Selection for SETI. I. A Catalog of Nearby Habitable
[69] Webb 2002, p. 112 Stellar Systems”. The Astrophysical Journal Supple-
ment Series 145 (1): 181. arXiv:astro-ph/0210675.
[70] Melott, A.L. and Lieberman, BS and Laird, CM and Bibcode:2003ApJS..145..181T. doi:10.1086/345779.
Martin, LD and Medvedev, MV and Thomas, BC Retrieved August 19, 2010.
and Cannizzo, JK and Gehrels, N. and Jackman, CH
(2004). “Did a gamma-ray burst initiate the late Or- [86] "SETI's FAQ, Sec 1.2.3”. Setifaq.org. November 2003.
dovician mass extinction?". International Journal of Retrieved July 3, 2010.
Astrobiology (Cambridge Univ Press) 3 (1): 55–61.
arXiv:astro-ph/0309415. Bibcode:2004IJAsB...3...55M. [87] “SETI's FAQ, Sec 1.6”. Setifaq.org. November 2003.
doi:10.1017/S1473550404001910. Retrieved July 3, 2010.

[71] Nick Bostrom, Milan M. Ćirković. Global catastrophic [88] Heller, Rene. “Superhabitable Worlds”. Astrobiology.
risks. Section 12.5 – The Fermi Paradox and Mass Ex- Retrieved 28 January 2014.
tinctions.
[89] Anonymous (December 2001).“BBC – Cornwall – Mar-
[72] Wiker, Benjamin D. (2002).“Christianity and the Search coni 100”. Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved July 3, 2010.
for Extraterrestrial Life”. crisismagazine.com.
[90] “Cosmic Search Vol. 1 No. 3”. Bigear.org. September
[73] Crowe 2008, p. 9 21, 2004. Retrieved July 3, 2010.

[74] Crowe 2008, p. 19 [91] Learned, J; Pakvasa, S; Zee, A (2009). “Galactic

neutrino communication”. Physics Letters B 671 (1):
[75] Gonzalez, Guillermo and Richards, Jay W. (2004). The 15. arXiv:0805.2429. Bibcode:2009PhLB..671...15L.
Privileged Planet. Regnery Publishing. p. 306. ISBN 0- doi:10.1016/j.physletb.2008.11.057.
89526-065-4.
[92] Stephenson, D. G (1984). “Solar Power Satellites as In-
[76] Guth, Alan (2007). “Eternal Inflation and its Im- terstellar Beacons”. Quarterly Journal of the Royal As-
plications”. Journal of Physics A: Mathematical and tronomical Society (Royal Astronomical Society) 25 (1):
Theoretical 40 (25): 6811. arXiv:hep-th/0702178. 80. Bibcode:1984QJRAS..25...80S.
Bibcode:2007JPhA...40.6811G. doi:10.1088/1751-
8113/40/25/S25. [93] Smith, Charles (July 1995). “History of Solar Energy”
. Technology Review: Solar Power. Archived from the
[77] Webb 2002, pp. 62–71 original on 2008-02-25.
 198 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

[94] Smart, John (2012). “The Transcension Hypoth- [110] Hair, Thomas W. (2011). “Temporal Dispersion of the
esis: Sufficiently Advanced Civilizations May In- Emergence of Intelligence: An Inter-arrival Time Analy-
variably Leave Our Universe, and Implications for sis”, International Journal of Astrobiology 10(2): 131–
METI and SETI”. Acta Astronautica 78: 55–68. 135 (2011), doi:10.1017/S1473550411000024
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2011.11.006.
[111] Baxter, Stephen (2001). “The Planetarium Hypoth-
[95] Webb 2002, p. 86 esis: A Resolution of the Fermi Paradox”. Journal
of the British Interplanetary Society 54 (5/6): 210–216.
[96] Webb, Chapter 15: They Stay at Home and Surf the Web” Bibcode:2001JBIS...54..210B.

[97] Schombert, James. “Fermi's paradox (i.e. Where are [112] Brin, David. “A contrarian perspective on altruism: the
they?)" Cosmology Lectures, University of Oregon. dangers of first contact”. Retrieved August 19, 2010.

[98] Hamming, RW (1998). “Mathematics on a distant [113] Carrigan, Richard A. (2006). “Do potential SETI
planet”. The American mathematical monthly 105 (7): signals need to be decontaminated?". Acta Astronau-
640–650. doi:10.2307/2589247. JSTOR 2589247. tica 58 (2): 112–117. Bibcode:2006AcAau..58..112C.
doi:10.1016/j.actaastro.2005.05.004.
[99] Tarter, Jill (2006). “What is SETI?a”. Annals of
the New York Academy of Sciences 950 (1): 269–75. [114] Marsden, P. (1998). “Memetics and social contagion:
Bibcode:2001NYASA.950..269T. doi:10.1111/j.1749- Two sides of the same coin”. Journal of Memetics-
6632.2001.tb02144.x. PMID 11797755. Evolutionary Models of Information Transmission 2 (2):
171–185.
[100] Steven V. W. Beckwith (2008). “Detecting Life-
[115] Beatriz Gato-Rivera (1970). “A Solution to the Fermi
bearing Extrasolar Planets with Space Telescopes”.
Paradox: The Solar System, Part of a Galactic Hyperciv-
The Astrophysical Journal (IOP Publishing) 684 (2,):
ilization?". arXiv:physics/0512062 [physics.pop-ph].
1404. arXiv:0710.1444. Bibcode:2008ApJ...684.1404B.
doi:10.1086/590466. [116] Webb 2002, pp. 27–60
[101] Sparks, W.B. and Hough, J. and Germer, T.A. and [117] Shklovskii & Sagan 1966
Chen, F. and DasSarma, S. and DasSarma, P. and
Robb, F.T. and Manset, N. and Kolokolova, L. and [118] Steel, D. (1995). “SETA and 1991 VG”. The Obser-
Reid, N. and others}, (2009). "{Detection of circu- vatory 115: 78–83. Bibcode:1995Obs...115...78S. Re-
lar polarization in light scattered from photosynthetic trieved August 19, 2010.
microbes”. Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences (National Acad Sciences) 106 (14–16): 7816. [119] Swords, Michael D. (1989)“Science and the Extraterres-
doi:10.1016/j.jqsrt.2009.02.028. trial Hypothesis”, Journal of UFO Studies, New Series 1,
1989, 67–102, p. 88; reprinted in pp. 368–373 in Jerome
[102] A. Tough (1990). “A critical examination of fac- Clark's The UFO Encyclopedia: The Phenomenon from
tors that might encourage secrecy”. Acta Astronau- the Beginning. 2nd edition. 1998. Omnigraphics. ISBN
tica 21 (21,): 97–102. Bibcode:1990AcAau..21...97T. 0-7808-0097-4
doi:10.1016/0094-5765(90)90134-7.
[120] John Schwartz (3 July 2010). “Out of This World, Out
[103] Ashley Vance (31 July 2006). “SETI urged to fess up of Our Minds”. New York Times.
over alien signals”. The Guardian.
[121] Webb 2002, p. 28
[104] “UFO Hunters Keep Pressing White House For Answers [122] Crick, Francis (1981). Life Itself. Simon and Schuster.
Through 'We The People' Petitions”. Huffington Post. 6 ISBN 0-671-25562-2.
Dec 2011.
[123] “Moses 1:33”.
[105] G. Seth Shostak (2009). Confessions of an Alien Hunter:
A Scientist's Search for Extraterrestrial Intelligence. Na- [124] “D&C 88:25-26”.
tional Geographic. ISBN 978-1-4262-0392-3. Page 17.
[125] “D&C 88:22-24”.
[106] Alexander Zaitsev (2006). “The SETI paradox”.
arXiv:physics/0611283 [physics.gen-ph]. [126] Lund, Gerald N. (February 1982),“Is President Lorenzo
Snow’s oft-repeated statement—"As man now is, God
[107] “Declaration of Principles Concerning Activities Follow- once was; as God now is, man may be” —accepted as of-
ing the Detection of Extraterrestrial Intelligence”. ficial doctrine by the Church?", Ensign

[108] Michaud, M. (2003). “Ten decisions that could [127] “D&C 76:112”.
shake the world”. Space Policy 19 (2): 131–950. [128] “1 Ne. 17:36”.
doi:10.1016/S0265-9646(03)00019-5.
[129] “Moses 7:30”.
[109] Ball, J (1973). “The zoo hypothesis”. Icarus 19 (3):
347. Bibcode:1973Icar...19..347B. doi:10.1016/0019- [130] Brin, David (2012). Existence. Tor Books. ISBN 978-0-
1035(73)90111-5. 765-30361-5.
 3.3. GRANDFATHER PARADOX 199

[131] TerraHerz. “Fermi's Urbex Paradox”. Everist.org. • Answering the Fermi Paradox: Exploring the Mech-
anisms of Universal Transcension by John Smart
[132] “The Fermi Paradox”. IMDB.
• Extraterrestrial Intelligence in the Solar System: Re-
[133] Green, Hank.“The Fermi Paradox: A Song”. YouTube.
solving the Fermi Paradox, which argues that our ob-
servations are incomplete, and There Is No Fermi
3.2.11 Bibliography Paradox, arguing that the paradox is based on a log-
ical flaw, both by Robert Freitas
• Crowe, Michael J. (2008). The Extraterrestrial Life
Debate, Antiquity to 1915. University of Notre • Fermi Paradox debate Astrobiology Magazine July
Dame Press. ISBN 978-0-268-02368-3. 2002. Michael Meyer, Frank Drake, Christopher
McKay, Donald Brownlee, & David Grinspoon.
• Shklovskii, Iosif; Sagan, Carl (1966). Intelligent Life
in the Universe. San Francisco: Holden–Day. ISBN • The Fermi Paradox: Back With a Vengeance by
1-892803-02-X. George Dvorsky

• Webb, Stephen (2002). If the Universe Is Teem- • Virtual Reality Could Explain the Fermi Paradox by
ing with Aliens... Where Is Everybody?. Copernicus Michael Graham Richard
Books. ISBN 0-387-95501-1.
• A list of possible answers to the Fermi paradox (with
references to published works discussing some of
3.2.12 Further reading these options) by Anders Sandberg

• Translation of the documentary “Overcome the

• Ben Zuckerman and Michael H. Hart, Extraterres-
Great Silence!" provided by Aleksandr Leonidovich
trials: Where Are They? ISBN 0-521-44803-4
Zaitsev
Amazon
• - Huffington Post & Wait-But-Why The Fermi Para-
• Savage, Marshall T. (1992). The Millennial Project:
dox
Colonizing the Galaxy in 8 Easy Steps. Denver:
Empyrean Publishing. ISBN 0-9633914-8-8.
• Michaud, Michael (2006). Contact with Alien Civi- 3.3 Grandfather paradox
lizations: Our Hopes and Fears about Encountering
Extraterrestrials. Copernicus Books. ISBN 978-0-
The grandfather paradox is a proposed paradox
387-28598-6.
of time travel first described by the science fiction
• Gold, Thomas (1998). The Deep Hot Biosphere. writer Nathaniel Schachner in his short story Ancestral
Springer. ISBN 978-0-387-95253-6. Voices* [1] and by René Barjavel in his 1943 book Le
Voyageur Imprudent (Future Times Three).* [2] The para-
dox is described as follows: the time traveller goes back
3.2.13 External links in time and kills his grandfather before his grandfather
meets his grandmother. As a result, the time traveller is
• The dictionary definition of Fermi paradox at Wik- never born. But, if he was never born, then he is unable to
tionary travel through time and kill his grandfather, which means
the traveller would then be born after all, and so on.
• Interstellar Radio Messages
Despite the name, the grandfather paradox does not ex-
• Exotic Civilizations: Possible Answer to Fermi's clusively regard the impossibility of one's own birth.
Paradox by Paul Hughes Rather, it regards any action that eliminates the cause or
means of traveling back in time. The paradox's name-
• Introduction and Drake equations for the Fermi
sake example is merely the most commonly thought of
paradox
when one considers the whole range of possible actions.
• So much space, so little time: why aliens haven't Another example would be using scientific knowledge
found us yet by Ian Sample,The Guardian January to invent a time machine, then going back in time and
18, 2007 (whether through murder or otherwise) impeding a sci-
entist's work that would eventually lead to the invention
• The Possibilities of FTL: Or Fermi's Paradox Re- of the time machine. An equivalent paradox is known (in
considered by F.E. Freiheit IV philosophy) as autoinfanticide, going back in time and
*
• Life in the Universe, by Eric Schulman, Mercury killing oneself as a baby. [3]
Magazine (May/June to November/December Assuming the causal link between the time traveller's
2000) present and future, the grandfather paradox that disrupts
 200 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

that link may be regarded as impossible (thus precluding choices and decisions considered to be freely made within
the arbitrary alteration of one's fate). However, a num- any space time frame taken as the “present"?
ber of hypotheses have been postulated to avoid the para- One might build a more plausible case for the prohibi-
dox, such as the idea that the past is unchangeable, so tion of classical time-travel simply by considering how it
the grandfather must have already survived the attempted might violate several conservation laws by the duplica-
killing (as stated earlier); or the time traveller creates— tion of matter along a single space time line and perhaps
or joins—an alternate timeline or parallel universe* [4] in require a near-universal redistribution of mass-energy.
which the traveller was never born.
A variant of the grandfather paradox is the Hitler para-
dox or Hitler's murder paradox,* [5] a fairly frequent Parallel universes
trope in science fiction, in which the protagonist travels
back in time to murder Adolf Hitler before he can insti- There could be“an ensemble of parallel universes”such
gate World War II. Rather than necessarily physically pre- that when the traveller kills the grandfather, the act took
venting time travel, the action removes any reason for the place in (or resulted in the creation of) a parallel universe
travel, along with any knowledge that the reason ever ex- where the traveller's counterpart never exists as a result.
isted, thus removing any point in travelling in time in the However, his prior existence in the original universe is
first place.* [6] Additionally, the consequences of Hitler's unaltered. Succinctly, this explanation states that: if time
existence are so monumental and all-encompassing that travel is possible, then multiple versions of the future exist
for anyone born in the decades after World War II, it is in parallel universes. This theory would also apply if a
likely that the grandfather paradox would directly apply person went back in time to shoot himself, because in the
in some way.* [7] past he would be dead as in the future he would be alive
and well.

3.3.1 Scientific theories Examples of parallel universes postulated in physics are:

Novikov self-consistency principle • In quantum mechanics, the many-worlds interpre-

tation suggests that every seemingly random quan-
The Novikov self-consistency principle expresses one tum event with a non-zero probability actually oc-
view on how backwards time travel could be possible curs in all possible ways in different “worlds”, so
without a danger of paradoxes. According to this hy- that history is constantly branching into different al-
pothesis, the only possible time lines are those entirely ternatives. The physicist David Deutsch has argued
self-consistent—so anything a time traveller does in the that if backwards time travel is possible, it should
past must have been part of history all along, and the time result in the traveller ending up in a different branch
traveller can never do anything to prevent the trip back in of history than the one he departed from.* [10] In
time from happening, since this would represent an incon- 2014, researchers published a simulation validating
sistency. Nicholas J. J. Smith argues, for example, that if Deutsch's model with photons.* [11] Tim Ralph, one
some time traveller killed the child who lived at his old of the authors, explained that in the closed timelike
address, this would ipso facto necessitate that the child curve (CTC) simulation, “The state we got at our
was not the time traveller's younger self, nor the younger output, the second photon at the simulated exit of
self of anyone alive in the time frame that the time trav- the CTC, was the same as that of our input, the first
eller came from. This could be extrapolated further into encoded photon at the CTC entrance.”* [12] See
the possibility that the child's death led to the family mov- also quantum suicide and immortality.
ing away, which in turn led to the time traveller's family
moving into the house guaranteeing that the house later
became the home the time traveller would then grow up • M-theory is put forward as a hypothetical master
in, forming a predestination paradox. theory that unifies the six superstring theories, al-
though at present it is largely incomplete. One pos-
Seth Lloyd and other researchers at MIT have proposed sible consequence of ideas drawn from M-theory is
an expanded version of the Novikov principle, accord- that multiple universes in the form of 3-Dimensional
ing to which probability bends to prevent paradoxes from membranes known as branes could exist side-by-
occurring. Outcomes would become stranger as one ap- side in a fourth large spatial dimension (which is dis-
proaches a forbidden act, as the universe must favor im- tinct from the concept of time as a fourth dimension)
probable events to prevent impossible ones.* [8]* [9] —see Brane cosmology. However, there is currently
It might be argued that the ordinary concept of human no argument from physics that there would be one
“free will”is equivalent to this sort of time-travel paradox, brane for each physically possible version of history
for if one could travel back in time to change a future as in the many-worlds interpretation, nor is there any
relative to that past space time interval, then how would argument that time travel would take one to a differ-
that be distinguishable, in principle, from the everyday ent brane.
3.3. GRANDFATHER PARADOX 201

3.3.2 Theories in science fiction for the war, and the emotional effect of that would cancel
out the loss of the politician's charisma. Or the traveller
Nonexistence theory could prevent a car crash from killing a loved one, only
to have the loved one killed by a mugger, fall down the
According to this theory, if someone were to do some- stairs, choke on a meal, etc. In the 2002 film The Time
thing in the past that would cause their nonexistence, upon Machine, this scenario is shown where the main character
returning to the future, they would find themselves in a builds a time machine to save his fiance from being killed
world where the effects of (and chain reactions thereof) by a mugger, only for her to die in a car crash instead;
their actions are not present, as the person never existed. as he learns from a trip to the future, he cannot save her
Through this theory, they would still exist, though. Two with the machine or he would never have been inspired to
well-known examples of this are found in It's A Wonder- build the machine so that he could go back and save her
ful Life and "Roswell That Ends Well". in the first place.
In some stories it is only the event that precipitated the
Parallel universes resolution time traveller's decision to travel back in time that cannot
be substantially changed, in others all attempted changes
The idea of preventing paradoxes by supposing that the “heal”in this way, and in still others the universe can heal
time traveller is taken to a parallel universe while his orig- most changes but not sufficiently drastic ones. This is also
inal history remains intact, which is discussed above in the explanation advanced by The Doctor Who Role Play-
the context of science, is also common in science fiction ing Game, which supposes that time is like a stream; you
—see Time travel as a means of creating historical diver- can dam it, divert it, or block it, but the overall direction
gences. resumes after a period of conflict.
It also may not be clear whether the time traveller altered
the past or precipitated the future he remembers, such
Restricted action resolution
as a time traveller who goes back in time to persuade an
artist—whose single surviving work is famous—to hide
See also: Predestination paradoxes in fiction
the rest of the works to protect them. If, on returning to
his time, he finds that these works are now well-known,
Another resolution, of which the Novikov self- he knows he has changed the past. On the other hand, he
consistency principle can be taken as an example, holds may return to a future exactly as he remembers, except
that if one were to travel back in time, the laws of nature that a week after his return, the works are found. Were
(or other intervening cause) would simply forbid the they actually destroyed, as he believed when he traveled
traveller from doing anything that could later result in in time, and has he preserved them? Or was their dis-
their time travel not occurring. For example, a shot fired appearance occasioned by the artist's hiding them at his
at the traveller's grandfather misses, the gun jams or urging, and the skill with which they were hidden, and so
misfires, the grandfather is injured but not killed, or the the long time to find them, stemmed from his urgency?
person killed turns out to be not the real grandfather.
No action the traveller takes to affect or change history
can ever succeed, as some form of “bad luck”or Bad Wolf Resolution
coincidence always prevents the outcome. In effect, the
traveller cannot change history. Often in fiction, the time A resolution to the Hitler's Murder paradox is that the
traveller does not merely fail to prevent the actions, but murderer traveled back in time in order to kill Hitler be-
in fact precipitates them (see predestination paradox), cause he discovered a note telling him to do so. Then
usually by accident. after killing Hitler, the murderer writes a note to himself
telling him to travel back in time to kill Hitler. This results
This theory might lead to concerns about the existence in the murderer effectively writing a note to his relative
of free will (in this model, free will may be an illusion, past self. A more well known example is the Doctor Who
or at least not unlimited). This theory also assumes that story arc of the same name.
causality must be constant: i.e. that nothing can occur
in the absence of cause, whereas some theories hold that
an event may remain constant even if its initial cause was Destruction resolution
subsequently eliminated.
Closely related but distinct is the notion of the time line as Some science fiction stories suggest that any paradox
self-healing. The time-traveller's actions are like throw- would destroy the universe, or at least the parts of space
ing a stone in a large lake; the ripples spread, but are and time affected by the paradox. The plots of such sto-
soon swamped by the effect of the existing waves. For ries tend to revolve around preventing paradoxes, such as
instance, a time traveller could assassinate a politician the final episode of Star Trek: The Next Generation.
who led his country into a disastrous war, but the politi- A less destructive alternative of this theory suggests the
cian's followers would then use his murder as a pretext death of the time traveller whether the history is altered
202 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

or not; an example would be in the first part of the Back to 3.3.3 Other considerations
the Future trilogy, where the lead character's alteration of
history results in a risk of his own disappearance, and he Consideration of the grandfather paradox has led some
has to fix the alteration to preserve his own existence. In to the idea that time travel is by its very nature paradoxi-
this theory, killing one's grandfather would result in the cal and therefore logically impossible, on the same order
disappearance of oneself, history would erase all traces as round squares. For example, the philosopher Bradley
of the person's existence, and the death of the grandfather Dowden made this sort of argument in the textbook Log-
would be caused by another means (say, another existing ical Reasoning, where he wrote:
person firing the gun); thus, the paradox would never oc- But, some philosophers and scientists believe that time
cur from a historical viewpoint. travel into the past need not be logically impossible pro-
vided that there is no possibility of changing the past, as
suggested, for example, by the Novikov self-consistency
Temporal Modification Negation Theory
principle. Bradley Dowden himself revised the view
above after being convinced of this in an exchange with
While stating that if time travel is possible it would be im-
the philosopher Norman Swartz.* [13]
possible to violate the grandfather paradox, it goes further
to state that any action taken that itself negates the time Consideration of the possibility of backwards time travel
travel event cannot occur. The consequences of such an in a hypothetical universe described by a Gödel metric
event would in some way negate that event, be it by either led famed logician Kurt Gödel to assert that time might
voiding the memory of what one is doing before doing it, itself be a sort of illusion.* [14]* [15] He seems to have
by preventing the action in some way, or even by destroy- been suggesting something along the lines of the block
ing the universe among other possible consequences. It time view in which time does not really “flow”but is
states therefore that to successfully change the past one just another dimension like space, with all events at all
must do so incidentally. times being fixed within this 4-dimensional “block”.
For example, if one tried to stop the murder of one's par-
ents, he would fail. On the other hand, if one traveled 3.3.4 See also
back and did something else that as a result prevented
the death of someone else's parents, then such an event • Chicken or the egg
would be successful, because the reason for the journey
and therefore the journey itself remains unchanged pre- • Chronology protection conjecture
venting a paradox.
• Ontological paradox
In addition, if this event had some colossal change in the
history of mankind, and such an event would not void the • Temporal paradox
ability or purpose of the journey back, it would occur,
and would hold. In such a case, the memory of the event • Time loop
would immediately be modified in the mind of the time
• Time travel in fiction
traveller.
An example of this would be for someone to travel back to • "Cradle of Darkness"
observe life in Austria in 1887 and while there shoot five
• Making History
people, one of which was one of Hitler's parents. Hitler
would therefore never have existed, but since this would • The Primal Solution
not prevent the invention of the means for time travel, or
the purpose of the trip, then such a change would hold.
But for it to hold, every element that influenced the trip 3.3.5 References
must remain unchanged. The Third Reich would not exist
and the world we know today would be completely differ- [1] Schachner, Nathaniel (December 1933), “Ancestral
ent. This would void someone convincing another party Voices”, Astounding Stories (Street & Smith Publications,
to travel back to kill the people without knowing who Inc.), VOLUME XII, NUMBER 4; actually, the story
they are and making the time line stick, because by being refers to an ancestor of the time traveller not his grand-
father.
successful, they would void the first party's influence and
therefore the second party's actions. [2] Barjavel, René (1943). Le voyageur imprudent (“The im-
These issues are treated humorously in an episode of prudent traveller”).; actually, the book refers to an ances-
tor of the time traveller not his grandfather.
Futurama in which Fry travels back in time and inad-
vertently causes his grandfather Enos's death before Enos [3] Horwich, Paul (1987). Asymmetries in Time. Cambridge,
marries his grandmother. Fry's distraught grandmother MIT Press. p. 116.
then seduces him, and Fry learns that he is his own grand- When the term was coined by Paul Horwich, he used the
father. term autofanticide.
3.4. LIAR PARADOX 203

[4] See also Alfred Bester, The Men Who Murdered Mo- 3.3.6 External links
hammed, published in 1958, just the year following
Everett's Ph.D thesis • tvtropes - Grandfather Paradox and Hitler's Time
Travel Exemption Act and for examples in fiction
[5] Eugenia Williamson (6 April 2013).“Book review : Life
after Life’by Kate Atkinson”. The Boston Globe. Re-
trieved 9 August 2013. Google the phrase “go back in
time and,”and the search engine will suggest completing 3.4 Liar paradox
the phrase with a simple directive: “kill Hitler.”The ap-
peal of murdering the Nazi dictator is so great that it has its
own subgenre within speculative fiction, a trope known as In philosophy and logic, the classical liar paradox or
“Hitler’s murder paradox”in which a time traveller jour- liar's paradox is the statement of a liar who states that
neys back far enough to nip the leader —and World War he is lying: for instance “I am lying”or “everything I
II —in the bud, typically with unexpected consequences. say is false”. If he is indeed lying, he is telling the truth,
which means he is lying... In“this sentence is false”the
[6] Brennan, J. (2002). Time Travel: A New Perspective.
paradox is strengthened in order to make it amenable to
Llewellyn Publications. p. 23. ISBN 9781567180855.
A variation on the grandfather paradox . . . is the Hitler
more rigorous logical analysis. It is still generally called
paradox. In this one you travel back in time to murder the“liar paradox”although abstraction is made precisely
Hitler before he starts the Second World War, thus saving from the liar himself. Trying to assign to this statement,
millions of lives. But if you murder Hitler in, say, 1938, the strengthened liar, a classical binary truth value leads
then the Second World War will never come about and to a contradiction.
you will have no reason to travel back in time to murder
If “this sentence is false”is true, then the sentence is
Hitler!
false, but then if“this sentence is false”is false, then the
[7] Esther Inglis-Arkell (2012).“Are we running out of time sentence is true, and so on.
to kill Hitler via time travel?". io9. Retrieved 2013-08-
12.
3.4.1 History
[8] Laura Sanders, “Physicists Tame Time Travel by For-
bidding You to Kill Your Grandfather”, Wired, 20 July
2010. “But this dictum against paradoxical events causes
The Epimenides paradox (circa 600 BC) has been sug-
possible unlikely events to happen more frequently. 'If yougested as an example of the liar paradox, but they are not
logically equivalent. The semi-mythical seer Epimenides,
make a slight change in the initial conditions, the paradox-
ical situation won’t happen. That looks like a good thing, a Cretan, reportedly stated that “All Cretans are liars.”
*
but what it means is that if you’re very near the paradox- [1] However, Epimenides' statement that all Cretans are
ical condition, then slight differences will be extremely liars can be resolved as false, given that he knows of at
amplified,' says Charles Bennett of IBM’s Watson Re- least one other Cretan who does not lie. It is precisely
search Center in Yorktown Heights, New York.” in order to avoid uncertainties deriving from the human
factor and from fuzzy concepts that modern logicians pro-
[9] Seth Lloyd et al., "The quantum mechanics of time travel
through post-selected teleportation", arXiv.org, submitted
posed a “strengthened”liar such as the sentence “this
15 July 2010, revised 19 July 2010. sentence is false”.
The paradox's name translates as pseudómenos lógos
[10] Deutsch, David (1991). “Quantum mechanics near
(ψευδόμενος λόγος) in Ancient Greek. One version of
closed timeline curves”. Physical Review D 44
(10): 3197–3217. Bibcode:1991PhRvD..44.3197D. the liar paradox is attributed to the Greek philosopher
doi:10.1103/PhysRevD.44.3197. Eubulides of Miletus who lived in the 4th century BC.
Eubulides reportedly asked, “A man says that he is ly-
[11] Martin Ringbauer; Matthew A. Broome; Casey R. Myers; ing. Is what he says true or false?"* [2]
Andrew G. White; Timothy C. Ralph (19 Jun 2014).“Ex-
perimental simulation of closed timelike curves”. Nature The paradox was once discussed by St. Jerome in a ser-
Communications 5. doi:10.1038/ncomms5145. mon:

[12] Lee Billings (2 Sep 2014). “Time Travel Simulation Re-

solves 'Grandfather Paradox'". Scientific American. Re-
“I said in my alarm, 'Every man is a liar!'
trieved 24 September 2014. "(Psalms 116:11) Is David telling the truth or
is he lying? If it is true that every man is a liar,
[13] “Dowden-Swartz Exchange”. and David's statement,“Every man is a liar”is
true, then David also is lying; he, too, is a man.
[14] Yourgrau, Palle (2004). A World Without Time: The For-
But if he, too, is lying, his statement: “Every
gotten Legacy Of Godel And Einstein. Basic Books. ISBN
man is a liar,”consequently is not true. What-
0-465-09293-4.
ever way you turn the proposition, the conclu-
[15] Holt, Jim (2005-02-21). “Time Bandits”. The New sion is a contradiction. Since David himself is
Yorker. Retrieved 2006-10-19. a man, it follows that he also is lying; but if he
204 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

is lying because every man is a liar, his lying isAnother reaction to the paradox of (A) is to posit, as
of a different sort.”* [3] Graham Priest has, that the statement is both true and
false. Nevertheless, even Priest's analysis is susceptible
The Indian grammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari (late fifth to the following version of the liar:
century CE) was well aware of a liar paradox which he
formulated as“everything I am saying is false”(sarvam This statement is only false. (C)
mithyā bravīmi). He analyses this paradox together with
the paradox of“unsignifiability”and explores the bound- If (C) is both true and false, then (C) is only false. But
ary between statements that are unproblematic in daily then, it is not true. Since initially (C) was true and is now
life and paradoxes.* [4] not true, it is a paradox.
In early Islamic tradition liar paradox was discussed for There are also multi-sentence versions of the liar paradox.
at least five centuries starting from late 9th century ap- The following is the two-sentence version:
parently without being influenced by any other tradition.
Naṣīr al-Dīn al-Ṭūsī could have been the first logician to
identify the liar paradox as self-referential.* [5] The following statement is true. (D1)

The preceding statement is false. (D2)

3.4.2 Explanation of the paradox and vari-
ants Assume (D1) is true. Then (D2) is true. This would mean
that (D1) is false. Therefore (D1) is both true and false.
The problem of the liar paradox is that it seems to show
that common beliefs about truth and falsity actually lead Assume (D1) is false. Then (D2) is false. This would
to a contradiction. Sentences can be constructed that can- mean that (D1) is true. Thus (D1) is both true and false.
not consistently be assigned a truth value even though Either way, (D1) is both true and false - the same paradox
they are completely in accord with grammar and semantic as (A) above.
rules. The multi-sentence version of the liar paradox general-
The simplest version of the paradox is the sentence: izes to any circular sequence of such statements (wherein
the last statement asserts the truth/falsity of the first state-
ment), provided there are an odd number of statements
This statement is false. (A) asserting the falsity of their successor; the following is a
three-sentence version, with each statement asserting the
If (A) is true, then“This statement is false”is true. There- falsity of its successor:
fore (A) must be false. The hypothesis that (A) is true
leads to the conclusion that (A) is false, a contradiction.
E2 is false. (E1)
If (A) is false, then “This statement is false”is false.
Therefore (A) must be true. The hypothesis that (A) is E3 is false. (E2)
false leads to the conclusion that (A) is true, another con-
tradiction. Either way, (A) is both true and false, which
is a paradox. E1 is false. (E3)

However, that the liar sentence can be shown to be true

Assume (E1) is true. Then (E2) is false, which means
if it is false and false if it is true has led some to conclude
(E3) is true, and hence (E1) is false, leading to a contra-
that it is “neither true nor false”.* [6] This response to
diction.
the paradox is, in effect, the rejection of the claim that
every statement has to be either true or false, also known Assume (E1) is false. Then (E2) is true, which means
as the principle of bivalence, a concept related to the law (E3) is false, and hence (E1) is true. Either way, (E1) is
of the excluded middle. both true and false - the same paradox as with (A) and
(D1).
The proposal that the statement is neither true nor false
has given rise to the following, strengthened version of There are many other variants, and many complements,
the paradox: possible. In normal sentence construction, the simplest
version of the complement is the sentence:
This statement is not true. (B)
This statement is true. (F)
If (B) is neither true nor false, then it must be not true.
Since this is what (B) itself states, it means that (B) must If F is assumed to bear a truth value, then it presents the
be true. Since initially (B) was not true and is now true, problem of determining the object of that value. But, a
another paradox arises. simpler version is possible, by assuming that the single
 3.4. LIAR PARADOX 205

word 'true' bears a truth value. The analogue to the para- does not lead to a contradiction. Eugene Mills* [7] and
dox is to assume that the single word 'false' likewise bears Neil Lefebvre and Melissa Schelein* [8] present similar
a truth value, namely that it is false. This reveals that the answers.
paradox can be reduced to the mental act of assuming that
the very idea of fallacy bears a truth value, namely that the
very idea of fallacy is false: an act of misrepresentation. Saul Kripke
So, the symmetrical version of the paradox would be:
Saul Kripke argued that whether a sentence is paradoxical
The following statement is false. (G1) or not can depend upon contingent facts.* [9]* [10] If the
only thing Smith says about Jones is
The preceding statement is false. (G2)
A majority of what Jones says about me is
false.
3.4.3 Possible resolutions
Alfred Tarski and Jones says only these three things about Smith:

Alfred Tarski diagnosed the paradox as arising only in Smith is a big spender.
languages that are “semantically closed”, by which he
meant a language in which it is possible for one sentence Smith is soft on crime.
to predicate truth (or falsehood) of another sentence in
the same language (or even of itself). To avoid self-
contradiction, it is necessary when discussing truth val- Everything Smith says about me is true.
ues to envision levels of languages, each of which can
predicate truth (or falsehood) only of languages at a lower If Smith really is a big spender but is not soft on crime,
level. So, when one sentence refers to the truth-value of then both Smith's remark about Jones and Jones's last re-
another, it is semantically higher. The sentence referred mark about Smith are paradoxical.
to is part of the “object language”, while the referring
Kripke proposes a solution in the following manner. If a
sentence is considered to be a part of a“meta-language”
statement's truth value is ultimately tied up in some evalu-
with respect to the object language. It is legitimate for
able fact about the world, that statement is “grounded”
sentences in“languages”higher on the semantic hierar-
. If not, that statement is “ungrounded”. Ungrounded
chy to refer to sentences lower in the“language”hierar-
statements do not have a truth value. Liar statements and
chy, but not the other way around. This prevents a system
liar-like statements are ungrounded, and therefore have
from becoming self-referential.
no truth value.

Arthur Prior
Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy
Arthur Prior asserts that there is nothing paradoxical
about the liar paradox. His claim (which he attributes to Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy propose that the liar
Charles Sanders Peirce and John Buridan) is that every sentence (which they interpret as synonymous with the
statement includes an implicit assertion of its own truth. Strengthened Liar) is ambiguous. They base this conclu-
Thus, for example, the statement“It is true that two plus sion on a distinction they make between a“denial”and a
two equals four”contains no more information than the “negation”. If the liar means,“It is not the case that this
statement“two plus two equals four”, because the phrase statement is true”, then it is denying itself. If it means,
“it is true that...”is always implicitly there. And in the “This statement is not true”, then it is negating itself.
self-referential spirit of the Liar Paradox, the phrase “it They go on to argue, based on situation semantics, that
is true that...”is equivalent to “this whole statement is the“denial liar”can be true without contradiction while
true and ...”. the “negation liar”can be false without contradiction.
Their 1987 book makes heavy use of non-well-founded
Thus the following two statements are equivalent: set theory.* [11]

This statement is false.

Dialetheism
This statement is true and this statement is
false. Graham Priest and other logicians, including J.C. Beall,
and Bradley Armour-Garb have proposed that the liar
The latter is a simple contradiction of the form “A and sentence should be considered to be both true and false,
not A”, and hence is false. There is therefore no para- a point of view known as dialetheism. Dialetheism is the
dox because the claim that this two-conjunct Liar is false view that there are true contradictions. Dialetheism raises
 206 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

its own problems. Chief among these is that since di- any “function": also the function to signify which un-
aletheism recognizes the liar paradox, an intrinsic contra- derlies each statement, including the “liar”.* [15] The
diction, as being true, it must discard the long-recognized unsolvable paradox —a situation in which we have either
principle of explosion, which asserts that any proposition contradiction (virodha) or infinite regress (anavasthā) —
can be deduced from a contradiction, unless the dialethe- arises, in case of the liar and other paradoxes such as the
ist is willing to accept trivialism - the view that all propo- unsignifiability paradox (Bhartrhari's paradox), when
sitions are true. Since trivialism is an intuitively false abstraction is made from this function (vyāpāra) and its
view, dialetheists nearly always reject the explosion prin- extension in time, by accepting a simultaneous, opposite
ciple. Logics that reject it are called paraconsistent. function (apara vyāpāra) undoing the previous one.

Non-cognitivism 3.4.4 Logical structure of the liar paradox

Andrew Irvine has argued in favour of a non-cognitivist For a better understanding of the liar paradox, it is useful
solution to the paradox, suggesting that some apparently to write it down in a more formal way. If“this statement
well-formed sentences will turn out to be neither true nor is false”is denoted by A and its truth value is being sought,
false and that“formal criteria alone will inevitably prove it is necessary to find a condition that restricts the choice
insufficient”for resolving the paradox.* [6] of possible truth values of A. Because A is self-referential
it is possible to give the condition by an equation.
Bhartrhari's perspectivism If some statement, B, is assumed to be false, one writes,
“B = false”. The statement (C) that the statement B is
The Indian grammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari (late fifth false would be written as“C =“B = false””. Now, the
century CE) dealt with paradoxes such as the liar in a liar paradox can be expressed as the statement A, that A
section of one of the chapters of his magnum opus the is false:
Vākyapadīya. Although chronologically he precedes all
“A = “A = false””
modern treatments of the problem of the liar paradox,
it has only very recently become possible to confront his This is an equation from which the truth value of A =
views and analyses with those of modern logicians and “this statement is false”could hopefully be obtained. In
philosophers because sufficiently reliable editions and the boolean domain “A = false”is equivalent to “not
translations of his work are becoming available only since A”and therefore the equation is not solvable. This is the
the second half of the previous century. Bhartrhari's so- motivation for reinterpretation of A. The simplest logical
lution fits into his general approach to language, thought approach to make the equation solvable is the dialetheis-
and reality, which has been characterized by some as“rel- tic approach, in which case the solution is A being both
ativistic”,“non-committal”or“perspectivistic”.* [12] “true”and “false”. Other resolutions mostly include
With regard to the liar paradox (sarvam mithyā bravīmi some modifications of the equation; Arthur Prior claims
“everything I am saying is false”) Bhartrhari identifies that the equation should be“A = 'A = false and A = true'"
a hidden parameter which can change unproblematic sit- and therefore A is false. In computational verb logic, the
uations in daily communication into a stubborn paradox. liar paradox is extended to statements like, “I hear what
Bhartrhari's solution can be understood in terms of the he says; he says what I don't hear”, where verb logic must
*
solution proposed in 1992 by Julian Roberts: “Para- be used to resolve the paradox. [16]
doxes consume themselves. But we can keep apart the
warring sides of the contradiction by the simple expe-
dient of temporal contextualisation: what is 'true' with 3.4.5 Applications
respect to one point in time need not be so in another
... The overall force of the 'Austinian' argument is not Gödel's First Incompleteness Theorem
merely that 'things change', but that rationality is essen-
tially temporal in that we need time in order to reconcile Gödel's incompleteness theorems are two fundamental
and manage what would otherwise be mutually destruc- theorems of mathematical logic which state inherent lim-
tive states.”* [13] According to Robert's suggestion, it is itations of all but the most trivial axiomatic systems for
the factor “time”which allows us to reconcile the sep- mathematics. The theorems were proven by Kurt Gödel
arated “parts of the world”that play a crucial role in in 1931, and are important in the philosophy of math-
the solution of Barwise and Etchemendy.* [14] The ca- ematics. Roughly speaking, in proving the first incom-
pacity of time to prevent a direct confrontation of the two pleteness theorem, Gödel used a modified version of the
“parts of the world”is here external to the “liar”. In liar paradox, replacing“this sentence is false”with“this
the light of Bhartrhari's analysis, however, the extension sentence is not provable”, called the“Gödel sentence G”
in time which separates two perspectives on the world or . Thus for a theory “T”, “G”is true, but not provable
two “parts of the world”—the part before and the part in“T”. The analysis of the truth and provability of“G”
after the function accomplishes its task —is inherent in is a formalized version of the analysis of the truth of the
3.4. LIAR PARADOX 207

liar sentence.* [17] the paradox allows him to revert to his original form: an
To prove the first incompleteness theorem, Gödel repre- eagle.
sented statements by numbers. Then the theory at hand,
which is assumed to prove certain facts about numbers, 3.4.7 See also
also proves facts about its own statements. Questions
about the provability of statements are represented as • Card paradox
questions about the properties of numbers, which would
be decidable by the theory if it were complete. In these • Epimenides paradox
terms, the Gödel sentence states that no natural number
• Insolubilia
exists with a certain, strange property. A number with
this property would encode a proof of the inconsistency • List of paradoxes
of the theory. If there were such a number then the the-
ory would be inconsistent, contrary to the consistency hy- • Pinocchio paradox
pothesis. So, under the assumption that the theory is con-
• Quine's paradox
sistent, there is no such number.
It is not possible to replace“not provable”with“false”in • Socratic paradox
a Gödel sentence because the predicate “Q is the Gödel • Yablo's paradox
number of a false formula”cannot be represented as a
formula of arithmetic. This result, known as Tarski's
undefinability theorem, was discovered independently by 3.4.8 Notes
Gödel (when he was working on the proof of the incom-
pleteness theorem) and by Alfred Tarski. [1] Epimenides paradox has“All Cretans are liars.”Titus 1:
12
George Boolos has since sketched an alternative proof of
the first incompleteness theorem that uses Berry's para- [2] Andrea Borghini.“Paradoxes of Eubulides”. About.com
dox rather than the liar paradox to construct a true but (New York Times). Retrieved 2012-09-04.
unprovable formula.
[3] St. Jerome, Homily on Psalm 115 (116B), translated by
Sr. Marie Liguori Ewald, IHM, in The Homilies of Saint
Jerome, Volume I (1-59 On the Psalms), The Fathers of
3.4.6 In popular culture the Church 48 (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic Univer-
sity of America Press, 1964), 294
The liar paradox is occasionally used in fiction to shut
down artificial intelligences, who are presented as being [4] Jan E.M. Houben, “Bhartrhari's solution to the Liar and
unable to process the sentence. In Star Trek: The Orig- some other paradoxes.”Journal of Indian Philosophy 23
inal Series episode "I, Mudd", the liar paradox is used (1995): 381-401; Jan E.M. Houben, “Paradoxe et per-
spectivisme dans la philosophie de langage de Bhartrhari:
by Captain Kirk and Harry Mudd to confuse and ulti-
langage, pensée et réalité.”Bulletin d'Études Indiennes 19
mately disable an android holding them captive. In the (2001):173-199. www.academia.edu/6169499/
1973 Doctor Who serial The Green Death, the Doctor
temporarily stumps the insane computer BOSS by asking [5] Ahmed Alwishah and David Sanson (2009). “The Early
it“If I were to tell you that the next thing I say would be Arabic Liar:The Liar Paradox in the Islamic World from
true, but the last thing I said was a lie, would you believe the Mid-Ninth to the Mid-Thirteenth Centuries CE”. p.
me?" However BOSS eventually decides the question is 1.
irrelevant and summons security. In the 2011 videogame [6] Andrew Irvine, “Gaps, Gluts, and Paradox,”Canadian
Portal 2, GLaDOS attempts to use the “this sentence Journal of Philosophy, supplementary vol. 18 [Return of
is false”paradox to defeat the naïve artificial intelligence the A priori] (1992), 273-99
Wheatley, but, lacking the intelligence to realize the state-
ment a paradox, he simply responds, “Um, true. I'll go [7] Mills, Eugene (1998) ‘A simple solution to the Liar’,
Philosophical Studies 89: 197-212.
with true. There, that was easy.”and is unaffected.
The second book in Emily Rodda's Deltora Quest series, [8] Lefebvre, N. and Schelein, M., “The Liar Lied,”in
The Lake of Tears has the main character, Lief, forced to Philosophy Now issue 51
answer a riddle correctly or be killed by the guardian of [9] Barwise, J.; Etchemendy, J. (1989). The Liar: An Essay
a bridge. When Lief answers the trick riddle wrongly, he on Truth and Circularity. Oxford University Press, USA.
confronts the guardian with his treachery. The guardian p. 6. ISBN 9780195059441. LCCN 86031260.
answers with another riddle, telling Lief to make a state-
ment; if false, he will kill Lief by chopping off his head; if [10] Kripke, Saul (1975). “An Outline of a Theory of Truth”
. Journal of Philosophy (72): 690–716.
true, he will strangle Lief. Lief replies,“You will cut off
my head.”As the guardian was cursed to his fate by the [11] Jon Barwise and John Etchemendy (1987) The Liar. Ox-
evil sorceress Thaegan 'until truth and lies become one', ford University Press.
208 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

[12] Jan E.M. Houben,“Bhartrhari's Perspectivism (1)" in Be- • Graham Priest (1984) “The Logic of Paradox Re-
yond Orientalism ed. by Eli Franco and Karin Preisen- visited,”Journal of Philosophical Logic 13: 153-
danz, Amsterdam - Atlanta: Rodopi, 1997; Madeleine 179.
Biardeau recognized that Bhartrhari“wants to rise at once
above all controversies by showing the conditions of possi- • A. N. Prior (1976) Papers in Logic and Ethics.
bility of any system of interpretation, rather than to prove Duckworth.
the truth of a certain particular system”(Théorie de la
connaissance et philosophie de la parole dans le brahman- • Smullyan, Raymond (19nn) What is the Name of this
isme classique, Paris - La Haye: Mouton, 1964, p. 263) Book?. ISBN 0-671-62832-1. A collection of logic
puzzles exploring this theme.
[13] Roberts, Julian. 1992. The Logic of Reflection. German
Philosophy in the Twentieth Century. New Haven and • Portal 2: Chapter 7 The reunion (2011) Valve Cor-
London: Yale University Press. p. 43. poration
[14] Barwise, Jon, and John Etchemendy. 1989. The Liar :
An Essay on Truth and Circularity. First edition 1987,
First issue as an Oxford University Press paperback (with
3.4.10 External links
Postscript, 187-194). New York: Oxford University
• Liar Paradox entry by Bradley Dowden in the
Press.
Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy
[15] Jan E.M. Houben, “Paradoxe et perspectivisme dans la
philosophie de langage de Bhartrhari: langage, pensée et • Liar Paradox entry by J C Beall and Michael
réalité.”Bulletin d'Études Indiennes 19 (2001):173-199. Glanzberg in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philos-
www.academia.edu/6169499/ ophy

[16] Yang, T. (Sep 2001). “Computational verb systems: The

paradox of the liar”. International Journal of Intelligent
Systems (?) 16 (9): 1053–1067. doi:10.1002/int.1049. 3.5 List of paradoxes
[17] Crossley, J.N.; Ash, C.J.; Brickhill, C.J.; Stillwell, J.C.;
This is a list of paradoxes, grouped thematically. The
Williams, N.H. (1972). What is mathematical logic?.
grouping is approximate, as paradoxes may fit into more
London-Oxford-New York: Oxford University Press. pp.
52–53. ISBN 0-19-888087-1. Zbl 0251.02001. than one category. Because of varying definitions of the
term paradox, some of the following are not considered to
be paradoxes by everyone. This list collects only scenar-
3.4.9 References ios that have been called a paradox by at least one source
and have their own article.
• Greenough, P.M., (2001) " ,”American Philosoph- Although considered paradoxes, some of these are based
ical Quarterly 38: on fallacious reasoning, or incomplete/faulty analysis. In-
• Houben, J.E.M. (1995)“Bhartrhari's solution to the formally, the term is often used to describe a counter-
Liar and some other paradoxes.”Journal of Indian intuitive result.
Philosophy 23: 381-401;
• Houben, J.E.M. (2001) “Paradoxe et per- 3.5.1 Logic
spectivisme dans la philosophie de langage
de Bhartrhari: langage, pensée et réalité.” • Barbershop paradox The supposition that if one of
Bulletin d'Études Indiennes 19:173-199. two simultaneous assumptions leads to a contradic-
www.academia.edu/6169499/ tion, the other assumption is also disproved leads to
paradoxical consequences. Not to be confused with
• Hughes, G.E., (1992) John Buridan on Self- the Barber paradox.
Reference : Chapter Eight of Buridan's Sophismata,
with a Translation, and Introduction, and a Philo- • What the Tortoise Said to Achilles “Whatever
sophical Commentary, Cambridge Univ. Press, Logic is good enough to tell me is worth writing
ISBN 0-521-28864-9. Buridan's detailed solution down...”, also known as Carroll's paradox, not to
to a number of such paradoxes. be confused with the physical paradox of the same
name.
• Kirkham, Richard (1992) Theories of Truth. MIT
Press. Especially chapter 9. • Catch-22 A situation in which someone is in need
of something that can only be had by not being in
• Saul Kripke (1975) “An Outline of a Theory of need of it.
Truth,”Journal of Philosophy 72: 690-716.
• Drinker paradox In any pub there is a customer
• Lefebvre, Neil, and Schelein, Melissa (2005) “The of whom it is true to say: if that customer drinks,
Liar Lied,”Philosophy Now issue 51. everybody in the pub drinks.
3.5. LIST OF PARADOXES 209

• Paradox of entailment Inconsistent premises al- a world with no rules, there should be at least one
ways make an argument valid. rule - a rule against rules.”

• Lottery paradox There is one winning ticket in a • Grelling–Nelson paradox Is the word“heterolog-
large lottery. It is reasonable to believe of a partic- ical”, meaning “not applicable to itself”, a het-
ular lottery ticket that it is not the winning ticket, erological word? (Another close relative of Russell's
since the probability that it is the winner is so very paradox.)
small, but it is not reasonable to believe that no lot-
tery ticket will win. • Kleene–Rosser paradox By formulating an equiv-
alent to Richard's paradox, untyped lambda calculus
• Raven paradox (or Hempel's Ravens): Observing is shown to be inconsistent.
a green apple increases the likelihood of all ravens
being black. • Liar paradox “This sentence is false.”This is the
canonical self-referential paradox. Also“Is the an-
• Ross's paradox Disjunction introduction poses a swer to this question no?", and “I'm lying.”
problem for imperative inference by seemingly per-
mitting arbitrary imperatives to be inferred. • Card paradox “The next statement is true.
The previous statement is false.”A variant
• Unexpected hanging paradox The day of the of the liar paradox that does not use self-
hanging will be a surprise, so it cannot happen at reference.
all, so it will be a surprise. The surprise examination • Pinocchio paradox What would happen if
and Bottle Imp paradox use similar logic Pinocchio said “My nose will be grow-
ing"?* [1]
Self-reference • Quine's paradox "'Yields a falsehood when
appended to its own quotation' yields a false-
These paradoxes have in common a contradiction arising hood when appended to its own quotation.”
from self-reference. Shows that a sentence can be paradoxical even
if it is not self-referring and does not use
• Barber paradox A barber (who is a man) shaves all demonstratives or indexicals.
and only those men who do not shave themselves. • Yablo's paradox An ordered infinite se-
Does he shave himself? (Russell's popularization of quence of sentences, each of which says that
his set theoretic paradox.) all following sentences are false. Uses neither
self-reference nor circular reference.
• Berry paradox The phrase “the first number not
nameable in under ten words”appears to name it in • Opposite Day“It is opposite day today.”Therefore
nine words. it is not opposite day, but if you say it is a normal day
it would be considered a normal day.
• Crocodile dilemma If a crocodile steals a child and
promises its return if the father can correctly guess • Petronius' paradox “Moderation in all things, in-
exactly what the crocodile will do, how should the cluding moderation”(unsourced quotation some-
crocodile respond in the case that the father correctly times attributed to Petronius).
guesses that the child will not be returned?
• Richard's paradox We appear to be able to use
• Paradox of the Court A law student agrees to pay simple English to define a decimal expansion in a
his teacher after winning his first case. The teacher way that is self-contradictory.
then sues the student (who has not yet won a case)
for payment. • Russell's paradox Does the set of all those sets that
do not contain themselves contain itself?
• Curry's paradox “If this sentence is true, then
Santa Claus exists.” • Socratic paradox “I know that I know nothing at
all.”
• Epimenides paradox A Cretan says: “All Cretans
are liars”. This paradox works in mainly the same • Bhartrhari's paradox Hans and Radhika
way as the Liar paradox. Herzbergers (1981) argue that the Indian
grammarian-philosopher Bhartrhari (late fifth
• Exception paradox “If there is an exception to century CE) held a thesis which the authors call
every rule, then every rule must have at least one ex- the Unnameability Thesis (the thesis that there
ception; the exception to this one being that it has are some things which are unnameable), and
no exception.”“There's always an exception to the that Bhartrhari was well aware that it leads to a
rule, except to the exception of the rule—which is, problematic situation which they call 'Bhartrhari's
in of itself, an accepted exception of the rule.”“In paradox'.* [2]
210 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

• Unnameability paradox “There are some things • Russell's paradox Does the set of all those sets that
which are unnameable: but they become name- do not contain themselves contain itself?
able by calling them unnameable.”See: Bhartrhari's
paradox.
Statistics
• Unsignifiability paradox “There are some things
which are unsignifiable: but they become signifi-
See also: Category:Statistical paradoxes
able by calling them unsignifiable.”See: Bhartrhari's
paradox.

• Abelson's paradox Effect size may not be indica-

Vagueness tive of practical meaning.

• Ship of Theseus (a.k.a. George Washington's axe • Accuracy paradox Predictive models with a given
or Grandfather's old axe or Trigger's Broom in the level of accuracy may have greater predictive power
UK): It seems like you can replace any component than models with higher accuracy.
of a ship, and it is still the same ship. So you can
replace them all, one at a time, and it is still the same • Benford's law Numbers starting with lower digits
ship. However, you can then take all the original appear disproportionately often in seemingly ran-
pieces, and assemble them into a ship. That, too, is dom data sets.
the same ship you began with.

• Sorites paradox (also known as the paradox of the • Berkson's paradox A complicating factor arising
heap): If you remove a single grain of sand from a in statistical tests of proportions.
heap, you still have a heap. Keep removing single
grains, and the heap will disappear. Can a single • Freedman's paradox Describes a problem in
grain of sand make the difference between heap and model selection where predictor variables with no
non-heap? explanatory power can appear artificially important.

• Friendship paradox For almost everyone, their

3.5.2 Mathematics friends have more friends than they do.

See also: Category:Mathematics paradoxes and • Inspection paradox Why one will wait longer for a
Paradoxes of set theory bus than one should.

• Lindley's paradox Tiny errors in the null hypothe-

• All horses are the same color A proof by induction sis are magnified when large data sets are analyzed,
that all horses have the same color. leading to false but highly statistically significant re-
sults.
• Cramer's paradox The number of points of inter-
section of two higher-order curves can be greater
than the number of arbitrary points needed to de- • Low birth weight paradox Low birth weight and
fine one such curve. mothers who smoke contribute to a higher mortal-
ity rate. Babies of smokers have lower average birth
• Elevator paradox Elevators can seem to be mostly weight, but low birth weight babies born to smok-
going in one direction, as if they were being man- ers have a lower mortality rate than other low birth
ufactured in the middle of the building and being weight babies. This is a special case of Simpson's
disassembled on the roof and basement. paradox.

• Interesting number paradox The first number that • Simpson's paradox, or the Yule–Simpson effect:
can be considered“dull”rather than“interesting” A trend that appears in different groups of data dis-
becomes interesting because of that fact. appears when these groups are combined, and the
• Nontransitive dice You can have three dice, called reverse trend appears for the aggregate data.
A, B, and C, such that A is likely to win in a roll
against B, B is likely to win in a roll against C, and • Will Rogers phenomenon The mathematical con-
C is likely to win in a roll against A. cept of an average, whether defined as the mean or
median, leads to apparently paradoxical results—for
• Potato paradox If you let potatoes consisting of example, it is possible that moving an entry from an
99% water dry so that they are 98% water, they lose encyclopedia to a dictionary would increase the av-
50% of their weight. erage entry length on both books.
3.5. LIST OF PARADOXES 211

• Three cards problem When pulling a random card,

how do you determine the color of the underside?
1 2

? ?
• Three Prisoners problem A variation of the Monty
Hall problem.
• Two-envelope paradox You are given two indistin-
guishable envelopes, each of which contains a pos-
itive sum of money. One envelope contains twice
as much as the other. You may pick one envelope
and keep whatever amount it contains. You pick one
envelope at random but before you open it you are
The Monty Hall problem: which door do you choose?
given the chance to take the other envelope instead.

Probability Infinity and infinitesimals

See also: Category:Probability theory paradoxes • Burali-Forti paradox If the ordinal numbers
formed a set, it would be an ordinal number that is
smaller than itself.
• Bertrand's box paradox A paradox of conditional
probability closely related to the Boy or Girl para- • Cantor's paradox There is no greatest cardinal
dox. number.
• Galileo's paradox Though most numbers are not
• Bertrand's paradox Different common-sense def- squares, there are no more numbers than squares.
initions of randomness give quite different results. (See also Cantor's diagonal argument)
• Birthday paradox What is the chance that two peo- • Hilbert's paradox of the Grand Hotel If a hotel
ple in a room have the same birthday? with infinitely many rooms is full, it can still take in
more guests.
• Borel's paradox Conditional probability density
functions are not invariant under coordinate trans- • Russell's paradox Does the set of all those sets that
formations. do not contain themselves contain itself?

• Boy or Girl paradox A two-child family has at least • Skolem's paradox Countably infinite models of set
one boy. What is the probability that it has a girl? theory contain uncountably infinite sets.
• Zeno's paradoxes “You will never reach point B
• False positive paradox A test that is accurate the from point A as you must always get half-way there,
vast majority of the time could show you have a dis- and half of the half, and half of that half, and so on.”
ease, but the probability that you actually have it (This is also a physical paradox.)
could still be tiny.
• Supertasks may result in paradoxes such as
• Grice's paradox Shows that the exact meaning of
statements involving conditionals and probabilities • Benardete's paradox Apparently, a
is more complicated than may be obvious on casual man can be “forced to stay where he is
examination. by the mere unfulfilled intentions of the
gods”.
• Monty Hall problem An unintuitive consequence
of conditional probability. • Ross–Littlewood paradox After alter-
natively adding and removing balls to a
• Necktie paradox A wager between two people vase infinitely often, how many balls re-
seems to favour them both. Very similar in essence main?
to the Two-envelope paradox. • Thomson's lamp After flicking a lamp
on and off infinitely often, is it on or off?
• Proebsting's paradox The Kelly criterion is an of-
ten optimal strategy for maximizing profit in the
long run. Proebsting's paradox apparently shows Geometry and topology
that the Kelly criterion can lead to ruin.
• Banach–Tarski paradox Cut a ball into a finite
• Sleeping Beauty problem A probability problem number of pieces, re-assemble the pieces to get two
that can be correctly answered as one half or one balls, both of equal size to the first. The von Neu-
third depending on how the question is approached. mann paradox is a two-dimensional analogue.
212 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

• Alabama paradox Increasing the total num-

ber of seats might shrink one block's seats.
• New states paradox Adding a new state or
voting block might increase the number of
votes of another.
The Banach–Tarski paradox: A ball can be decomposed and
reassembled into two balls the same size as the original. • Population paradox A fast-growing state can
lose votes to a slow-growing state.
• Paradoxical set A set that can be partitioned • Arrow's paradox Given more than two choices, no
into two sets, each of which is equivalent to the system can have all the attributes of an ideal voting
original. system at once.
• Coastline paradox the perimeter of a landmass is • Buridan's ass How can a rational choice be made
in general ill-defined. between two outcomes of equal value?
• Coin rotation paradox a coin rotating along the
• Chainstore paradox Even those who know better
edge of an identical coin will make a full revolution
play the so-called chain store game in an irrational
after traversing only half of the stationary coin's cir-
manner.
cumference.

• Gabriel's Horn or Torricelli's trumpet: A simple • Decision-making paradox Selecting the best
object with finite volume but infinite surface area. decision-making method is a decision problem in it-
Also, the Mandelbrot set and various other fractals self.
are covered by a finite area, but have an infinite
• Fenno's paradox The belief that people generally
perimeter (in fact, there are no two distinct points
disapprove of the United States Congress as a whole,
on the boundary of the Mandelbrot set that can be
but support the Congressman from their own Con-
reached from one another by moving a finite dis-
gressional district.
tance along that boundary, which also implies that
in a sense you go no further if you walk“the wrong • Fredkin's paradox The more similar two choices
way”around the set to reach a nearby point). This are, the more time a decision-making agent spends
can be represented by a Klein bottle. on deciding.
• Hausdorff paradox There exists a countable subset
• Green paradox Policies intending to reduce future
C of the sphere S such that S\C is equidecomposable
CO2 emissions may lead to increased emissions in
with two copies of itself.
the present.
• Missing square puzzle Two similar-looking figures
appear to have different areas while built from the • Hedgehog's dilemma or Lover's paradox Despite
same pieces. goodwill, human intimacy cannot occur without
substantial mutual harm.
• Nikodym set A set contained in and with the same
Lebesgue measure as the unit square, yet for every • Inventor's paradox It is easier to solve a more gen-
one of its points there is a straight line intersecting eral problem that covers the specifics of the sought-
the Nikodym set only in that point. after solution.

• Smale's paradox A sphere can, topologically, be • Kavka's toxin puzzle Can one intend to drink the
turned inside out. non-deadly toxin, if the intention is the only thing
needed to get the reward?

3.5.3 Decision theory • Morton's fork Choosing between unpalatable alter-

natives.
• Abilene paradox People can make decisions based
not on what they actually want to do, but on what • Navigation paradox Increased navigational preci-
they think that other people want to do, with the re- sion may result in increased collision risk.
sult that everybody decides to do something that no-
body really wants to do, but only what they thought • Newcomb's paradox How do you play a game
that everybody else wanted to do. against an omniscient opponent?

• Apportionment paradox Some systems of appor- • Paradox of tolerance Should one tolerate intoler-
tioning representation can have unintuitive results ance if intolerance would destroy the possibility of
due to rounding tolerance?
3.5. LIST OF PARADOXES 213

• Paradox of voting Also known as the Downs para- Eocene, and the lower temperatures that proxies
dox. For a rational, self-interested voter the costs of suggest were present.
voting will normally exceed the expected benefits,
so why do people keep voting? • Holographic principle The amount of information
that can be stored in a given volume is not propor-
• Parrondo's paradox It is possible to play two losing tional to the volume but to the area that bounds that
games alternately to eventually win. volume.

• Prevention paradox For one person to benefit, • Irresistible force paradox What would happen if
many people have to change their behavior —even an unstoppable force hit an immovable object?
though they receive no benefit, or even suffer, from
the change.
Astrophysics
• Prisoner's dilemma Two people might not coop-
erate even if it is in both their best interests to do • Algol paradox In some binaries the partners seem
so. to have different ages, even though they are thought
to have formed at the same time.
• Relevance paradox Sometimes relevant informa-
tion is not sought out because its relevance only be- • Faint young Sun paradox The contradiction be-
comes clear after the information is available. tween existence of liquid water early in the Earth's
history and the expectation that the output of the
• Voting paradox Also known as Condorcet's para- young Sun would have been insufficient to melt ice
dox and paradox of voting. A group of separately on Earth.
rational individuals may have preferences that are
irrational in the aggregate. • GZK paradox Extreme-energy cosmic rays have
been observed that seem to violate the Greisen-
• Willpower paradox Those who kept their minds Zatsepin-Kuzmin limit, which is a consequence of
open were more goal-directed and more motivated special relativity.
than those who declared their objective to them-
selves. • Paradox of youth Compared to theory, there is an
overabundance of young stars close to the supermas-
sive black hole in the Galactic Center.
3.5.4 Physics
For more details on this topic, see Physical paradox. Classical mechanics

• Archer's paradox An archer must, in order to hit

his target, not aim directly at it, but slightly to the
side.

• Archimedes paradox (Hydrostatic paradox) A

massive battleship can float in a few litres of water.

• Aristotle's wheel paradox Rolling joined concen-

tric wheels seem to trace the same distance with
their circumferences, even though the circumfer-
ences are different.

• Carroll's paradox The angular momentum of a

stick should be zero, but is not.

• D'Alembert's paradox Flow of an inviscid fluid

produces no net force on a solid body.

• Denny's paradox Surface-dwelling arthropods

Robert Boyle's self-flowing flask fills itself in this diagram, but
(such as the water strider) should not be able to
perpetual motion machines cannot exist.
propel themselves horizontally.

• Elevator paradox Even though hydrometers are

• Cool tropics paradox A contradiction between used to measure fluid density, a hydrometer will not
modelled estimates of tropical temperatures dur- indicate changes of fluid density caused by changing
ing warm, ice-free periods of the Cretaceous and atmospheric pressure.
214 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

• Feynman sprinkler Which way does a sprinkler ro- • Extinction paradox In the small wavelength limit,
tate when submerged in a tank and made to suck in the total scattering cross section of an impenetrable
the surrounding fluid? sphere is twice its geometrical cross-sectional area
(which is the value obtained in classical mechan-
• Painlevé paradox Rigid-body dynamics with con- ics).* [3]
tact and friction is inconsistent.
• Hardy's paradox How can we make inferences
• Tea leaf paradox When a cup of tea is stirred, the about past events that we haven't observed while at
leaves assemble in the center, even though centrifu- the same time acknowledge that the act of observing
gal force pushes them outward. it affects the reality we are inferring to?
• Upstream contamination When a fluid is poured • Klein paradox When the potential of a potential
from a higher container onto a lower one, particles barrier becomes similar to the mass of the impinging
can climb up the falling water. particle, it becomes transparent.

• Mott problem Spherically symmetric wave func-

Cosmology
tions, when observed, produce linear particle tracks.
• Bentley's paradox In a Newtonian universe, gravi- • Quantum LC circuit paradox Energies stored on
tation should pull all matter into a single point. capacitance and inductance are not equal to the
ground state energy of the quantum oscillator.
• Boltzmann brain If the universe we observe re-
sulted from a random thermodynamic fluctuation, • Quantum pseudo-telepathy Two players who can
it would be vastly more likely to be a simple one not communicate accomplish tasks that seemingly
than the complex one we observe. The simplest case require direct contact.
would be just a brain floating in vacuum, having the
thoughts and sensations you have. • Quantum Zeno effect (Turing paradox) echoing
the Zeno paradox, a quantum particle that is contin-
• Fermi paradox If there are, as various arguments uously observed cannot change its state
suggest, many other sentient species in the Universe,
then where are they? Shouldn't their presence be • Schrödinger's cat paradox According to the
obvious? Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics,
a cat could be simultaneously alive and dead, as long
• Heat death paradox If the universe was infinitely as we don't look.
old, it would be in thermodynamical equilibrium,
which contradicts what we observe. • Uncertainty principle Attempts to determine posi-
tion must disturb momentum, and vice versa.
• Olbers' paradox Why is the night sky dark if there
is an infinity of stars, covering every part of the ce-
lestial sphere? Relativity

• Bell's spaceship paradox concerning relativity.

Electromagnetism
• Black hole information paradox Black holes vi-
• Faraday paradox An apparent violation of Fara- olate a commonly assumed tenet of science —that
day's law of electromagnetic induction. information cannot be destroyed.

• Ehrenfest paradox On the kinematics of a rigid ro-

Quantum mechanics tating disk.

• Aharonov–Bohm effect a charged particle is af- • Ladder paradox A classic relativity problem.
fected by an electromagnetic field even though it has
no local contact with that field • Mocanu's velocity composition paradox a para-
dox in special relativity.
• Bell's theorem Why do measured quantum parti-
cles not satisfy mathematical probability theory? • Supplee's paradox the buoyancy of a relativistic
object (such as a bullet) appears to change when the
• Double-slit experiment Matter and energy can act reference frame is changed from one in which the
as a wave or as a particle depending on the experi- bullet is at rest to one in which the fluid is at rest.
ment.
• Trouton-Noble or Right-angle lever paradox
• Einstein–Podolsky–Rosen paradox Can far away Does a torque arise in static systems when changing
events influence each other in quantum mechanics? frames?
3.5. LIST OF PARADOXES 215

• Twin paradox The theory of relativity predicts that • Paradox of the plankton Why are there so many
a person making a round trip will return younger different species of phytoplankton, even though
than his or her identical twin who stayed at home. competition for the same resources tends to reduce
the number of species?

Thermodynamics • Sherman paradox An anomalous pattern of inher-

itance in the fragile X syndrome.
• Gibbs paradox In an ideal gas, is entropy an
extensive variable? • Temporal paradox (paleontology) When did the
ancestors of birds live?
• Loschmidt's paradox Why is there an inevitable
increase in entropy when the laws of physics are
Health and Nutrition
invariant under time reversal? The time reversal
symmetry of physical laws appears to contradict the
• French paradox The observation that the French
second law of thermodynamics.
suffer a relatively low incidence of coronary heart
• Maxwell's demon The second law of thermody- disease, despite having a diet relatively rich in satu-
namics seems to be violated by a cleverly operated rated fats, which are assumed to be the leading di-
*
trapdoor. [4] etary cause of such disease.

• Glucose paradox The large amount of glycogen in

• Mpemba effect Hot water can, under certain con-
the liver cannot be explained by its small glucose ab-
ditions, freeze faster than cold water, even though it
sorption.
must pass the lower temperature on the way to freez-
ing. • Hispanic paradox The finding that Hispanics in the
U.S. tend to have substantially better health than the
average population in spite of what their aggregate
3.5.5 Biology socio-economic indicators predict.
• Antarctic paradox In some areas of the oceans, • Israeli paradox The observation that Israelis suf-
phytoplankton concentrations are low despite there fer a relatively high incidence of coronary heart dis-
apparently being sufficient nutrients. ease, despite having a diet very low in saturated fats,
which are assumed to be the leading dietary cause
• C-value enigma Genome size does not correlate of such disease.
with organismal complexity. For example, some
unicellular organisms have genomes much larger • Meditation paradox The amplitude of heart rate
than that of humans. oscillations during meditation was significantly
greater than in the pre-meditation control state and
• Cole's paradox Even a tiny fecundity advantage of also in three non-meditation control groups* [5]
one additional offspring would favor the evolution of
semelparity. • Mexican paradox Mexican children tend to have
higher birth weights than can be expected from their
• Gray's paradox Despite their relatively small mus- socio-economic status.
cle mass, dolphins can swim at high speeds and ob-
tain large accelerations. • Obesity survival paradox Although the negative
health consequences of obesity in the general popu-
• Lek paradox Persistent female choice for particu- lation are well supported by the available evidence,
lar male trait values should erode genetic variance health outcomes in certain subgroups seem to be im-
in male traits and thereby remove the benefits of proved at an increased BMI.
choice, yet choice persists.
• Peto's paradox Humans get cancer with high fre-
• Lombard's paradox When rising to stand from a quency, while larger mammals, like whales, do not.
sitting or squatting position, both the hamstrings and If cancer is essentially a negative outcome lottery at
quadriceps contract at the same time, despite their the cell level, and larger organisms have more cells,
being antagonists to each other. and thus more potentially cancerous cell divisions,
one would expect larger organisms to be more pre-
• Paradox of enrichment Increasing the food avail- disposed to cancer.
able to an ecosystem may lead to instability, and
even to extinction. • Pulsus paradoxus A pulsus paradoxus is a para-
doxical decrease in systolic blood pressure during
• Paradox of the pesticides Applying pesticide to a inspiration. It can indicate certain medical condi-
pest may increase the pest's abundance. tions in which there is reduced venous return of
216 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

blood to the heart, such as cardiac tamponade or 3.5.8 Linguistics and Artificial Intelligence
constrictive pericarditis. Also known as the Pulse
Paradox.* [6] • Bracketing paradox Is a“historical linguist”a lin-
guist who is historical, or someone who studies“his-
torical linguistics"?
3.5.6 Chemistry • Code-talker paradox How can a language both en-
able communication and block communication?
• Faraday paradox (electrochemistry) Diluted ni-
tric acid will corrode steel, while concentrated nitric • Moravec's paradox Logical thought is hard for hu-
acid doesn't. mans and easy for computers, but picking a screw
from a box of screws is an unsolved problem.
• Levinthal paradox The length of time that it takes
• Movement paradox In transformational linguistics,
for a protein chain to find its folded state is many
there are pairs of sentences in which the sentence
orders of magnitude shorter than it would be if it
without movement is ungrammatical while the sen-
freely searched all possible configurations.
tence with movement is not.
• SAR paradox Exceptions to the principle that a • Sayre's paradox In automated handwriting recog-
small change in a molecule causes a small change nition, a cursively written word cannot be recog-
in its chemical behaviour are frequently profound. nized without being segmented and cannot be seg-
mented without being recognized.

3.5.7 Time
3.5.9 Philosophy
• Bootstrap paradox Can a time traveler send him-
• Paradox of analysis It seems that no conceptual
self information with no outside source?
analysis can meet the requirements both of correct-
ness and of informativeness.
• Polchinski's paradox A billiard ball can be thrown
into a wormhole in such a way that it would emerge • Buridan's bridge Will Plato throw Socrates into
in the past and knock its incoming past self away the water or not?
from the wormhole entrance, creating a variant of
the grandfather paradox. • Paradox of fiction How can people experience
strong emotions from purely fictional things?
• Predestination paradox* [7] A man travels back in
• Fitch's paradox If all truths are knowable, then all
time to discover the cause of a famous fire. While
truths must in fact be known.
in the building where the fire started, he accidentally
knocks over a kerosene lantern and causes a fire, the • Paradox of free will If God knew how we will de-
same fire that would inspire him, years later, to travel cide when he created us, how can there be free will?
back in time. The bootstrap paradox is closely tied
to this, in which, as a result of time travel, informa- • Goodman's paradox Why can induction be used to
tion or objects appear to have no beginning. confirm that things are“green”, but not to confirm
that things are “grue"?
• Temporal paradox What happens when a time
• Paradox of hedonism When one pursues happiness
traveler does things in the past that prevent him from
itself, one is miserable; but, when one pursues some-
doing them in the first place?
thing else, one achieves happiness.
• Hutton's Paradox If asking oneself“Am I dream-
• Grandfather paradox You travel back
ing?" in a dream proves that one is, what does it
in time and kill your grandfather be-
prove in waking life?
fore he conceives one of your parents,
which precludes your own conception • Liberal paradox“Minimal Liberty”is incompat-
and, therefore, you couldn't go back in ible with Pareto optimality.
time and kill your grandfather.
• Meno's paradox (Learner's paradox) A man can-
• Hitler's murder paradox You travel not search either for what he knows or for what he
back in time and kill a famous person in does not know.
history before they become famous; but
if the person had never been famous then • Mere addition paradox (Parfit's paradox) Is a
he could not have been targeted as a fa- large population living a barely tolerable life better
mous person. than a small, happy population?
3.5. LIST OF PARADOXES 217

• Moore's paradox “It's raining, but I don't believe • Arrow information paradox To sell information
that it is.” you need to give it away before the sale.
• Newcomb's paradox A paradoxical game between • Bertrand paradox Two players reaching a state of
two players, one of whom can predict the actions of Nash equilibrium both find themselves with no prof-
the other. its.
• Paradox of nihilism Several distinct paradoxes • Braess's paradox Adding extra capacity to a net-
share this name. work can reduce overall performance.
• Omnipotence paradox Can an omnipotent being • Deaton paradox Consumption varies surprisingly
create a rock too heavy for itself to lift? smoothly despite sharp variations in income.
• Preface paradox The author of a book may be jus-
• Demographic-economic paradox nations or sub-
tified in believing that all his statements in the book
populations with higher GDP per capita are ob-
are correct, at the same time believing that at least
served to have fewer children, even though a richer
one of them is incorrect.
population can support more children.
• Problem of evil (Epicurean paradox) The existence
of evil seems to be incompatible with the existence • Downs–Thomson paradox Increasing road capac-
of an omnipotent, omniscient, and morally perfect ity at the expense of investments in public transport
God. can make overall congestion on the road worse.

• Rule-following paradox Even though rules are in- • Easterlin paradox For countries with income suffi-
tended to determine actions, “no course of action cient to meet basic needs, the reported level of hap-
could be determined by a rule, because any course piness does not correlate with national income per
of action can be made out to accord with the rule”. person.

• When a white horse is not a horse White horses • Edgeworth paradox With capacity constraints,
are not horses because white and horse refer to dif- there may not be an equilibrium.
ferent things.
• Ellsberg paradox People exhibit ambiguity aver-
• Zeno's paradoxes “You will never reach point B sion (as distinct from risk aversion), in contradiction
from point A as you must always get half-way there, with expected utility theory.
and half of the half, and half of that half, and so on
...”(This is also a paradox of the infinite) • European paradox The perceived failure of Euro-
pean countries to translate scientific advances into
marketable innovations.
3.5.10 Mysticism
• Gibson's paradox Why were interest rates and
• Tzimtzum In Kabbalah, how to reconcile self- prices correlated?
awareness of finite Creation with Infinite Divine
source, as an emanated causal chain would seem- • Giffen paradox Increasing the price of bread makes
ingly nullify existence. Luria's initial withdrawal poor people eat more of it.
of God in Hasidic panentheism involves simultane- • Icarus paradox Some businesses bring about their
ous illusionism of Creation (Upper Unity) and self- own downfall through their own successes.
aware existence (Lower Unity), God encompassing
logical opposites. • Jevons paradox Increases in efficiency lead to even
larger increases in demand.

3.5.11 Economics • Leontief paradox Some countries export labor-

intensive commodities and import capital-intensive
See also: Category:Economics paradoxes commodities, in contradiction with Heckscher–
Ohlin theory.

• Allais paradox A change in a possible outcome that • Lucas paradox Capital is not flowing from devel-
is shared by different alternatives affects people's oped countries to developing countries despite the
choices among those alternatives, in contradiction fact that developing countries have lower levels of
with expected utility theory. capital per worker, and therefore higher returns to
capital.
• The Antitrust Paradox : A book arguing that an-
titrust enforcement artificially raised prices by pro- • Mandeville's paradox Actions that may be vicious
tecting inefficient competitors from competition. to individuals may benefit society as a whole.
218 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

• Mayfield's paradox Keeping everyone out of an in- • Tullock paradox Bribing politicians costs less than
formation system is impossible, but so is getting ev- one would expect, considering how much profit it
erybody in. can yield.
• Metzler paradox The imposition of a tariff on im-
ports may reduce the relative internal price of that
3.5.12 Perception
good.
• Paradox of prosperity Why do generations that For more details on this topic, see Perceptual paradox.
significantly improve the economic climate seem to
generally rear a successor generation that consumes
rather than produces? • Tritone paradox An auditory illusion in which a
sequentially played pair of Shepard tones is heard
• Paradox of competition A class of paradoxes
as ascending by some people and as descending by
where - under the condition of a competitive situ-
others.
ation - individual measures to do good or gain ad-
vantage, in the end lead to nullification of advantage • Blub paradox Cognitive lock of some experienced
or even worsening for the totality of economic ac- programmers that prevents them from properly eval-
tors as well as for the individual (Circuit paradoxes, uating the quality of programming languages which
Classical paradoxes, Marx paradoxes). they do not know.* [9]
• Paradox of thrift If everyone saves more money
during times of recession, then aggregate demand
will fall and will in turn lower total savings in the 3.5.13 Politics
population.
• Stability–instability paradox When two countries
• Paradox of toil If everyone tries to work during each have nuclear weapons, the probability of a di-
times of recession, lower wages will reduce prices, rect war between them greatly decreases, but the
leading to more deflationary expectations, leading to probability of minor or indirect conflicts between
further thrift, reducing demand and thereby reduc- them increases.
ing employment.
• Paradox of value, also known as diamond-water
paradox: Water is more useful than diamonds, yet 3.5.14 History
is a lot cheaper.
• Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel We learn from
• Productive failure Providing less guidance and history that we do not learn from history.* [10] (para-
structure and thereby causing more failure is likely phrased)
to promote better learning.* [8]
• Productivity paradox (also known as Solow com-
puter paradox): Worker productivity may go 3.5.15 Psychology and sociology
down, despite technological improvements.
• Gender paradox Women conform more closely
• Scitovsky paradox Using the Kaldor–Hicks crite- than men to sociolinguistics norms that are overtly
rion, an allocation A may be more efficient than al- prescribed, but conform less than men when they are
location B, while at the same time B is more efficient not.
than A.
• Moral paradox A situation in which moral imper-
• Service recovery paradox Successfully fixing a
atives clash without clear resolution.
problem with a defective product may lead to higher
consumer satisfaction than in the case where no • Outcomes paradox Schizophrenia patients in de-
problem occurred at all. veloping countries seem to fare better than their
• St. Petersburg paradox People will only offer a Western counterparts.* [11]
modest fee for a reward of infinite expected value.
• Status paradox Several paradoxes involve the con-
• Paradox of Plenty The Paradox of Plenty (re- cept of medical or social status.
source curse) refers to the paradox that countries
and regions with an abundance of natural resources, • The Paradox of Anti-Semitism A book arguing
specifically point-source non-renewable resources that the lack of external persecutions and antago-
like minerals and fuels, tend to have less economic nisms results in the dissolution of Jewish identity,
growth and worse development outcomes than coun- a theory that resonates in works of Dershowitz and
tries with fewer natural resources. Sartre.
3.5. LIST OF PARADOXES 219

• Region-beta paradox People can sometimes re- • Absurdity

cover more quickly from more intense emotions or
pain than from less distressing experiences. • Excusable negligence If a behavior is excusable, it
is not negligence.
• Self-absorption paradox The contradictory as-
sociation whereby higher levels of self-awareness • Gödel's incompleteness theorems and Tarski's
are simultaneously associated with higher levels of undefinability theorem
psychological distress and with psychological well- • Ignore all rules To obey this rule, it is necessary to
being.* [12] ignore it.
• Stapp's ironical paradox “The universal aptitude • Impossible object A type of optical illusion.
for ineptitude makes any human accomplishment an
incredible miracle.” • Invalid proof An apparently correct mathematical
derivation that leads to an obvious contradiction.
• Stockdale paradox“You must never confuse faith
that you will prevail in the end—which you can never • Logical fallacy A misconception resulting from in-
afford to lose—with the discipline to confront the correct reasoning in argumentation.
most brutal facts of your current reality, whatever
they might be.” • Paradox gun A gun that has characteristics of both
(smoothbore) shotguns and rifles.
• Ironic process theory Ironic processing is the psy-
chological process whereby an individual's deliber- • Paradoxical laughter Inappropriate laughter, often
ate attempts to suppress or avoid certain thoughts recognized as such by the laughing person.
(thought suppression) renders those thoughts more • Performative contradiction Some statements con-
persistent. tradict the conditions that allow them to be stated.

• Proof that 0.999... equals 1

3.5.16 Miscellaneous
• Puzzle
• Absence paradox No one is ever “here”.
• Self-refuting idea
• Ant on a rubber rope An ant crawling on a rubber
rope can reach the end even when the rope stretches • Theories of humor Incongruity theory and the
much faster than the ant can crawl. Ridiculous.

• Bonini's paradox Models or simulations that ex-

plain the workings of complex systems are seem- 3.5.18 Notes
ingly impossible to construct. As a model of a com-
[1] Eldridge-Smith, Peter; Eldridge-Smith, Veronique (13
plex system becomes more complete, it becomes
January 2010). “The Pinocchio paradox”. Analysis 70
less understandable, for it to be more understand- (2): 212–215. doi:10.1093/analys/anp173. ISSN 1467-
able it must be less complete and therefore less ac- 8284. Retrieved 23 July 2010.
curate. When the model becomes accurate, it is just As of 2010, an image of Pinocchio with a speech bub-
as difficult to understand as the real-world processes ble“My nose will grow now!" has become a minor Inter-
it represents. net phenomenon (Google search, Google image search).
It seems likely that this paradox has been independently
• Buttered cat paradox Humorous example of a conceived multiple times.
paradox from contradicting proverbs.
[2] Herzberger, Hans and Radhika Herzberger (1981).
• Intentionally blank page Many documents contain “Bhartrhari's Paradox”Journal of Indian Philosophy 9: 1-
pages on which the text “This page is intentionally 17 (slightly revised version of “Bhartrhari's Paradox”in
left blank”is printed, thereby making the page not Studies in Indian Philosophy. A memorial volume in hon-
blank. our of pandit Sukhlalji Sanghvi. (L.D. Series 84.) Gen.
ed. Dalsukh Malvania et al. Amedabad, 1981).
• Observer's paradox The outcome of an event or
experiment is influenced by the presence of the ob- [3] Newton, Roger G. (2002). Scattering Theory of Waves
and Particles, second edition. Dover Publications. p. 68.
server.
ISBN 0-486-42535-5.

[4] Carnap is quoted as saying in 1977 "... the situation with

3.5.17 See also respect to Maxwell's paradox”, in Leff, Harvey S.; Rex,
A. F., eds. (2003). Maxwell's Demon 2: Entropy, Clas-
• Auto-antonym A word that is encoded with oppos- sical and Quantum Information, Computing. Institute of
ing meanings. Physics. p. 19. ISBN 0-7503-0759-5. Archived from the
220 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

original on 2005-11-09. Retrieved 15 March 2010. paradox is to consider what happens when the process is
On page 36, Leff and Rex also quote Goldstein and Gold- repeated enough times: is a single remaining grain still a
stein as saying “Smoluchowski fully resolved the para- heap? (Or are even no grains at all a heap?) If not, when
dox of the demon in 1912”in Goldstein, Martin; Gold- did it change from a heap to a non-heap?* [4]* [5]
stein, Inge F. (1993). The Refrigerator and The Universe.
Universities Press (India) Pvt. Ltd. p. 228. ISBN 978-
81-7371-085-8. OCLC 477206415. Retrieved 15 March 3.6.1 The original formulation and varia-
2010.
tions
[5] Peng, C.-K; Isaac C Henry; Joseph E Mietus; Jeffrey M
Hausdorff; Gurucharan Khalsa; Herbert Benson; Ary L Paradox of the heap
Goldberger (May 2004). “Heart rate dynamics during
three forms of meditation”. International Journal of Car-
The word“sorites”derives from the Greek word for heap.
diology 95 (1): 19–27. doi:10.1016/j.ijcard.2003.02.006.The paradox is so named because of its original character-
PMID 15159033. Retrieved 23 May 2012. ization, attributed to Eubulides of Miletus.* [6] The para-
[6] Khasnis, A.; Lokhandwala, Y. (Jan–Mar 2002).“Clinical dox goes as follows: consider a heap of sand from which
signs in medicine: pulsus paradoxus”. Journal of Post- grains are individually removed. One might construct the
*
graduate Medicine (Mumbai - 400 012, India: 49) 48 (1): argument, using premises, as follows: [5]
46–9. ISSN 0022-3859. PMID 12082330. Retrieved 21
March 2010. The “paradox”refers to the fact that heart 1000000 grains of sand is a heap of sand
sounds may be heard over the precordium when the radial
(Premise 1)
pulse is not felt.
A heap of sand minus one grain is still a heap.
[7] See also Predestination paradoxes in popular culture (Premise 2)
[8] Kapur, Manú; Bielaczyc, K (2012). “Designing for Pro-
ductive Failure”. Journal of the Learning Sciences 21: Repeated applications of Premise 2 (each time starting
45–83. doi:10.1080/10508406.2011.591717. with one fewer grain) eventually forces one to accept the
conclusion that a heap may be composed of just one grain
[9] Hidders, J. “Expressive Power of Recursion and Aggre-
of sand (and consequently, if one grain of sand is still a
gates in XQuery”. Retrieved 23 May 2012. Chapter 1,
Introduction. heap, then removing that one grain of sand to leave no
grains at all still leaves a heap of sand; indeed a nega-
[10] Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich (1832). Lectures on the tive number of grains must also form a heap* [7]). Read
Philosophy of History. (1995) observes that “the argument is itself a heap, or
sorites, of steps of modus ponens":* [8]
[11] Developing countries: The outcomes paradox Nature.com

[12] Trapnell, P. D., & Campbell, J. D. (1999). “Private self- 1000000 grains is a heap.
consciousness and the Five-Factor Model of Personality:
Distinguishing rumination from reflection”. Journal of If 1000000 grains is a heap then 999999 grains
Personality and Social Psychology, 76, 284-304. is a heap.
So 999999 grains is a heap.
If 999999 grains is a heap then 999998 grains
3.6 Sorites paradox is a heap.
So 999998 grains is a heap.
If ...
... So 1 grain is a heap.

Variations
The change in size between consecutive“big”heaps (left) is twice
that of the change between consecutive“little”heaps (right), yet
seems less significant.

The sorites paradox (/soʊˈraɪtiːz/;* [1] sometimes trans-

lated as the paradox of the heap because in Ancient Color gradient illustrating a sorites paradox, any adjacent colors
Greek: σωρίτης sōritēs means“heap”)* [2] is a paradox being indistinguishable by the human eye
that arises from vague predicates.* [3] A typical formula-
tion involves a heap of sand, from which grains are indi- Another formulation is to start with a grain of sand, which
vidually removed. Under the assumption that removing is clearly not a heap, and then assume that adding a sin-
a single grain does not turn a heap into a non-heap, the gle grain of sand to something that is not a heap does not
 3.6. SORITES PARADOX 221

turn it into a heap. Inductively, this process can be re- natural language. A more acceptable solution is to call
peated as much as one wants without ever constructing a any collection of multiple grains (two or more) a heap,
heap.* [3]* [5] A more natural formulation of this variant or to call a collection a heap if some grains of sand are
is to assume a set of colored chips exists such that two supported solely by other grains of sand.
adjacent chips vary in color too little for human eyesight
to be able to distinguish between them. Then by induc-
tion on this premise, humans would not be able to distin- Unknowable boundaries (or epistemicism)
guish between any colors.* [3] The removal of one drop
from the ocean, will not make it 'not an ocean' (it is still Timothy Williamson* [12]* [13]* [14] and Roy
*
an ocean), but since the volume of water in the ocean is Sorensen [15] hold an approach that there are fixed
finite, eventually, after enough removals, even a litre of boundaries but that they are necessarily unknowable.
water left is still an ocean.
This paradox can be reconstructed for a variety of pred- Supervaluationism
icates, for example, with “tall”, “rich”, “old”,
“blue”,“bald”, and so on. Bertrand Russell argued* [9] Main article: Supervaluationism
that all of natural language, even logical connectives,
is vague; moreover, representations of propositions are
Supervaluationism is a semantics for dealing with irref-
vague. However, most views do not go that far, but it is
erential singular terms and vagueness. It allows one to
an open question.
retain the usual tautological laws even when dealing with
Other similar paradoxes are: undefined truth values.* [16]* [17]* [18]* [19]
As an example for a proposition about an irreferential sin-
• Argument of the beard* [10] gular term, consider the sentence "Pegasus likes licorice".
Since the name "Pegasus" fails to refer, no truth value can
• The bald man paradox
be assigned to the sentence; there is nothing in the myth
that would justify any such assignment. However, there
3.6.2 Proposed resolutions are some statements about "Pegasus" which have definite
truth values nevertheless, such as "Pegasus likes licorice
On the face of it, there are some ways to avoid this con- or Pegasus doesn't like licorice". This sentence is an in-
clusion. One may object to the first premise by denying stance of the tautology " p ∨ ¬p ", i.e. the valid schema
1000000 grains of sand makes a heap. But 1000000 is " p or not- p ". According to supervaluationism, it should
just an arbitrarily large number, and the argument will be true regardless of whether or not its components have
go through with any such number. So the response must a truth value.
deny outright that there are such things as heaps. Peter Similarly, "1000 grains of sand is a heap of sand" may be
Unger defends this solution.* [11] Alternatively, one may considered a border case having no truth value, but "1000
object to the second premise by stating that it is not true grains of sand is a heap of sand, or 1000 grains of sand
for all heaps of sand that removing one grain from it still is not a heap of sand" should be true.
makes a heap. Or one may accept the conclusion by in-
sisting that a heap of sand can be composed of just one Precisely, let v be a classical valuation defined on every
grain, and solely deny the further conclusions regarding atomic sentence of the language L , and let At(x) be the
zero-grain or negative-grain-number heaps. number of distinct atomic sentences in x . Then for ev-
ery sentence x , at most 2At(x) distinct classical valua-
tions can exist. A supervaluation V is a function from
Setting a fixed boundary sentences to truth values such that, a sentence x is super-
true (i.e. V (x) = True ) if and only if v(x) = True for
A common first response to the paradox is to call any set every classical valuation v ; likewise for super-false. Oth-
of grains that has more than a certain number of grains erwise, V (x) is undefined—i.e. exactly when there are
in it a heap. If one were to set the “fixed boundary” two classical valuations v and v ′ such that v(x) = True
at, say, 10000 grains then one would claim that for fewer and v ′ (x) = False .
than 10000, it is not a heap; for 10000 or more, then it is For example, let L p be the formal translation of "Pegasus
a heap. likes licorice". Then there are exactly two classical val-
However, such solutions are unsatisfactory as there seems uations v and v ′ on L p , viz. v(L p) = True and
little significance to the difference between 9999 grains v ′ (L p) = False . So L p is neither super-true nor super-
and 10000 grains. The boundary, wherever it may be set, false. However, the tautology L p ∨ ¬L p is evaluated to
remains as arbitrary and so its precision is misleading. True by every classical valuation; it is hence super-true.
It is objectionable on both philosophical and linguistic Similarly, the formalization of the above heap proposi-
grounds: the former on account of its arbitrariness, and tion H 1000 is neither super-true nor super-false, but
the latter on the ground that it is simply not how we use H 1000 ∨ ¬H 1000 is super-true.
 222 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

Truth gaps, gluts, and many-valued logics A group may decide that:

Another approach is to use a multi-valued logic. From

this point of view, the problem is with the principle of bi- • One grain of sand on its own is not a heap.
valence: the sand is either a heap or is not a heap, without
any shades of gray. Instead of two logical states, heap and • A large collection of grains of sand is a heap.
not-heap, a three value system can be used, for example
heap, indeterminate and not-heap. However, three val-
Between the two extremes, individual members of the
ued systems do not truly resolve the paradox as there is
group may disagree with each other over whether any par-
still a dividing line between heap and indeterminate and
ticular collection can be labelled a “heap”. The collec-
also between indeterminate and not-heap. The third truth-
tion can then not be definitively claimed to be a “heap”
value can be understood either as a truth-value gap or as
or “not a heap”. This can be considered an appeal to
a truth-value glut.* [20]
descriptive linguistics rather than prescriptive linguistics,
Alternatively, fuzzy logic offers a continuous spectrum of as it resolves the issue of definition based on how the pop-
logical states represented in the unit interval of real num- ulation uses natural language. Indeed, if a precise pre-
bers [0,1]—it is a many-valued logic with infinitely-many scriptive definition of“heap”is available then the group
truth-values, and thus the sand moves smoothly from consensus will always be unanimous and the paradox does
“definitely heap”to“definitely not heap”, with shades in not arise.
the intermediate region. Fuzzy hedges are used to divide
the continuum into regions corresponding to classes like
definitely heap, mostly heap, partly heap, slightly heap, Dropping transitivity of involved relations
and not heap. * [21]* [22]
In the above color example, the argument is tacitly based
Hysteresis on considering the relation “for the human eye, color X
is indistinguishable from Y" as an equivalence relation, in
Another approach is to use hysteresis, that is, knowl- particular as transitive. To drop the transitivity assump-
edge of what the collection of sand started as. Equivalent tion is another possibility to resolve the paradox.
amounts of sand may be called heaps or not based on how Similarly, the paradox is based on considering the rela-
they got there. If a large heap (indisputably described as a tion“for the human eye, color X looks more or equally red
heap) is slowly diminished, it preserves its“heap status” than Y" as a reflexive total ordering; dropping its transitiv-
to a point, even as the actual amount of sand is reduced ity again resolves the paradox. The latter relation can be
to a smaller number of grains. For example, suppose 500 described instead as a quasitransitive relation, employing
grains is a pile and 1000 grains is a heap. There will be a concept introduced by microeconomist Amartya Sen in
an overlap for these states. So if one is reducing it from a 1969.* [24] The table shows a simple example, with color
heap to a pile, it is a heap going down until, say, 750. At differences overdone for readability. A“Q”and a“T”in-
that point one would stop calling it a heap and start call- dicates that the row's color looks more or equally red than
ing it a pile. But if one replaces one grain, it would not column's color in the quasitransitive and the transitive
instantly turn back into a heap. When going up it would version of the relation, respectively. In the quasitransitive
remain a pile until, say, 900 grains. The numbers picked version, e.g. the colors f01000 and e02000 are modelled
are arbitrary; the point is, that the same amount can be as indistinguishable, since a “Q”appears in both their
either a heap or a pile depending on what it was before intersection cells. A “P”indicates the asymmetric part
the change. A common use of hysteresis would be the of the quasitransitive version.
thermostat for air conditioning: the AC is set at 77 °F
and it then cools down to just below 77 °F, but does not To resolve the original heap variation of the paradox with
turn on again instantly at 77.001 °F—it waits until almost this approach, the relation "X grains are more a heap than
78 °F degrees, to prevent instant change of state over and Y grains”should be considered quasitransitive rather than
over again.* [23] transitive.

Group consensus
3.6.3 In popular culture
One can establish the meaning of the word “heap”by
appealing to consensus. This approach claims that a col- Season 1, episode 8 of Fargo is titled "The Heap", after
lection of grains is as much a“heap”as the proportion of the sorites paradox.* [25]
people in a group who believe it to be so. In other words, The paradox appeared on Dinosaur Comics on August
the probability that any collection is considered a heap 28th, 2009.* [26] The webcomic SMBC featured a vari-
is the expected value of the distribution of the group's ant of Sorites paradox involving the number of people
views. attending a party on September 27th, 2014 * [27]
3.6. SORITES PARADOX 223

3.6.4 See also [10] Thouless, Robert H. (1953), Straight and Crooked Think-
ing (Revised ed.), London: Pan Books, p. 61, A very old
• Ambiguity example illustrates the kind of error that is involved. One
may throw doubt on the reality of the difference between
• Boiling frog a bearded and a clean-shaven man by a process beginning
with the question whether a man with one hair on his chin
• Beginning of human personhood has a beard. The answer is clearly “No.”Then one may
ask whether with two hairs on his chin a man has a beard.
• Coastline paradox
Again the answer must be“No”. So again with three, four,
• Continuum fallacy etc. At no point can our opponent say “Yes”, for if he
has answered“No”for, let us say, twenty-nine hairs, and
• False dilemma “Yes”for thirty, it is easy to pour scorn on the suggestion
that the difference between twenty-nine and thirty hairs
• I know it when I see it is the difference between not having and having a beard.
Yet by this process of adding one hair at a time we can
• Loki's Wager reach a number of hairs which would undoubtedly make
• Milo of Croton (on how he was able to lift a bull) up a beard. The trouble is that the difference between a
beard and no beard lies, like the difference between white
• Nirvana fallacy and grey, in the fact that one can pass by continuous steps
from one to the other. In this argument, the fact of con-
• Philosophical Investigations tinuous variation has been used to undermine the reality
of the difference. Because there is no sharp dividing line,
• Ship of Theseus it has been suggested that there is no difference.
• Slippery slope [11] Unger, Peter (1979). “There Are No Ordinary Things”
. Synthese 41: 117–154. doi:10.1007/bf00869568. Re-
• Straw that broke the camel's back
trieved 19 July 2013. (Alternative: jstor.org)
• The Englishman Who Went Up a Hill But Came
[12] Williamson, Timothy (1992). “Inexact Knowledge”.
Down a Mountain
Mind 101: 218–242. doi:10.1093/mind/101.402.217.
JSTOR 2254332.
3.6.5 References [13] Williamson, Timothy (1992). “Vagueness and Igno-
rance”. Supplementary Proceedings of the Aristotelian
[1] http://www.omnilexica.com/pronunciation/?q=Sorites# Society 66: 145–162. JSTOR 4106976.
.UyL2hPldWSo
[14] Williamson, Timothy (1994). Vagueness. London: Rout-
[2] "σωρίτης". LSJ.
ledge.
[3] Barker, C. (2009).“Vagueness”. In Allan, Keith. Concise
[15] Sorensen, Roy (1988). Blindspots. Clarendeon Press.
Encyclopedia of Semantics. Elsevier. p. 1037. ISBN 978-
0-08-095968-9. [16] Fine, Kit (Apr–May 1975). “Vagueness, Truth
[4] Bergmann, Merrie (2008). An Introduction to Many- and Logic”. Synthese 30 (3/4): 265–300.
Valued and Fuzzy Logic: Semantics, Algebras, and Deriva- doi:10.1007/BF00485047.
tion Systems. Cambridge University Press. p. 3. ISBN
[17] van Fraasen, B. C. (1966).“Singular Terms, Truth-Value
978-0-521-88128-9.
Gaps, and Free Logic”. Journal of Philosophy 53: 481–
[5] Sorensen, Roy A. (2009). “sorites arguments”. In Jaeg- 485. JSTOR 2024549.
won Kim; Sosa, Ernest; Rosenkrantz, Gary S. A Compan-
ion to Metaphysics. John Wiley & Sons. p. 565. ISBN [18] Kamp, Hans (1975). Keenan, E., ed. Two Theories about
978-1-4051-5298-3. Adjectives. Cambridge University Press. pp. 123–155.

[6] (Barnes 1982), (Burnyeat 1982), (Williamson 1994) [19] Dummett, Michael (1975).“Wang's Paradox”. Synthese
30: 301–324. doi:10.1007/BF00485048.
[7] Dolev, Y. (2004). “Why Induction Is No Cure For Bald-
ness”. Philosophical Investigations 27 (4): 328–344. [20] http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/truth-values/
doi:10.1111/j.1467-9205.2004.t01-1-00230.x.
[21] Zadeh, L. A. (1965).“Fuzzy Sets”. Information and Con-
[8] Read, Stephen (1995). Thinking About Logic, p.174. Ox- trol 8: 338–353. doi:10.1016/s0019-9958(65)90241-x.
ford. ISBN 019289238X.
[22] Goguen, J. A. (1969).“The Logic of Inexact Concepts”.
[9] Russell, Bertrand (June 1923). “Vagueness”. The Synthese 19 (3–4): 325–378. doi:10.1007/BF00485654.
Australasian Journal of Psychology and Philosophy 1 (2):
84–92. doi:10.1080/00048402308540623. ISSN 1832- [23] Raffman, D. (2005). “How to understand contextualism
8660. Retrieved November 18, 2009. Shalizi's 1995 etext about vagueness: reply to Stanley”. Analysis 65 (287):
is archived at archive.org and at WebCite. 244–248. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8284.2005.00558.x.
224 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

[24] Sen, Amartya (1969).“Quasi-transitivity, rational choice 3.7 Unexpected hanging paradox
and collective decisions”. Rev. Econ. Stud. 36: 381–393.
Zbl 0181.47302.
The unexpected hanging paradox or hangman para-
[25] Phillips, Kate (June 3, 2014). "‘Fargo’Recap: Spinning dox is a paradox about a person's expectations about the
Into a New Cycle”. The New York Time. timing of a future event that he is told will occur at an
unexpected time. The paradox is variously applied to a
[26] North, Ryan (August 28, 2009). “August 28th, 2009 – prisoner's hanging, or a surprise school test.
awesome fun times!". Dinosaur Comics. Retrieved 9 June
2010. Despite significant academic interest, there is no consen-
sus on its precise nature and consequently a final 'cor-
[27] http://www.smbc-comics.com/?id=3495 rect' resolution has not yet been established.* [1] One ap-
proach, offered by the logical school of thought, sug-
gests that the problem arises in a self-contradictory self-
3.6.6 Bibliography referencing statement at the heart of the judge's sentence.
Another approach, offered by the epistemological school
• Black, Max (1970). Margins of Precision. Ithaca, of thought, suggests the unexpected hanging paradox is
NY: Cornell University Press. ISBN 0-8014-0602- an example of an epistemic paradox because it turns on
1. our concept of knowledge.* [2] Even though it is appar-
ently simple, the paradox's underlying complexities have
• Barnes, J. (1982). “Medicine, Experience and
even led to it being called a “significant problem”for
Logic”. In Barnes, J.; Brunschwig, J.; Burnyeat,
philosophy.* [3]
M. F.; Schofield, M. Science and Speculation. Cam-
bridge: Cambridge University Press.

• Burns (1991). Vagueness: An Investigation into Nat- 3.7.1 Description of the paradox
ural Languages and the Sorites Paradox. Dordrecht:
*
Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-1489- The paradox has been described as follows: [4]
1.
A judge tells a condemned prisoner that he
• Burnyeat, Myles (1982).“15. Gods and heaps”. In
will be hanged at noon on one weekday in the
Schofield, M.; Nussbaum, M. C. Language and Lo-
following week but that the execution will be a
gos. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp.
surprise to the prisoner. He will not know the
315–.
day of the hanging until the executioner knocks
• Damir D. Dzhafarov, The sorites paradox: a behav- on his cell door at noon that day.
ioral approach (with E. N. Dzhafarov), in J. Valsiner Having reflected on his sentence, the pris-
and L. Dudolph (eds.). oner draws the conclusion that he will escape
from the hanging. His reasoning is in several
• Gerla (2001). Fuzzy logic: Mathematical Tools for parts. He begins by concluding that the “sur-
Approximate Reasoning. Dordrecht, Netherlands: prise hanging”can't be on Friday, as if he hasn't
Kluwer Academic Publishers. ISBN 0-7923-6941- been hanged by Thursday, there is only one day
6. left - and so it won't be a surprise if he's hanged
on Friday. Since the judge's sentence stipu-
• Kirk Ludwig & Greg Ray, “Vagueness and the lated that the hanging would be a surprise to
Sorites Paradox”, Philosophical Perspectives 16, him, he concludes it cannot occur on Friday.
2002. He then reasons that the surprise hanging
• Nouwen, Rick; Rooij, Robert van; Sauerland, cannot be on Thursday either, because Friday
Uli; Schmitz, Hans-Christian (2009). International has already been eliminated and if he hasn't
Workshop on Vagueness in Communication (ViC; been hanged by Wednesday night, the hanging
held as part of ESSLLI). LNAI 6517. Springer. must occur on Thursday, making a Thursday
ISBN 978-3-642-18445-1. hanging not a surprise either. By similar rea-
soning he concludes that the hanging can also
• Sainsbury, R. M. (2009). Paradoxes (3rd ed.). not occur on Wednesday, Tuesday or Monday.
Cambridge University Press.; Sect.3 Joyfully he retires to his cell confident that the
hanging will not occur at all.
The next week, the executioner knocks on
3.6.7 External links the prisoner's door at noon on Wednesday —
which, despite all the above, was an utter sur-
• Sorites paradox entry in the Stanford Encyclopedia prise to him. Everything the judge said came
of Philosophy by Dominic Hyde. true.
 3.7. UNEXPECTED HANGING PARADOX 225

Other versions of the paradox replace the death sentence Objections

with a surprise fire drill, examination, pop quiz, or a lion
behind a door.* [1] The first objection often raised to the logical school's ap-
proach is that it fails to explain how the judge's announce-
The informal nature of everyday language allows for mul-
ment appears to be vindicated after the fact. If the judge's
tiple interpretations of the paradox. In the extreme case,
statement is self-contradictory, how does he manage to be
a prisoner who is paranoid might feel certain in his knowl-
right all along? This objection rests on an understanding
edge that the executioner will arrive at noon on Monday,
of the conclusion to be that the judge's statement is self-
then certain that he will come on Tuesday and so forth,
contradictory and therefore the source of the paradox.
thus ensuring that every day he is not hanged really is
However, the conclusion is more precisely that in order
a “surprise”to him, but that the day of his hanging
for the prisoner to carry out his argument that the judge's
he was indeed expecting to be hanged. But even with-
sentence cannot be fulfilled, he must interpret the judge's
out adding this element to the story, the vagueness of the
announcement as (B). A reasonable assumption would be
account prohibits one from being objectively clear about
that the judge did not intend (B) but that the prisoner mis-
which formalization truly captures its essence. There
interprets his words to reach his paradoxical conclusion.
has been considerable debate between the logical school,
The judge's sentence appears to be vindicated afterwards
which uses mathematical language, and the epistemolog-
but the statement which is actually shown to be true is
ical school, which employs concepts such as knowledge,
that “the prisoner will be psychologically surprised by
belief and memory, over which formulation is correct.
the hanging”. This statement in formal logic would not
allow the prisoner's argument to be carried out.
A related objection is that the paradox only occurs be-
3.7.2 The logical school cause the judge tells the prisoner his sentence (rather than
keeping it secret) —which suggests that the act of declar-
Formulation of the judge's announcement into formal ing the sentence is important. Some have argued that
logic is made difficult by the vague meaning of the word since this action is missing from the logical school's ap-
“surprise”. An attempt at formulation might be: proach, it must be an incomplete analysis. But the ac-
tion is included implicitly. The public utterance of the
sentence and its context changes the judge's meaning to
• The prisoner will be hanged next week and the date
something like “there will be a surprise hanging despite
(of the hanging) will not be deducible the night be-
my having told you that there will be a surprise hanging”
fore from the assumption that the hanging will occur
. The logical school's approach does implicitly take this
during the week (A).
into account.

Given this announcement the prisoner can deduce that the

hanging will not occur on the last day of the week. How-
3.7.3 The epistemological school
ever, in order to reproduce the next stage of the argument,
Various epistemological formulations have been pro-
which eliminates the penultimate day of the week, the
posed that show that the prisoner's tacit assumptions
prisoner must argue that his ability to deduce, from state-
about what he will know in the future, together with sev-
ment (A), that the hanging will not occur on the last day,
eral plausible assumptions about knowledge, are incon-
implies that a last-day hanging would not be surprising.
sistent.
But since the meaning of“surprising”has been restricted
to not deducible from the assumption that the hanging will Chow (1998) provides a detailed analysis of a version of
occur during the week instead of not deducible from state- the paradox in which a surprise examination is to take
ment (A), the argument is blocked. place on one of two days. Applying Chow's analysis to
the case of the unexpected hanging (again with the week
This suggests that a better formulation would in fact be:
shortened to two days for simplicity), we start with the ob-
servation that the judge's announcement seems to affirm
• The prisoner will be hanged next week and its date three things:
will not be deducible the night before using this state-
ment as an axiom (B). • S1: The hanging will occur on Monday or Tuesday.

• S2: If the hanging occurs on Monday, then the pris-

Fitch has shown that this statement can still be expressed oner will not know on Sunday evening that it will oc-
in formal logic.* [5] Using an equivalent form of the para- cur on Monday.
dox which reduces the length of the week to just two days,
he proved that although self-reference is not illegitimate • S3: If the hanging occurs on Tuesday, then the pris-
in all circumstances, it is in this case because the state- oner will not know on Monday evening that it will
ment is self-contradictory. occur on Tuesday.
226 CHAPTER 3. PARADOXES

As a first step, the prisoner reasons that a scenario in [5] Fitch, F. (1964). “A Goedelized formulation of the pre-
which the hanging occurs on Tuesday is impossible be- diction paradox”. Amer. Phil. Quart 1 (2): 161–164.
cause it leads to a contradiction: on the one hand, by JSTOR 20009132.
S3, the prisoner would not be able to predict the Tues-
day hanging on Monday evening; but on the other hand,
by S1 and process of elimination, the prisoner would be 3.7.6 Further reading
able to predict the Tuesday hanging on Monday evening.
• O'Connor, D. J. (1948). “Pragmatic
Chow's analysis points to a subtle flaw in the prisoner's Paradoxes”. Mind 57: 358–359.
reasoning. What is impossible is not a Tuesday hang- doi:10.1093/mind/lvii.227.358. The first ap-
ing. Rather, what is impossible is a situation in which the pearance of the paradox in print. The author claims that
hanging occurs on Tuesday despite the prisoner knowing certain contingent future tense statements cannot come
on Monday evening that the judge's assertions S1, S2, and true.
S3 are all true.
The prisoner's reasoning, which gives rise to the paradox, • Scriven, M. (1951). “Paradoxical An-
is able to get off the ground because the prisoner tacitly nouncements”. Mind 60: 403–407.
assumes that on Monday evening, he will (if he is still doi:10.1093/mind/lx.239.403. The author cri-
alive) know S1, S2, and S3 to be true. This assump- tiques O'Connor and discovers the paradox as we know it
tion seems unwarranted on several different grounds. It today.
may be argued that the judge's pronouncement that some- • Shaw, R. (1958). “The Unexpected
thing is true can never be sufficient grounds for the pris- Examination”. Mind 67: 382–384.
oner knowing that it is true. Further, even if the prisoner doi:10.1093/mind/lxvii.267.382. The author
knows something to be true in the present moment, un- claims that the prisoner's premises are self-referring.
known psychological factors may erase this knowledge in
the future. Finally, Chow suggests that because the state- • Wright, C. & Sudbury, A. (1977). “the Para-
ment which the prisoner is supposed to “know”to be dox of the Unexpected Examination”. Aus-
true is a statement about his inability to “know”cer- tralasian Journal of Philosophy 55: 41–58.
tain things, there is reason to believe that the unexpected doi:10.1080/00048407712341031. The first com-
hanging paradox is simply a more intricate version of plete formalization of the paradox, and a proposed
Moore's paradox. A suitable analogy can be reached by solution to it.
reducing the length of the week to just one day. Then the
judge's sentence becomes: You will be hanged tomorrow, • Margalit, A. & Bar-Hillel, M. (1983). “Expect-
but you do not know that. ing the Unexpected”. Philosophia 13: 337–344. A
history and bibliography of writings on the paradox up to
1983.
3.7.4 See also
• Chihara, C. S. (1985). “Olin, Quine, and the Sur-
• Bottle imp paradox prise Examination”. Philosophical Studies 47: 19–
26. The author claims that the prisoner assumes, falsely,
• Centipede game, the Nash equilibrium of which that if he knows some proposition, then he also knows that
uses a similar mechanism as its proof. he knows it.
• Crocodile dilemma • Kirkham, R. (1991). “On Paradoxes and
• Interesting number paradox a Surprise Exam”. Philosophia 21: 31–51.
doi:10.1007/bf02381968. The author defends and ex-
• List of paradoxes tends Wright and Sudbury's solution. He also updates the
history and bibliography of Margalit and Bar-Hillel up to
1991.
3.7.5 References
• Chow, T. Y. (1998). “The surprise examination
[1] T. Y. Chow, “The surprise examination or unexpected or unexpected hanging paradox”. The American
hanging paradox,”The American Mathematical Monthly Mathematical Monthly.
Jan 1998
• Franceschi, P. (2005). “Une analyse di-
[2] Stanford Encyclopedia discussion of hanging paradox to- chotomique du paradoxe de l'examen surprise”
gether with other epistemic paradoxes
. Philosophiques (in French) 32 (2): 399–421.
[3] Sorensen, R. A. (1988). Blindspots. Oxford: Clarendon doi:10.7202/011875ar. English translation.
Press. ISBN 0198249810.
• Gardner, M. (1969). “The Paradox of the Unex-
[4] “Unexpected Hanging Paradox”. Wolfram. pected Hanging”. The Unexpected Hanging and
3.7. UNEXPECTED HANGING PARADOX 227

Other * Mathematical Diversions. Completely ana-

lyzes the paradox and introduces other situations with sim-
ilar logic.

• Quine, W. V. O. (1953).“On a So-called Paradox”

. Mind 62: 65–66. doi:10.1093/mind/lxii.245.65.

• Sorensen, R. A. (1982). “Recalcitrant versions of

the prediction paradox”. Australasian Journal of
Philosophy 69: 355–362.

• Kacser, Claude (1986). “On the unexpected hang-

ing paradox”. American Journal of Physics 54 (4):
296. doi:10.1119/1.14658.
• Shapiro, Stuart C. (1998). "A Procedu-
ral Solution to the Unexpected Hanging and
Sorites Paradoxes". Mind 107: 751–761.
doi:10.1093/mind/107.428.751.

3.7.7 External links

•“The Surprise Examination Paradox and the Second
Incompleteness Theorem”by Shira Kritchman and
Ran Raz, at ams.org

• “The Surprise Examination Paradox: A review of

two so-called solutions in dynamic epistemic logic”
by Alexandru Marcoci, at Faculty of Science: Uni-
versity of Amsterdam
Chapter 4

Stories

4.1 Blind men and an elephant Each one feels a different part, but only one part, such as
the side or the tusk. They then compare notes and learn
The story of the blind men and an elephant originated that they are in complete disagreement.
in the Indian subcontinent from where it has widely dif- The stories differ primarily in how the elephant's body
fused. It has been used to illustrate a range of truths and parts are described, how violent the conflict becomes and
fallacies; broadly, the parable implies that one's subjec- how (or if) the conflict among the men and their perspec-
tive experience can be true, but that such experience is in- tives is resolved.
herently limited by its failure to account for other truths
In some versions, they stop talking, start listening and col-
or a totality of truth. At various times the parable has
laborate to“see”the full elephant. When a sighted man
provided insight into the relativism, opaqueness or inex-
walks by and sees the entire elephant all at once, the blind
pressible nature of truth, the behavior of experts in fields
men also learn they are all blind. While one's subjective
where there is a deficit or inaccessibility of information,
experience is true, it may not be the totality of truth. If
the need for communication, and respect for different
the sighted man was deaf, he would not hear the elephant
perspectives.
bellow.
It is a parable that has crossed between many religious tra-
ditions and is part of Jain, Buddhist, Sufi and Hindu lore.
The tale later became well known in Europe, with 19th 4.1.2 Jain
century American poet John Godfrey Saxe creating his
own version as a poem.* [1] The story has been published A Jain version of the story says that six blind men were
in many books for adults and children, and interpreted in asked to determine what an elephant looked like by feel-
a variety of ways. ing different parts of the elephant's body. The blind man
who feels a leg says the elephant is like a pillar; the one
who feels the tail says the elephant is like a rope; the one
who feels the trunk says the elephant is like a tree branch;
the one who feels the ear says the elephant is like a hand
fan; the one who feels the belly says the elephant is like a
wall; and the one who feels the tusk says the elephant is
like a solid pipe.
A king explains to them:

All of you are right. The reason every one

of you is telling it differently is because each
one of you touched the different part of the
elephant. So, actually the elephant has all the
features you mentioned.* [2]
The blind men and the elephant
(wall relief in Northeast Thailand) The ancient Jain texts often explain the concepts of
anekāntvāda and syādvāda with the parable of the blind
men and an elephant (Andhgajanyāyah), which addresses
the manifold nature of truth.* [3] This parable resolves the
4.1.1 The story conflict, and is used to illustrate the principle of living in
harmony with people who have different belief systems,
In various versions of the tale, a group of blind men (or and that truth can be stated in different ways (in Jain be-
men in the dark) touch an elephant to learn what it is like. liefs often said to be seven versions). This is known as

228
 4.1. BLIND MEN AND AN ELEPHANT 229

the Syadvada, Anekantvada, or the theory of Manifold ket (ear), a plowshare (tusk), a plow (trunk), a granary
Predications.* [2] (body), a pillar (foot), a mortar (back), a pestle (tail) or a
Two of the many references to this parable are found in brush (tip of the tail).
Tattvarthaslokavatika of Vidyanandi (9th century) and The men cannot agree with one another and come to
Syādvādamanjari of Ācārya Mallisena (13th century). blows over the question of what it is like and their dispute
Mallisena uses the parable to argue that immature peo- delights the king. The Buddha ends the story by compar-
ple deny various aspects of truth; deluded by the aspects ing the blind men to preachers and scholars who are blind
they do understand, they deny the aspects they don't un- and ignorant and hold to their own views: “Just so are
derstand. “Due to extreme delusion produced on ac- these preachers and scholars holding various views blind
count of a partial viewpoint, the immature deny one as- and unseeing.... In their ignorance they are by nature
pect and try to establish another. This is the maxim of the quarrelsome, wrangling, and disputatious, each maintain-
blind (men) and the elephant.”* [4] Mallisena also cites ing reality is thus and thus.”The Buddha then speaks the
the parable when noting the importance of considering following verse:
all viewpoints in obtaining a full picture of reality. “It is
impossible to properly understand an entity consisting of O how they cling and wrangle, some who
infinite properties without the method of modal descrip- claim
tion consisting of all viewpoints, since it will otherwise For preacher and monk the honored name!
lead to a situation of seizing mere sprouts (i.e., a super- For, quarreling, each to his view they cling.
ficial, inadequate cognition), on the maxim of the blind Such folk see only one side of a thing.* [1]
(men) and the elephant.”* [5]
1. ^ Wang, Randy. “The Blind Men and
the Elephant”. Retrieved 2006-08-29.
4.1.3 Buddhist
4.1.4 Sufi Muslim
The Persian Sufi poet Sanai of Ghazni (currently,
Afghanistan) presented this teaching story in his The
Walled Garden of Truth.* [8]
Rumi, the 13th Century Persian poet and teacher of Su-
fism, included it in his Masnavi. In his retelling, “The
Elephant in the Dark”, some Hindus bring an elephant to
be exhibited in a dark room. A number of men touch and
feel the elephant in the dark and, depending upon where
they touch it, they believe the elephant to be like a wa-
ter spout (trunk), a fan (ear), a pillar (leg) and a throne
(back). Rumi uses this story as an example of the limits
of individual perception:
“Blind monks examining an elephant”, an ukiyo-e print by
Hanabusa Itchō (1652–1724).
The sensual eye is just like the palm of the
hand. The palm has not the means of covering
The Buddha twice uses the simile of blind men led astray.
the whole of the beast.* [9]
In the Canki Sutta he describes a row of blind men hold-
ing on to each other as an example of those who follow an
old text that has passed down from generation to gener- Rumi does not present a resolution to the conflict in his
ation.* [6] In the Udana (68–69)* [7] he uses the elephant version, but states:
parable to describe sectarian quarrels. A king has the
blind men of the capital brought to the palace, where an The eye of the Sea is one thing and the
elephant is brought in and they are asked to describe it. foam another. Let the foam go, and gaze with
the eye of the Sea. Day and night foam-flecks
When the blind men had each felt a part of are flung from the sea: oh amazing! You be-
the elephant, the king went to each of them and hold the foam but not the Sea. We are like
said to each: 'Well, blind man, have you seen boats dashing together; our eyes are darkened,
the elephant? Tell me, what sort of thing is an yet we are in clear water.* [9]
elephant?'
Rumi ends his poem by stating“If each had a candle and
The men assert the elephant is either like a pot (the blind they went in together the differences would disappear.”
man who felt the elephants' head), a winnowing bas- * [10]
230 CHAPTER 4. STORIES

4.1.5 Hindu Moral:

Ramakrishna Paramahamsa used this parable to discour- So oft in theologic wars,

age dogmatism:* [11] The disputants, I ween,
Rail on in utter ignorance
A number of blind men came to an ele- Of what each other mean,
phant. Somebody told them that it was an ele- And prate about an Elephant
phant. The blind men asked,‘What is the ele- Not one of them has seen!
phant like?’and they began to touch its body.
One of them said: 'It is like a pillar.' This Natalie Merchant sang this poem in full on her Leave
blind man had only touched its leg. Another Your Sleep album (Disc 1, track 13).
man said,‘The elephant is like a husking bas-
ket.’This person had only touched its ears.
Similarly, he who touched its trunk or its belly 4.1.7 Modern treatments
talked of it differently. In the same way, he
who has seen the Lord in a particular way lim- The story is seen as a metaphor in many disciplines, being
its the Lord to that alone and thinks that He is pressed into service as an analogy in fields well beyond the
nothing else. traditional. In physics, it has been seen as an analogy for
the wave–particle duality.* [12] In biology, the way the
blind men hold onto different parts of the elephant has
4.1.6 John Godfrey Saxe been seen as a good analogy for the Polyclonal B cell re-
sponse.* [13]
One of the most famous versions of the 19th century was
the poem “The Blind Men and the Elephant”by John The fable is one of a number of tales that cast light on the
Godfrey Saxe (1816–1887). response of hearers or readers to the story itself. Idries
Shah has commented on this element of self-reference in
the many interpretations of the story, and its function as
a teaching story:

...people address themselves to this story in

one or more [...] interpretations. They then ac-
cept or reject them. Now they can feel happy;
they have arrived at an opinion about the mat-
ter. According to their conditioning they pro-
And so these men of Hindustan
duce the answer. Now look at their answers.
Disputed loud and long, Some will say that this is a fascinating and
Each in his own opinion touching allegory of the presence of God. Oth-
Exceeding stiff and strong, ers will say that it is showing people how stupid
Though each was partly in the right mankind can be. Some say it is anti-scholastic.
And all were in the wrong. Others that it is just a tale copied by Rumi from
Sanai – and so on.* [14]
The poem begins:
Shah adapted the tale in his book The Dermis Probe.
It was six men of Indostan This version begins with a conference of scientists, from
To learning much inclined, different fields of expertise, presenting their conflicting
Who went to see the Elephant conclusions on the material upon which a camera is fo-
(Though all of them were blind), cused. As the camera slowly zooms out it gradually be-
That each by observation comes clear that the material under examination is the
Might satisfy his mind* [1] hide of an African elephant. The words 'The Parts Are
1. ^ Saxe, John Godfrey. " The Blind Men Greater Than The Whole' then appear on the screen. This
and the Elephant". The poems of John retelling formed the script for a short four-minute film by
Godfrey Saxe. Wikisource. [scan] the animator Richard Williams. The film was chosen as
an Outstanding Film of the Year and was exhibited at the
*
They conclude that the elephant is like a wall, snake, London and New York film festivals. [15]
spear, tree, fan or rope, depending upon where they The story enjoys a continuing appeal, as shown by the
touch. They have a heated debate that does not come number of illustrated children's books of the fable; there
to physical violence. But in Saxe's version, the conflict is is one for instance by Paul Galdone and another, Seven
never resolved. Blind Mice, by Ed Young (1992).
4.2. CAMEL'S NOSE 231

In the title cartoon of one of his books, cartoonist Sam [8] Included in Idries Shah, Tales of the Dervishes ISBN 0-
Gross postulated that one of the blind men, encounter- 900860-47-2 Octagon Press 1993.
ing a pile of the elephant's fewmets, concluded that“An
[9] Arberry, A.J. (2004-05-09). “71 – The Elephant in the
elephant is soft and mushy.”
dark, on the reconciliation of contrarieties”. Rumi – Tales
An elephant joke inverts the story in the following way: from Masnavi. Retrieved 2006-08-29.

[10] For an adaptation of Rumi's poem, see this song version

Six blind elephants were discussing what by David Wilcox here.
men were like. After arguing they decided to
find one and determine what it was like by di- [11] Gupta, Mahendranath (11 March 1883). “Chapter V –
rect experience. The first blind elephant felt Vaishnavism and sectarianism – harmony of religions”.
the man and declared, 'Men are flat.' After the Kathamrita. Vol. II. ISBN 81-88343-01-3.
other blind elephants felt the man, they agreed. [12] For example, Quantum theory by David Bohm, p. 26. Re-
trieved 2010-03-03.
Moral:
[13] See for instance The lymph node in HIV pathogenesis by
Michael M. Lederman and Leonid Margolis, Seminars in
“We have to remember that what we ob- Immunology, Volume 20, Issue 3, June 2008, pp. 187–
serve is not nature in itself, but nature ex- 195
posed to our method of questioning.”- Werner
Heisenberg [14] Shah, Idries. “The Teaching Story: Observations on the
Folklore of Our “Modern”Thought”. Retrieved 2010-
03-05.
4.1.8 See also [15] Octagon Press page for The Dermis Probe, with preview
of story
• Anekantavada

• Dispersed knowledge
4.1.10 External links
• Flatland: A Romance of Many Dimensions, an 1884
satirical novella • Jalal al-Din Muhammad Rumi. " Book III". Mas-
navi I Ma'navi. Trans. Edward Henry Whinfield.
• Hasty generalization Wikisource.
• Rashomon effect • Story of the Blind Men and the Elephant from www.
spiritual-education.org
• Syncretism
• All of Saxe's Poems including original printing of
• The blind leading the blind
The Blindman and the Elephant Free to read and full
• Unreliable narrator text search.

• Buddhist Version as found in Jainism and Buddhism.

4.1.9 References Udana hosted by the University of Princeton

[1] Martin Gardner (1 September 1995). Famous Poems from

• Jalal ad-Din Muhammad Rumi's version as trans-
Bygone Days. Courier Dover Publications. p. 124. ISBN lated by A.J. Arberry
978-0-486-28623-5. Retrieved 2012-08-25.
• Jainist Version hosted by Jainworld
[2] “Elephant and the blind men”. Jain Stories. Jain-
World.com. Retrieved 2006-08-29. • John Godfrey Saxe's version hosted at Rice Univer-
sity
[3] Hughes, Marilynn (2005). The voice of Prophets. Volume
2 of 12. Morrisville, North Carolina: Lulu.com. pp. 590–
591. ISBN 1-4116-5121-9.
4.2 Camel's nose
[4] Mallisena, Syādvādamanjari, 14:103–104. Dhruva, A.B.
(1933) pp. 9–10. The camel's nose is a metaphor for a situation where the
[5] Mallisena, Syādvādamanjari, 19:75–77. Dhruva, A.B. permitting of a small, seemingly innocuous act will open
(1933) pp. 23–25. the door for larger, clearly undesirable actions.

[6] Accesstoinsight.org
U.S. Senator Barry Goldwater used the metaphor in ex-
pressing his opposition to the National Defense Education
[7] Katinkahesselink.net Act in 1958:* [1]
232 CHAPTER 4. STORIES

This bill and the foregoing remarks of the • Boiling frog

majority remind me of an old Arabian proverb:
“If the camel once gets his nose in the tent, his •“Give them an inch; they'll take a mile.”* [9] The
body will soon follow.”If adopted, the legis- original saying goes“Give them an inch, and they'll
lation will mark the inception of aid, supervi- take an ell.”
sion, and ultimately control of education in this
country by the federal authorities.* [2] • In Chinese culture, the “inch-mile”saying corre-
sponds to the expression 得陇望蜀 (De long wang
According to Geoffrey Nunberg, the image entered the shu), which is a quotation from the Book of Later
English language in the middle of the 19th century.* [3] Han about a Chinese general who took over Long
An early example is a fable printed in 1858 in which (now Gansu) only to pursue further southwards into
an Arab miller allows a camel to stick its nose into his Shu (now Sichuan).* [10]
bedroom, then other parts of its body, until the camel
is entirely inside and refuses to leave.* [4] Lydia Sigour- • In Russian culture a similar phrase sounds, literally
ney wrote another version, a widely reprinted poem for translated, as “offer him a finger, and he will bite a
children, in which the camel enters a shop because the hand off up to the elbow”.
workman does not forbid it at any stage.* [5]
The 1858 example above says, “The Arabs repeat a fa- • In Finnish, there is the expression Jos antaa pirulle
ble”, and Sigourney says in a footnote, “To illustrate pikkusormen, se vie koko käden (“If you offer the
the danger of the first approach of evil habit, the Arabs devil [even just] a little finger, it takes the whole
have a proverb, 'Beware of the camel's nose.'" However, hand/arm”).
Nunberg could not find an Arab source for the saying and
suspected it was a Victorian invention.* [3]
4.2.1 References
An early citation with a tent is“The camel in the Arabian
tale begged and received permission to insert his nose into
[1] Wilson, John T. (1983). Academic Science, Higher Educa-
the desert tent.”* [6] By 1878, the expression was familiar tion, and the Federal Government, 1950-1983. University
enough that part of the story could be left unstated. “It of Chicago Press. p. 51.
is the humble petition of the camel, who only asks that he
may put his nose into the traveler's tent. It is so pitiful, so [2] Quoted in Pierce, Patrick Alan; Miller, Donald E. (2004).
modest, that we must needs relent and grant it.”* [7] Gambling Politics: State Government and the Business of
In a 1915 book of fables by Horace Scudder, the story, Betting. Lynne Rienner Publishers. p. 133. Retrieved
2007-09-15.
titled The Arab and His Camel, ends with the moral: “It
is a wise rule to resist the beginnings of evil.”* [8]
[3] Nunberg, Geoffrey (2005). Going Nucular: Language,
The phrase was used in Reed v. King (193 CA Rptr. 130 - Politics and Culture in Controversial Times. New York:
1983): “The paramount argument against an affirmative PublicAffairs. p. 118. ISBN 978-1-58648-345-6. Re-
conclusion is it permits the camel's nose of unrestrained trieved July 9, 2011.
irrationality admission to the tent. If such an 'irrational'
consideration is permitted as a basis of rescission the sta- [4] Anonymous (1858). “Sin is a Bad Master”. The Child's
bility of all conveyances will be seriously undermined.” Companion and Juvenile Instructor. The Religious Tract
The case in question involved a plaintiff suing because Society. p. 14.
the defendant sold a house without telling them that the
house's previous inhabitants had been brutally murdered [5] Sigourney, Lydia Huntley (1860). “An Arab Fable”.
Gleanings. D. Appleton. pp. 58–59. Retrieved 2007-09-
10 years earlier.
15.
There are a number of other metaphors and expressions
which refer to small changes leading to chains of events [6] The New York Times, April 21, 1875
with undesirable or unexpected consequences, differing
in nuances. [7] The New York Times, March 14, 1878.

• Foot in the door - a persuasion technique [8] Horace Scudder. The Book of Fables and Folk Stories
(originally published in 1915) Yesterday's Classics (2006)
• Slippery slope - an argument, sometimes fallacious ISBN 1-59915-127-8

•“The thin end of the wedge” [9]“Cambridge International Dictionary of Idioms”,

• Domino effect Cambridge University Press (1998)

• For Want of a Nail - the claim that large conse- [10] “Give them an inch...”, a China Daily column, July 6,
quences may follow from inattention to small details 2006
4.3. PARABLE OF THE BROKEN WINDOW 233

4.3 Parable of the broken window spend them upon another. It is not seen that
if he had not had a window to replace, he
This article is about the economic parable. For the would, perhaps, have replaced his old shoes,
criminological theory, see Broken windows theory. or added another book to his library. In short,
he would have employed his six francs in some
way, which this accident has prevented.* [1]
The parable of the broken window was introduced by
Frédéric Bastiat in his 1850 essay Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on
ne voit pas (That Which Is Seen and That Which Is Un- 4.3.2 Differing interpretations
seen) to illustrate why destruction, and the money spent
to recover from destruction, is not actually a net bene- Bastiat's argument
fit to society. The parable, also known as the broken
window fallacy or glazier's fallacy, seeks to show how Austrian School theorists, and Bastiat himself, apply the
opportunity costs, as well as the law of unintended conse-
parable of the broken window in a different way. Suppose
quences, affect economic activity in ways that are “un- it was discovered that the little boy was actually hired by
seen”or ignored. the glazier, and paid a franc for every window he broke.
Suddenly the same act would be regarded as theft: the
glazier was breaking windows in order to force people to
4.3.1 The parable hire his services. Yet the facts observed by the onlookers
remain true: the glazier benefits from the business at the
Bastiat's original parable of the broken window from Ce expense of the baker, the tailor, and so on.
qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas (1850):
Bastiat argues that society endorses activities that are
Have you ever witnessed the anger of the morally equivalent to the glazier hiring a boy to break
good shopkeeper, James Goodfellow, when his windows for him:
careless son has happened to break a pane of
glass? If you have been present at such a scene, Whence we arrive at this unexpected con-
you will most assuredly bear witness to the fact clusion: “Society loses the value of things
that every one of the spectators, were there which are uselessly destroyed;" and we must
even thirty of them, by common consent ap- assent to a maxim which will make the hair of
parently, offered the unfortunate owner this in- protectionists stand on end – To break, to spoil,
variable consolation – “It is an ill wind that to waste, is not to encourage national labour;
blows nobody good. Everybody must live, and or, more briefly, “destruction is not profit.”
what would become of the glaziers if panes of What will you say, Moniteur Industriel* [2]
glass were never broken?" – what will you say, disciples of good M. F.
Now, this form of condolence contains an Chamans, who has calculated with so much
entire theory, which it will be well to show up precision how much trade would gain by the
in this simple case, seeing that it is precisely burning of Paris, from the number of houses it
the same as that which, unhappily, regulates the would be necessary to rebuild?* [1]
greater part of our economical institutions.
Suppose it cost six francs to repair the dam- Bastiat is not addressing production – he is addressing the
age, and you say that the accident brings six stock of wealth. In other words, Bastiat does not merely
francs to the glazier's trade – that it encourages look at the immediate but at the longer effects of breaking
that trade to the amount of six francs – I grant the window. Moreover, Bastiat does not only take into
it; I have not a word to say against it; you reason account the consequences of breaking the window for one
justly. The glazier comes, performs his task, group but for all groups, for society as a whole.* [3]
receives his six francs, rubs his hands, and, in Austrian theorists cite this fallacy, saying it is a com-
his heart, blesses the careless child. All this is mon element of popular thinking (e.g., the “Cash for
that which is seen. Clunkers” program,* [4] etc.). The 20th century Ameri-
But if, on the other hand, you come to the can economist Henry Hazlitt devoted a chapter to it in his
conclusion, as is too often the case, that it is book Economics in One Lesson.* [5]
a good thing to break windows, that it causes
money to circulate, and that the encouragement
of industry in general will be the result of it, you The opportunity cost of war
will oblige me to call out, “Stop there! Your
theory is confined to that which is seen; it takes See also: Military Keynesianism
no account of that which is not seen.”
It is not seen that as our shopkeeper has The argument can be made that war is a benefactor, since
spent six francs upon one thing, he cannot historically it often has focused the use of resources and
234 CHAPTER 4. STORIES

triggered advances in technology and other areas while have run out, and the tailor is forced to divert resources
reducing unemployment. The increased production and from more productive means.
employment associated with war often leads some to It has been argued that the parable, while intuitive, does
claim that“war is good for the economy.”However, this not correspond to actual evidence. For instance, some
belief is often given as an example of the broken window economists argue that natural disasters can often lead to
fallacy. The money spent on the war effort, for example, improved growth in both the short and long term.* [8]
is money that cannot be spent on food, clothing, health Also, the opportunity cost argument (and the parable in
care, consumer electronics or other areas. The stimulus general) is only true when the economy is at full employ-
felt in one sector of the economy comes at a direct – but
ment and there is an absolute tradeoff between alterna-
hidden – cost to other sectors. tive spending. When there is excess capacity and sav-
Bastiat himself argued against the claim that hiring men ings, forced spending such as that caused by a broken
to be soldiers was inherently beneficial to the economy window can be shown to increase overall economic ac-
in the second chapter of That Which is Seen, and That tivity by putting unused savings and productive capacity
Which is Not Seen, “The Disbanding of Troops”. to work.* [9]
According to Hazlitt:
Defenses
“It is never an advantage to have one’s
plants destroyed by shells or bombs unless Bastiat and Austrian theorists hold to a subjective theory
those plants have already become valueless or of value, which holds that the value of a product is deter-
acquired a negative value by depreciation and mined by its consumer or owner. Therefore, if the win-
obsolescence. ... Plants and equipment cannot dow had a negative value, it is because the owner already
be replaced by an individual (or a socialist gov- wishes it broken. If the proverbial window were old, and
ernment) unless he or it has acquired or can ac- the newer proverbial window had a greater value (deter-
quire the savings, the capital accumulation, to mined by the shopkeeper's own valuation), then the net in-
make the replacement. But war destroys ac- crease in value in the economy is the difference between
cumulated capital. ... Complications should the value of the old and new window. Bastiat and Aus-
not divert us from recognizing the basic truth trian economists also believe that depreciation and other
that the wanton destruction of anything of real losses in the value of goods reduces the net value in the
value is always a net loss, a misfortune, or a economy by the amount of the reduction in value of the
disaster, and whatever the offsetting consider- goods.
ations in a particular instance, can never be, on The very concept of excess savings is meaningless with-
net balance, a boon or a blessing.”* [6] out the presumption of an authority which can define the
proper amount of savings. Money saved represents de-
mand for money which is a commodity like windows or
4.3.3 Criticisms suits. The result of spending saved money is to lower the
demand for money relative to suits or glass and therefore
The interpretations assume that the“window”has posi- contributes to general price inflation (or loss of purchas-
tive value and that replacing it is not a good investment. In ing power). Such an authority would suggest that by con-
the broader scope, offsetting factors can reduce or even trolling prices (forcing the exchange of savings for con-
negate the cost of destruction. For example, new tech- sumer goods), that the economy could be better off. This
nologies developed during a war and forced moderniza- concept when enforced by governments is known as price
tion during postwar reconstruction can cause old tech- controls and results in shortages when prices are artifi-
nologies to become valueless. Also, if two shopkeepers cially reduced below market value. A shortage of savings
keep their “window”beyond the point where it would results in a reduction of capital investment as more re-
maximize their profit, the shopkeeper whose window is sources are diverted from future needs to present needs.
broken is forced to make a good investment – increasing The shop owner was saving so that he could grow his busi-
his comparative profit, or rather, reducing his compara- ness, but an outside authority has determined that his sav-
tive loss. Regardless, while wanton destruction of real ings were 'excess' and that by breaking his window the
value may not be a net loss, it is of course still a mis- economy will be better off. Without free exchange there
fortune, not a blessing.* [7] Others argue that the broken would be no prices, and without prices there can be no
window may not lead to reduction in spending by the vic- economic calculation, and without proper economic cal-
tim, but rather, a reduction in excessive savings. “The culation there is no means to determine whether or not
logic of limited resources only applies when the economy a particular action will be 'profitable'. Therefore any au-
is using most of those limited resources. If there are slack thority that suggests that there might be an 'excess of sav-
resources, we need merely mobilize some of the slack ings' presumes the ability to make economic calculations
resources.”The reductio ad absurdum of breaking 100 without prices established by free exchange. Ludwig von
windows, then, only applies once underutilised resources Mises argued that this was impossible.* [10]
4.4. THE GIFT OF THE MAGI 235

4.3.4 See also 4.3.6 Further reading

• Cobra effect • Abrams, Burton A; Parsons, George R (2009). “Is

CARS a Clunker?". The Economists' Voice 6 (8).
• Creative destruction doi:10.2202/1553-3832.1638.

• McGee, Robert W. (2010).“Financial Bailouts and

• Disaster capitalism the philosophy of Frédéric Bastiat”. Aestimatio (1):
88–97. SSRN 2435748.
• Jevons paradox
• Stringham, Edward P.; Snow, Nicholas A. (2008).
• Rent-seeking “The broken trailer fallacy: Seeing the unseen ef-
fects of government policies in post-Katrina New
• Spending multiplier Orleans”. International Journal of Social Economics
35 (7): 480–9. doi:10.1108/03068290810886885.
• Tax choice
• Carabini, Louis (2007). “Bastiat's 'The Broken
Window': A Critique”. Journal of Libertarian Stud-
• Uneconomic growth ies 21 (4): 151–5.

• Mian, Atif R.; Sufi, Amir (2010). “The Effects

4.3.5 References of Fiscal Stimulus: Evidence from the 2009 'Cash
for Clunkers' Program”. SSRN Electronic Journal.
[1] Bastiat 1850. doi:10.2139/ssrn.1670759.

• Caplan, Bryan; Stringham, Edward (2005).

[2] Le Moniteur Industriel was a famous protectionist journal.
“Mises, bastiat, public opinion, and public choice”
. Review of Political Economy 17: 79–105.
[3] Hazlitt 1946, chapter 2: “The Broken Window”.
doi:10.1080/0953825042000313825.
[4] “Cash for Clunkers Is Just a Broken Windshield”, Car- • Stanfield, James (2010). “The Broken University:
oline Baum, Bloomberg.com, August 4, 2009 What is Seen and What is Not Seen in the Uk Higher
Education Sector”. Economic Affairs 30 (3): 53–8.
[5] Hazlitt 1946, “Preface”. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0270.2010.02022.x.

[6] Hazlitt 1946, chapter 3: “The Blessings of Destruction”

. 4.3.7 External links
[7] Hazlitt 1946, p. 30 (1988 ed.). • “Ce qu'on voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas” (original
essay)
[8] Skidmore, Mark; Toya, Hideki (2002).“Do Natural Dis-
asters Promote Long-Run Growth?". Economic Inquiry • “That Which is Seen and That Which is Not Seen”
40 (4): 664–87. doi:10.1093/ei/40.4.664. (English translation)

[9] Robert Nielsen: “Debunking The Broken Window Fal-

lacy”
4.4 The Gift of the Magi
[10] “Economic Calculation In The Socialist Commonwealth”
. Mises Institute. This article is about the short story. For the Magi that
visited baby Jesus, see Biblical Magi.

Bibliography “The Gift of the Magi” is a short story, written by O.

Henry (a pen name for William Sydney Porter), about
• Bastiat, Frédéric (1850). That Which Is Seen, and a young married couple and how they deal with the chal-
That Which Is Not Seen [original French: Ce qu'on lenge of buying secret Christmas gifts for each other with
voit et ce qu'on ne voit pas]. Translated by Patrick very little money. As a sentimental story with a moral les-
James Stirling. Wikisource. son about gift-giving, it has been a popular one for adap-
tation, especially for presentation at Christmas time. The
• Hazlitt, Henry (1946). Economics in One Lesson. plot and its "twist ending" are well-known, and the ending
Harper & Brothers. LCCN 46005937. (PDF) is generally considered an example of comic irony. It was
236 CHAPTER 4. STORIES

allegedly written at Pete's Tavern* [2]* [3] on Irving Place 4.4.2 Adaptations
in New York City.
The story was initially published in The New York Sunday
World under the title “Gifts of the Magi”on December
10, 1905. It was first published in book form in the O.
Henry Anthology The Four Million in April 1906. The story has been adapted to films, The Sacrifice (1909),
Love's Surprises Are Futile (1916), The Gift of the Magi
(1917), a segment of O. Henry's Full House (1952), The
Gift of Love (1978), The Gift of the Magi (1958), Dary
4.4.1 Summary magów (Poland, 1972), Christmas Eve on Sesame Street
(1978), I'll not be a gangster, love (Не буду гангстером,
Mr. James Dillingham (“Young Jim”) and his wife, дорогая/Nebūsiu gangsteriu, brangioji, USSR, 1978),* [5]
Della, are a couple living in a modest apartment. They Mickey's Once Upon a Christmas (1999),* [6] The Gift of
have only two possessions between them in which they the Magi (2004) and the short film for the Irish band The
take pride: Della's beautiful long, flowing hair, almost Script in 2010 called For the First Time.* [7] Love, another
to her knees, and Jim's shiny gold watch, which had be- French movie, based some of its scenes on this story.
longed to his father and grandfather. Raincoat (2004), a Hindi film directed by Rituparno
On Christmas Eve, with only $1.87 in hand, and desper- Ghosh is an adaptation of the story. * [8] The Greek film
ate to find a gift for Jim, Della sells her hair for $20 to directed by Ismene Daskarolis (2014) places it in the eco-
a nearby hairdresser named Madame Sofronie, and even- nomical crisis of Greece today. * [9] The Mexican film
tually finds a platinum pocket watch fob chain for Jim's Nosotros Nosotros los Pobres includes this tale as a small
watch for $21. Satisfied with the perfect gift for Jim, sub-plot.
Della runs home and begins to prepare pork chops for An off-Broadway musical version* [10] premiered at
dinner. Lamb's Theatre in New York City in 1984. Written by
At 7 o'clock, Della sits at a table near the door, waiting Mark St. Germain and Randy Courts, the play is regu-
for Jim to come home. Unusually late, Jim walks in and larly produced in schools and regional theaters. It also
immediately stops short at the sight of Della, who had features elements from another O. Henry story The Cop
previously prayed that she was still pretty to Jim. Della and the Anthem as a sub plot.
then admits to Jim that she sold her hair to buy him his The opera Gift of the Magi with music by David Conte
present. Jim gives Della her present – an assortment of and libretto by Nicholas Giardini premiered in 2000.
expensive hair accessories (referred to as “The Combs”
), useless now that her hair is short. Della then shows JimAdditionally, in the Rugrats episode “The Santa Experi-
the chain she bought for him, to which Jim says he sold hisence”, Phil and Lil look to exchange gifts to one another,
watch to get the money to buy her combs. Although Jim but have nothing to offer. Manipulated by Angelica to
and Della are now left with gifts that neither one can use,give up their most precious items, the twins barter their
they realize how far they are willing to go to show their precious personal items in favor of being able to give a gift
to their opposite. Although Phil no longer has his Rep-
love for each other, and how priceless their love really is.
tar, and Lil no longer has her coloring book, the twins
The story ends with the narrator comparing the pair's mu- both believe the sacrifice is the greatest gift of all, leaving
tually sacrificial gifts of love with those of the Biblical Angelica in bitter Christmas spirits until she returns the
Magi:* [4] original gifts.
The Squirrel Nut Zippers song“Gift of the Magi”from
The magi, as you know, were wise men – their 1998 album Christmas Caravan is a duet sung from
wonderfully wise men – who brought gifts to the point of view of both Jim and Della.
the new-born King of the Jews in the manger.
They invented the art of giving Christmas On folk punk band Andrew Jackson Jihad's 2011 album
presents. Being wise, their gifts were no doubt Knife Man, the second track is titled“Gift Of The Magi
wise ones, possibly bearing the privilege of ex- 2: Return Of The Magi”.
change in case of duplication. And here I have Emmet Otter's Jug Band Christmas, which is a twist on
lamely related to you the uneventful chroni- “The Gift of the Magi”, is a children's storybook by Rus-
cle of two foolish children in a flat who most sell Hoban which was first published in 1971. In 1977,
unwisely sacrificed for each other the greatest Muppet creator Jim Henson produced a one-hour televi-
treasures of their house. But in a last word to sion adaptation of the story filmed in Toronto for HBO in
the wise of these days let it be said that of all the United States, and CBC in Canada. The special pre-
who give gifts these two were the wisest. Of miered on HBO on December 17, 1978.[1][2] The spe-
all who give and receive gifts, such as they are cial later aired on ABC in 1980 and on Nickelodeon in the
wisest. Everywhere they are wisest. They are 1990s. The special features several original songs written
the Magi. by song writer Paul Williams.
4.5. THE LADY, OR THE TIGER? 237

4.4.3 References
[1] “The Gift of the Magi is published – This Day in History
– 4/10/1906”. history.com. 2011. Retrieved November
16, 2011.

[2] “Pete's Tavern”. Archived from the original on 2008-

01-13. Retrieved 2011-11-06.

[3] “O'Henry and The Gift of the Magi”. LiteraryTrav-

eler.com.

[4] “The Gift of the Magi”.

[5] Не буду гангстером, дорогая

[6] Mickey's Once Upon A Christmas at the Internet Movie

Database

[7] O. Henry at the Internet Movie Database

[8] Raincoat at the Internet Movie Database

[9] http://www.imdb.com/title/tt4007168/

[10] St. Germain, Mark; Courts, Randy (1984). The Gifts of

the Magi. New York: Dramatists Play Service, Inc. ISBN
978-0-8222-1461-8

4.4.4 External links

“The Lady, or the Tiger?" was the title story in an 1884 collection
• “The Gift of the Magi” by O. Henry of twelve stories by Frank R. Stockton published by Scribner

• Audio book with text at Librivox of “The Gift of

the Magi”
is a fierce (and nearly starved) tiger. The accused must
• O'Henry's “The Gift of the Magi":Common Core choose a door. If by luck (or, if one prefers, the will of
Exemplar from NEH's EDSITEment heaven) he picks the door with the woman behind it, he is
declared innocent and set free. However, he is required to
• “The Gift of the Magi” study guide, teacher re-
marry the woman on the spot, regardless of his wishes or
sources, themes, quotes
his marital status. If he picks the door with the tiger be-
hind it, the hungry beast immediately pounces upon him
—his guilt thus manifest, supposedly.
4.5 The Lady, or the Tiger?
When the king discovers that his daughter, the princess,
has taken a lover far beneath her status, the fellow is an
"The Lady, or the Tiger?" is a much-anthologized short obvious candidate for trial in the arena. On the day of his
story written by Frank R. Stockton for publication in the ordeal, the lover looks from the arena to the princess, who
magazine The Century in 1882. “The lady, or the tiger?" is watching in the stands, for some indication of which
has come into the English language as an allegorical ex- door to pick. Even the king doesn't know which door
pression, a shorthand indication or signifier for a problem hides the maiden, but the princess has made it her busi-
that is unsolvable. ness to find out, as her lover knew she would. However,
the maiden was a woman that the princess hates. The
princess then has the decision to either allow her lover to
4.5.1 Plot summary
live and marry another woman, or end his life to prevent
The “semi-barbaric”king of an ancient land with an him from being with a woman she hates. She makes a
equally “semi-barbaric”daughter uses a unique form slight but definite gesture to the right, which the young
of trial by ordeal for those in his realm accused of crimes man follows immediately and without hesitation. As the
that are significant enough to interest him. The accused is door opens, the author interjects,“Now, the point of the
placed alone in an arena before two curtain-draped doors, story is this: Did the tiger come out of that door, or did
as hordes of the king's subjects look on from the stands. the lady?"
Behind one door is a woman appropriate to the accused's The author playfully sets up a dilemma for the reader. Ex-
status and approved for him by the king; behind the other plaining the circumstances of the princess' dilemma and
 238 CHAPTER 4. STORIES

the trial, Stockton invites the reader to answer his titu- “The Lady, or the Tiger?" is referenced in "Ennui", a
lar question. The reader is told the princess knew and sonnet written by Sylvia Plath and published 43 years af-
“hated”one of her attendants, the waiting maiden, whom ter her death. Plath's sonnet, however, speaks of an age
she suspected of being infatuated with her lover. When when the choice has become no longer relevant.
the princess comes to witness the trial between her lover Alternative rock band They Might Be Giants released the
and the tiger, the reader is asked to remember that the song“The Lady and the Tiger”on their 2011 album Join
princess is also “semi-barbaric”or she wouldn't have Us. Like the story, the song ends without a conclusion.
come to witness the ordeal. Although the princess is tor- The last line reads, “The hall remains, it still contains a
mented by the thought of her lover torn to bits before her
pair of doors, a choice. Behind one door, a muffled roar,
eyes, the thought of her lover leaving the arena with his behind the other, a voice.”
bride is the source of greater torment. In both the event
of her lover’s death and her lover taking a different bride, “The Lady or the Tiger”is a one-act play adapted from
the princess knows her lover is lost to her forever. She has Stockton's short story and published by Lazy Bee Scripts
agonized over her decision, but by the time she arrives at in 2010.* [3]
the arena, the princess is resolute and makes her gesture
to the right unhesitatingly. The author denies being in
a position to answer his question with authority, and the 4.5.3 References
story ends with the famous line, “And so I leave it with
[1] Smith, Cecil & Glenn Litton. Musical Comedy in Amer-
all of you: Which came out of the opened door – the lady, ica, p. 44 (1991 ed.)
or the tiger?"
[2] ISBN 0812921178

[3] “The Lady or the Tiger by Gerald P. Murphy”. Lazy

4.5.2 Other works Bee Scripts.

By Stockton
4.5.4 Further reading
Stockton later wrote "The Discourager of Hesitancy,”a
short story in which a man must choose correctly among • Stockton, F. R. (November 1882). “The Lady, or
(forty) apparently identical maidens or face instant death. the Tiger?". The Century 25 (1): 83–86.
Despite its posture as a sequel of sorts to “The Lady, or
the Tiger?"—that story's conundrum is recapitulated as • Pforzheimer, Walter L. (Autumn 1935). “The
the later story opens—the tale does not answer the ques- Lady, the Tiger and the Author”. The Colophon
tion posed at the end of the previous story. 1 (2): 261–270.

4.5.5 External links

By other artists
• Women Or Tiger? —seven logical challenges and
A play adaptation by Sydney Rosenfeld debuted at solutions based on the book
Wallack's Theatre in 1888 and ran for seven weeks. In
addition to stretching out the story as long as possible to • The Lady, or the Tiger? title listing at the Internet
make it a play, at the end the choice was revealed to the Speculative Fiction Database
audience – neither a lady or tiger, but an old hag.* [1]
• Audiobook recordings of“The Lady, or the Tiger?"
Toyah Willcox and Robert Fripp released a recording of at LibriVox
“The Lady, or the Tiger?" and“The Discourager of Hes-
itancy”with Willcox reading the stories to electric guitar
accompaniment by Fripp.
4.6 Three men make a tiger
“The Lady, or the Tiger?" is one of three short stories that
were adapted into the musical comedy The Apple Tree. "Three men make a tiger" (Chinese: 三人成虎; pinyin:
The story was the inspiration for Raymond Smullyan's sān rén chéng hǔ) is a Chinese proverb or chengyu (four-
puzzle book by the same title, The Lady, or the character idiom). Three men make a tiger refers to an in-
Tiger?.* [2] The first set of logic puzzles in the book had dividual's tendency to accept absurd information as long
a similar scenario to the short story in which a king gives as it is repeated by enough people. It refers to the idea
each prisoner a choice between a number of doors; be- that if an unfounded premise or urban legend is men-
hind each one was either a lady or a tiger. However, the tioned and repeated by many individuals, the premise will
king bases the prisoner's fate on intelligence and not luck be erroneously accepted as the truth. This concept is
by posting a statement on each door that can be true or analogous to communal reinforcement or the fallacy of
false. argumentum ad populum.
 4.6. THREE MEN MAKE A TIGER 239

4.6.1 Origin
The proverb came from the story of an alleged speech by
Pang Cong (龐蔥), an official of the state of Wei in the
Warring States period (475 BC – 221 BC) in Chinese His-
tory. According to the Warring States Records, or Zhan
Guo Ce, before he left on a trip to the state of Zhao, Pang
Cong asked the King of Wei whether he would hypo-
thetically believe in one civilian's report that a tiger was
roaming the markets in the capital city, to which the King
replied no. Pang Cong asked what the King thought if
two people reported the same thing, and the King said he
would begin to wonder. Pang Cong then asked,“what if
three people all claimed to have seen a tiger?" The King
replied that he would believe in it. Pang Cong reminded
the King that the notion of a live tiger in a crowded mar-
ket was absurd, yet when repeated by numerous people, it
seemed real. Since Pang Cong, as a high-ranking official,
had more than three opponents and critics, he was in fact
urging the King to pay no attention to those who would
spread rumors about him (Pang Cong) while he was away.
“I understand,”the King replied, and Pang Cong left for
Zhao. Yet, slanderous talk took place. When Pang Cong
returned to Wei, the King indeed stopped seeing him.* [1]

4.6.2 See also

• Truthiness
• Urban legend

• Asch conformity experiments

• The Hunting of the Snark#The Bellman's rule-of-
three

4.6.3 References
[1] ""It is clear that there is no tiger in the market-place, and
yet three men's words would make a tiger”.". Lib.hku.hk.
Retrieved 2012-09-26.

4.6.4 External links

Chapter 5

Text and image sources, contributors, and

licenses

5.1 Text
• A Defense of Abortion Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/A%20Defense%20of%20Abortion?oldid=647709687 Contributors: Michael
Hardy, Gabbe, Charles Matthews, EALacey, KillerChihuahua, Dysepsion, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Common Man, RussBot, Severa, CIreland,
Tom Morris, Tikitikirevenge, Timotheus Canens, Phismith, Andrew c, Giovanni33, Gobonobo, Gregbard, LCP, Cydebot, Algernon1980,
Ratobranco, In1984, DumbBOT, PKT, Cat Whisperer, WhatamIdoing, Krisbsca, Ztobor, J.delanoy, Sorbonnetoga, Chris Pickett, Gra-
hamHardy, Noformation, Explicit, Rumping, Excirial, Gulmammad, Andrev c, EAGacey, Madmax8712, Lightbot, Yobot, EnochBethany,
Themoabird, IW.HG, HJM1, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, GreaterPoobah6, Masterpasser510, Alicejdnsk, Sam.20p, Omnipaedista,
FreeKnowledgeCreator, FrescoBot, St6132, DDJC1020, Tbhotch, Waterbottle21, John of Reading, 4tytwo, Teyuders, L Kensington,
Mcc1789, Palestrina777, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, 360john360, Futurist110, Mogism, Jamesx12345, Goblinshark17 and Anonymous: 34
• Buridan's ass Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buridan'{}s%20ass?oldid=652049973 Contributors: The Anome, Toby Bartels, Road-
runner, Karada, Dino, Hyacinth, AnonMoos, Robbot, Postdlf, Cholling, Carlj7, Superm401, Kaldari, Icairns, Murtasa, LindsayH,
Bender235, Gnomz007, Jag123, Nk, Obradovic Goran, Grutness, Mark Dingemanse, Samohyl Jan, Helixblue, Dismas, Woohookitty,
FeanorStar7, Alienus, Qwertyus, Cyberchimp, YurikBot, Rob T Firefly, Tavilis, Jessemckay, StuRat, Arthur Rubin, Mavaddat, Nealparr,
Ybbor, SmackBot, McGeddon, Anwar saadat, RDBrown, Thumperward, Nbarth, D-Rock, Emurphy42, LoveMonkey, Ebitnet, Byelf2007,
Isokrates, Arcadianrefugee, Jason.grossman, Ewulp, Chetvorno, Dshin, SoCalAlum, Jasperdoomen, Oreo Priest, Quelqu'un, Geniac,
Froid, GeorgeDishman, Maurice Carbonaro, Quackking, Jarry1250, Idioma-bot, Malik Shabazz, Ontoraul, TJRC, WereSpielChequers,
Brewcrewer, Jotterbot, SchreiberBike, Wikiuser100, Addbot, Anders Sandberg, AndersBot, Philoyonder, Lightbot, ‫ماني‬, Luckas-bot, Fe-
fogomez, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Citation bot, ArthurBot, Jchthys, Astrowest, LucienBOT, Haeinous, Borbolia777, Jonesey95, RedBot,
Schmei, ZéroBot, ‫همنشین بهار‬, Ethaniel, Loopy48, LelosObserves, Helpful Pixie Bot, Aggelos Amyntas, FiveColourMap, Matthewamol,
BattyBot, Dexbot, Ssdco and Anonymous: 48
• Buridan's bridge Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buridan'{}s%20bridge?oldid=646338148 Contributors: Hyacinth, Phil Boswell,
Art LaPella, Rjwilmsi, Headbomb, Mbz1, Drmies, Yobot, Cliftonian, Gilo1969, RjwilmsiBot, Qrsdogg, Obsessmuch, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Uk oida, ChrisGualtieri, Stamptrader, Monkbot and Anonymous: 2
• Chicken or the egg Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chicken%20or%20the%20egg?oldid=650631502 Contributors: Derek Ross,
Vicki Rosenzweig, Alex.tan, Matusz, Patrick, Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Delirium, Arthur3030, Marteau, Evercat, Lee M, MasterDirk,
Andrewman327, DJ Clayworth, Furrykef, Thue, Tjdw, David.Monniaux, LuckyWizard, RedWolf, Ajd, Meelar, DHN, David Gerard,
Enochlau, Everyking, No Guru, Perl, Guanaco, Avsa, Moogle10000, Douglas Milnes, JE, Neilc, Mike R, LucasVB, Noe, Antandrus, Be-
land, Piotrus, Jossi, Sam Hocevar, MementoVivere, SYSS Mouse, Mike Rosoft, Brianjd, Ta bu shi da yu, DanielCD, Discospinster, Rich
Farmbrough, Jaberwocky6669, Kbh3rd, Sgeo, MBisanz, Mavhc, Art LaPella, RoyBoy, MPS, Grick, Cohesion, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc,
Nhandler, Llywelyn, Pearle, Nsaa, Alansohn, Ghostalker, Arthena, Andrewpmk, That, AzaToth, Kurt Shaped Box, Mlessard, Tchalvak,
InShaneee, Snowolf, Toytown Mafia, Mikeo, Geraldshields11, Cheyinka, Digi, Tariqabjotu, Hq3473, Angr, Camw, WadeSimMiser, The
Wordsmith, Fett0001, Asmodeus, Ashmoo, Graham87, WBardwin, Keeves, BD2412, Kbdank71, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Phileas,
Eyu100, XP1, Yodan, Vegaswikian, The wub, Matt Deres, Platypus222, TiagoTiago, Musical Linguist, Latka, Nihiltres, RexNL, Verybig-
fish86, KFP, SteveBaker, King of Hearts, Benlisquare, Josephconklin, DVdm, Cshay, Ahpook, Samwaltz, YurikBot, Retodon8, RussBot,
Petiatil, FrenchIsAwesome, Me and, Splash, Yamara, Gaius Cornelius, Rshumway, NawlinWiki, Ews23, Grafen, Jaxl, Abb3w, Knullare,
Moe Epsilon, FiggyBee, Maunus, Rhain, BlueZenith, Zzuuzz, Closedmouth, Pb30, Petri Krohn, RealityCheck, Allens, Katieh5584, NeilN,
Cmglee, CIreland, Knowledgeum, NetRolller 3D, Trevorloflin, Jagz, Sardanaphalus, SmackBot, Tinz, Progman3K, McGeddon, CastA-
Stone, Mastermind1234321, Lawrencekhoo, Rrius, Ifnord, Nil Einne, Not a slave, Surazeus, Yamaguchi 先生, Cool3, Gilliam, Por-
tillo, Quidam65, Hmains, Skizzik, Master of Puppets, Miquonranger03, Anchoress, Bazonka, Baa, Emurphy42, Kotra, Nick Levine,
Rrburke, EVula, DrL, Dreadstar, KaiAdin, Das Baz, Vbartilucci, Nairebis, Daniel.Cardenas, Ged UK, Andrew Dalby, Will Beback,
Vasiliy Faronov, Bige1977, Lambiam, Krashlandon, Zahid Abdassabur, Kuru, Euchiasmus, Gobonobo, Tktktk, Minna Sora no Shita,
Goodnightmush, IronGargoyle, Kirbytime, SQGibbon, Owlbuster, Dammit, Doczilla, Johnchiu, Darminator, Ambuj.Saxena, Onionmon,
Caiaffa, Lucid, Iridescent, The Giant Puffin, Kernow, Blakegripling ph, Ouzo, Mbenzdabest, Angeldeb82, Tawkerbot2, Leon01323, JFor-
get, GeneralIroh, RWhite, Unionhawk, Iuio, RedRollerskate, Pruwyben, Argon233, Darthbob100, Riveros11, Gregbard, Reywas92, A876,
Alfirin, Gogo Dodo, Luckyherb, Michael C Price, Tawkerbot4, DumbBOT, Daniel Olsen, UberScienceNerd, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Ker-
aunos, Mojo Hand, Marek69, John254, Misterstark, Cozzie, Wildthing61476, Rotundo, Sam42, AntiVandalBot, Seaphoto, Jrrao, Jj137,
TimVickers, Exteray, Edithor, Byrgenwulf, Dreaded Walrus, MER-C, V. Szabolcs, Sheitan, Misopogon, Janejellyroll, QuantumEngineer,

240
5.1. TEXT 241

Kruckenberg.1, MSBOT, Logan.aggregate, Bakilas, Celithemis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Wikidudeman, Swpb, KConWiki, Soiazabel,
Hiplibrarianship, Gomm, DerHexer, Kayau, DarthWoo, Jerem43, MartinBot, Poeloq, Anaxial, R'n'B, Pauldgj, J.delanoy, Mariehuynh,
Trusilver, Svetovid, Maurice Carbonaro, Extransit, TomS TDotO, Gblandst, Balsa10, Vvitor, St.daniel, Katalaveno, Mahewa, Ncmvocal-
ist, McSly, NewEnglandYankee, Zerokitsune, Trident lv, Littlechesney, GS3, Xlwy, KudzuVine, Sand Squid, CardinalDan, Barbaking,
Benjicharlton, VolkovBot, DrDentz, Kevinkor2, Jacroe, LeilaniLad, Philip Trueman, TXiKiBoT, Quackdave, Java7837, Psychiatristnick,
GDonato, Iowamutt, Martin451, Jackfork, LeaveSleaves, Mytchill, FFMG, B1db2, MichaelShoemaker, Lerdthenerd, Finngall, Dirkbb, Fal-
con8765, Coolguy9458, Bcmoney, Dantrenner, Insanity Incarnate, Agüeybaná, Ceranthor, Michael Frind, Richard1968, Questia, Fulostars,
PeterCanthropus, BotMultichill, Exodus 499, Hertz1888, Sothicus, CagedKiller360, X-Fi6, Happysailor, Flyer22, Allmightyduck, Mim-
ihitam, Undeniabletruth, Antonio Lopez, Nuttycoconut, Overcharm, Zactb, Benea, Thehotelambush, Hobartimus, Onopearls, Johnanth,
Svick, Castlemate, StiegKlein, Master 1337, Dabomb87, M2Ys4U, Denisarona, Theshadow89, Faithlessthewonderboy, Martarius, Clue-
Bot, Gorillasapiens, The Thing That Should Not Be, Cliff, Assaad33, T.Neo, WDavis1911, Mild Bill Hiccup, Uncle Milty, Wagonkeys,
Fipinche, DifferCake, Otolemur crassicaudatus, Timjohn911, Trivialist, Bensci54, Tripolarted, Excirial, Jusdafax, Sandgkoller, Gwguf-
fey, MorrisRob, Azoreg, Morel, SchreiberBike, Salon Essahj, Thingg, Deathmare, TheProf07, Vanished User 1004, Kantgrad, Hell Hawk,
2749princess, LUV 2 SCAM, Lockwood Like, XLinkBot, Spitfire, Gwandoya, Imagine Reason, Flying Ninja Monkey, Dthomsen8, Ost316,
Ariconte, WikHead, Jd027, Lab-oratory, MystBot, RyanCross, Addbot, Willking1979, Some jerk on the Internet, DOI bot, Alas123623,
Tcncv, Eilishluvnjames, Annielogue, DougsTech, Morriswa, D6dclfycny1, TutterMouse, Fieldday-sunday, Zarcadia, CanadianLinuxUser,
Fluffernutter, Smiall, Download, Ryoga Godai, Favonian, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, LuK3, Wikifan12345, Legobot, Yobot, Etineskid, Frag-
gle81, Amirobot, Sarrus, Tskuzzy, Eric-Wester, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, Jim1138, IRP, Kingpin13, Flewis, Materialscien-
tist, Limideen, The High Fin Sperm Whale, Tintero, Citation bot, E2eamon, Maxis ftw, Frankenpuppy, IIIthe 13thIII, Xqbot, Cureden,
Capricorn42, 4twenty42o, Jeffrey Mall, Millahnna, Mononomic, Acebulf, Editpower100, Grim23, Tyrol5, XXIwritesinsxX, Garkeith,
C+C, AVBOT, Frosted14, Omnipaedista, Fld300b, Bellerophon, Spesh531, Locobot, Stainsor, Shadowjams, Zapsdaman87, Sesu Prime,
RightCowLeftCoast, Robynthehode, FrescoBot, Dogposter, Wikipe-tan, Sky Attacker, Kkj11210, Tegel, Xhaoz, Cannolis, Citation bot 1,
Intelligentsium, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, AnOicheGhealai, HRoestBot, Patspacersfan, Eagles247, Rushbugled13, Hamtechperson,
A8UDI, Rcswifto, Jschnur, SpaceFlight89, Chickenegg123, Σ, Thesevenseas, Cathy Richards, Bgpaulus, Rmanricardo1996, Ianprime0509,
Thingie123, Lam Kin Keung, Lotje, Joejoe92, Vrenator, Aoidh, Reach Out to the Truth, ChristopherBrooks, CordeliaNaismith, Smosin-
ski, RjwilmsiBot, NameIsRon, Quiggers1P, Forenti, Thrind, Wintonian, DASHBot, J36miles, EmausBot, Orphan Wiki, Gfoley4, Az29,
Ajraddatz, Mordgier, Marco Guzman, Jr, Mr.natef8, Ashok Marbate, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Pp.paul.4, Justmeu2, Solomonfromfinland,
Mz7, JDDJS, ZéroBot, John Cline, Traxs7, Maypigeon of Liberty, Grunny, Hereforhomework2, Cobaltcigs, Zap Rowsdower, Wayne Slam,
Tolly4bolly, Rcsprinter123, Aj97, Feedbackloop, L Kensington, Nasroo7, Donner60, Bk314159, Wikiposter0123, Bulwersator, Amy-
welchdude, Xanchester, ClueBot NG, Orangehusky9, Quandle, Pattygiles, ConconJondor, Heaney555z, Braincricket, Navid-321, Canfh-
hafgha, Widr, WikiPuppies, Helpful Pixie Bot, Anxc27, Darrenvoon2011, Calabe1992, DBigXray, SamRoberts74, BG19bot, M0rphzone,
Joebob114, Alex E. Clarke, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Ashleyprince, Mifter Public, Erica.largen, Mark Arsten, Skywalker80100, Githuga,
IIAltairII, Theotherdimension333, Joga44, 1a2b3c876, Haileyanneleighdeleon, Caduon, Word69, Achowat, Kayp22, Hlo12321, Several
Pending, Aejlhs, Kev9964, Antares Geminorum, Merse8888, Angiewangie!, EuroCarGT, MadGuy7023, Branden1999, APerson, Bran-
den the origanal, Hmainsbot1, Webclient101, Ivyphoebe, Kero99900, Lugia2453, Frosty, RideLightning, EntroDipintaGabbia, Tcarroll51,
WolfgangAzureus, IamTheTroll143, Reatlas, Faizan, Taylorkay1, Xin-Xin W., Tuckertwo, Eyesnore, ProtossPylon, EternalFlare, Srflecha,
Chicken egg dillema, 123op, BenStein69, Ginsuloft, D Eaketts, George8211, Noyster, Knoll360, Thelogoss, Halpino54, Nax245, Rip-
permaster, Bth33333, Carbonoatom, Beckiemily, Monkbot, Poepkop, GeisterTrio, Kvstss, Lucyloo10, MikeTheEditor104, Mynamescie,
Bstouttt, Arnold.R.Tse, Il Tostapane, Waleedical, Elijah6th, Spencer Astramecki, Bcampbell525, Ihaveacatonmydesk, Chchang6, Breckin
Muzzy, Robotham24, Anniejojo10, Trolltrollhahaha, Eric.hoda and Anonymous: 925
• Chinese room Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinese%20room?oldid=648263425 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel,
The Anome, Eventi, Maury Markowitz, Ryguasu, Edward, Quintessent, AdSR, MartinHarper, Menchi, Snoyes, Angela, Djnjwd, Esper-
tus, Grendelkhan, Sabbut, Shizhao, Raul654, Jerzy, Banno, Owen, Robbot, Astronautics, Auric, Blainster, Aniu, Kent Wang, Ruakh,
Psb777, Giftlite, Dbenbenn, 0x0077BE, Bfinn, Ds13, Everyking, McGravin, ZeroJanvier, Bovlb, Naufana, Falcon Kirtaran, Tagishsimon,
Mporch, Andycjp, Quadell, WhiteDragon, Kaldari, StephenFerg, MementoVivere, Slady, Mindspillage, Sicilarch, Kndiaye, Swiftly, Ben
Standeven, Shanes, Shoujun, Reinyday, BrokenSegue, .:Ajvol:., VBGFscJUn3, Naturenet, Khaim, Dan East, Sir Paragon, Sburke, Pol098,
Jfx319, Alienus, BD2412, Qwertyus, Rjwilmsi, Gmelli, Ericbg05, ErikHaugen, Krash, FlaBot, Mathrick, Chobot, UkPaolo, YurikBot,
RussBot, FrenchIsAwesome, Sillybilly, Taejo, Gaius Cornelius, Grafen, Długosz, Tailpig, Irishguy, Shinmawa, PeepP, Xompanthy, Roy
Brumback, Action potential, JdwNYC, Tomisti, LeonardoRob0t, HereToHelp, AndrewWTaylor, MartinGugino, SmackBot, McGeddon,
ArnoGourdol, Clpo13, PJM, Operat0r, Mirokado, Ben.c.roberts, Emurphy42, Rrburke, Harnad, Cybercobra, Pwjb, Richard001, Jon Aw-
brey, Dankonikolic, AmiDaniel, Bilby, AdultSwim, Kuroune, Dr.K., MTSbot, Iridescent, Britannica, Deckheadtottie, Kaarel, Paul Fox-
worthy, GregFox, Fvasconcellos, Pgr94, Chrisahn, Harrigan, Gregbard, Peripitus, Peterdjones, Trevyn, Davidhorman, Stan the fisher,
Qvasi, Mgurling, WinBot, SFairchild, EmersonLowry, Skomorokh, Ccrrccrr, Beams, Magioladitis, LookingGlass, Spontini, Frogsinheaven,
Kadmium, MartinBot, Padillah, R'n'B, CommonsDelinker, Nono64, Slash, FANSTARbot, Maurice Carbonaro, Tarotcards, Robertson-
Glasgow, Aradil, Cometstyles, Inwind, TXiKiBoT, FSharpMajor, Luminum, Baggabagga, Ohiostandard, Modernlove, Castelargus, Mg-
grant, Paradoctor, WRK, Keilana, Likebox, Lightmouse, CharlesGillingham, Artman772000, JL-Bot, Emptymountains, Myrvin, Martar-
ius, ClueBot, DFRussia, Father Inire, Badger Drink, Srirangav, Dlabtot, Estevoaei, Brews ohare, SchreiberBike, Ost316, Aunt Entropy,
D.M. from Ukraine, Looie496, Redheylin, LemmeyBOT, Tassedethe, Dayewalker, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Citation
bot, LilHelpa, Ptrf, Reading glasses, RibotBOT, Prezbo, Paine Ellsworth, Peterkugel, Citation bot 1, Borderings, Trappist the monk, Comet
Tuttle, Jfmantis, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, Super48paul, Faolin42, SSBDelphiki, Shahab baig, Medeis, Papg2010, ClueBot NG, Joefrom-
randb, Helpful Pixie Bot, Virajviraj, Luizpuodzius, TheOnePerson, Tobias B. Besemer, Eafurst, ChrisGualtieri, MattGaskey, BreakfastJr,
Aubreybardo, Julep.hawthorne, Jaydubya93, Filedelinkerbot, T. Earl Grey and Anonymous: 213
• Double-barreled question Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double-barreled%20question?oldid=611834729 Contributors: Edward,
Piotrus, Silence, GregorB, Graham87, BD2412, Pruneau, RussBot, GeeJo, SmackBot, Reedy, Antonielly, Cydebot, Majorly, Tgeairn,
Jimbo online, Sonyack, Plookalakalaka, Anyeverybody, Piledhigheranddeeper, Genewitch, Duffbeerforme, Addbot, Misterx2000,
AnomieBOT, Some standardized rigour, Erik9bot, Wifione, Jujutacular, EmausBot, Mcc1789, HandsomeFella, ClueBot NG, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Bentbrent1234, TBC1810 and Anonymous: 21
• Ghost in the machine Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ghost%20in%20the%20machine?oldid=646369975 Contributors: Edward,
Michael Hardy, Charles Matthews, Myshkin, Blainster, Bkell, Hoot, DocWatson42, Freakofnurture, Morphix, Patsw, WhiteC, Malo, Do-
minic, Kam Solusar, Ppk01, Ralfipedia, DDerby, TheMidnighters, Ewlyahoocom, RL0919, PM Poon, Tomisti, Ms2ger, Geoffrey.landis,
Canadianism, Djr xi, SmackBot, MeiStone, LonesomeDrifter, Slaniel, John Reaves, Sgt Pinback, Normxxx, Rudd103, LebanonChild,
AEMoreira042281, Arno Matthias, Fconaway, Cpiral, Tweisbach, Oldwes, Macdonald-ross, Fractain, Cyfal, Beofluff, Martarius, Clue-
Bot, The Thing That Should Not Be, TheOldJacobite, Fledgeaaron, Editor2020, Addbot, Jafeluv, Redheylin, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Yobot,
242 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Jet0425, FrescoBot, Foobarnix, Full-date unlinking bot, Aoidh, ZéroBot, ClueBot NG, Curb Chain, Bob 21185, Makecat-bot, Ugog Niz-
dast, Bobtrigg and Anonymous: 61
• God is dead Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/God%20is%20dead?oldid=649208430 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Stevertigo, Spiff,
Michael Hardy, Llywrch, Pgunn, Tregoweth, Vzbs34, DJ Clayworth, Goethean, Ashley Y, Texture, Blainster, Connelly, Gamaliel, Na-
ufana, Andycjp, Slowking Man, Karol Langner, Rlquall, Tothebarricades.tk, Neutrality, DanielCD, Marlowe, Discospinster, Leibniz,
C12H22O11, Pjacobi, MeltBanana, Dbachmann, Kbh3rd, Circeus, C S, Neg, Sebastian Goll, Pearle, JesseHogan, Petdance, GK, Nik42,
Ricky81682, Flyspeck, Katefan0, Steiner, Emplynx, CriminalSaint, GregorB, Ignus, Deltabeignet, BD2412, Opie, Mendaliv, Koavf,
Nkrosse, GOD, Cwfranson, Nneonneo, Tpkunesh, Thenewdeal87, Diza, WhyBeNormal, Jared Preston, VolatileChemical, Agamemnon2,
The Rambling Man, Ferndave, RussBot, TheDoober, Pigman, Hoyle1911, Gaius Cornelius, Jugander, Giro720, Bvanderveen, Jamesgibbon,
Nirvana2013, LodeRunner, Tomisti, As286, Alecmconroy, Zzuuzz, Teiladnam, Closedmouth, Jmackaerospace, Katieh5584, Appleseed,
Alexanderj, Infinity0, SmackBot, Skudrafan1, Zazaban, NantucketNoon, Stephensuleeman, Gilliam, Skizzik, Squiddy, GoneAwayNowAn-
dRetired, Chris the speller, Jeysaba, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Colonies Chris, Toughpigs, Spherical Time, Mladifilozof,
TheRaven7, Matt2h, Baiter, Cybercobra, FreiheitAvatar, Mistamagic28, Wybot, Threegee, Metamagician3000, Alcuin, Ceoil, Byelf2007,
Petrejo, Heimstern, Tasc, Togamoos, InedibleHulk, Davesilvan, T4exanadu, B7T, Iridescent, Theoldanarchist, Marysunshine, CatatonicStu-
por, Popsilviu, Switchercat, Igni, Anton-2492, Stephenjh, ShelfSkewed, Cydebot, A876, Treybien, Aristophanes68, Soetermans, Synergy,
AVIosad, Arb, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Barticus88, Biruitorul, Peter Deer, Peashy, Mentifisto, Kailjanii, Milton Stanley, Fayenatic london, Min-
htung91, MECU, Leuqarte, Andrzejbanas, DOSGuy, Pipedreamergrey, Skomorokh, Ericoides, .anacondabot, Bongwarrior, Charlieinle-
banon, D.E. Wittkower, Giggy, West6557, Rickard Vogelberg, Rettetast, Kingkingkingking, SugarFree, J.delanoy, Captain panda, LeSaint,
Davemcle, JossBuckle Swami, Asderoff, Madhava 1947, WarFox, Supersonic712, Gerent, Zzzronnyzzz, JonesMama, Vranak, DGMDGM,
Philip Trueman, DoorsAjar, Anonymous Dissident, Cerebellum, Wassermann, Seb az86556, Nadsozinc, Marijuanarchy, Falcon8765,
Judgeking, Trescolacion, Fanofranz, Cokesmear, StAnselm, Fixer1234, Caltas, MaynardClark, 0rrAvenger, Hobartimus, Videmus Omnia,
Efe, Noucten, RS1900, Loren.wilton, ClueBot, Lhuntkenora, AstroMark, Trusbs, TheOldJacobite, Kristamaranatha, Epsilon60198, Solar-
Wind, Auntof6, Rockfang, Excirial, Vanisheduser12345, Muhandes, Don510, Neverflake, XLinkBot, AgnosticPreachersKid, EastTN,
Rror, Doog71, Avoided, Runner1991, Addbot, Glane23, Xerxes b, West.andrew.g, Persianknight, KvaliN, ‫ماني‬, Luckas-bot, Granpuff,
Tonescary, Prodo123, AnomieBOT, Bsimmons666, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, LilHelpa, 613kpiggy, Grim23, Inferno, Lord of
Penguins, GrouchoBot, Omnipaedista, SassoBot, Dunc0029, Юный Вадим, Zoellner.R, Surv1v4l1st, Adam9389, Kwiki, TobeBot, Mptb3,
Guerillero, Alacrity14, Zujine, Enauspeaker, Talmid3, DefenderOfInfo, ZéroBot, Josve05a, Wikignome0530, Wayne Slam, Ryan3224,
11614soup, Peace is contagious, Donner60, DASHBotAV, DemonicPartyHat, ClueBot NG, SpikeTorontoRCP, Epigrammed, Satellizer,
Jdpmacav, Widr, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Vee144, MusikAnimal, Altaïr, Khnassmacher, Dnastoia008, Thempp, JYBot, Makecat-
bot, StarlightDreamwalker, Cherubinirules, Jleavittpearl, YiFeiBot, Katididluvsyew, Frickafresh25, NoxEques, Victoriaroses, Rommell
wing, NilanaDeSilva and Anonymous: 415
• Hanlon's razor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hanlon'{}s%20razor?oldid=652802328 Contributors: Dreamyshade, Lee Daniel
Crocker, Mav, Css, Snorre, Eclecticology, SimonP, Shii, Prash n rao, Hephaestos, Dante Alighieri, MartinHarper, Lquilter, Geoffrey,
Tregoweth, Baylink, Glenn, Ciphergoth, Scott, Andres, Timwi, Dcoetzee, Quaid, DJ Clayworth, Tempshill, Xaven, Joy, Shantavira, Kizor,
Lowellian, Llavigne, Sheridan, Dodger, Xanzzibar, David Gerard, JamesMLane, DocWatson42, Nifboy, Bfinn, Alterego, Wyss, Alison,
Pne, Tagishsimon, Edcolins, Oneiros, DragonflySixtyseven, Pmanderson, Eranb, Pasd, Mormegil, FT2, Dbachmann, Elwikipedista, El C,
Noren, Nyenyec, John Vandenberg, Wrs1864, Daniel.inform, Hu, DreamGuy, Alai, LukeSurl, Galaxiaad, TShilo12, Gatewaycat, Shree-
vatsa, BlankVerse, Apokrif, Dr. Zed, Graham87, Luthwyhn, Ian Page, FDIS, Quiddity, Jehochman, Darksasami, Bensin, The wub, Nick-
powerz, Srleffler, Chobot, YurikBot, RobotE, Jimp, Gaius Cornelius, Rsrikanth05, Big Brother 1984, Curtis Clark, Chick Bowen, Anetode,
D. F. Schmidt, Brandon, Saberwyn, Kyle Barbour, Alarob, Clayhalliwell, Jmackaerospace, Afrank, CWenger, PurplePlatypus, GrinBot,
IanMSpencer, SmackBot, Schwa, McGeddon, Brossow, AnOddName, Kintetsubuffalo, Valley2city, Thumperward, Emurphy42, Tamfang,
Jon Awbrey, Kendrick7, Ceoil, Byelf2007, Esrever, Ckatz, Kkken, Klahnako, Peterbr, Iridescent, RekishiEJ, Walter Dufresne, Womzilla,
Lurlock, Gregbard, Crito2161, L d allan, Biblbroks, Thijs!bot, Mystar, JimScott, Normanmargolus, Spencer, JAnDbot, Leuko, Plantsurfer,
Probios, Arno Matthias, Ise Black, Froid, Ours18, NinjaLore, PapalAuthoritah, Boston, EdiTor, Wilsbadkarma, Stanqo, DorganBot, Bar-
raki, Durdy, Deor, TallNapoleon, Butwhatdoiknow, Llamabr, IPSOS, Someguy1221, WKCole, Drappel, Razvan NEAGOE, AliasMar-
lowe, AlleborgoBot, Devodl, Waldhorn, Malcolmxl5, Paradoctor, Jotel, Wjwalrus, Sunburntkamel, Vrmlguy, CasperGoodwood, Nnemo,
GoEThe, 842U, Resuna, DumZiBoT, Addbot, Scientus, LaaknorBot, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Faunas, Ben Ben, Legobot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, Donfbreed, Vini 17bot5, MortimerGraves, AnomieBOT, Omegaboot, Xqbot, TechBot, WebCiteBOT, Redletternight, Silent Billy,
D arckangel, Attila.lendvai, Logical Cowboy, Vsop.de, Dewritech, Bua333, Solomonfromfinland, ZéroBot, QuentinUK, Wingman4l7,
ClueBot NG, Muslim lo Juheu, Tideflat, Helpful Pixie Bot, Chaosnamepuppet4, BattyBot, Indigoeleven, Amos083, BethNaught, Frankauz,
Spumuq and Anonymous: 82
• Loaded question Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loaded%20question?oldid=648153485 Contributors: Tarquin, Sir Paul, Arteitle,
Dcoetzee, Ww, Radgeek, Talkingtoaj, Tschild, Furrykef, Populus, Wiwaxia, Mrdice, Altenmann, Justanyone, Tobias Bergemann, Taak,
Chameleon, Mckaysalisbury, Piotrus, Kusunose, Nick-in-South-Africa, DragonflySixtyseven, Uly, Karl Dickman, Calwatch, Guppyfin-
soup, Ta bu shi da yu, Rich Farmbrough, Silence, Gronky, Art LaPella, Euyyn, Jonathan Drain, Lore Sjoberg, Viriditas, La goutte de
pluie, Cspurrier, Kbir1, Brainy J, Sam Korn, Officiallyover, Free Bear, Babajobu, Ashley Pomeroy, Mailer diablo, Schapel, Nightstallion,
AlexMyltsev, Stemonitis, Miss Madeline, Tabletop, Force10, BD2412, Jshadias, Sjö, Rjwilmsi, Wildyoda, Leithp, Harmil, Pathoschild,
Jondor, Tardis, Common Man, Stefanbojark, Wasted Time R, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, RussBot, Red Slash, Bovineone, Joncolvin, KissL,
Grafen, Keith aquino, Eurosong, Bomkia, StuRat, Lt-wiki-bot, TheMadBaron, Thnidu, JQF, ZoFreX, Ybbor, Groyolo, SmackBot, Kellen,
Reedy, Eskimbot, BiT, Geoff B, The Rhymesmith, Nerrolken, Goaty, Boothman, Metamagician3000, Andeggs, BrotherFlounder, USS-
Vagrant, Robofish, Antonielly, Grumpyyoungman01, TheHYPO, Eoseth, Spebudmak, Colonel Warden, JHP, DougHill, Father Ignatius,
Penbat, Gregbard, Cydebot, Tenbergen, Alaibot, Thijs!bot, D4g0thur, Tocharianne, Kingnixon, Oreo Priest, AntiVandalBot, Uvaphdman,
Defaultdotxbe, Waerloeg, Clan-destine, Opertinicy, Legitimus, Dreaded Walrus, Barek, Jmartinsson, Destynova, JaGa, DGG, S3000, Jack-
son Peebles, Dennisthe2, Akronym, DandyDan2007, P4k, Trumpet marietta 45750, Pyrospirit, Foofighter20x, Dorftrottel, MichaelProc-
ton, Davin, Jamelan, Graymornings, Wassamatta, Lova Falk, SimonTrew, Cosmo0, ClueBot, Niceguyedc, Trivialist, Rockfang, Schreiber-
Bike, GeeAlice, Jojhutton, AnnaFrance, Thiefalt, Weaseloid, Legobot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Fahadsadah, Omnipaedista, Logicchecker,
Mitranim, Peteinterpol, Machine Elf 1735, JKDw, Momergil, MeUser42, ArtistScientist, Dryranm, Dcjackman, EmausBot, ZéroBot,
Morgan Hauser, Lothar Klaic, Alchemy Heels I, ClueBot NG, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Popcornduff, Whitmerj, Meabandit, JYBot,
BayShrimp, Ceosad, Ihaveacatonmydesk and Anonymous: 102
• Meaning of life Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meaning%20of%20life?oldid=653141121 Contributors: Mav, Bryan Derksen,
MarXidad, Ed Poor, Amillar, Xaonon, Fubar Obfusco, Shii, Ellmist, Montrealais, KF, Twilsonb, HaigEK, Nealmcb, Patrick, DrewT2,
JohnOwens, Michael Hardy, Paul Barlow, JakeVortex, Cprompt, Lexor, Isomorphic, Norm, Kku, Ixfd64, GTBacchus, Minesweeper,
5.1. TEXT 243

Ams80, Ahoerstemeier, HarmonicSphere, Haakon, Misfit, Snoyes, Angela, Jebba, Ijon, Glenn, UserGoogol, Poor Yorick, Cratbro, Ev-
ercat, TonyClarke, SaveThePoint, Emperorbma, Renamed user 4, Charles Matthews, Vanished user 5zariu3jisj0j4irj, Dysprosia, Daniel
Quinlan, Wik, Markhurd, Dunning, SEWilco, Mir Harven, Juggleandhope, Topbanana, Wetman, Banno, King brosby, Shantavira, The
lorax, Chealer, ChrisG, Fredrik, Kizor, Peak, Stewartadcock, Meelar, Blainster, Paul G, Hadal, JesseW, Wereon, Nickjbor, Mushroom,
HaeB, GreatWhiteNortherner, Filemon, Adam78, Dave6, Snobot, Lunkwill, DavidCary, Sj, Tom harrison, Bfinn, 0x6D667061, Everyk-
ing, No Guru, There is no spoon, Curps, NeoJustin, Jfdwolff, Maroux, Guanaco, Mboverload, Solipsist, Bobblewik, Kmsiever, Neilc,
Auximines, Utcursch, Andycjp, Alexf, Mendel, Mike R, LucasVB, Antandrus, Beland, Loremaster, Doops, Kaldari, Karol Langner,
Oneiros, Ellsworth, Tothebarricades.tk, Bodnotbod, EuroTom, Sam Hocevar, Haisch, Gscshoyru, Buickid, Wadsworth, Kevyn, BeakerK44,
M1ss1ontomars2k4, Aponar Kestrel, Grstain, Mike Rosoft, Venu62, Monkeyman, MichaelMcGuffin, KeyStroke, Discospinster, Soli-
tude, Agnistus, Rhobite, Guanabot, Jaedza, FT2, Wrp103, Dave souza, Xezbeth, Roodog2k, 1pezguy, Dbachmann, Paul August, ES-
kog, Tgies, Kaisershatner, JoeSmack, Neko-chan, Mr. Billion, Livajo, JustPhil, El C, Lankiveil, Mwanner, Shanes, Spearhead, RoyBoy,
MPS, Semper discens, Bobo192, Yonghokim, Longhair, Valve, Smalljim, John Vandenberg, Viriditas, R. S. Shaw, Skywalker, Redquark,
Irrawaddy, LuoShengli, Physicistjedi, Andrewbadr, Jacius, MPerel, Krellis, Nsaa, Mdd, Merope, Jez, Crimea, Jrobinson5, Alansohn,
Gary, LtNOWIS, Atlant, Keenan Pepper, Andrewpmk, Plumbago, Gunslinger47, Thoric, Derumi, Axl, Fritzpoll, Plange, Hu, Yum-
mifruitbat, Idont Havaname, Bart133, Snowolf, Benna, Wtmitchell, Velella, Wtshymanski, Evil Monkey, Bsadowski1, Alai, Richwales,
Tariqabjotu, AlexTiefling, Loxley, Firsfron, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Mel Etitis, Bushytails, OwenX, Woohookitty, TLG, RHaworth, Tiger-
Shark, LOL, Awostrack, Barrylb, WPPWAH, Miketwo, Madchester, MattGiuca, Benbest, Ruud Koot, WadeSimMiser, Clemmy, Esben,
Bkwillwm, Ady, Mary Calm, Zzyzx11, Arunr, Kralizec!, Wayward, Gimboid13, Dysepsion, SilhouetteSaloon, Graham87, Alienus, Mag-
ister Mathematicae, BD2412, MC MasterChef, V95micfa, MatthewDBA, ThomasOwens, Mendaliv, Sjö, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Koavf,
Quale, Fred Hsu, Jake Wartenberg, Kinu, Commander, JubalHarshaw, Vary, Harry491, Patrick Gill, PinchasC, Quiddity, Tangotango,
MZMcBride, Tawker, NeonMerlin, Sohmc, Peter Tribe, DoubleBlue, MarnetteD, Reinis, Hungrymouse, Jobarts, Yamamoto Ichiro, Han-
shans23, Scorpionman, Titoxd, Mikecron, SlaunchaMan, FlaBot, Fëaluinix, Jmc, Dullfig, Margosbot, Nihiltres, Gark, SouthernNights,
Gurch, Arctic.gnome, KFP, Alphachimp, Diza, BradBeattie, Hermajesty, Spencerk, Chobot, Kazuba, Turidoth, HKT, DVdm, Stoive, An-
tiuser, Agamemnon2, Cactus.man, Rogertudor, HoCkEy PUCK, Mysekurity, Gwernol, CaseKid, S.M., Satanael, Wavelength, Sceptre,
Ryz05, Hillman, Samroski, Adam1213, RussBot, Jeffhoy, WAvegetarian, CanadianCaesar, Akamad, Stephenb, Kelmaon, Cambridge-
BayWeather, Pseudomonas, Lsdan, Wimt, Bullzeye, Ritchy, MarcK, Shanel, NawlinWiki, Wiki alf, Uberisaac, Toredid, Nirvana2013,
Adam Martinez, Grafen, RazorICE, Dureo, Ryright, Apokryltaros, JDoorjam, The Land of Smeg, Pudist, Nick C, RonCram, DeadEyeAr-
row, Moreau36, Cardsplayer4life, Tachyon01, Scope creep, Saulkaiserman, Thegreyanomaly, Tomisti, Ignitus, Alpha 4615, Mikespoff,
SamuelRiv, TransUtopian, Igiffin, Chrismaster, FF2010, Ramblinknight, Kermit2, Phgao, Zzuuzz, RDF, Theda, Closedmouth, Space-
birdy, E Wing, Pb30, KGasso, Nedunahugh, GraemeL, Jecowa, Vicarious, Fram, HereToHelp, Migdejong, ArielGold, Relz, Curpsbot-
unicodify, SorryGuy, Hanely, Eaefremov, Allens, Katieh5584, Ricardo630, Mebden, Xiornik, Carlosguitar, LambaJan, Knowledgeum,
That Guy, From That Show!, タチコマ robot, Luk, C mon, Robertd, Jenn xD, Alextrevelian 006, Laurence Boyce, SmackBot, Am-
cbride, GBarnett, Volcanictelephone, MARussellPESE, Asteriatic, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, Random account 39949472, McGeddon,
Shoy, C.Fred, Vald, Strategy man, Scifiintel, Delldot, Monty Cantsin, Frymaster, Rachel Pearce, Shai-kun, Mjas, Vassyana, Gilliam,
Portillo, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, Carl.bunderson, ERcheck, Mindeye, Schmiteye, AstareGod, Improbcat, Bluebot, Spilla, JMSwtlk, Per-
sian Poet Gal, Jprg1966, Green meklar, Technotaoist, Miquonranger03, Nemodomi, SchfiftyThree, Droll, Afasmit, CSWarren, DoctorW,
Sampi, Christopher Denman, Nbarth, Funper, Go for it!, Hongooi, Darth Panda, Firetrap9254, Huwmanbeing, JohnBurkitt, Mattyway,
Zsinj, Dethme0w, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, RT Wolf, Skidude9950, Rrburke, Konczewski, Xyzzyplugh, Andy120290, Addshore,
Phaedriel, The tooth, AndySimpson, Auntiegrav, Jmlk17, Emact, Iapetus, Cybercobra, Decltype, Nakon, Underbar dk, TedE, Zvis, Blake-
, “alyosha”, Deathsythe, Drinklotsofbeer, Richard001, Geoffr, DoubleAW, Mini-Geek, NickPenguin, Astroview120mm, Andrew c,
Trewbuk, Metamagician3000, UVnet, Salamurai, Sadi Carnot, Kukini, Malcuthrad, Gilman824, Byelf2007, CIS, The undertow, Krash-
landon, Akalden, Rklawton, Mouse Nightshirt, JzG, SS2005, Kuru, Jidanni, Cyberchicken, Drahcir, Scientizzle, Dan Havega, Lazylaces,
JoshuaZ, Tim Q. Wells, Pirkid, Minna Sora no Shita, Wickeddramakid, Applejaxs, Callum101, Ocatecir, Scetoaux, Mr. Lefty, Iron-
Gargoyle, The Man in Question, Mr. Vernon, Toadfan5, Slakr, Muad, Noah Salzman, George The Dragon, Childzy, Storm Horizon,
Larrymcp, Pigi0n, Tparlin, Ryojikun, Martian.knight, Tuspm, Ryulong, A Clown in the Dark, Sasata, ShakingSpirit, Keahapana, Tawker-
bot, Lucid, JYi, BranStark, HisSpaceResearch, Iridescent, Bauani, BrainMagMo, JoeBot, Moonkey, NativeForeigner, Cyborg999, J Di,
GDallimore, Tony Fox, LadyofShalott, Courcelles, Onealej, Tawkerbot2, Pazcal, Whotookthatguy, Shirahadasha, MightyWarrior, Pawn-
tificator, Gulstab, Xcentaur, JForget, Dhammapal, TuringBirds, CmdrObot, Filippos2, Mattbr, Dycedarg, Hyphen5, MOCKBA, ŠJů, Su-
paStarGirl, RedRollerskate, Dgw, Hardrada, Xequ, Ken Gallager, Liu Bei, Lokal Profil, Rob2000, Gregbard, Funnyfarmofdoom, Hop-
kapi, Phatom87, Dandaman123, Cydebot, Clappingsimon, Robertcathles, Peripitus, Jasperdoomen, Reywas92, MC10, Besieged, David-
Durieux, Spazborg, Mato, The Fascist, Peterdjones, Mortus Est, Michaelas10, Gogo Dodo, Awarenessmag, Corpx, Islander, A Softer An-
swer, Eu.stefan, Dr.enh, Tawkerbot4, Histwr, Christian75, DumbBOT, Asenine, Ljharmitt, Narayanese, EqualRights, Inkington, Kozuch,
Emmett5, Omicronpersei8, Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Nearfar, Heidijane, Satori Son, Mtijn, Krylonblue83, FrancoGG, Epbr123, Bot-
maru, Matmilne, Dogaroon, Faigl.ladislav, HappyInGeneral, S Marshall, Bendroz, Bealbrown, Karish, Anger2headshot, Marek69, John254,
Rodrigo Cornejo, James086, Geracudd, Rhrad, Reswobslc, Corgana, Philippe, CharlotteWebb, OrenBochman, Tutor93, Jreitsch, Rand-
notell, Escarbot, I already forgot, Mentifisto, WikiSlasher, AntiVandalBot, Harpomarx42, Majorly, Yonatan, Luna Santin, Kanwar rajan,
Seaphoto, Voyaging, Opelio, QuiteUnusual, Reiddp, Lanche, Ronnymike, Ste4k, Jj137, Smartse, 2bornot2b, Modernist, Dylan Lake,
Farosdaughter, Chill doubt, ARTEST4ECHO, Indian Chronicles, Pixelface, Lklundin, Ioeth, Alan thomas, Leuko, Kaobear, Barek, MER-
C, Blaine Steinert, Spiritualone, The Transhumanist, Medulla oblongata, The.chosen.one, Ehiris, Beyatch91, Mister peanut, Jmd2121,
Andonic, Cheese13, PhilKnight, Tayl1257, Oetzi101, Cynwolfe, Acroterion, ChristopherBorcsok, VzjrZ, Derek Chong, Noha2, Prim-
roseGuy, Da baum, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Bothar, AuburnPilot, Professor marginalia, Wikidudeman, JNW, Arno Matthias, Billwrtr,
CattleGirl, Jéské Couriano, Think outside the box, Rivertorch, BjörnF, Gullinkambi, Tedickey, Andy mci, Pixel ;-), Nyttend, J.B., Elk-
duds, Chesdovi, L Trezise, Bubba hotep, Theroadislong, Nposs, BatteryIncluded, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Docnixon, Autumn Forrester,
Chram, Chivista, Cpl Syx, Gerry D, Cheekyvincent, Anbro, Glen, DerHexer, Edward321, Alanharris3, Michaelbedar, Esanchez7587,
Anya sm, TheRanger, DinoBot, Seba5618, UnconcealedMeaning, Oren0, Yadler16, Whedonette, ClubOranje, TunaEduardo, Martin-
Bot, LiamUK, Swhitaker, Sseiter, Arjun01, Anarchia, Twitty666, V-Man737, Tuganax, Byronic Hero, Mschel, Bus stop, R'n'B, Com-
monsDelinker, Vox Rationis, Brilliburger, Nono64, DimitriRU, Pekaje, PrestonH, Bgold4, Smokizzy, JaviC, Pomte, Tgeairn, AlphaEta,
J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Trusilver, TimBuck2, Cowboybebop23, Graydj, Bogey97, Uncle Dick, VAcharon, Homsar727, Theon-
celer, Mike.lifeguard, Extransit, Selfgrowth80, WarthogDemon, Ian.thomson, MackTime, Tdadamemd, Captain Infinity, Fireballtr, Wan-
dering Ghost, Czarnick4, Leftclaw, Marcsin, Katalaveno, McSly, Grayoshi, Onexdata, Mikael Häggström, Ilikerps, Dragn0, HiLo48,
Allchinoman, Kaitonkid, Plasticup, Chiswick Chap, Lbeaumont, Fredcmayjr, Bigmanrob, WHeimbigner, Jediknight86, Belovedfreak,
Nathan Gillis, Richard D. LeCour, Bushcarrot, NewEnglandYankee, Cadwaladr, Willy0800, Aquajimmy, Obi Wan 71, SchectersRock,
Zerokitsune, SJP, Thesis4Eva, Naughty Naughty, Touch Of Light, Yogobaby, TomCaleyJag, Caidensmum, K2so4, Blah0401, Jackaranga,
244 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Midnighterbh, Juliancolton, Cometstyles, Bplayer4him, Doodlemuck, Dangyou, Tygrrr, King Toadsworth, Natl1, Andrew Kernohan, Cu-
taxilliselem, Bonadea, Nat682, Andy Marchbanks, Dorftrottel, S, Useight, Bkc2006, Ronbo76, 88 fourganger, 97faugre01, Avatar332211,
Evan Kiefl, CardinalDan, Idioma-bot, Xnuala, Sws2910, Sooner Dave, DMcMPO11AAUK, Thedjatclubrock, ABF, DSRH, Kar95k, Jeff
G., Indubitably, Alexandria, HeckXX, CART fan, Satyr9, QuackGuru, Sześćsetsześćdziesiątsześć, Popperipopp, Philip Trueman, Reiketsu,
Drunkenmonkey, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Oppgyz123, Itsnotken, Swerve26, Moogwrench, Stalin IV, JesseOjala, Pwnage8, Anonymous Dis-
sident, Jason.garnier, Afluent Rider, Max57, 909078L, Qxz, Someguy1221, Cruzie1, Socrates lives, Yksin, Olly150, Voorlandt, Anna
Lincoln, Sofgbos, Sintaku, Beyond silence, Dendodge, Dillz42, Corvus cornix, 0nlyth3truth, Cerebellum, Fry010, Rueican, Jpoplive, Jhs-
Bot, Leafyplant, Luksuh, Rockerbaby90, Buddhipriya, LeaveSleaves, Nightstream, Figureskatingfan, Jakriil, Raymondwinn, Dillydot27,
Shadowlapis, Skvasundharan, Redsox04, Maxim, Yuri.holowatsky, Saturn star, ArtOfLife, Ilkali, Mike729, Jrubio555, CO, Greswik,
Lerdthenerd, Kilmer-san, Tanner simon, Meters, Wolfrock, Strangerer, Falcon8765, Nxtftrdirector, Enviroboy, Masonknight, MMiladin,
Das Links, Zaf159, Nagy, Nutbob, Pengwiin, Sfmammamia, Dodo von den Bergen, Cheescake man, Tommynator101, NHRHS2010,
Magicac4567, Wikikokoroko, Fishhead1, Worldthoughts, Newbyguesses, EJF, Silananda, Infiniplex2, SieBot, StAnselm, Nubiatech, In-
deph, Malcolmxl5, Nic007, Jeffmcawesome, Winchelsea, Wiimonkey9, Todespest, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Karaboom, Rosco470, Xymmax,
RJaguar3, Triwbe, Lucasbfrbot, Conn106, Smsarmad, Yintan, Monkeykingjoe, Ouizardus, Bocho90, Sakave, Soler97, Steve4222, Ben-
togoa, Flyer22, Radon210, Qst, Yahgoo, Bookermorgan, Dangerousnerd, Slipknot worshiper, Slovik5678, Jussen, Oxymoron83, Raf-
fethefirst, Faradayplank, Smilesfozwood, Vmrgrsergr, Avnjay, Nuttycoconut, Harry, Franky210, Oculi, AnonGuy, Lightmouse, Angel
David, Poindexter Propellerhead, Iain99, Miguel.mateo, Matthew Swan, The Evil Spammer of Doom, PIXELPUNK10010, Sunrise,
Platoon-loves-foxes, Maelgwnbot, Roleymoley, Smilo Don, Spartan-James, StaticGull, Mygerardromance, Everythingman, Володимир
Ф, Firefly322, Tradereddy, Bowei Huang 2, Ken123BOT, Dickmcmahon, Pinkadelica, Denisarona, Feelingitall, RichardKingCEng, Ex-
plicit, TheCatalyst31, RHSTIGERS69, XDanielx, EPadmirateur, Kinkyturnip, ClueBot, LAX, Justin W Smith, The Thing That Should
Not Be, Voxpuppet, IceUnshattered, Plastikspork, Tottman1, RashersTierney, Wysprgr2005, Cptmurdok, Nsteinme, Drmies, Razimantv,
Rup235, Mild Bill Hiccup, Rambo191c, Trilobite12, Uncle Milty, SuperHamster, Donte131, Boing! said Zebedee, CounterVandalism-
Bot, Zebobez, Blanchardb, Tomkunolson, Joyundeniable, Dozols, Singinglemon, Salcharlie, Lucyfa, Neverquick, ACHKC, Cirt, Safek,
Kitsunegami, Ktr101, Billy bob321, Excirial, Magneto923, Nymf, NoobMaster956, Fullm3t4L0n!, Ktm rockz, Muggle38, Ludwigs2,
Abrech, Leonard^Bloom, Ybenharim, Lartoven, Simonegli, Simon D M, 567k5, Sun Creator, Onlypan, CA Sherad, ZuluPapa5, Hawks-
fan, NuclearWarfare, Utopial, EhJJ, OneVindication, JamieS93, DeltaQuad, Sir Tobek, Daking9, Bemabound, Kaiba, Gerocus, Dek-
isugi, The Red, Truth is relative, understanding is limited, Inspector 34, Amsaim, Username1029384756, Amhere2000, Truth0r, Thingg,
Friedpotatoeparty, Aitias, Ronweasley456, Versus22, One66667, James Dubreze, SoxBot III, Vanished User 1004, Ahri9, XLinkBot,
April8, Spitfire, Teqed, Pfhorrest, Burningview, Darth Anne Jaclyn Sincoff, Mitsube, EastTN, Rror, Little Mountain 5, Untaken, Avoided,
Mitch Ames, Coocoo200234, Skarebo, Sergay, SilvonenBot, Wikiwords, Garycompugeek, Jbeans, Visigoth1, Dubmill, KnightofZion,
Tool-apc, Good Olfactory, Torchflame, RyanCross, Tayste, Bernie22, Jatin.vij, Imp2210, Addbot, Proofreader77, Raghavkvp, Ghost
kingdom, ConCompS, Willking1979, Freakmighty, DOI bot, MCLeander, PFlores3, Landon1980, Ventanator, Ppdiddy, Surfo, Meet
Maria, Pppdiddy, Blethering Scot, Wicked tacky, Ronhjones, PandaSaver, Astralearth, PolarPpl, Fieldday-sunday, CanadianLinuxUser,
Fluffernutter, Grahamatwp, MrOllie, Download, Sailor moon rocks, Morning277, Chamal N, Supakills, Tojohndillonesq, Scottyfergu-
son, Glane23, Glass Sword, Debresser, QuackOfaThousandSuns, West.andrew.g, 5 albert square, Drxuyan, Melloncollie07, Numbo3-bot,
Peridon, Hlev123, Tide rolls, Kylepuckett74, OlEnglish, Khawar.nehal, Gail, MuZemike, Jarble, JEN9841, Quantumobserver, LuK3,
Lakey98, Legobot, Hgat, Luckas-bot, Yobot, 2D, Pink!Teen, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Ptbotgourou, Fraggle81, Cflm001, Westbridgfordnot-
tingham01, TingtingSu, Back to the future 1, Ryancamp1, Fenrir-of-the-Shadows, Usedcarry, Feltcap, THEN WHO WAS PHONE?, Buck-
wikiPDa535, Something, Something... Ah, Nevermind, SwisterTwister, Aznhobo4, COOLMAN32456, IW.HG, Azcolvin429, Kgeza7,
Eric-Wester, Wild strawberries, N1RK4UDSK714, Backslash Forwardslash, AnomieBOT, DemocraticLuntz, Black Collar, Philiparthur-
moore, ‫הללג‬, Jim1138, BlazerKnight, 9258fahsflkh917fas, Mdodi, Piano non troppo, Kingpin13, Ulric1313, Flewis, Materialscientist,
Are you ready for IPv6?, Mncfjzg, Citation bot, JohnnyB256, SieteLiberated, GB fan, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Basketballzane, Itouchuk,
Spidern, Sionus, Kdon1e, Stannan, Capricorn42, Allanlw, Nasnema, Jsharpminor, Teenagecrumpet, Joel300993, The Evil IP address,
KDCx, Fancy.kira, Chrismitch, AV3000, Makeswell, Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), J04n, GrouchoBot, AVBOT, Mcoupal, Conor2362,
Archangel312, Shirik, Jonnyraven, SassoBot, Meaning of life expert, Ilovebunnyb, Sinistral Gades, In English c2009, Léna, Salamalaikum,
Jonathan46, Ksbalaji, Shadowjams, Aaron Kauppi, Consee596, Prezbo, Žiedas, Karazychiken, 4342, Dougofborg, Constructive editor,
Pr1nce0fDarkn3ss, Rockstarkevin, Wipedout36, Tavok91, FrescoBot, Recognizance, Merlacey, JMS Old Al, Purewater.o, Lazar Ko-
vacevic, VI, Stropko7, Machine Elf 1735, DivineAlpha, Citation bot 1, AstaBOTh15, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, HRoestBot, Arctic
Night, Alonso de Mendoza, PrincessofLlyr, Tom.Reding, Calmer Waters, Hamtechperson, Trelawnie, Mutinus, Walthersell, SpaceFlight89,
Σ, Meaghan, Curtis23, Riagu, Reconsider the static, Electricmaster, Michael Micklei, 3dg=life, Pollinosisss, Jjbabla, O0skimilk0o, An-
thonydeg1234567890, Lotje, Sussexonian, TheOriginalUndertaker, Vrenator, Toxichanz, Dusty777, Jeffrd10, Diannaa, Therryan, Brian
the Editor, PleaseStand, Tbhotch, Stroppolo, Reach Out to the Truth, RobertMfromLI, Exleywu, Woogee, Nate5713, Amerias, Devil-
fish98, Peaceworld111, Hajatvrc, Salvio giuliano, Slon02, Tesseract2, KingOfAndaf, Loversdispair1, Trouhu, EmausBot, Energy Dome,
John of Reading, Oliverlyc, Phoenixus, Natashaincredible, WikiFutureEditorHahahaha, Corin of Chaos, Faolin42, PoeticVerse, Bobthe-
mongoose, NLover, RenamedUser01302013, 8digits, Tisane, Sp33dyphil, Ochristi, Lokithetroublemaker, Winner 42, Vik101, Sivainven-
tor, Wikipelli, Ikillyou42, K6ka, Ktis hrdcore, Canadien95, Justindanial1991, Thecheesykid, Cornelia hale 26, Thebirdlover, 15turnsm,
XXBluestar117Xx, Yourmamalikesme, ZéroBot, Dominicguadiz, Susfele, Illegitimate Barrister, Shuipzv3, Lauraaaa2, Alpha Quadrant
(alt), A930913, H3llBot, Anthiety, Bauccgia0, Wayne Slam, Ocaasi, OnePt618, Tolly4bolly, Rostz, Mayur, Donner60, Puffin, Damir-
graffiti, Sion2619, DASHBotAV, 28bot, Socialservice, Kee211, Helpsome, Veritaffles, ClueBot NG, TrollPhysics, Globjulia, Gareth
Griffith-Jones, Ben21end, MelbourneStar, Macarenses, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, Name Omitted, Alastairmciver, Feedintm, Snot-
bot, Thaimoon, O.Koslowski, Widr, WikiPuppies, Brucehansen100, Drakestevens93, ThunderGyra, Synboha, Sailor and seagull, Sispar,
Crazymonkey1123, Pluma, Joshaha, Anchang, Montrealcanada, Questforeternity, Mesimoney, Helpful Pixie Bot, 2015magroan, Fleurdaly,
Electriccatfish2, Trololololololololololololol, Nondoron, Philo000, Lowercase sigmabot, BG19bot, Krenair, Doucheiemcgee, Ymblanter,
Wasbeer, Qwerty1219, Armchairgeneral, Salihnur, Wiki13, MusikAnimal, Frze, Jackaroo5555, John A Emster, Mark Arsten, EpicStudio,
Compfreak7, Zaragozahector123, Rustgiggs, The Determinator, Celtemor, Thomasvanwageningen, Alijamal14, Weird nasser, Nasser97,
Mandellgrooves, Snow Blizzard, Rahulmothiya, Jasonhoover123, Jfhutson, JimmyTheFishCowGuyThing, Imbrianus, Glacialfox, Thexys-
ter, Klilidiplomus, Hitchhiker42, RastaLulz, Chip123456, Amphibio, Agent 78787, Nemoliberestquicorporiservit, SouthParkJosh, Dia-
bloDias, Afasfdhadf, Intro to law Group 4, Breadcrumb89, AssuredHalfLife, RichardMills65, SupernovaExplosion, Teammm, Kiewbra,
Hghyux, W.D., Fluffylovesyou, TheCascadian, Mrt3366, Snoje2000, G3hcl101, Probintime97, JameSemaJ98, SirSparkles, Srahulbose,
YFdyh-bot, Khazar2, Tbeasley0504, Jethro B, Benny benny boo, Whomadegods, Mahrag, Gelatelli, Traveller37, Dexbot, Shibu.leon,
Branden the origanal, Crankypacmanown, Jooplolk, Webclient101, Psarellas, Lillylovescock, TwoTwoHello, KatieGal134, Thelegend716,
Asdfghjklh3456, Lugia2453, Isarra (HG), Gililould1564, Letsmakebacon, Dquirk911, 33j58nd88n, SFK2, Drewbigs, Jamesx12345, Kern-
sters, Brian librarian, Christum, Maximo14000, Cablewoman, Tesconon-biogel, Henry1792, Gandhian ideology relevance, Tim737, Lets
5.1. TEXT 245

b1, Epicgenius, Nyrmac, Jesse Sproul, Mallemaroke, Peni.slandpeni.sland, Sonĝanto, Tentinator, Abrahamic Faiths, AnthonyJ Lock,
Demand12, Blasphemous Jew, Jr8825, Jared2626, ArmbrustBot, Jwratner1, Ginsuloft, Psychologyresearcher99, Aubreybardo, Noys-
ter, R-Nonnatus, DirkTrowbridge, Ihearthearts, CalebPH55, TrystynAlxander, Eertg837fn, Nineveh Road, Lindsaylovesit, JaconaFrere,
Mitchellman29, Chaya5260, Melcous, Monkbot, Welcome1To1The1Jungle, Amortias, Itsmehv, Beckster1999, AsteriskStarSplat, Crystal-
lizedcarbon, Lstayer, ThePhilosopher420, TrollerxXxXxXxXxX12345679, 123buhse, Anon32469, Someperson994, Polarpope, Mastero-
fallknowledge64082, Tetra quark, SageGreenRider, Arranbolger, Iamtellingthetruth, Lynctekrua, GerbilKing, Charlieb6789, Happyrolf,
Mustajab turi, Jerodlycett, Shiken123, Gavintyrbs and Anonymous: 2841
• Murphy's law Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murphy'{}s%20law?oldid=652061241 Contributors: The Cunctator, Bryan Derksen,
Tarquin, Andre Engels, Eclecticology, Mintguy, Ubiquity, Infrogmation, TeunSpaans, Michael Hardy, GABaker, Stormwriter, Martin-
Harper, Stephen C. Carlson, Wapcaplet, Ixfd64, 6birc, Fwappler, Skysmith, Tiles, Tregoweth, Ppareit, Looxix, Baylink, Theresa knott,
Mkoval, Poor Yorick, Rotem Dan, Evercat, Hashar, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Daniel Quinlan, WhisperToMe, Xaven, Mrdice, Denel-
son83, Bwefler, Phil Boswell, Robbot, 1984, Altenmann, Henrygb, Auric, Wikibot, JerryFriedman, Superm401, Tobias Bergemann, Cy-
borgTosser, Abqwildcat, Joe Sewell, Iceberg3k, VampWillow, Chameleon, Bobblewik, Tagishsimon, Edcolins, Gadfium, Andycjp, Antan-
drus, OverlordQ, Vina, Bodnotbod, Mozzerati, Pgreenfinch, PeR, Mkilly, Sonett72, Walabio, Canterbury Tail, Lacrimosus, Mike Rosoft,
Jiy, AgentSteel, Guanabot, Ardonik, Cagliost, Francis Schonken, Mani1, Mikeage, Bender235, ESkog, Andrejj, Violetriga, JustPhil, El
C, Marx Gomes, Jpgordon, Adambro, Bobo192, Spalding, Circeus, Dreish, Enric Naval, Chbarts, Slipperyweasel, Colmmack, Domster,
Tavdy79, Alansohn, Blahma, Splat, WikiParker, Malo, UpstateNYer, Wtmitchell, Ronark, SidP, Jrleighton, Vcelloho, RainbowOfLight,
Joriki, TLG, Ptomato, Uncle G, TomTheHand, Jacobolus, Robert K S, WadeSimMiser, Tabletop, Terence, GregorB, Male1979, Noetica,
Wayward, Turnstep, Icydid, Tslocum, Graham87, Deltabeignet, BD2412, Yurik, JIP, Jshadias, Canderson7, Sjö, Susan Davis, Pjetter,
Koavf, Саша Стефановић, DragonKore, Stuart Hardie, FutureNJGov, Guinness2702, The wub, Crucible Guardian, Bob Wiyadabebe-
Iytsaboi, Digital Watches, Nailed, Astatine, Nowhither, Margosbot, Pumeleon, Nihiltres, Finsen, Sanbeg, Nickpowerz, Frelke, Jrtay-
loriv, Srleffler, Imnotminkus, King of Hearts, Chobot, DVdm, Nehalem, YurikBot, Wavelength, Hairy Dude, Kencaesi, Mukkakukaku,
Adam1213, RussBot, Fabartus, AVM, Geordee, Shell Kinney, Gaius Cornelius, NawlinWiki, Paulbrian, Curtis Clark, RattleMan, R'son-
W, Dooky, Epipelagic, Glenn Magus Harvey, Poochy, Ms2ger, Zzuuzz, Psu256, Rlove, Thany, JDspeeder1, Lady BlahDeBlah, Zvika,
Serendipodous, Bibliomaniac15, That Guy, From That Show!, Dupz, Exusmandragon, Vanka5, SmackBot, Roger Davies, Rohitk89, Bo-
bet, McGeddon, Ntk53s, Bwithh, Jrockley, Desk003, Eskimbot, Arny, Brossow, TheDoctor10, BustlinSlug, Master Deusoma, Unforget-
tableid, Gilliam, Schmiteye, Lummie, Chris the speller, KaragouniS, SynergyBlades, Hibernian, Revelations, Ted87, Patriarch, Emurphy42,
Ron g, Andy120290, Professor Chaos, Mini-Geek, Sujacal, Kendrick7, Jóna Þórunn, SashatoBot, Martinb9999, Ntspark, The Man in
Question, Loadmaster, Werdan7, Brazucs, Ehheh, Dicklyon, Waggers, Mets501, Romeu, AEMoreira042281, Sonic Shadow, Cyril Wash-
brook, Phuzion, Norm mit, Profgb, Iridescent, Aniljay, CapitalR, Majora4, Túrelio, Rampant Chaos, Swimmer2, Tawkerbot2, Merryjman,
Mapsax, TimothyHorrigan, Wafulz, Kariandelos, The Font, Frizb, Fungiblename, John M Baker, Lurlock, Dario D., Abeg92, Gtxfrance,
Ninguém, Dominicanpapi82, Eneville, Omicronpersei8, Inoculatedcities, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Marek69, Rompe, Sgt-
dude, DD 8630, AntiVandalBot, Colo1115, JimScott, Seaphoto, FrankLambert, Gregorof, White Devil, Sabre90, Res2216firestar, Darth-
jarek, Leuko, Husond, Tony Myers, LittleOldMe, Lawikitejana, Magioladitis, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Kyanwan, Kinston eagle, Jéské
Couriano, Khx72, CTF83!, Fallenangei, Hifrommike65, Catgut, Ours18, Rocinante9x, Angrycrustacean, JMyrleFuller, Spellmaster, Chris
G, DerHexer, Skyywise, Nova99, Lkc159, Ktaero, MartinBot, Opello, R'n'B, DBlomgren, J.delanoy, TyrS, Rhinestone K, Damien Shiest,
Barts1a, Icurok, Dushnock, Tannkremen, Hillock65, Anonywiki, JayJasper, AntiSpamBot, Plasticup, Toon05, Joshua Issac, EdvensonCon-
sulting, Cometstyles, Tiaza, Unwikivan, Inwind, Useight, Mellonbank, VolkovBot, TreasuryTag, Mrh30, Broken0dream, Ryan032, Dougie
monty, TXiKiBoT, Oshwah, Plenumchamber, Bigest Boss, Tovojolo, Crohnie, Llamabr, Ocolon, Jackfork, Buffs, Krementz, Falcon8765,
Enviroboy, Nelliejellynoonaa, Spinningspark, Andreas Carter, Logan, CMBJ, SomeoneE1se, SieBot, YonaBot, Rlendog, Pacostein, Eu-
ryalus, WereSpielChequers, BotMultichill, Rgarunkumar, Jason Patton, Andrewjlockley, Flyer22, Oda Mari, Jojalozzo, Oxymoron83,
Artoasis, Techman224, SimonTrew, Jons63, HairyWombat, DreamsAreMadeOf, ClueBot, Captain Phoebus, Mdeepak80, Fyyer, Bill-
Maddock, The Thing That Should Not Be, Drmies, Uncle Milty, PMDrive1061, Dead velvet elvis, Excirial, The Founders Intent, Daveat-
staffs, Burlington1963, Callmejosh, Lynch2007, Versus22, Hostkvall, HumphreyW, Jurras, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd, DumZiBoT,
AlexGWU, Kasper2006, Smartguy777, Pavel92, Hm29168, Addbot, Blanche of King's Lynn, DOI bot, Tcncv, Agusk7, Jncraton, Fluffer-
nutter, Reedmalloy, Cst17, Proxima Centauri, Glane23, Ld100, Coralapus, Maslen, Tide rolls, Redandwhite90, Krano, Wireless friend,
Legobot, Luckas-bot, Fraggle81, Haveacigar91, Thepolks, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot, Gargamelsthong, Jim1138, Galoubet, AdjustShift, Ci-
tation bot, Dogpa14, GB fan, Boxstaa, Obersachsebot, TheAMmollusc, Emd13x, GrouchoBot, Appple, Someonestopme, Topherwhelan,
Marcelivan, Shadowjams, Worthywords, Celuici, Unuplusunu, Wowodnetnin, Captain Cheeks, Crimboween, FrescoBot, Thegers1994,
Wifione, Machine Elf 1735, BenzolBot, Citation bot 1, Ergolight, HRoestBot, Yomnavuspit, TobeBot, Lotje, Jeffrd10, Pownerus, DARTH
SIDIOUS 2, TjBot, Perspeculum, DASHBot, EmausBot, Berkinet, Immunize, GoingBatty, Steven.m.murphy, Wikipelli, Ducksbane, Ὁ
οἶστρος, AliAxhar, Arthurbloch, Rcsprinter123, Coasterlover1994, Brookdodge, Donner60, Fishguy0419, Mjn81292, Nrlsouza, 28bot,
ClueBot NG, Malcomlamer57, This lousy T-shirt, Cntras, Jujubix, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Bibcode Bot, Pure Protest, BG19bot,
TheTrainEnthusiast, Walrus068, Jack.pakkage, Duckbutter44, Riparian2, Qwerty1234 56, AccurateMango, Themaverickmason, YFdyh-
bot, Pkelly75, Vanamonde93, Ruby Murray, Eyesnore, Cedric Wong, Miss Pauling, Mr. Bobinsky, Rdfiasco, Humphrey Hui, Meaghan369,
Jaffa9022, Gadrarasa Ëïdôs, BrightonC, Xanderyzwich, Wewritestuff, Hamalolo, User45877, Surokon and Anonymous: 641
• Occam's razor Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occam'{}s%20razor?oldid=653104818 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, AxelBoldt,
Paul Drye, Trelvis, MichaelTinkler, The Cunctator, Derek Ross, Eloquence, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Jan Hidders, Ed
Poor, Eclecticology, Josh Grosse, Youssefsan, Tommy, Ortolan88, SimonP, Heron, GrahamN, Hirzel, Jaknouse, Mintguy, Youandme, R
Lowry, Modemac, Bernfarr, Olivier, Someone else, Yves Junqueira, Leandrod, Mkmcconn, Lir, Michael Hardy, Cprompt, Fred Bauder,
Dante Alighieri, DIG, LenBudney, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Nferrier, Bcrowell, Minesweeper, Kosebamse, Snoyes, Morken (usurped),
Lupinoid, Glenn, Whkoh, Bogdangiusca, LouI, Andres, Cimon Avaro, Jiang, Evercat, Jacquerie27, Rob Hooft, Arteitle, Adam Conover,
Hike395, Hashar, Renamed user 4, Novum, Dying, Charles Matthews, Timwi, Stet, Ww, Dandrake, Gutza, Lord Kenneth, Markhurd,
Lfwlfw, Brantgoose, Charlesdarwin, OverZealousFan, Maximus Rex, Hyacinth, Fairandbalanced, Xaven, Optim, Raul654, Banno, ThereIs-
NoSteve, Dmbaguley, Gentgeen, Robbot, JD Jacobson, Moncrief, Lowellian, Meduz, Chris Roy, Gkochanowsky, Henrygb, AceMyth,
Rursus, Geogre, Hadal, Anthony, Nagelfar, Alerante, Albatross2147, Giftlite, Smjg, Achurch, ShaunMacPherson, Wolfkeeper, Halda,
Fastfission, Dissident, Curps, Michael Devore, FeloniousMonk, Pashute, Jfdwolff, Duncharris, Tom-, Joshuapaquin, Prosfilaes, Eequor,
Khalid hassani, Jabowery, Abu el mot, Tagishsimon, Wmahan, Gugganij, Vadmium, CryptoDerk, Quadell, Antandrus, Zootalures, Salasks,
Loremaster, Elembis, Jeshii, Kaldari, Karol Langner, TylerD, Histrion, Urhixidur, Burschik, Mschlindwein, Sonett72, Epimetreus, Armeck,
Grunt, ELApro, Reflex Reaction, Lacrimosus, Jcamenisch, Blokhead, Skal, Discospinster, The PNM, Rich Farmbrough, Phil O. Cetes, Jes-
per Laisen, Vsmith, Eric Shalov, Gonzalo Diethelm, Stbalbach, ESkog, ZeroOne, Sunborn, BernardSumption, Janderk, Kjoonlee, Melamed,
Nabla, Brian0918, Clement Cherlin, CanisRufus, El C, PhilHibbs, Bookofjude, Sf, Guettarda, Causa sui, Wee Jimmy, Panzuriel, Hur-
ricane111, Smalljim, John Vandenberg, Lore Sjoberg, Mtruch, Shenme, Jung dalglish, Solemnavalanche, A1kmm, Obradovic Goran,
246 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Jonathunder, Justinc, Mdd, Wayfarer, Licon, Dovy, Orangemarlin, Lycanthrope, OGoncho, Preuninger, Alansohn, Gary, JYolkowski,
Elpincha, Mackinaw, Misodoctakleidist, Arthena, Atlant, Jeltz, Nurban, Hinotori, SlimVirgin, Fwb44, Ciaran H, Fritzpoll, Sp00n17, Jaar-
don, Bantman, DreamGuy, Ombudsman, Wtmitchell, Ronark, Jheald, Sciurinæ, DSatz, Johntex, Galaxiaad, RPIRED, Stephen, Feezo,
Dmitry Brant, Stemonitis, BadLeprechaun, Weyes, Joelpt, OleMaster, Joriki, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Mel Etitis, Woohookitty,
Linas, Havermayer, Drostie, Robert K S, Pol098, Before My Ken, Meeso, Bkwillwm, Tickle me, Isnow, Kriegman, Pictureuploader, Fxer,
Doric Loon, Btyner, Mandarax, Fleetham, Pete142, Graham87, Zeromaru, Super7, Cuchullain, BD2412, Teflon Don, JIP, Mendaliv,
Rjwilmsi, Mayumashu, Valentinejoesmith, WCFrancis, XP1, Sdornan, MZMcBride, Fishanthrope, Darksasami, Bubba73, Brighteror-
ange, The wub, Wikifier, Sango123, Fish and karate, Billjefferys, Wragge, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Musical Linguist, Nihiltres, Mindloss,
ReSearcher, Nickpowerz, Offkilter, RexNL, Ayla, Acyso, Jrtayloriv, Nuge, Exelban, Pevernagie, Preslethe, Svanhoosen, Evands, King of
Hearts, MeI Etitis, Chobot, Bornhj, DVdm, Bgwhite, Poorsod, Wiserd911, The Rambling Man, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Russ-
Bot, Exir, Guslacerda, Bhny, Greenyoda, Pelago, Alset, Bachrach44, Welsh, Twin Bird, Chunky Rice, SAE1962, Corbmobile, Randolf
Richardson, LaraCroft NYC, Jpbowen, Ehrick, Ospalh, Nate1481, Bucketsofg, Evie em, Kewp, Ms2ger, Light current, Zero1328, Nikki-
maria, Fiskus, Fonny, SMcCandlish, Seventy-one, Wikiwawawa, Brz7, TheQuaker, Palthrow, Afn, Geoffrey.landis, Argo Navis, Eaefre-
mov, Suburbanslice, RG2, Alexandrov, Tom Morris, Karora, Psichron, SmackBot, Avonhungen, TobyK, ElectricRay, Tom Lougheed, Jasy
jatere, GregChant, Alex1011, DCDuring, Dfeig, Unyoyega, Lawrencekhoo, Mishaweis, KocjoBot, Jagged 85, Tbonnie, Arny, DLH, Or-
dinant, Hoov, Sebesta, Bonanza Jellybean, ToddDeLuca, InGearX, BenAveling, Valley2city, Bluebot, Kurykh, Keegan, Baldghoti, Spilla,
Jprg1966, Thumperward, Jojo 1, CSWarren, Elyk53, Whispering, Pete4winds, Go for it!, Ioscius, Fife Club, Xyzzyplugh, Stevenmitchell,
Riose, MrRadioGuy, Cybercobra, Xibe, Doberman Pharaoh, Weregerbil, Occultations, Jon Awbrey, Henning Makholm, Kendrick7, Ashi
Starshade, Maas, Byelf2007, Esrever, Johnny Logic, ArglebargleIV, Bcasterline, Anlace, Cesium 133, Loodog, Robofish, JoshuaZ, JorisvS,
Joffeloff, Cmh, Dave Carter, Cielomobile, Silvescu, Thomas Gilling, Pfold, Grumpyyoungman01, MaximvsDecimvs, Doczilla, NThurston,
Dr.K., Novangelis, DaBjork, Levineps, K, Michaelbusch, Antonio Prates, Ascensionblade, StephenBuxton, Octane, V0rt3x, Courcelles,
Schlagwerk, Tauʻolunga, Davidbspalding, MonkeeSage, Taowizard, JForget, Wolfdog, Ddarby14, Markjoseph125, CmdrObot, Tantha-
las39, David s graff, Sntjohnny, CBM, Nunquam Dormio, Gebrelu, Wws, Terence Lewis, WeggeBot, Maiya, Fcforrest, Gregbard, Jasper-
doomen, Peterdjones, Hebrides, Tkynerd, Skittleys, DiScOrD tHe LuNaTiC, RobGo, Danogo, Arcayne, SteveMcCluskey, Daniel Olsen,
Pro Grape, Maziotis, Imprevu, Talgalili, Letranova, Malleus Fatuorum, Jdvelasc, Thijs!bot, Chacufc, Mystar, Daniel, Mojo Hand, Marek69,
Wildthing61476, Maadal, Davidhorman, Petiejoe, Gergprotect, Bethpage89, Michael A. White, Escarbot, Dalliance, EmRunTonResp-
Nin, AntiVandalBot, WinBot, Luna Santin, Seaphoto, Dwightwiki, Ronja Addams-Moring, Clan-destine, Perakhantu, William Knorpp,
Mikenorton, Daedalus2097, Narssarssuaq, Krishvanth, Ichaer, Sonicsuns, Fetchcomms, Hamsterlopithecus, 100110100, TallulahBelle,
Dclose73, Acroterion, Aphoxema, Magioladitis, Almuayyad, VoABot II, Clivestaples, Swpb, Snowded, NigelCunningham, Boffob, Peter-
JWagner3, Dr.Gurge, Vssun, TehBrandon, ChazBeckett, AlmoKing, Gun Powder Ma, ClubOranje, CommonsDelinker, Dr. t, J.delanoy,
Majorcats, Filll, Tylercantango, Svetovid, DannyBoy2k, AstroHurricane001, Tlatito, TyrS, Wilsbadkarma, Maurice Carbonaro, Dkmak,
Apollo8fan, Cpiral, Rumpuscat, Dispenser, It Is Me Here, Janus Shadowsong, Bmoinlbc, Touisiau, JBFrenchhorn, OAC, HiLo48, Hpcoder,
NewEnglandYankee, Antony-22, Nwbeeson, 4granite, SacredCheese, Milogardner, SemblaceII, Diego, SteveMerrick, IceDragon64, Spe-
ciate, Alan U. Kennington, Sparklism, Jrugordon, King Lopez, VolkovBot, Morenooso, The Wild Falcon, Orthologist, Butwhatdoiknow,
Featherofmaat, Tomer T, Philip Trueman, Paulscho, Mtanti, Zamphuor, Paddling bear, Malinaccier, The Bone III, Vipinhari, Myles325a,
Lk9984, Rei-bot, Anonymous Dissident, Liko81, VoxRobotica, Saibod, Rugbychica707, LeaveSleaves, SGT141, Modocc, RiverStyx23,
Cash cash, Lova Falk, Enviroboy, Vinhtantran, Bakerstmd, EmxBot, Neparis, Kbrose, Nschoem, SieBot, Mycomp, Moonriddengirl, Mal-
colmxl5, Ori, Iamthedeus, Vexorg, Dawn Bard, Yintan, Til Eulenspiegel, JohnManuel, RucasHost, Oda Mari, Arbor to SJ, Antzervos,
Avnjay, R0uge, Michael Courtney, Sunrise, DancingPhilosopher, S2000magician, Ymeta731, Hamiltondaniel, Denisarona, Escape Orbit,
Francvs, Emptymountains, Asher196, Mgothard, Invertzoo, Faithlessthewonderboy, ClueBot, Binksternet, Chicagoshim, The Thing That
Should Not Be, Runesrule, Drmies, Krazymann, SuperHamster, DragonBot, Kitsunegami, Excirial, Alexbot, Three-quarter-ten, Watch-
Duck, Erebus Morgaine, Noca2plus, Sun Creator, Brews ohare, Psinu, Mikaey, Darren23, StevenDH, Wkboonec, Crowsnest, Editor-
tothemasses, DumZiBoT, Chris1834, Yurizuki, XLinkBot, Fastily, Spitfire, Le Ptomaine, Wertuose, Gerhardvalentin, Bert Carpenter,
WikHead, MarxistRebel, Billwhittaker, Parsonas, Mimarx, NCDane, Enigmocracy, Addbot, Power.corrupts, Latinist, DOI bot, Tcncv,
Dgroseth, OmniaMutantur, Ronhjones, Dranu, Download, Proxima Centauri, Subverted, Jellevc, Favonian, LinkFA-Bot, Tvljohn, Rebe-
linside, AAFall, Unibond, Tide rolls, SDJ, Lightbot, Jan eissfeldt, Ben Ben, Luckas-bot, Cowperc, Yobot, L4UR13, Ht686rg90, Freikorp,
Eiger3970, KamikazeBot, Ningauble, Imnotdoingit, AnomieBOT, LlywelynII, Bosonic dressing, Forturas, Citation bot, Steven120965,
SCIENCE4EV, Clark89, Xqbot, Ekwos, Falsodar, JimVC3, Wayne Roberson, Austin, Texas, Millahnna, Smk65536, The Land Surveyor,
Petropoxy (Lithoderm Proxy), GrouchoBot, Riggedfallacy, Omnipaedista, Naftoligug, RibotBOT, ProfGiles, Smallman12q, TSW94, Fres-
coBot, LucienBOT, Paine Ellsworth, Nujjer, MikeParniak, Snorklin, Pyroman2133, Meishern, Citation bot 1, Anthony on Stilts, Symplectic
Map, Pink Bull, 10metreh, Jonesey95, Kungfukats2, SpaceFlight89, Fantantric, Nerdified, Mudguppy, Damnedfan1234, Wotnow, ItsZippy,
Kdascheller, Styxnsoon, WikiTome, The Pink Oboe, Chriss.2, Mchcopl, Becritical, Salvio giuliano, Tesseract2, Wfunction, EmausBot,
Bua333, Jimmygu3, Hpvpp, Slightsmile, Pablodox, Solomonfromfinland, Professionaleducator, Djfj, SunOfErat, Knight1993, A930913,
SporkBot, Wikignome0530, AtomicEddy, OnePt618, Hiernonymous, Donner60, Abulhawa89, HandsomeFella, Teapeat, DASHBotAV,
Support.and.Defend, Rememberway, ClueBot NG, Ptrb, ClaretAsh, Michaelmas1957, Rverma1993, JimsMaher, Jesspiper, Albertttt,
Braincricket, Thepigdog, Kevin Gorman, Helpful Pixie Bot, Tholme, HMSSolent, Brentworks, Richard Tester, CitationCleanerBot, Rjcripe,
MrBill3, FeralOink, Pikachu Bros., Rodaen, Ultimaterializer, BattyBot, Giganticube, ChrisGualtieri, SD5bot, Isaidnoway, JYBot, Dexbot,
Psr1995, Wenjanglau, Mogism, Cerabot, Czech is Cyrillized, The Quirky Kitty, EnamTTmane, Jochen Burghardt, 90b56587, Reatlas,
BreakfastJr, François Robere, Harlem Baker Hughes, Comp.arch, Lesser Cartographies, Ameshan, Yadsalohcin, JaconaFrere, Monkbot,
Radath, SJ2010SJ2010, Dorgotron333, Vidauty, Bad perm, Barklestork, Ashenderflickin, Hicham kotob, Loraof, Magicyle, May22freed,
Fourpermutations, Alex e e alex, Elisionnovice, BachGirl89 and Anonymous: 959

• Paradox Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paradox?oldid=653111551 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek Ross, LC, Calypso, Lee Daniel
Crocker, Eloquence, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Karl E. V. Palmen, Arvindn, Rmhermen, Fubar
Obfusco, Shii, Ben-Zin, Ewlloyd, Camembert, BL, Patrick, D, PhilipMW, Michael Hardy, EddEdmondson, Booyabazooka, JakeVortex,
Fred Bauder, Polimerek, Dominus, MartinHarper, Fool, Karada, Paul A, Stw, Looxix, Ahoerstemeier, EntmootsOfTrolls, Samuelsen,
Snoyes, 5ko, Nanobug, Kingturtle, Aarchiba, Александър, Fengguang, Nerd, Cyan, AugPi, Poor Yorick, Vzbs34, Susurrus, Shammack,
Sethmahoney, Ventura, John Cross, Paul Stansifer, Dysprosia, Daniel Quinlan, Dandrake, Jwrosenzweig, Andrewman327, Wik, Markhurd,
KRS, Furrykef, Morwen, Populus, Bevo, Raul654, Dpbsmith, Pakaran, Pilaf, BenRG, Robbot, Ke4roh, Korath, Arkuat, Chris Roy, Tim
Ivorson, Hellotoast, Rfc1394, Henrygb, Acegikmo1, Hadal, Robinh, Johnstone, Ruakh, Anthony, Cyrius, Wile E. Heresiarch, Vuara,
Cutler, Dina, David Gerard, Ancheta Wis, Tosha, Alerante, Giftlite, Dbenbenn, J heisenberg, Brian Kendig, Marcika, Anville, Alison,
Sunny256, Rnewson, Canon, Yekrats, Jason Quinn, Macrakis, Lakefall, Tagishsimon, JRR Trollkien, Golbez, Yarko Brachini, Mdob, Ste-
vietheman, Slowking Man, Noe, Antandrus, BozMo, Komencanto, Exigentsky, Vina, Wojit, Rdsmith4, Tothebarricades.tk, Neutrality,
Bhugh, Lacrimosus, Oskar Sigvardsson, Mernen, Nathan Ladd, Lorenzo Martelli, Plexust, A-giau, Noisy, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
5.1. TEXT 247

Leibniz, Pjacobi, Florian Blaschke, Narsil, Tim Peterson, Piewalker, Byrial, Andrejj, CanisRufus, Pjrich, DamianFinol, Shanes, Spear-
head, RoyBoy, Kgaughan, Causa sui, Bobo192, Cretog8, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, MARQUIS111, Athf1234, Azn king28, Celada,
Nsaa, Danski14, Alansohn, Ellisonch, JYolkowski, DanielLC, Lectonar, Mohammadgani, Batmanand, Fawcett5, DreamGuy, Samohyl
Jan, Velella, Kdau, Evil Monkey, Mikeo, Vuo, Spambit, Computerjoe, GabrielF, Bookandcoffee, Yumyumpuppies, Crosbiesmith, INic,
Vlad1, Angr, Bacteria, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Localh77, Kiltman67, Uncle G, Davidkazuhiro, MGTom, Al E., Liface, Graham87, Zeromaru,
BD2412, SamuraiClinton, Porcher, Canderson7, Koavf, Ustas, Halidecyphon, Seraphimblade, Salix alba, MZMcBride, SpNeo, Ttwaring,
Titoxd, RobertG, Navid, Mathbot, Gurch, Riki, Malhonen, Jittat, King of Hearts, Chobot, Aethralis, Gwernol, Splintercellguy, Hairy Dude,
No Account, Limulus, RadioFan, KSchutte, Abarry, TopAce, Big Brother 1984, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf, UCaetano, Bachrach44, Grafen,
Aaron Brenneman, Gunmetal, Haoie, Troy1578, Amcfreely, Roy Brumback, Bota47, Sarkar112, Andrew D White, 2over0, Zzuuzz, Lt-
wiki-bot, Fang Aili, CWenger, Eaefremov, GrinBot, DVD R W, Promythyus, Snalwibma, Thenimaj, SmackBot, RDBury, Amcbride,
Tmartin, Unschool, Abcfox, McGeddon, Unyoyega, Pgk, CyclePat, Jim62sch, Delldot, ZS, Xaosflux, IronSwallow, Gilliam, ERcheck,
Afa86, Schmiteye, Bluebot, Jprg1966, Oli Filth, EncMstr, MalafayaBot, Baa, Badger151, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Draon uk, Mur-
der1, TheKMan, Britmax, Monguin61, AiOlorWile, Khoikhoi, PiPhD, Decltype, 1337 r0XX0r, Poneh, Jbergquist, Takima, Andeggs,
Moniker42, SashatoBot, Kuru, Akendall, IronGargoyle, Grumpyyoungman01, Special-T, Lampman, SQGibbon, Roregan, Captain Wacky,
Iridescent, TogTogTogTog, Ziusudra, AlsatianRain, J Milburn, JForget, CRGreathouse, JohnCD, Sdorrance, Kronecker, Gregbard, Peter-
djones, Mr.weedle, Gogo Dodo, HitroMilanese, DumbBOT, FastLizard4, JayW, Abtract, RhunWarrior, Lindsay658, Landroo, Eubulide,
Nolamatic, Mojo Hand, Marek69, Neil916, Puckeylut, X96lee15, Bmorton3, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Gioto, Doc Tropics, Modernist,
Spencer, Emmyzen, JAnDbot, Em3ryguy, Oxinabox, Joshua, Xact, .anacondabot, Sechegaray, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, JamesBWatson,
CTF83!, Bequw, Brusegadi, Caesarjbsquitti, Catgut, Cgingold, Petunia1354, B9 hummingbird hovering, Stephenchou0722, Hdt83, Mar-
tinBot, Mschel, J.delanoy, Pharaoh of the Wizards, Azraelcrimson, EscapingLife, MistyMorn, Maurice Carbonaro, Robnpov, Zachary
Gibbons, Entropy, DavidCBryant, WinterSpw, Autismo, Vranak, Pilchard VIII, 28bytes, VolkovBot, Jeff G., Geoffw1948, Philip True-
man, Iguy513, TXiKiBoT, GDonato, Miranda, Anonymous Dissident, Liko81, Enviroboy, ObiWanBillKenobi, Skarz, Milowent, Thomas
T Howard, The Random Editor, SieBot, StAnselm, Coffee, NonChalance, Paradoctor, JoshEdgar, Gerakibot, Smsarmad, Soler97, Keilana,
Flyer22, Bmag7, Doctorfluffy, KPH2293, Thehotelambush, Andrij Kursetsky, Spartan-James, Fishnet37222, Denisarona, Martarius, Bee-
blebrox, ClueBot, Polentario, Rumping, The Thing That Should Not Be, Andrzej0k, Pairadox, Der Golem, Boing! said Zebedee, Coun-
terVandalismBot, Blanchardb, Delta1989, Oxnard27, Rondeau kidd, DragonBot, Mumiemonstret, Excirial, Rhyfelwr, AproposLesser,
Anijen21, Liberal Saudi, Sun Creator, Jack Bowen, SM1991, Dougie WII, Daniel111111, Okiefromokla, Promethean, Hazzzzzz12,
Rocky13579, SchreiberBike, Aitias, Qwfp, SoxBot III, Party, Adacore, Allstars101, XLinkBot, Murray McDonald, Gerhardvalentin,
NellieBly, PL290, Iranway, Tayste, Addbot, Willking1979, RPHv, Ameerr, Toowise, Knight of Truth, Blarghmaster, Ronhjones, Zo-
dai Tora, I-LIKE-PIE-I-LIKE-PIE, Viper93088, MrOllie, Toastermaster, West.andrew.g, EmbraceParadox, Erutuon, Tide rolls, Verbal,
Genius101, Alfie66, ReaperParadox, Luckas-bot, HuPi, Yobot, Fraggle81, TaBOT-zerem, Jtaylor5050, Playclever, Washburnmav, Ale-
phhaz, Liquidsoft, AnomieBOT, 1exec1, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Bellemonde, JohnnyB256, LilHelpa,
Xqbot, Subtank, Phoenixpaw, Jfspam, TheWeakWilled, Almabot, Omnipaedista, Brandon5485, RibotBOT, Sumchody, The Interior, Jed-
iMaster362, Aaron Kauppi, A.amitkumar, Sky Attacker, Positron 123, D'ohBot, Dsmith9 99, Machine Elf 1735, Jamesooders, Robo37,
Pinethicket, A8UDI, Hoo man, Arab Cowboy, Moonglade, Trappist the monk, Lulz57, Lotje, LilyKitty, SeoMac, Leondumontfollower,
Vanished user aoiowaiuyr894isdik43, Beavis of Nazareth, Chronulator, Nascar1996, Tbhotch, Logical Fuzz, Unioneagle, Jarvisunit, Ar-
winJ, Loudcolors, Villianboy, Salvio giuliano, Shabidoo, Chuck369, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Tommy2010, K6ka, Hrld11, PBS-AWB,
Fæ, Bollyjeff, Slim42nd, Mir123456789, Well, I'll give you a taco., Makecat, Inuit7, Thine Antique Pen, Casellaqui, Quantumor, Don-
ner60, Orange Suede Sofa, ChuispastonBot, DASHBotAV, Rocketrod1960, JonRichfield, Bonelayer12864, ClueBot NG, Az Butterfield,
Jack Greenmaven, Bryan pidgeon rap blc, JohnsonL623, Zenithfel, The Master of Mayhem, Zamesfond, Madacounto, Masssly, Widr,
Spannerjam, Reify-tech, Anon5791, Crazymonkey1123, Jiver2011, Oddbodz, Helpful Pixie Bot, Intheeventofstructuralfailure, Novusuna,
Ucce2, PatternOfPersona, Philleski, Orthopteran, Blake Burba, DomM999, Wiki13, Mustafa saad 2006, LionelTabre, Rm1271, Keep-
erC, Arminale, Snow Blizzard, Shadowspike, Merritttttt, Packman744, RichardMills65, Cars99, Teammm, W.D., Themeasureoftruth,
JYBot, Yuvipanda, Deltahedron, Gnengi, Stuff2011120122013, Kephir, Oreo Harley Roxy, Alphalphanator5, ErikScarr, Reatlas, Fy-
cafterpro, Epicgenius, CsDix, I am One of Many, DavidLeighEllis, PARADOXKORD, Aubreybardo, Manul, Xenxax, PokeJoe, LordWiki
4, 123screwyou3457893498793587, LordDensity, TheQ Editor, Superman223988, Hkonso, Subway2012, Kraibrid, Loraof, Xishti, Sum-
itbhoyar1, Philoos, Court.olly, Mayurghatge, Bubblez58a, Thrasuboula and Anonymous: 836
• Philosophic burden of proof Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophic%20burden%20of%20proof?oldid=652864706 Contribu-
tors: Chealer, Discospinster, Bender235, Phiwum, Diego Moya, Brandmeister (old), Malcolma, Trickstar, SmackBot, Rtc, The one092001,
Fuhghettaboutit, Richard001, Ariel Pontes, Stalik, Wiploc, Jablomih, Zach99998, JohnManuel, Denisarona, Rhododendrites, Simon Vil-
leneuve, Dthomsen8, Piratejosh85, Mitch Ames, Addbot, Dawynn, AgadaUrbanit, AnomieBOT, Mark Renier, Jonesey95, Calmer Wa-
ters, GrapedApe, Philocentric, Nederlandse Leeuw, Becritical, Tesseract2, Tinss, Ursus Lapideus, Solomonfromfinland, AgentTheGreat,
ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Rtucker913, Spannerjam, Jeraphine Gryphon, Pirhayati, Dawkinsgirl, Epicgenius, Digimaster002, Rekowo,
Balljust, AnuragVohra27, Leegrc, Yibby is so cool and Anonymous: 34
• Plank of Carneades Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plank%20of%20Carneades?oldid=615216641 Contributors: Selket, Tschild,
Cutler, WhiteDragon, DragonflySixtyseven, Rich Farmbrough, Alansohn, Stemonitis, Madmardigan53, GregorB, Nimur, Common Man,
Chobot, Chensiyuan, WSaindon, Kingdom heartless, Twas Now, Kone, Gwern, TXiKiBoT, Spiderhax, PipepBot, Fadesga, Alexbot, Ad-
dbot, Deamon138, Wandering Courier, J04n, Omnipaedista, Erik9bot, Pollinosisss, Eddyblack1991 and Anonymous: 7
• Poisoning the well Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poisoning%20the%20well?oldid=647943001 Contributors: Bryan Derksen,
Axon, MartinHarper, GTBacchus, John K, Raul654, Mrdice, Sam Spade, Humus sapiens, Diderot, Smjg, Jacoplane, AviDrissman,
Netoholic, Niteowlneils, Reyemile, Taak, Arcturus, Julianonions, Gazpacho, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rama, Silence, Shanes,
Cwolfsheep, Kappa, Ctrl build, Patsw, Rh, Apoc2400, Ynhockey, StradivariusTV, Uncle G, Tabletop, Bunthorne, Mandarax, RxS,
Gene Wood, DoubleBlue, Stilanas, Pixel23, Vilcxjo, Vanished user psdfiwnef3niurunfiuh234ruhfwdb7, WhyBeNormal, Severa, GH-
cool, EEMIV, DryaUnda, SMcCandlish, Esprit15d, Shawnc, Luk, SmackBot, Coriander, Reedy, McGeddon, Stifle, Nfgii, Bluebot,
Thumperward, Brimba, Learjeff, Cybercobra, Kendrick7, Andeggs, Marcus Brute, Lambiam, RandomPrecision, Archiesteel, Adam Keller,
CRGreathouse, Penbat, Gregbard, DarthSidious, Padent, Doremítzwr, Oddity-, Arch dude, Lunakeet, Stephenchou0722, Pooterman,
That1dude35, It Is Me Here, Sgeureka, VolkovBot, Soliloquial, TXiKiBoT, Killing sparrows, Cnilep, Munci, SieBot, ImageRemoval-
Bot, Kmaster, MystBot, Addbot, ClutchfromJSRF, AndersBot, Scott MacDonald, 2D, Liderian, AnomieBOT, Logicchecker, Machine Elf
1735, Cs1871210, EmausBot, Ὁ οἶστρος, Northamerica1000, AnotherPseudonym, Ghost Lourde and Anonymous: 45
• Quis custodiet ipsos custodes? Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quis%20custodiet%20ipsos%20custodes%3F?oldid=651336716
Contributors: Comte0, Paul Barlow, Gabbe, Jdostermanjr, Charles Matthews, Huangdi, Nufy8, Psychonaut, Wereon, Ruakh, Mcapdevila,
Chameleon, Pbannister, Lubaf, Smyth, M30, JustPhil, Causa sui, John Vandenberg, Viriditas, Omones, Wikidea, Suruena, BDD, Brookie,
248 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Simetrical, Woohookitty, Koshki, Robert K S, Waldir, Pictureuploader, Ketiltrout, Nihiltres, Le Anh-Huy, Benlisquare, VolatileChemical,
Pinecar, NawlinWiki, Petrouchka, Misza13, Ms2ger, Bosco13, Bondegezou, Kingboyk, Finell, MaeseLeon, SmackBot, Franny Wentzel,
Xkoalax, Patrickneil, Grawity, Septegram, Benjaminevans82, Evilandi, Christophernandez, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Iago4096,
John Reaves, Stibbons, Elendil's Heir, WookMuff, Glover, Helpig, Ceoil, Byelf2007, John, JoshuaZ, Michael Bednarek, Neddyseagoon,
Ambuj.Saxena, EdC, Dr.K., Norm mit, PaulGS, Skapur, Phoenixrod, George100, Wolfdog, Tarchon, Ledneh, XyKyWyKy, Picaroon,
Cumulus Clouds, Macktheknifeau, Cydebot, Nefasdicere, Ketamino, Crazy george, WillMak050389, IseFire, Arclem, Skomorokh, De-
bell, Felix116, Hjal, Arperry, CTF83!, Steven Walling, Nyttend, Cat-five, Coffeepusher, Enaidmawr, Stimers, Svetovid, Neotribal42,
Jedd the Jedi, Fimbulfamb, Jmrowland, Zurishaddai, Mcsbloom, Spandox, Ronmore, Twinsday, Martarius, Metaprimer, TheOldJacobite,
Agustinaldo, P. S. Burton, Leadwind, Eddie's Teddy, Vanisheduser12345, EamonnONeill, Leliel79, Wordwright, Poetic Enlightenment,
Cecil the Diesel, Wakedream, Joelby, Heironymous Rowe, XLinkBot, Addbot, Ronhjones, Debresser, Lightbot, Svanny99, Jarble, Luckas-
bot, Yobot, Legobot II, Synchronism, Fbthye, AnomieBOT, Faethon Ghost, Tad Lincoln, J JMesserly, GrouchoBot, Stevehim, Outback
the koala, Calmer Waters, Ess1dream, Pollinosisss, Lotje, Tuux47, Abc10, Catpea99, Skip8619, Phlegat, EmausBot, Rajama, ZéroBot,
Ὁ οἶστρος, Kaleeyed, ChuispastonBot, Alex999139, Feddacheenee, Nickholbrook, Dakhart, Curb Chain, The Banner Turbo, Mdy66,
Wikiguywhoknowsthingsaboutstuff, Alanmanalan, Makecat-bot, PinkAmpersand, PublicAmpersand, Prof. Mc and Anonymous: 175
• Ship of Theseus Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ship%20of%20Theseus?oldid=648137049 Contributors: General Wesc, The
Anome, Deb, Hephaestos, Michael Hardy, Karada, Stan Shebs, Julesd, Error, Scott, Samw, Etaoin, Vargenau, Nikola Smolenski, Ehn,
Timwi, Nickg, Furrykef, Hyacinth, AnonMoos, Chrism, Pjedicke, SchmuckyTheCat, Auric, Paul G, Wereon, Ruakh, Pengo, David Ger-
ard, Bogdanb, Anville, 20040302, Chowbok, Noe, Roisterer, Kuralyov, Sfoskett, Karl-Henner, Hilarleo, DMG413, Porges, DanielCristo-
fani, Night Gyr, Edward Z. Yang, Tverbeek, Root4(one), John Vandenberg, Viriditas, Scu98rkr, Oop, Fatphil, Lysdexia, Anthony Ap-
pleyard, CyberSkull, Keenan Pepper, PatrickFisher, Ashley Pomeroy, Macl, Dhartung, Melaen, Omphaloscope, P Ingerson, Ringbang,
Richwales, Dismas, Oleg Alexandrov, Jävligsvengelska, Vorn, Miss Madeline, Smmurphy, TotoBaggins, GregorB, Gerbrant, BD2412,
Kotukunui, Salix alba, Heah, Miserlou, Cassowary, DirkvdM, MWAK, Naraht, SchuminWeb, Djrobgordon, Jameshfisher, Nimur, Ali
Davoodifar, SteveBaker, Esslk, Chobot, YurikBot, Rob T Firefly, Hydrargyrum, Gaius Cornelius, Anomalocaris, Mixvio, Dysmorodrepa-
nis, Bluebird47, Dogcow, Isolani, Abb3w, Mobilesworking, T-rex, Salmanazar, Pawyilee, Nikkimaria, Sturmovik, John Broughton, A
bit iffy, SmackBot, Marcusscotus1, Zazaban, InverseHypercube, McGeddon, WikiuserNI, Unyoyega, Eskimbot, Kintetsubuffalo, Septe-
gram, Chris the speller, Endroit, Thumperward, Freshmutt, Matt9090, Audigex, Nbarth, Namangwari, KingAlanI, Hallenrm, Oatmeal
batman, Emurphy42, Mooncow, Konczewski, GRuban, Metageek, Jpaulm, Cybercobra, TGC55, Minipie8, Kuronue, Wybot, Terrasidius,
Andeggs, Lambiam, Axem Titanium, MYT, Ckatz, Stratadrake, Loadmaster, Bless sins, Filanca, Spiff666, Ryulong, Dr.K., Peter Horn,
Cls14, Bottesini, Switchercat, CRGreathouse, Eponymous-Archon, JETM, Beatriceblue, SeanMon, Teratornis, Editor at Large, Jon C.,
JAF1970, Catsmoke, Davidhorman, Hcobb, SummerPhD, Rps, D. Webb, Tempest115, Robot Revery, Matthew Fennell, Midnightdreary,
The elephant, Wasell, Arno Matthias, Albmont, Oskay, Cuebon, Nyttend, Ka-ru, Dave Muscato, Martynas Patasius, R'n'B, KTo288, Jag-
gerblade, Arriva436, Arrow740, RickardV, Mighty Antar, Heshy613, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT, Sluttymike, Technopat, Shureg, Nda98,
Rubseb, Jamelan, Bporopat, Clevemire321, WereSpielChequers, Rohanabm, Flyer22, Dans, Otherfates, SaniOKh, Magic9mushroom,
Beefeather, Berjangles, Tesi1700, Wee Curry Monster, Randy Kryn, Martarius, MBK004, ClueBot, EelkeSpaak, Xszcw, Piledhigherand-
deeper, Singinglemon, Ozy42, Trivialist, Mr. Laser Beam, Catalographer, Psymier, DumZiBoT, Borock, Wyatt915, Addbot, Patd987,
Anders Sandberg, Bte99, Tehslug, Tide rolls, Yobot, Jabberwockgee, John renard, AnomieBOT, Captain Quirk, Galoubet, Materialsci-
entist, ImperatorExercitus, Citation bot, Bradshaws1, Ubcule, Misha Vargas, Twirligig, FrescoBot, Wearmysocks1611, Citation bot 1,
Insoc, AngelicaAgurbash, Lotje, 4, Supervidin, WildBot, Ericwag, EmausBot, John of Reading, WikitanvirBot, Lucien504, Mordgier,
GoingBatty, Exok, Wikipelli, ZéroBot, Life in General, Crowblurt, Anglais1, Donner60, Dwstultz, El Alternativo, ClueBot NG, TheCon-
duqtor, Morgan Riley, Helpful Pixie Bot, BG19bot, Ashleyfrieze, W.andrea, TangoTizerWolfstone, Michael Barera, Duxwing, Dienekles,
Steve M Kane, BattyBot, Simeondahl, Phronesis8, PAB1990, Extrasensory90, CsDix, Debouch, Sajin Jiju, Stevenson7869, Barukh Habba,
Sotrecycle, Jackmcbarn, Ssmani2000, Explorerofftheworld, Noyster, Devanita, Monkbot, Signedzzz, CeraWithaC and Anonymous: 304
• Thought experiment Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thought%20experiment?oldid=652867284 Contributors: LC, The Anome, Ap,
Greg Lindahl, XJaM, DavidLevinson, Perique des Palottes, PhilipMW, Michael Hardy, SebastianHelm, CesarB, Ronz, William M. Con-
nolley, Snoyes, TUF-KAT, Marco Krohn, Vzbs34, Jiang, Evercat, Harvester, Charles Matthews, Dandrake, Dtgm, Tpbradbury, Pakaran,
Owen, Lumos3, Ojigiri, Auric, Blainster, Filemon, Ancheta Wis, Giftlite, Paul Richter, DavidCary, Zinnmann, Tagishsimon, Pcarbonn,
Beland, Karol Langner, EisenKnoechel, Edsanville, Klemen Kocjancic, Esperant, Caroline Thompson, Vsmith, Cagliost, Bender235, Vio-
letriga, Brian0918, Livajo, Laurascudder, Visualerror, RoyBoy, Jpallan, Wricardoh, Wohz, Yamla, Hohum, Kazvorpal, Stemonitis, Velho,
Woohookitty, RHaworth, JCY2K, Pol098, Eleassar777, Tabletop, GregorB, Mandarax, Alienus, Magister Mathematicae, B6s, Leeyc0,
Phantom784, Dinosaurdarrell, Zylinder, SchuminWeb, Revolving Bugbear, Fosnez, Srleffler, Gareth E Kegg, Spencerk, Chobot, DVdm,
YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, RussBot, KSchutte, JocK, Santaduck, Tomisti, LeonardoRob0t, Anclation, Tom Morris, C mon, Smack-
Bot, Davepape, KnowledgeOfSelf, Jagged 85, Monolith2, Firstrock, Jushi, Sir Spike, Bluebot, Trebor, Complexica, Nbarth, Jahiegel,
InAJar, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Attys, Kreb Dragonrider, UberCryxic, Johanna-Hypatia, Sadeq, Kkken, Santa Sangre, Dicklyon, Ryu-
long, Rldoan, Siruguri, B7T, CmdrObot, Sjoerd22, Neelix, Gregbard, Cydebot, Krauss, Was a bee, Dematt, Alexnye, SteveMcCluskey,
Lindsay658, Zootz3, Thijs!bot, ContivityGoddess, N5iln, OkamiItto, Rps, JAnDbot, Dsp13, Askari Mark, Clivestaples, Cobratom, Re-
bekahzinn, Swpb, Charlesreid1, El Snubbe, BboyYen, Dirac66, SlamDiego, Peter Ells, Nowletsgo, KenHershey, Martinor, Maurice Car-
bonaro, TomS TDotO, Monsday, Tarotcards, Belovedfreak, Ksy92003, Evb-wiki, Straw Cat, JohnBlackburne, Magpie55, Jimmaths, Philip
Trueman, Llamabr, Boarders0, Blex123, Kirkpthompson, Leafyplant, DrazharLn, Andrewaskew, Wolfrock, Lova Falk, SieBot, Hobar-
timus, Jeffjon, Martarius, ClueBot, Deviator13, Saddhiyama, ZuluPapa5, Muro Bot, Oxvox1, The Baroness of Morden, AncientToaster,
Bletchley, XLinkBot, Ai52487963, Addbot, Zadeh79, Reidlophile, WMdeMuynck, Download, MrVanBot, Alpinwolf, Aldrich Hanssen,
Ehrenkater, Dremeraldgibb, DLGames, Lightbot, Jarble, Quantumobserver, Angrysockhop, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Rccoms, Naruto101rocks,
GateKeeper, AnomieBOT, Mauro Lanari, Theendofgravity, J04n, Bearnfæder, Kantmar, Chjoaygame, FrescoBot, D'ohBot, Citation bot
1, Philocentric, EmausBot, GoingBatty, D15724C710N, Antigrandiose, Flatterlend, The Artifact, Ashell2, ClueBot NG, Frietjes, Help-
ful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, BG19bot, Homophilo, Homofilo, Spark2111, Khazar2, Archer47, Dr Lindsay B Yeates, Ossie747 and
Anonymous: 142
• Time travel Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time%20travel?oldid=653165589 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Joao, LC, Bryan Derk-
sen, Tarquin, Stephen Gilbert, Eean, Jagged, BenBaker, Eclecticology, Dachshund, Jkominek, XJaM, William Avery, Roadrunner, SimonP,
Maury Markowitz, Alan_d, Ellmist, Heron, Karl Palmen, Johnkarakash, Rickyrab, Chuq, Stevertigo, Edward, Ubiquity, Nommonomanac,
JohnOwens, Tim Starling, Bewildebeast, Kaijan, Lexor, Fuzzie, Liftarn, MartinHarper, Ixfd64, Gaurav, Karada, Barkingdoc, Eric119,
Tregoweth, Egil, Looxix, Ahoerstemeier, Cyp, DavidWBrooks, CatherineMunro, Poor Yorick, Andres, Rawr, Harry Potter, Vodex, Dark-
syde, Feedmecereal, RickK, Spacey, StAkAr Karnak, Zoicon5, Peregrine981, GeorgeHarnish, Furrykef, Tempshill, Jeoth, Bevo, Wiwaxia,
Fvw, Stormie, AnonMoos, Jerzy, Johnleemk, Banno, Frazzydee, Carbuncle, RadicalBender, Adiazpaz, Jason Potter, Phil Boswell, Brand-
dobbe, EpiVictor, Robbot, Paranoid, Moriori, Kizor, Wjhonson, Pingveno, Rfc1394, Texture, Meelar, Auric, Btljs, Bkell, Catbar, Hadal,
5.1. TEXT 249

UtherSRG, Wereon, Scooter, Mushroom, Isopropyl, SoLando, Pmcray, Wxlfsr, PBP, Adam78, Nagelfar, David Gerard, Dave6, Marc
Venot, Connelly, Giftlite, JamesMLane, Fennec, Tom harrison, MSGJ, Timeship, Monedula, Peruvianllama, Wwoods, Everyking, Lefty,
FunnyMan3595, Curps, Ravn, Avsa, Ezhiki, Kainaw, Pascal666, AlistairMcMillan, Hiphats, Mckaysalisbury, Golbez, ChicXulub, Andy-
cjp, Nova77, Mike R, SarekOfVulcan, Inversetime, Sonjaaa, Antandrus, WhiteDragon, Quarl, Kusunose, MadIce, Yafujifide, Khaosworks,
Jossi, JimWae, DragonflySixtyseven, Maximaximax, Latitude0116, Tavilach, Kevin B12, Icairns, GeoGreg, Histrion, Arcturus, Gscshoyru,
Tmxxine, Aerion, Ukexpat, Uaxuctum, Robin klein, MakeRocketGoNow, Kevin Rector, I b pip, Adashiel, Davidstrauss, Grunt, The stuart,
Brinklej, Grstain, Mike Rosoft, Geof, Zarxos, Slady, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, FranksValli, Vsmith, Pie4all88, Crowley, Chowells,
MeltBanana, Xezbeth, Ponder, Ibagli, ESkog, Nabla, Danieljackson, Marcok, PhilHibbs, Shanes, C1k3, RoyBoy, Lyght, Jon the Geek,
Underdog, Mike Garcia, Jpgordon, Rpresser, Bobo192, Longhair, 23skidoo, Ray Dassen, Cromulent Kwyjibo, John Vandenberg, Au-
gustinMa, Cmdrjameson, Elipongo, Jag123, Ncurses, Forteanajones, TheProject, Raja99, WikiLeon, Apostrophe, MPerel, Sam Korn,
Pharos, Jonathunder, Erri4a, Localhost00, Zachlipton, Sommerfeld, Alansohn, Gary, Q0, Gamebrain, LtNOWIS, FrankP, DanielLC, Lo-
kicarbis, Inky, Nuclear man, Andrewpmk, Riana, Yamla, Lectonar, Seans Potato Business, Sp00n17, Hu, SeanDuggan, VladimirKorablin,
Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, ReyBrujo, NCase, Shogun, RainbowOfLight, Grenavitar, Adonis Albattross, LFaraone, H2g2bob, Pixel,
CinnamonCinder, BDD, Versageek, Randytsx, Trick, Netkinetic, Danner578, Pentrant, RyanGerbil10, Ron Ritzman, Stephen, Feezo,
Chardish, OleMaster, Angr, Woohookitty, Linas, Mindmatrix, TigerShark, Camw, LOL, Arcann, PaulHammond, PoccilScript, Leon-
White, Jacobolus, Kzollman, MrWhipple, MattGiuca, Written, Before My Ken, WadeSimMiser, Mpatel, Alfakim, Miss Madeline, TheP-
atchedFool, Thruston, GregorB, Waldir, Prashanthns, Gimboid13, Christopher Thomas, Allen3, Marvelvsdc, Mandarax, QuaestorXVII,
Graham87, Sparkit, Keeves, BD2412, Sjö, Bertus, Sjakkalle, Rjwilmsi, Cynthia Sue Larson, Seidenstud, JLM, WCFrancis, Vary, Jio-
hdi, JHMM13, Tangotango, Omnieiunium, Tawker, SMC, Mike Peel, Driscolj, CQJ, Dudegalea, Ems57fcva, Lightning jim, Ohanian,
Sango123, Yamamoto Ichiro, Scorpionman, Titoxd, FlaBot, SchuminWeb, Old Moonraker, Jeff Fries, McAusten, Nihiltres, Crazycomput-
ers, Hyphz, Novium, Stilanas, RexNL, Cghobbs, Gurch, Mitsukai, OrbitOne, TeaDrinker, Steveo2, Bmicomp, BeastieLips, LeCire, Super-
saiyanplough, Saraal, Mallocks, Idaltu, Jersey Devil, Christiaan Roorda, DVdm, Sasoriza, Gwernol, Pepso, Joebwan, UkPaolo, YurikBot,
RobotE, Sceptre, Rt66lt, Hillman, RussBot, John Quincy Adding Machine, Splash, DMC88, GusF, Kirill Lokshin, Yamara, Arrt-932,
Chensiyuan, Stephenb, Lord Voldemort, Alex Bakharev, Bisqwit, Salsb, Wimt, NawlinWiki, Yserarau, Mrmmattson, Doctor Whom, Wiki
alf, Paki.tv, Anomo, Grafen, Thatdog, Jaxl, AlMac, Długosz, ONEder Boy, Howcheng, Robchurch, Thiseye, Irishguy, Gunmetal, Cbingel,
Brandon, Dmoss, Matticus78, Haoie, GHcool, WiteoutKing, Misza13, Grafikm fr, PonyToast, MSJapan, WolFox, Zythe, Falcon9x5, Kyle
Barbour, Mysid, Jeh, Silversnake020, Nescio, Wknight94, Gentaur, FF2010, Blueyoshi321, Alecmconroy, CedricVonck, Enormousdude,
21655, Johndburger, 2over0, SkepticMuhs, Warfreak, Nikkimaria, Endomion, JoanneB, CWenger, Sexzguy, Jolb, HereToHelp, GutoAn-
dreollo, ArielGold, Erik J, Ricardo630, MasterXiam, Yani, DVD R W, Knowledgeum, Capitalist, Peterbd, The Minister of War, AndrewW-
Taylor, Luk, TravisTX, Yvwv, SmackBot, Fred Hartzell, Aim Here, Ashenai, Jasonuhl, Arjunm, Stux, KnowledgeOfSelf, Shoy, C.Fred,
Shadowdancer, Braddie, Jagged 85, Chairman S., Ifnord, Bwithh, RedSpruce, Delldot, Frymaster, Brossow, JimmyBlackwing, Master Deu-
soma, Misterdan, Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Skizzik, Winterheart, Amatulic, Chris the speller, Fintler, Kurykh, Persian Poet Gal, NCurse,
Jiebie, Thumperward, Macusernick, Neo-Jay, TheFeds, Dustimagic, Patriarch, The Moose, Colonies Chris, Firetrap9254, Ketlan, Zsinj,
Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Nick Levine, Shalom Yechiel, HighPriest15, Nima Baghaei, TheKMan, Rrburke, Rsm99833, Andy120290,
Addshore, Aktron, Korako, Jfreyre, Fuhghettaboutit, Icweiner, Cybercobra, Savidan, Fullstop, GreenDay, Blake-, SnappingTurtle, MRIS-
LAND, Martijn Hoekstra, Invincible Ninja, Weregerbil, Bob Castle, DaiTengu, Dantopia, Acdx, A5b, Marcus Brute, Desmond71, Andrew
Dalby, TenPoundHammer, Lord of Light, SashatoBot, Lambiam, Bantomx, Rory096, Squiggle, Fubaz, Dr. Sunglasses, MikeAltieri, Kuru,
Titus III, Dwpaul, Bmckeag, BurnDownBabylon, Heimstern, MikeyChalupaUSN, Rossodio, Worloq, Ekpyrotic Architect, Shadowlynk,
JoshuaZ, JorisvS, Minna Sora no Shita, Hotel Caliphate, Coyoty, Goodnightmush, Reuvenk, Mathias-S, Scetoaux, Ckatz, Applejuice-
fool, A. Parrot, Rjbrock, Loadmaster, Comicist, Thug outlaw69, Kyphe, Dr Greg, BoyliciousDarian, Benji64, Special-T, Tasc, Captain-
Wesker, Hypnosifl, Waggers, Aarktica, Doczilla, The Knowledge-seeker, Zapvet, Timetraveler2, Bobbaxter, Vsf3000, Calumrulz, Stan-
ley011, Billy500, Zepheus, Andreworkney, Christian Roess, Nathanrdotcom, Me300, Jonathanbender, Seqsea, Ghughesarch, Iridescent,
Michaelbusch, TerryE, Skorp, JoeBot, Newone, Wjejskenewr, Walton One, Tony Fox, Sephiroth13, Courcelles, Virtualquark, Theironwop,
Tawkerbot2, Alegoo92, Dlohcierekim, TheHorseCollector, BruceGrubb, Jonathanbender3, Truthhere, Signinstranger, Abyss42, CalebNo-
ble, JForget, Adam Keller, CmdrObot, FunPika, Lavateraguy, Jonjonson, Vints, Lord Galen, RedRollerskate, JohnCD, Drinibot, Gra-
hammorehead, Swwright, GHe, Coocooforcocopuffs, Doctor den, OMGsplosion, ShelfSkewed, Web129, Shizane, Arbinado, Billy212, E
smith2000, Smoove Z, Billy213, Johnbender, Myasuda, Gregbard, Nilfanion, Mattbuck, TJDay, Sebastian789, Johnnybender2, Tomta1, Pe-
terdjones, SyntaxError55, Languagehat, Gogo Dodo, Jkokavec, Bellerophon5685, Travelbird, Zginder, Khatru2, JFreeman, Corpx, Rrace-
carr, Daniel J. Leivick, Tawkerbot4, The snare, Christian75, DumbBOT, KefkaTheClown, Ebyabe, NMChico24, Omicronpersei8, Uber-
ScienceNerd, Jabir99, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Universe Daily, Rsand726, Gaijin42, Qwyrxian, Mbell, Novaprospekt, Headbomb, Marek69,
West Brom 4ever, NorwegianBlue, Wikimaster77, Parsiferon, Quench123, JustAGal, Feelin420247, Dfrg.msc, AgentPeppermint, Charlot-
teWebb, Afabbro, Stannered, Mentifisto, Tham153, AntiVandalBot, ChrisBaker, MetaManFromTomorrow, Gogeba, Cteckerman, Quite-
Unusual, Jj137, Fayenatic london, Bakabaka, Turnip Wars, Dylan Lake, Darklilac, Mrabcx, G Rose, TsiyonNassi, Cutesmartguy, Gökhan,
Canadian-Bacon, Oswald bastable, MikeLynch, -dave-, JAnDbot, Ed Addis, Leuko, Husond, Free-mind, MER-C, Sanchom, Hmitt, Ham-
sterlopithecus, Xeno, Garda40, PhilKnight, Joecool94, Eartheaven1, LittleOldMe, TassadarAlpha, ItsTheFace, WikiAuthor, Magioladitis,
Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Firebladed, JNW, Appraiser, CattleGirl, Sikory, Nitku, Drumfreak66, Bubba hotep, Catgut, Theroadislong, Ani-
mum, 28421u2232nfenfcenc, Allstarecho, ArmadilloFromHell, Symbolt, Glen, DerHexer, HastyDeparture, Coffeepusher, Adlez123, Pat-
stuart, Thedarkfreak, Inimish, Redmtndew42, Shaker 2000, Gjd001, Stephenchou0722, Backto1992, MartinBot, Grandia01, GM11, Ar-
jun01, Tvoz, RetroBob, Nights Shadow, CommonsDelinker, Tulkolahten, Fconaway, Sibi antony, EdBever, TheRenegade, Slash, J.delanoy,
Mike Field, Trusilver, Oliverjrhodes, AstroHurricane001, Bogey97, Uncle Dick, Maurice Carbonaro, A Nobody, Fifth Rider, Jerry, Ben-
scripps, Gzkn, Andy5421, Andareed, Wandering Ghost, Angrybob945, Dtr1001, Bot-Schafter, Zedmelon, Jeepday, Kimagain, AntiSpam-
Bot, NewEnglandYankee, Zerokitsune, SJP, Hughtcool, Mufka, Sunderland06, Shadow Android, Cometstyles, Jamesfryar, IG-2000, Evb-
wiki, Robint22, Jamesontai, Rising*From*Ashes, Dzusin, Noster se solus, Lindowman, Inter16, Jaffo Gonzales, Rosenkreuz, Sethomas,
Useight, Setheron, Manikandan.k, Seador, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Ottershrew, Soojmagooj, Split Infinity, Nxsty, Makewater, WheehW,
Deor, TreasuryTag, Jason Gieles, CWii, MeEnjoyYourself, ABF, Pleasantville, Nubz0rs, JohnBlackburne, SarahLawrence Scott, Ryan032,
Sigil7, Philip Trueman, Timventura, Mercurywoodrose, BuickCenturyDriver, Epaphroditus Ph. M., Takuya Kanbara, MrBeck, Miranda,
Sloq, NPrice, Anonymous Dissident, LenTheWhiteCat, Mikebach, Qxz, BookGuru, Steven J. Anderson, BBSM, DennyColt, Cheat2win,
CommandantNick, LeaveSleaves, CharmedFreak123, DoktorDec, Dependent Variable, PDFbot, Bentley4, Mannafredo, Mhbizzle101,
Dph1210, BotKung, Ilyushka88, Luke.J.D., Jonnyf88, Finngall, Tom Atwood, Marijuanarchy, Antixt, Falcon8765, VanishedUserABC,
Swilliams1989, Enviroboy, Red Shotgun, Koldito, Mountainsdenver, Vid2vid, Ptrslv72, JARIAN, WyvernOne, NHRHS2010, Willfein,
D. Recorder, Rypcord, Supergeniusbigtime, Jman36, EJF, SieBot, Abcdef20, Cheaposgrungy, Dmondom, Scarian, Paradoctor, Geraki-
bot, Mickeyd24, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Qazqwert, Bmader, Mhoward2291, Mrlynam, Keilana, Interchange88, Aillema, Flyer22, Radon210,
Iwoopyourass, Qst, Familyguy001, Martin bennett76, Oda Mari, Arbor to SJ, Rhue of Landorin, Silversurfer4646, Oxymoron83, Antonio
250 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Lopez, Steven Zhang, Lightmouse, AliceTaniyama, Techman224, SimonTrew, RSStockdale, Alex.muller, Thisnamestaken, WacoJacko,
Fratrep, OKBot, Hoplite516, Awsomelawngnome, John Foxwhitener, Adhawk, Stuart.Jamieson, Anchor Link Bot, Chillum, Mygerardro-
mance, Wisemannn, Nn123645, Florentino floro, Sexydave, 12va34, Fixman, Denisarona, Escape Orbit, DDeRosia82, Gladen, Explicit,
Kombatgod, Dlrohrer2003, Church, Loren.wilton, Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, FlamingSilmaril, ClueBot, Philip Sutton, Snigbrook, Electric-
adam, The Thing That Should Not Be, Mderezynski, LAgurl, Rjd0060, Kalban, Michael Atma, Jan1nad, Docbillnet, WDavis1911, The
Grim Voice, Goodgirl 2011, Ed.capistrano, Starrydust, SuperHamster, Heiar7, Niceguyedc, Shaneisthesickest, Blanchardb, Nobaddude,
HovisM, Lloyd Nixon, Joeyvigil, Ajoykt, Excirial, Canis Lupus, Alexbot, Jusdafax, CameronKidd, Krackenback, Hardlysocial, Iwnit,
Eeekster, Balyg, Azxsdcvf, SunnySideOfStreet, Green Phantom, NuclearWarfare, Shawncorey, Aurora2698, Seanmckaveney, Cronokiller,
Tnxman307, Kaiba, Razorflame, Dekisugi, Mikaey, JasonAQuest, ChrisHodgesUK, La Pianista, Theeothersteve, Infomaniax, Calor,
Mehk, Thingg, Aitias, Versus22, Scottchavez, Katanada, J157, SoxBot III, HumphreyW, Apparition11, Vanished user uih38riiw4hjlsd,
Anaxandra, RichardTE, DumZiBoT, Jt10258, BarretB, XLinkBot, Will-B, BodhisattvaBot, Rror, Legija, Toph 1729, Sheba189, Phil-
mcracken, Little Mountain 5, Avoided, Leoboswell, Mitch Ames, Facts707, Jdude3, Khunglongcon, Mifter, PL290, Musicbuff, Noctibus,
Mm40, Whizmd, Abomasnow, JCDenton2052, Ejosse1, Gggh, Belfunk, Qwertyuioptt-2008, Whatisupmay, D.M. from Ukraine, Vcorani,
Drlight11, Addbot, Ryururu, DOI bot, Artcomic, ConicProjection, Morriswa, Ronhjones, CanadianLinuxUser, Fluffernutter, MoisesMB,
Cst17, Shankara1000, Chzz, DreamHaze, Favonian, Farmercarlos, LinkFA-Bot, Jaydec, 5 albert square, Baconmaster117, Tassedethe,
Ehrenkater, Dayewalker, OffsBlink, Oddrick, Tide rolls, Krano, Basispitch, Ivancurtisivancurtis, LuK3, Alfie66, Flip, Zyadamin1, Legobot,
Drpickem, Luckas-bot, Zac Effron, Yobot, Como se what?, Matniz, 2D, Tohd8BohaithuGh1, Fraggle81, Les boys, Newportm, II Mus-
LiM HyBRiD II, Owner213, Ttob, QuantumCyclops, Mmxx, Bugnot, Baxxterr, Marshall Williams2, Ebygum, AnomieBOT, Rubinbot,
Rexxtaylor, Killiondude, Jim1138, Piano non troppo, AdjustShift, Dinesh smita, Old Space Timer, Patkplc, Materialscientist, Danno uk,
Citation bot, Karthick 1984m, Booblo, LilHelpa, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Alekroy, The sock that should not be, JimVC3, Capricorn42, Jef-
frey Mall, Mononomic, Acebulf, Freethinker716, TheWeakWilled, Grim23, Fuzzypeanut, Anonymous from the 21st century, WFNelson,
Off2riorob, ROVER13, ZAMBAM13, Corruptcopper, Alumnum, Bcarstens, AlecStewart, Omnipaedista, Pepper loves grusly, RibotBOT,
Razasyed, StevenMcFlyJr, Amaury, Shubinator, Doulos Christos, Jagsandkamels, Shadowjams, Eugene-elgato, Frumphammer, DoctorHar-
ris21, Erik9, Bougerox134, A.amitkumar, Andy Leighton, HarryDav1, FrescoBot, Surv1v4l1st, WX 0, Fortdj33, ZZzcastroz, Vasuman, To-
bby72, Pinkflowers246, Daram.G, Utmost97, Ebajorek, Adam R. Dennison, Doctorcarlo, Emo muffins15, KuroiShiroi, Timetravellers01,
FutureEvanGreene, Hitzoidlerberg, Hypotime, Nightgleam, Steve Quinn, The ansible, Age Happens, Atimetraveler, Citation bot 1, Jey-
jey654, Dogaru Florin, Pinethicket, I dream of horses, Arctic Night, Zane043, Shadowx180, Vehement, SpaceFlight89, Filz Patrick Dureza,
Shivjha20081, Piandcompany, Dj05ny, Meaghan, Matu94, Christopher1968, AMglobal, Reconsider the static, SkyMachine, Hanul12, Ali
Abbasi7, Holetel, Waltgith, Wotnow, Dudley1980, ItsZippy, Usa8000, Lotje, Javierito92, GregKaye, Itsjesus, Vrenator, ThunderbirdJP,
Diannaa, Weedwhacker128, Suffusion of Yellow, Tbhotch, Sparkchu, Obankston, Mean as custard, RjwilmsiBot, Bento00, Beyond My
Ken, Chrestomanci the Enchanter, WildBot, Salvio giuliano, LegoABC, Az2yusuf, EmausBot, GeneralCheese, Orphan Wiki, Wikitan-
virBot, Semperlibre, Worldwidereach, Gfoley4, Boyd.ocon, Jodon1971, Lyle Swann, Racerx11, PhysicsForBreakfast, Porcatus, Iheartghs,
Bt8257, Sp33dyphil, Slightsmile, Your Lord and Master, Lanchedgehog, Wikipelli, K6ka, Frozennacho57, Hhhippo, Grondilu, ZéroBot,
John Cline, Illegitimate Barrister, Josve05a, Teslasheir, Shuipzv3, LukeCopenspire, Pin Collector, Martyson21, Jack Sebastian, Shawnisk-
ing, Amit.3ku, Ridwan93, AarCart, H3llBot, Toniblack82, Monterey Bay, Cspj12, TonyMath, Wayne Slam, 99Timetravel99, OnePt618,
Losan33, ClimbRider, TyA, Gray eyes, Brandmeister, Akshatrathi, L Kensington, Mayur, Donner60, Detinycyrus, Denisjos, Carmichael,
Snehalshekatkar, Psychoj867, Serealnome, LikeLakers2, DASHBotAV, Pwalt15, Prandr, Fueldoctor, Catholic nerd, Drcool70, Petrb,
ClueBot NG, Cwmhiraeth, Kurt Parker, Mjfan12346, Streetwise1, Jack Greenmaven, Giggett, Bally293, Actcohen, Shikhars23, Kode
Kyk, This lousy T-shirt, Satellizer, M623d, Partheemail, Snotbot, Psegura41190, Sawjan, O.Koslowski, Rezabot, Widr, Newyorkadam,
Bobbb7, Jmr213, Catastic14, Helpful Pixie Bot, Platform H, Daman4562, Bibcode Bot, GaryOAKSTERX, Krisscheibe, Love's Labour
Lost, BG19bot, Dr. Reiter, Christy than, Orisohana, Hallows AG, Shan,s,985, MusikAnimal, Amp71, Articulatefacts, Geraldo Perez,
Dan653, Redoc, Stapletongrey, Wikiecam, Floating Boat, Snow Blizzard, MrBill3, Kencrapalot, Mr spock4113, Astrid jamison, Ballplay3,
Fatman1152, Ortund, Agnt9, Raiders321654987, MichiHenning, Zymphor, FLOPROWEG, BattyBot, Pwningmason, Jimw338, Mrt3366,
EuroCarGT, Boaz1998, Bobojoker4, Joshlight, Rschnd, Marct3176, Wellthatisgr8, Dexbot, Pereru, Pravergupta, Iguy3124, Srisis1, Mon-
keythechimp123, Lugia2453, Yeoj2775, DrRichardStephens, Josophie, Shivamshaivpatel, Nibir2011, Tosh.Dicks, Prod69, Reatlas, Skid-
Jumper, Jimter56, Dobsonblake, Troyamonga, Epicgenius, Ruby Murray, Howicus, Towercreater, Djreali45, MisterFritz, ZarhanFastfire,
LamaPseudonym, Sarah zidan, Vaaaal, Ashleyyytaylor, CensoredScribe, TheLastComputer, Udaisirohi, Damonthesis, LieutenantLatvia,
Radiotunes, Syed Ali Hamza, Javid.j18, Girikich, Castigonia, Vahoda101, Sopon Charaswat, Nishan Chaulagain, Anrnusna, Ithinkic-
ahn, 999sian, Crow, CHUCKNORRIS3219, Ianrocksballs, ThatRusskiiGuy, Blurryman, CogitoErgoSum14, Piemaster32, Pdeck2013,
Nishan Chaulagain ( Nepali ), JJMguy, Monkbot, Wawinsen, Shylum1987, Murfski, Timeismylife, Vieque, Data dood, Ninjanaut, Beth-
Naught, Smoovdanger, Pranzi, Ok,ok,alright,ok, A. Prilfooler, Kaltakus, Davechas, Moustafa3088, A252525, Slenderduck, Willbh15,
Davidtennants-hair, Honestabe7777, SGPewDiePie, Fbecerra17, Footballfandemax, Tiffygne18, Sjaunius, KH-1, 1foxxjosh, Loserareus,
Rohit knv, Truepopaking1998, CantBeatThisWhovian, Donut Jesus, Emeraldscooky, Frenlex, MikeStevensonTX, Wbsswaffle, IndrasisSD,
Igrabe, Betsywriter, Harshvardhan Singh Vishnoi, Eleanorboxall, TheIronDev and Anonymous: 2374

• Turtles all the way down Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turtles%20all%20the%20way%20down?oldid=650299301 Contributors:

Bryan Derksen, Slrubenstein, Stevertigo, Frecklefoot, Edward, Tannin, Zanimum, Tregoweth, Kingturtle, Bueller 007, Jengod, Fuzheado,
Nickg, DJ Clayworth, Furrykef, AaronSw, AnonMoos, Gromlakh, PBS, Goethean, Wjhonson, Merovingian, Auric, Ancheta Wis, Ever-
dred, Zigger, Everyking, FeloniousMonk, Duncharris, Daibhid C, Macrakis, Chowbok, DavidBrooks, Alexf, Drauh, Tothebarricades.tk,
Pmanderson, Blokhead, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Rspeer, Ponder, Dbachmann, Nard the Bard, Rjo, Kwamikagami, Susvolans,
Guettarda, AmosWolfe, Cwolfsheep, Richi, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Larry V, SnowFire, Melaen, Velella, Binabik80, Omphaloscope,
Guthrie, Mattbrundage, Netkinetic, Dismas, Mr z, Simetrical, FeanorStar7, Shreevatsa, StradivariusTV, Taterhead, GregorB, Kriegman,
SteveCrook, Deltabeignet, Anarchivist, Dvyost, Dimitrii, Koavf, BlueMoonlet, MZMcBride, Nneonneo, Moorlock, Klugerama, Wctaiwan,
Pete.Hurd, SteveBaker, VolatileChemical, Satanael, Pigman, CanadianCaesar, Gaius Cornelius, Kvn8907, Lexicon, Ragesoss, Dandanar,
Robost, Paul Magnussen, Nikkimaria, JQF, Saudade7, HereToHelp, MagneticFlux, TechBear, SmackBot, Fireworks, Rtc, Herostratus, Hy-
drogen Iodide, Master Deusoma, Commander Keane bot, Portillo, Bluebot, CrookedAsterisk, Hibbleton, Thumperward, Tamfang, Frap,
MeekSaffron, Robma, Hateless, Pwjb, TenPoundHammer, Agradman, Potosino, John, Tktktk, Ben Moore, JHunterJ, Asyndeton, Norm
mit, Phoenixrod, JRSpriggs, George100, Megatronium, CRGreathouse, Phauly, BeenAroundAWhile, Pru.mitchell, K00bine, Gregbard,
Odie5533, Dougweller, Teratornis, Patrick O'Leary, PKT, Epbr123, Barticus88, LeeNapier, Mbierman, Lambsilencer, Guy Macon, Bm
gub, Ingolfson, Omeganian, Awien, Brandt Luke Zorn, SlamDiego, Omnimath, Anaxial, WotherspoonSmith, Vertigo-1, Pomte, Bryte-
line, TomS TDotO, MarkovChaney, Phacops, Sklein, Lights, Sroc, Ridernyc, Anonymous Dissident, Ebunny, Bradofarrell, Happyme22,
Joseph A. Spadaro, Insanity Incarnate, Chuck61, JosefAssad, Edare9439, Mr. Granger, ClueBot, Badger Drink, Niceguyedc, Cirt, Andrei
Iosifovich, Rongainey, Kjsharke, Hans Adler, Sonnetlabbe, Boozinf, Shamanchill, VickiBrown, DumZiBoT, XLinkBot, DrOxacropheles,
Turris, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Blueclxwn, Annielogue, Ronhjones, Fswarbrick, USchick, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Legobot, Yobot, New-
5.1. TEXT 251

portm, Sitscher47, Meo Hav, AnomieBOT, Rjanag, Citation bot, 7h3 3L173, Omnipaedista, Kilerkdgan, FrescoBot, AllCluesKey, Alexan-
derKaras, StrawberryCube, Machine Elf 1735, Citation bot 1, Intelligentsium, Spidey104, Rootazoid, Soupiset, WillNess, RjwilmsiBot,
John of Reading, GoingBatty, Guy546, ClueBot NG, BarrelProof, Chemicadian, Dream of Nyx, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain,
Wbm1058, Jeraphine Gryphon, ISTB351, Revilo366, The evacipated, Bravexnewxryan, 122.x.x.x, CrazyCon999, Symphonic Spenguin,
Kephir, PinkAmpersand, BreakfastJr, KeysofBones124, W. P. Uzer, Neil Hamilton Mansfield, TuxLibNit, Tommyl8nite, Nyncvm, Will
Sex Your Mom and Anonymous: 224
• Crocodile dilemma Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crocodile%20dilemma?oldid=628612156 Contributors: Hyacinth, An-
drewKeenanRichardson, Afa86, Gregbard, Avicennasis, Anonymous Dissident, Paradoctor, ImageRemovalBot, Hm29168, Addbot,
Морган, HerculeBot, McKaot, AnomieBOT, Vicki Reitta, Xqbot, Mattg82, Recognizance, TobeBot, Afterlife120, EmausBot, Alsims,
Primergrey, Helpful Pixie Bot, YFdyh-bot, Awaniko and Anonymous: 19
• Double bind Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Double%20bind?oldid=651865735 Contributors: Fuzzie, Scott, Evercat, Fraise, Fur-
rykef, Robbot, Romanm, Jacob1207, Christopherlin, Andycjp, Beland, Ot, Robin klein, Now3d, Jiy, FT2, Calion, Irritant, Cedders,
Kwamikagami, Liberatus, Gingko, Mdd, DannyMuse, Jhertel, Melaen, Mattbrundage, Brookie, Dtobias, Madmardigan53, Apokrif,
Tabletop, Kbdank71, Rjwilmsi, Quiddity, Lemuel Gulliver, Whosasking, Ritchy, Zwobot, Aleichem, Aaron Schulz, Action potential,
Degreezero, ThirteenthGreg, CLW, SmackBot, Cosmetor, Supercriminal, Psiphiorg, Bluebot, Colonies Chris, Emurphy42, Jjoensuu,
DéRahier, Poppi12, Kittybrewster, CamXV, Tsop, Takima, Bn, Meco, RichardF, Loggerisms, B7T, Iridescent, Igni, Jsmaye, Penbat,
Gregbard, Jasperdoomen, Jonathan Tweet, A876, Dynaflow, NHBaritone, Letranova, CopperKettle, RichardVeryard, AgentPeppermint,
Nick Number, Itistoday, Magioladitis, Lenschulwitz, Cailil, JaGa, Smartings, Hbent, Aguynamededdy, Vi2, AstroHurricane001, Maurice
Carbonaro, Mufka, Alexanderabbit, Jmrowland, AllGloryToTheHypnotoad, Aron.Foster, Michael Frind, SieBot, Jruderman, Dancing-
Philosopher, RobinHood70, Admiral Norton, Kai-Hendrik, Jamespkeim, Alexbot, DumZiBoT, Brennanyoung, Addbot, Reidlophile, Mar-
garet9mary, Zorrobot, Mro, Uruandimi, Yobot, Gongshow, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, ArthurBot, LilHelpa, Ed8r, Omnipaedista, Mark
Schierbecker, FrescoBot, Machine Elf 1735, Louperibot, Metalola, Tstinson, Seren-dipper, Evanh2008, Ὁ οἶστρος, Jacobisq, Tablethree,
ClueBot NG, PoqVaUSA, Frietjes, Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, Mrt3366, Schrauwers, Someone not using his real name, Monkbot,
Jrogy18, Prasangika37 and Anonymous: 115
• Euthyphro dilemma Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Euthyphro%20dilemma?oldid=648294526 Contributors: Dan, Paul A, Uyanga,
Charles Matthews, Wereon, Alan Liefting, Jonabbey, Gcom, Tagishsimon, Andycjp, Alexf, Karol Langner, Thorwald, Dbachmann, Ben-
der235, Viriditas, Cmdrjameson, Ricky81682, Coolgamer, Japanese Searobin, Mel Etitis, BD2412, Mana Excalibur, Rjwilmsi, Koavf,
NeonMerlin, Nihiltres, Common Man, The Rambling Man, RussBot, Monototo, Andrew K Robinson, RecSpecz, Sahands, Sardanaphalus,
Laurence Boyce, SmackBot, InverseHypercube, Cactus Wren, Chris the speller, Bluebot, Parableman, CSWarren, Sct72, Can't sleep, clown
will eat me, Goriller, Tinker Grey, Hairouna, CGrapes429, LoveMonkey, Vina-iwbot, Kirbytime, Catquas, Carrioncrows, Gveret Tered,
Geezerbill, Shirahadasha, Hyperboreios, Gregbard, Mr5020, Crudnick, Miguel de Servet, FastLizard4, Epbr123, Coelacan, Kathovo,
Mmortal03, Escarbot, Sensemaker, QuiteUnusual, Mercury543210, Aheyfromhome, Dsp13, Antipodean Contributor, Gabrielthursday,
CCS81, Qzar123, MoA)gnome, Pbj321, R'n'B, Kishanmufc, Adavidb, Zachhh, BobEnyart, Ezzi386, Jvpwiki, VolkovBot, TXiKiBoT,
Z.E.R.O., IPSOS, Wiendietry, GirasoleDE, StAnselm, Mimihitam, Vini 175, Iohannes Animosus, Thingg, Fledgeaaron, Editor2020,
MystBot, Addbot, Anders Sandberg, Tassedethe, Weaseloid, Doctor joshi, AnomieBOT, JohnnyB256, Bagumba, LilHelpa, Praecep-
torIP, Earlgrey86, Stmannew, Fsdjfsdfk, Shadowjams, FrescoBot, Airborne84, Pinethicket, Jonesey95, Denkealsobin, B1111111, Frindro,
Radar1100, ItsZippy, Griit, Diannaa, Yesyouneedjesus, Andrewcst11, EmausBot, Montgolfière, David Span, Jbnewell, ZéroBot, Esc2003,
Mogthew, ChuispastonBot, ClueBot NG, Tophaloaf, Helpful Pixie Bot, Richard Tester, Comatmebro, Bemkapeace, JasonMacker, Aekan-
man, Lizia7, Aristotle Cicero, Cj22336 and Anonymous: 178
• False dilemma Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/False%20dilemma?oldid=652865429 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, The Cunctator,
Lee Daniel Crocker, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Ed Poor, Andre Engels, Fubar Obfusco, Chris Q, Mrwojo, Michael Hardy, Dcljr, Arthur3030,
Ooooooooo, LittleDan, Sir Paul, Aragorn2, Cherkash, Timwi, Dcoetzee, Doradus, Greenrd, DJ Clayworth, Furrykef, Itai, ZeWrestler,
Mrdice, Nurg, Tobias Bergemann, Giftlite, Philwiki, Karn, Taak, Gyrofrog, Jonathan Grynspan, Gdr, Noe, Beland, Kevin B12, Histrion,
Kmweber, Pohl, Ensrifraff, KeyStroke, Rich Farmbrough, Dave souza, Murtasa, Dbachmann, Borisblue, Ashley Pomeroy, TheCoffee,
Sk4p, Mindmatrix, Daira Hopwood, Oldie, Thegerm, BD2412, Bikeable, Mendaliv, Sjakkalle, Nightscream, Hiberniantears, Afterwriting,
Dinosaurdarrell, SchuminWeb, Dullfig, Coach Z Ale, Revolving Bugbear, Riki, OpenToppedBus, Theo Pardilla, YurikBot, RobotE, Hairy
Dude, Martnik, Red Slash, EDM, Sillybilly, DE, Thane, Rick Norwood, Kvn8907, Korny O'Near, Bucketsofg, Robertbyrne, Eurosong,
Lt-wiki-bot, Arthur Rubin, Dark Tichondrias, Jack Upland, PurplePlatypus, SmackBot, Reedy, Eriol Ancalagon, Jasy jatere, McGeddon,
Bomac, Midway, Eskimbot, Ohnoitsjamie, Hraefen, Thumperward, Moshe Constantine Hassan Al-Silverburg, Scwlong, Frap, Hippo43,
Steven X, Pwjb, Hymenclock, MEJ119, Louisng114, DMacks, Andeggs, Marcus Brute, Curly Turkey, Rabidwolfe, Gilgunn2003, Nolte,
Nicubunu, Tim Q. Wells, Grumpyyoungman01, Michaelbusch, Sam Li, Tawkerbot2, NE Ent, Penbat, Gregbard, Mattbuck, Benzi455,
Christian75, Teratornis, Synetech, Letranova, Thijs!bot, 271828182, Tkay, Fury H, John254, Gligeti, Heroeswithmetaphors, MostExcel-
lentTheophilus, CZeke, Ais523, Alphachimpbot, Mdz, Skywatcher68, Wizymon, Unused0029, Exerda, Ged fi, Logolego, Caesarjbsquitti,
Stoneice02, LookingGlass, Scaro, StuIsCool, Masamunemaniac, ThomasNichols, 83d40m, Phirazo, Merzul, Chasmatazz, Jdechambeau,
VolkovBot, ABF, Orthologist, Dindon, Sean D Martin, Philogo, Davin, Truthibuster, Jamelan, StarManta, Lova Falk, Seresin, African-
genesis, Topher385, A boardley, Yitscar, Twinsday, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Methychroma, Joaquín Martínez, Wildspell, Excirial,
Conical Johnson, CPGACoast, Life of Riley, XLinkBot, Mitch Ames, 68Kustom, Addbot, Jafeluv, Jpjensvold, Yobot, Ojay123, Triquetra,
AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, E235, Clecsoft, Abce2, Anime Addict AA, Logicchecker, SassoBot, Jack Daniel Adams, Machine Elf
1735, C.Heward, Zachary Klaas, FormerIP, Fahd09, Philocentric, Aoidh, TheGrimReaper NS, Bolaurent, EmausBot, Ajraddatz, 8digits,
Ashiva2010, Tederose1943, Quellist Novice, Ihardlythinkso, ClueBot NG, VictorVVV, JohnsonL623, Frietjes, Masssly, Helpful Pixie Bot,
HAGADAG, Jeraphine Gryphon, Northamerica1000, Badon, GlaedrH, JoeyHous, Mediran, Cup o' Java, SparxDragon, Dexbot, Ranze,
IndianCamp, PokeZelda64, JaconaFrere, Birdo17, Fightclubdoll, Ihaveacatonmydesk, The pretty good Gatsby and Anonymous: 211
• Prisoner's dilemma Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prisoner'{}s%20dilemma?oldid=647435439 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Joao,
LC, Mav, Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Verloren, Arvindn, Daniel Mahu, Kurt Jansson, Ryguasu, R Lowry, Tedernst, Olivier, Boud,
Michael Hardy, Dominus, Chinju, TakuyaMurata, Eric119, Snoyes, AllanR, Poor Yorick, Evercat, Wfeidt, Adam Conover, Dying, Timwi,
Dcoetzee, Sikelianos, Sbloch, Dysprosia, Dandrake, Jwrosenzweig, Doradus, Maximus Rex, Mrand, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Tempshill, LMB,
Dcsohl, Raul654, Johnleemk, Gakmo, Vt-aoe, Robbot, Pfortuny, Chealer, ChrisG, Fredrik, Chris 73, R3m0t, Romanm, Ojigiri, Yacht,
DHN, Saforrest, JackofOz, Robinh, Lpetrazickis, Amead, Helfrich, Cyrius, Wile E. Heresiarch, Rik G., David Gerard, Psb777, Matthew
Stannard, Giftlite, Nikodemos, Wolfkeeper, Tom harrison, Martijn faassen, Lupin, Brian Kendig, Gus Polly, Alison, Henry Flower, Dun-
charris, BillyH, Jason Quinn, Christofurio, Foobar, Edcolins, Moon light shadow, Etaonish, Ruy Lopez, Socrtwo, OwenBlacker, Book-
girlST, Reagle, Neutrality, Griffin147, Safety Cap, Discospinster, Solitude, Rich Farmbrough, Qwerty1234, Vapour, FWBOarticle, Pon-
der, Gronky, SpookyMulder, Andrejj, Jnestorius, DavidScotson, Alex3917, Wolfman, Ascorbic, Lambertman, Causa sui, Grick, Cretog8,
252 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Orbst, Guido del Confuso, Vintermann, Syzygy, Emhoo, Treborbassett, Brainpo, Ral315, BlueNovember, Eruantalon, DannyMuse, At-
lant, Plumbago, Hodg, JohnAlbertRigali, Ciaran H, PAR, Mlm42, Hu, Hadžija, JeeAge, Yvh11a, Samohyl Jan, RJII, H2g2bob, SteinbDJ,
Alai, Dan East, Erroneous01, LukeSurl, OwenX, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Logophile, Oliphaunt, Kzollman, Ruud Koot, Tabletop, Sm-
murphy, Junes, Cedrus-Libani, Royan, Graham87, Marskell, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Rjwilmsi, Chipuni, MarSch, Jmcc150,
SpNeo, Denis Diderot, Haya shiloh, XLerate, Ligulem, NeonMerlin, Brighterorange, Ravik, MapsMan, Wragge, FlaBot, SeptimusOrcinus,
RexNL, Arctic.gnome, Pete.Hurd, Simishag, Themissinglint, Spencerk, Toi, Antimatter15, Haonhien, King of Hearts, Chobot, Ramorum,
Volunteer Marek, Jpkotta, Wavelength, RobotE, RussBot, Az7997, Loom91, Taejo, Zafiroblue05, Wilfried Elmenreich, Chris Capoccia,
Inkbacker, Gaius Cornelius, Bruguiea, Trovatore, Mr. Bene, Ondenc, Bossrat, JocK, Dogcow, Anetode, Emersoni, Mtu, Maunus, Eurosong,
Blueyoshi321, Walkie, Tribaal, PaulStephens, Cyrus Grisham, Chriswaterguy, Chrishmt0423, LeonardoRob0t, Fourohfour, Ilmari Karo-
nen, IxnayOnTheTimmay, ViperSnake151, GrinBot, Babij, Ocam, That Guy, From That Show!, Luk, KnightRider, SmackBot, Inverse-
Hypercube, McGeddon, Lawrencekhoo, Jtneill, DTM, Frymaster, Btwied, Mauls, Alsandro, Pathless, Richfife, Angelbo, Brokenfixer, Lin-
dosland, Tyciol, Westsider, Audacity, Shaggorama, Hibernian, Da Vynci, Colonies Chris, Royboycrashfan, Can't sleep, clown will eat me,
OrphanBot, Alaiche, Xyzzyplugh, Lyran, Khoikhoi, DenisDiderot, Bigturtle, EPM, Michelle eris, Xyzzy n, Richard001, Sslevine, Michael
Rogers, Byelf2007, Bando26, Cmh, IronGargoyle, RomanSpa, Erin Billy, Ъыь, SandyGeorgia, E-Kartoffel, Dr.K., Josephus78, Stephen
B Streater, Iridescent, Kencf0618, Jason.grossman, Robfwoods, CapitalR, Trialsanderrors, Dclayh, Tawkerbot2, JRSpriggs, Cryptic C62,
JebJoya, FatalError, CRGreathouse, CmdrObot, Flambelle, Hiroshi-br, Aherunar, CBM, Wwengr, Sdorrance, Gregbard, RyanDesign,
Reywas92, MC10, Uniqueuponhim, Mariojalves, RZ heretic, YechezkelZilber, Frostlion, Blackmetalbaz, Rracecarr, Jedonnelley, Tloc,
Jay32183, Kozuch, Bhause, PamD, Mattisse, Malleus Fatuorum, Thijs!bot, Jedibob5, Mojo Hand, Luigifan, Morgrim, Rompe, Lamen-
tation, Luna Santin, Widefox, Ryanhanson, AllanLee, Bona Fides, Ingolfson, Nwe, Smerdis, Mullibok, Hurmata, Magioladitis, VoABot
II, Sodabottle, DEDemeza, Baccyak4H, Froid, Mikhailfranco, KConWiki, WhatamIdoing, Webponce, Mikolik, Americanhero, Wwmbes,
Asaadi, Damuna, MartinBot, J.delanoy, Rgoodermote, Deadbath, Stazed, Cpiral, LordAnubisBOT, Grosscha, Maduskis, Bouke, Goarany,
JayJasper, Space Pirate 3000AD, Quantling, Kenneth M Burke, Redrocket, TWCarlson, Cmastris, DASonnenfeld, Cerberus0, Jmrowland,
Al.locke, Mkcmkc, GimmeBot, Pandacomics, Hawkinsbiz, JhsBot, LukeNukem, Calculuslover800, Radeks, Every name is taken12345,
BurdetteLamar, Tluckie13, Masterofpsi, Givegains, Chmac, AdRock, Osterczyk, Thehornet, Zsniew, Happysailor, Likebox, Flyer22,
Chromaticity, Le Pied-bot, Artoasis, ThAtSo, Dimitridobrasil, Glasbak, Randomblue, WikiLaurent, Vorapsak, Jonathanstray, ClueBot,
Badger Drink, Foxj, Drmies, Rosuav, NickLinsky, Fenwayguy, Alexbot, Mprogers, Three-quarter-ten, Sun Creator, Bracton, 7&6=thir-
teen, Alexey Muranov, Jeff0106, Eebster the Great, Behavioralethics, BigK HeX, AlanM1, XLinkBot, Gerhardvalentin, Ost316, Freddy
engels, Fiskbil, Addbot, Dunhere, Annielogue, Starpollen, LinkFA-Bot, W anthro, Ehrenkater, Tide rolls, Jarble, Legobot, Luckas-bot,
Yobot, EchetusXe, Estudiarme, Backfromquadrangle, Nallimbot, Trinitrix, Nlasbo, AnomieBOT, Materialscientist, Hunnjazal, Citation
bot, ArthurBot, Simultaneous movement, Xqbot, Tad Lincoln, J4lambert, J JMesserly, Geekguy02, Srich32977, Kithira, RibotBOT, Tfll,
GliderMaven, FrescoBot, Noisyboy1234, Urgos, Gregvs3, Tavernsenses, Glummy, Citation bot 1, AstaBOTh15, Carloszgz, Bmclaughlin9,
RedBot, Iusewiki, Wanani, TRBP, Trappist the monk, Lotje, Fedfiore, Jsevilla, Brichard37, Whisky drinker, RjwilmsiBot, Tacomaster4,
J36miles, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Octopuppy, 848219pineapple, Snied, Seabreezes1, Philippe277, Akerans, Ὁ οἶστρος, TurilCronburg,
Unreal7, Pyrenil, Makecat, 12mmclean, Alessandromerlettidepalo, Barrrower, AeolianMachine, Palosirkka, Donner60, Orange Suede Sofa,
Hazard-Bot, ClueBot NG, Binkyuk, Frietjes, Cntras, BracusAnguis, Widr, Helpful Pixie Bot, Stekat, Calabe1992, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot,
Endobrendo, Brian Tomasik, Tarshizzle, Dan653, Benjamin H-W, Huliosancez, Natalon, Fbell74, Gprobins, BattyBot, Returner323617,
ChrisGualtieri, Krispycalbee, JYBot, Dexbot, Mogism, Ssbbplayer, Lugia2453, Kugo2006, Billyd992, Wikecology, I am One of Many,
Bicycleemoji, Qc1okay, Braveskid1, Ashutt92, Allasse0927, Jomey, Arco74, Aronjacobson, Jackkenyon, Gruyern, Monkbot, BethNaught,
Hacscience, Pariah24, Latiaslee, 曰若稽古 and Anonymous: 536
• Samaritan's dilemma Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samaritan'{}s%20dilemma?oldid=641803721 Contributors: Skysmith, Au-
ric, Johnflux, The Wordsmith, Nowa, Grafen, Avalon, AndrewWTaylor, Alex1011, Pwjb, TMN, Gregbard, Anarchia, Temporaluser,
Michael Frind, Sting au, AnomieBOT, Maiella, DexDor, Hurutch, Duponti, ShadowHawk555 and Anonymous: 7
• Trolley problem Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trolley%20problem?oldid=651876817 Contributors: Matthew Woodcraft, The
Anome, Stevertigo, Edward, Michael Hardy, Sir Paul, Evercat, Sethmahoney, Wik, Lsolum, Owen, Shantavira, Chealer, Chris 73, Chris
Roy, Cecropia, Guy Peters, Tobias Bergemann, JimWae, Neutrality, Gcanyon, Lacrimosus, Vapour, Jvraba, Goochelaar, Patton1138,
Rlaager, Officiallyover, John Quiggin, Batmanand, Rebroad, VoluntarySlave, Dzhim, Velho, Imaginatorium, GregorB, Marudubshinki,
Cuchullain, MikeDockery, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, St. Chris, Common Man, Chobot, Whosasking, FrankTobia, Tznkai, LaszloWalrus, Arthur
Rubin, SMcCandlish, PurplePlatypus, Ephilei, Mebden, Bwiki, Luk, SmackBot, McGeddon, Verne Equinox, Mscuthbert, AnOddName,
Srnec, Cactus Wren, Gilliam, Jupix, Bluebot, Njerseyguy, Parableman, Neo-Jay, JesseRafe, Acepectif, Austinfidel, Byelf2007, Esrever,
Attys, N3bulous, Aaronchall, Tdudkowski, Gargletheape, Rory O'Kane, Aeternus, JForget, Penbat, Besieged, A vivid dreamer, Terator-
nis, Scarpy, Lindsay658, Casliber, Mattisse, Deipnosophista, Hires an editor, SummerPhD, Masamage, Pro crast in a tor, Kevin Nel-
son, Legitimus, Jimmyl008, Hans Mayer, CosineKitty, Normative, WhatamIdoing, Pianoman123, Disisquirrel, Skepticalone, Ian.thomson,
STBotD, Barraki, Useight, Sgeureka, Wikieditor06, King Lopez, Johnfos, A.Ou, Macspaunday, Benbucksch, Awl, Zenswashbuckler, Gov-
trust, Clever hans, DasReboot, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Wikievil666, Drmies, Niceguyedc, Jimh123456, Deselliers, Excirial,
ResidueOfDesign, Cerbryx, Ottomaddog, Addbot, Download, IOLJeff, MuZemike, Savlonn, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Tama1988, AnomieBOT,
Bluerasberry, Citation bot, Elkirkmo, Zzzzz9, Gui le Roi, Shadowjams, Bearnfæder, Power nap, Manus-en, MarcelB612, EliseVanLooij,
LayzAyzn, Philolexi, Tesseract2, ZéroBot, Δ, S Whistler, Ihardlythinkso, ClueBot NG, DanHakimi, Helpful Pixie Bot, FrenchTime, Trol-
leyologist, Brian Tomasik, Frze, Jessespafford, BattyBot, Hower64, ChengduTeacher, Themoother, Cerabot, Kraeuterp, CloudHippie,
SuperJohny64, Oathed, Calamity Fortune and Anonymous: 194
• Argumentum ad populum Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Argumentum%20ad%20populum?oldid=652865138 Contributors:
Damian Yerrick, Andre Engels, Fubar Obfusco, Ewen, Mrwojo, Dante Alighieri, Revolver, Dcoetzee, Mirv, Andrew Levine, Michael2,
ShaunMacPherson, Pinnecco, Fishal, Coldacid, Tothebarricades.tk, Julianonions, GreenReaper, Thorwald, Guanabot, Silence, Aschiller,
Wrs1864, Danski14, Tabor, Twestgard, Epiphone83, Bsadowski1, Woohookitty, StradivariusTV, DanBishop, Pol098, Srborlongan, Plrk,
Stefanomione, Deltabeignet, BD2412, Wragge, FlaBot, Nogburt, TeaDrinker, Alphachimp, Spencerk, Manscher, YurikBot, Crosbi-
eFitch, Deeptrivia, Red Slash, Mike Young, Shreshth91, Arichnad, Robchurch, Deodar, Mrbluesky, Lt-wiki-bot, Shawnc, LeonardoRob0t,
RG2, NickelShoe, NetRolller 3D, Kyaa the Catlord, SmackBot, Herostratus, Ssbohio, Eskimbot, Josephprymak, JJay, BiT, The Rhyme-
smith, Tyciol, Chris the speller, Sct72, Scwlong, Mike hayes, RedHillian, Cybercobra, Jon Awbrey, Andeggs, Ollj, Mr415, Gobonobo,
JoshuaZ, Intranetusa, Drae, Hu12, WilliamJE, Joseph Solis in Australia, TheGreenSaga, Rubisco, Johnthescavenger, Sam Li, CapitalR,
Rmacey, Dejitaru, Wolfdog, Ivan Pozdeev, Hombre Equis, Misteraznkid, Gregbard, JustSomeGuy, Dusty relic, Void main, Ebraminio,
Greeneto, Thijs!bot, Torus, Jnorthup, Gligeti, Doremítzwr, Onthesideoftheangels, Widefox, Paul from Michigan, GrubLord, Ran4, Sean-
bow, Andylindsay, .Absolution., Magioladitis, NimNick, Oren0, Maurice Carbonaro, Jeepday, Rpn453, NewEnglandYankee, Nadiatal-
ent, Darkfrog24, Vranak, VolkovBot, Shinju, Orthologist, Deleet, Rei-bot, Anonymous Dissident, Liko81, Entropy1963, Andrewaskew,
5.1. TEXT 253

Mike4ty4, Hrafn, Ponyo, BotMultichill, Vexorg, Aoxiang, WikiTony999, Minimus1, DivineBurner, Elassint, Gorillasapiens, Badger Drink,
Swedish fusilier, Drmies, JamieS93, Ceilican, 1ForTheMoney, Alexander Tendler, Plesiosaur, XLinkBot, Merodack, Borock, Mosarani,
Good Olfactory, Addbot, C6541, West.andrew.g, AnomieBOT, Buz lightning, Jim1138, Sioraf, Flewis, E235, LilHelpa, Xqbot, Sionus,
Djzapz, Omnipaedista, Robert sides, Logicchecker, Mawst, Diltarget, Fozz1001, Paine Ellsworth, Weekloanweekloan, Keenan ahern, Sup-
plican, IVAN3MAN, Fahd09, Cathar11, Philocentric, Lotje, Brandonyuh, Lalainey123, NameIsRon, Becritical, Pologic, GoingBatty, The-
LastWordSword, CanonLawJunkie, 1l2, ClueBot NG, Accelerometer, HectorAE, Masssly, Widr, Joshuajohnson555, Faus, Nashhinton,
Jeraphine Gryphon, OUTLANDAH, Iselilja, Northamerica1000, Serafín33, Punslingr, Khazar2, Edeakis, GyaroMaguus, DavidPKendal,
Epicgenius, PyroWarlock, BreakfastJr, Richard Boren, JamesMoose, Haminoon, Hounddogman, Livin good havin fun, Ihaveacatonmydesk
and Anonymous: 196
• Association fallacy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Association%20fallacy?oldid=652867124 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Shii,
Chris Q, Stevertigo, Michael Hardy, Den fjättrade ankan, Rossami, Kimiko, Kaihsu, Bombyx, LordK, Dcoetzee, Hyacinth, Dogface,
Jeeves, David.Monniaux, Mrdice, Sam Spade, Auric, Superm401, Fastfission, Binadot, Taak, Antandrus, Klemen Kocjancic, Kate, Blue-
mask, Silence, Dbachmann, Bennylin, RoyBoy, Phiwum, Nectarflowed, Ctrl build, Madmardigan53, Smmurphy, Diego001, Ground Zero,
Bmicomp, Vanished user psdfiwnef3niurunfiuh234ruhfwdb7, WhyBeNormal, Benlisquare, RussBot, Dsh34, Hydrargyrum, Kvn8907, Ko-
rny O'Near, DeadEyeArrow, Eurosong, Shawnc, Smurrayinchester, NetRolller 3D, Yvwv, GarethM, Reedy, McGeddon, Davewild, Waku-
ran, Betacommand, Nfgii, ERcheck, Chabuk, Fuzzform, Sampi, Hippo43, Grover cleveland, Calbaer, BIL, WZ Lawrence, Lost in space,
Ithizar, Andeggs, Kukini, Byelf2007, WadeMcR, Cmshaw, Grumpyyoungman01, UKER, Synergism, MurderMunkey, Ghettodev, Boni-
talydia, George100, Noglider, Wafulz, DanielRigal, Gregbard, Arrenlex, Jeblad, Grand Dizzy, Marek69, Ajo Mama, ThisIsAce, Agent-
Peppermint, Mentifisto, Allstarecho, Micagi, 2Legit2Quit, Wowest, ToLegitToQuit, MartinBot, Scottfr, Trusilver, Extransit, Neuromancr,
Yipely, Colchicum, Richard D. LeCour, Steinberger, Wykypydya, Operagost, James JCG Taylor, Whiskey in the Jar, Canislupusarctos,
Neskaya, Twinsday, Badger Drink, SoleraTec, Cirt, Streona, Gobeshock Gobochondro Gyanotirtho, 7&6=thirteen, XLinkBot, Addbot,
Ccacsmss, Latiligence, Debresser, Favonian, Jarble, AnomieBOT, Killiondude, Obersachsebot, Xqbot, Luis Felipe Schenone, Protection-
TaggingBot, Omnipaedista, Logicchecker, R32GTR, A little insignificant, EmausBot, GRDII, Immunize, Unitrin, Tanquai, ClueBot NG,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Curb Chain, Gkile, Khonkhortisan, ChrisGualtieri, Mr. Guye, HelicopterLlama, Everymorning, Geoyo, Tommynews-
network, Ihaveacatonmydesk and Anonymous: 126
• Fallacy of division Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallacy%20of%20division?oldid=652867503 Contributors: Bryan Derksen, The
Anome, Mrwojo, TakuyaMurata, Lee M, Paul Murray, ElBenevolente, Binadot, Silence, Ben Standeven, Aranel, Noetica, SmackBot, Blue-
bot, MalafayaBot, Andeggs, JHunterJ, Gregbard, Arno Matthias, Hbent, UBeR, Thisisjonathanchan, Twinsday, Lbertolotti, Alexbot, Brews
ohare, SilvonenBot, Addbot, LaaknorBot, Luckas-bot, Yngvadottir, AnomieBOT, Logicchecker, ScienceGolfFanatic, Philocentric, Emaus-
Bot, ZéroBot, EdoBot, Jeraphine Gryphon, Smcg8374, Countered, Cerabot, Ranze, OccultZone, Ihaveacatonmydesk and Anonymous: 14
• Ignoratio elenchi Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ignoratio%20elenchi?oldid=647114422 Contributors: Lee Daniel Crocker, Vicki
Rosenzweig, Bryan Derksen, Tarquin, Andre Engels, Zoe, Mrwojo, Michael Hardy, IZAK, Aragorn2, Poor Yorick, Cimon Avaro, Dy-
ing, Ww, WhisperToMe, HarryHenryGebel, AnonMoos, Huangdi, Mrdice, Jni, Altenmann, Rfc1394, Barbara Shack, Jason Quinn,
Brockert, Gugganij, Quarl, Lacrimosus, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Silence, Project2501a, El C, The Noodle Incident, Causa sui,
L33tminion, Nsaa, Schissel, Frank101, Poromenos, BillC, GregorB, Koavf, Dazmax, Bob A, FayssalF, Schandi, YurikBot, Red Slash,
Hede2000, Wahwah, LodeRunner, Avraham, E tac, Dast, Tyrenius, Allens, GrinBot, SmackBot, Reedy, Ikip, G.dallorto, Ikiroid, Patri-
arch, Torzsmokus, Kelner, Harnad, Richard001, John.Conway, Drc79, Andeggs, Ollj, Lambiam, Mukadderat, JzG, Loodog, Gobonobo,
Antonielly, Grumpyyoungman01, Doczilla, Dr.K., MTSbot, EnCarnate, Hu12, TheGreenSaga, Chris53516, IvanDíaz, George100, Cumu-
lus Clouds, WeggeBot, Gregbard, Grammargeek, Dslotman, Thijs!bot, Whatever1111, Tofof, TimVickers, SeanTater, J-stan, Lord Crayak,
ZPM, VoABot II, Torreyislds, Drewcifer3000, Afil, Marshmallow1304, R'n'B, Maurice Carbonaro, Cpiral, LordAnubisBOT, Lithfo, Usp,
Treisijs, GrahamHardy, Warogersjr, Claidheamohmor, Lova Falk, Mallerd, AlleborgoBot, Whitehatnetizen, TheThingy, BartekChom,
Chillum, Timeineurope, TableManners, Meffo, Nnemo, Septuor, Shlishke, 7, Versus22, Katanada, DumZiBoT, DragonFury, Bodhisattv-
aBot, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Hepro Lildtah, Profitoftruth85, Krano, Care, Magog the Ogre, AnomieBOT, DoctorJoeE, 1exec1, Robbert
Broersma, Omnipaedista, Kyng, Sedstar, Nagualdesign, Mistakefinder, Machine Elf 1735, Jonesey95, Fahd09, Lthweatt1231, Ripchip Bot,
Vgoradia, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, Pologic, PatrickNiedzielski, Oncenawhile, Ὁ οἶστρος, Gengis Gat, H3llBot, Staszek Lem, Tijfo098,
HandsomeFella, ClueBot NG, Masssly, Northamerica1000, Davidiad, Victor Yus, Tommy Pinball, Jptvgrey, Ihaveacatonmydesk, MJH92
and Anonymous: 135
• List of fallacies Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20fallacies?oldid=653109948 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, Mrwojo,
Dcljr, Nina, Zouhair, Andrewa, Cherkash, Mephistopheles, David Gerard, Giftlite, Girolamo Savonarola, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough,
Florian Blaschke, ESkog, MBisanz, Deicas, Bobo192, Neg, Sjschen, Andrewpmk, Oz1cz, Yossiea, Ronark, Trylks, Kinema, Kazvor-
pal, BadLeprechaun, Jak86, Woohookitty, Mindmatrix, Shreevatsa, Tabletop, Colin Watson, Waldir, Noetica, Klopek007, EchoPapa,
Mkuehn10, Trlovejoy, McDingus, Davidbrake, J.Ammon, WriterHound, Wavelength, Hydrargyrum, Frogular, Crasshopper, Aaron Schulz,
Bmju, JB Piggin, SMcCandlish, Dlainhart, Dkocan, SmackBot, Mithcoriel, Xblkx, IstvanWolf, Buck O'Nollege, Gilliam, Vws007, Stu-
art P. Bentley, Chris the speller, Autarch, MartinPoulter, Robindch, Telavir, RomaC, Kostmo, MovGP0, Torzsmokus, Scwlong, Ladislav
Mecir, Japeo, Jmnbatista, Bigturtle, Kuronue, Joe.rastro, DMacks, Lambiam, Mukadderat, Zero10one, JorisvS, Antonielly, Mr. Ver-
non, Grumpyyoungman01, VossBC, Ace Frahm, Hu12, George100, Devourer09, CRGreathouse, Rambam rashi, N2e, Penbat, Gregbard,
Reywas92, Steel, SimonDeDanser, Teratornis, Robertinventor, Headbomb, Jokem, Just Chilling, Osubuckeyeguy, Isilanes, Mock26, The
Transhumanist, Slacka123, Poolboy8, Fitnr, Mchacon89, Jackson Peebles, Jarhed, Bongomatic, Colincbn, McSly, MezzoMezzo, Aar, Stu-
dent7, Foofighter20x, HiEv, Javaman59, Technopat, Martin451, Sladuuch, LeaveSleaves, Geordie derraugh, Why Not A Duck, StAnselm,
Paradoctor, Keilana, Flyer22, Prestonmag, Jeremiah Mountain, Vanished user oij8h435jweih3, KathrynLybarger, Jdblaine, Sunrise, Ku-
mioko (renamed), Bookworm125, XDanielx, ClueBot, SummerWithMorons, Justin W Smith, Calmandcomfort, Futile Crush, Napzilla,
Saddhiyama, Bookcats, Malcolmsparks, Boing! said Zebedee, Hronir, Excirial, 7&6=thirteen, Taranet, Djk3, PotentialDanger, PCHS-
NJROTC, SDY, Tootiredtosleep, HumphreyW, Apparition11, Urbanshaman 314, XLinkBot, Dezaxa, Burningview, Janeuner, Stickee,
Gerhardvalentin, DoctorHver, Richard-of-Earth, Mm40, WikiDao, ManDay, Addbot, Quxeot, Brumski, Donhoraldo, Nataxia, Ronhjones,
ContiAWB, JCrenshaw, Harshael, Kyu-san, Aletheon, Yobot, Fraggle81, James Cantor, AnomieBOT, Piano non troppo, Sioraf, Joel amos,
Materialscientist, Ennen, Citation bot, Eumolpo, Spidern, Wperdue, VanCity99, Stevehim, Watcher2008, Transmissionelement, Mon-
esvol, 4RugbyRd, Ajax151, FrescoBot, Mark Renier, Gregoriev, VS6507, Machine Elf 1735, Rhalah, Aldy, Snb828, Pinethicket, Mo-
mergil, ChrisJBenson, JackFloridian, Lightlowemon, Wotnow, NortyNort, Jarmihi, Diannaa, RjwilmsiBot, Xindhus, Ericwag, Jeffpc2,
Pologic, Adorno rocks, Wikipelli, K6ka, Thecheesykid, Bersibot, Ὁ οἶστρος, AndrewN, Jimlech, QEDK, Jedallen, Glosser.ca, Donner60,
InordiNated, Ego White Tray, Mckittcu, DebunkA, Ihardlythinkso, XXXpinoy777, Rocketrod1960, JonRichfield, Petrb, ClueBot NG,
Lisnabreeny, CallidusUlixes, Metrónomo, HScrimgeour, MerlIwBot, Helpful Pixie Bot, Calidum, BG19bot, (PRK) ontherun, Hallows
AG, Jhboyette, Allecher, Piguy101, VindicatedVigilante, WhatsHisName, MrBill3, VagrantParadox, Cult State, MathewTownsend, Get-
254 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

TheJumpOn, DamiaanLVDW, SparxDragon, Ranze, Czech is Cyrillized, SFK2, Bwmetaphysician, Vergetorix, Jochen Burghardt, Apple-
gategh, AureEntuluva, LoanView, Acetotyce, I am One of Many, Sungkar4500, Debouch, DavidLeighEllis, Origamite, Tuan is awesome,
New worl, Panpog1, Jianhui67, Frogger48, Ithinkicahn, Ordessa, CalvinCavil, Potatoballsandlollipops, Iceecclesiastes, Ericwangswim,
Ihaveacatonmydesk, MatthewNoelMurray, Dorygladius, Jerodlycett, HeXibitt, Equivocasmannus and Anonymous: 301
• Nirvana fallacy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nirvana%20fallacy?oldid=652866628 Contributors: Mrwojo, Kku, Andycjp, Drag-
onflySixtyseven, Rich Farmbrough, Pt, Tjic, Prsephone1674, Nigelj, Pol098, Radiant!, DavidBoutwell, Tony1, SmackBot, Nbarth,
Robofish, JHP, Matthieu Houriet, Harej bot, Bmk, MarshBot, Nyttend, Scj2315, Vajrallan, Jojalozzo, Pointillist, SlubGlub, Addbot, Kisbes,
Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT, Omnipaedista, Machine Elf 1735, Philocentric, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Arrala, SporkBot, Ego White Tray,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Jeraphine Gryphon, Northamerica1000, CitationCleanerBot, Harizotoh9, ChrisGualtieri, Louey37, NickDragonRyder,
Luigi1980 and Anonymous: 42
• Psychologist's fallacy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Psychologist'{}s%20fallacy?oldid=578378337 Contributors: Mrwojo, Rur-
sus, Rich Farmbrough, Koavf, SmackBot, DCDuring, Sadads, Sharnak, Mattisse, Djbwiki, Bongwarrior, Liko81, Newbyguesses, Addbot,
AnomieBOT, Avocats, Omnipaedista, Erik9bot, EmausBot, Luizpuodzius, DoctorKubla and Anonymous: 5
• Texas sharpshooter fallacy Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Texas%20sharpshooter%20fallacy?oldid=653002974 Contributors:
Bryan Derksen, The Anome, Dcljr, DavidWBrooks, Bassington, Thunderbunny, Mrdice, Matt Gies, BenFrantzDale, Everyking, Slyguy,
Taak, Gdr, Lazarus666, Rfl, Silence, User2004, BryanD, Hu, L33th4x0rguy, Chardish, StradivariusTV, Robert K S, Dmol, Stefanomione,
Rjwilmsi, Mahlon, YurikBot, Bhny, Dysmorodrepanis, Kvn8907, SmackBot, Amcbride, NantucketNoon, Skeptiker, Srnec, Namangwari,
Hippo43, Andeggs, Mukadderat, Cold Light, JH-man, Tktktk, Bucksburg, Roregan, BrainMagMo, George100, Vanisaac, Lo2u, Penfield,
Narssarssuaq, Primarscources, An Sealgair, Gwern, Cydmab, Vegasprof, Dom Kaos, Terpsichoreus, Xerces8, Lova Falk, Logan, Planet-
man828, ClueBot, Rumping, NiD.29, Jemmy Button, Mindlurker, ShowToddSomeLove, Editor2020, Auto469680, Addbot, Man with one
red shoe, AlexWangombe, Erebos12345, Ehrenkater, ‫דוד שי‬, It's Been Emotional, AnomieBOT, Skaaii, A. di M., FrescoBot, D'ohBot,
Machine Elf 1735, Skyerise, Philocentric, Duoduoduo, Omedalus, RjwilmsiBot, EmausBot, ZéroBot, Illegitimate Barrister, Ὁ οἶστρος,
HandsomeFella, Redfell, Whoop whoop pull up, ClueBot NG, Spannerjam, Pudge MclameO, Jeraphine Gryphon, Ihaveacatonmydesk and
Anonymous: 51
• Coastline paradox Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Coastline%20paradox?oldid=648658275 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Www-
wolf, Karada, Hyacinth, Robbot, Goethean, Avala, O'Dea, Spiffy sperry, Vsmith, Euthydemos, Blotwell, Orangemarlin, Kane5187, An-
drew Rodland, Nimur, WriterHound, Hogne, SmackBot, Pfly, InverseHypercube, Gilliam, Hmains, Skookum1, Thumperward, Namang-
wari, Pwjb, Byelf2007, Cryptic C62, Chris55, CRGreathouse, CBM, Chrislk02, Father Goose, Nyttend, Cgingold, Philmac, Good Wolf,
PixelBot, Addbot, Ehrenkater, Lightbot, ‫דניאל ב‬., Jarble, Bermicourt, AnomieBOT, SvartMan, Citation bot, Hosszuka, TjBot, Emaus-
Bot, ZéroBot, Cobaltcigs, ClueBot NG, Cntras, Groupuscule, Ariel C.M.K., Mohamed-Ahmed-FG, SonrisaGirl, Vincebm83, Meemo16,
Cranberry Products, Monumenteer2014 and Anonymous: 27
• Fermi paradox Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fermi%20paradox?oldid=650770667 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Derek Ross, Vicki
Rosenzweig, Mav, Uriyan, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The Anome, Tarquin, Gareth Owen, Andre Engels, Shsilver, Darius Bacon, Roadrun-
ner, Shii, Ant, AdamRetchless, Tedernst, Jim McKeeth, Frecklefoot, Paul Barlow, Gdvorsky, Karada, Arpingstone, Minesweeper, Looxix,
Ihcoyc, Mortene, Stevenj, JWSchmidt, DropDeadGorgias, Mark Foskey, Sir Paul, Cyan, Vzbs34, Cimon Avaro, Tristanb, Ehn, Jengod,
Timwi, Dcoetzee, Yggdrasil, Ike9898, David Latapie, Jwrosenzweig, Doradus, Wik, Tpbradbury, Motor, Furrykef, SEWilco, Xaven,
Fvw, Pstudier, Pakaran, Pollinator, Lumos3, ChrisO, Fredrik, Chris 73, Jotomicron, Sanders muc, Xiaopo, RedWolf, Naddy, Chancemill,
Arkuat, Lowellian, Mirv, Babbage, Ukuk, Sverdrup, Kencomer, Meelar, Auric, Rhombus, Smb1001, Billranton, Bkell, Dodger, Hadal,
Wereon, NeoThe1, Anthony, Xanzzibar, Superm401, BradNeuberg, David Gerard, Enochlau, Matt Gies, Giftlite, JamesMLane, Might-
ieristhepen, Laudaka, Barbara Shack, Mat-C, Cormac Canales, Pretzelpaws, Art Carlson, Lupin, Bfinn, Karn, Radius, Avsa, Takatoriyama,
Matt Crypto, Bobblewik, Wiki Wikardo, Ryanaxp, Wmahan, OldakQuill, Andycjp, Ljhenshall, Zendonut, Sonjaaa, Keplon, Quadell, Ida-
hoEv, Fredcondo, Loremaster, Robert Brockway, MisfitToys, Khaosworks, Jossi, Exigentsky, Rdsmith4, OwenBlacker, Michael Rowe,
Rlquall, Thincat, Pethan, Sam Hocevar, Neutrality, Sam, Mschlindwein, Danarmak, Lacrimosus, Danh, RobKohr, Jason Carreiro, Os-
kar Sigvardsson, Ta bu shi da yu, Malu5531, Sparky the Seventh Chaos, Eyrian, CALR, Andy Smith, Bornintheguz, Discospinster, Rich
Farmbrough, Snap2grid, Pjacobi, ArnoldReinhold, Kostja, HCA, Ivan Bajlo, Ponder, Samboy, Sperling, JPX7, Bumhoolery, Spooky-
Mulder, Corvun, Bender235, ESkog, Wazerface, Tr606, Quietly, A purple wikiuser, Kaisershatner, RJHall, Pietzsche, Mr. Billion, El C,
Jim127, Lycurgus, Mjk2357, Laurascudder, Worldtraveller, Thickslab, Susvolans, Deanos, Dalf, Shoujun, Grick, Sippan, Func, Shenme,
Viriditas, Dejitarob, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Rajah, Rje, Shanen, DanB, Sebastian Goll, CNash, Jonathunder, JYolkowski, Christo-
pherWillis, Arthena, Cormaggio, Aduthie, Monk127, Axl, MrBudgens, Velella, BRW, M3tainfo, Suruena, Spiritchaser, TenOfAllTrades,
Anlala, Alai, Vanished user dfvkjmet9jweflkmdkcn234, Mullet, Mcsee, Chilepine, Distantbody, Firsfron, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Roboshed,
Vashti, Linas, Keillan, Mindmatrix, Pmberry, Blair P. Houghton, DoctorWho42, Nuggetboy, Koshki, Ljfeliu, Norro, M Alan Kazlev,
Wayward, Sin-man, Ashmoo, Marskell, Johnny Mnemonic, Magister Mathematicae, Galwhaa, Phoenix-forgotten, Drbogdan, Rjwilmsi,
Mayumashu, .digamma, Zbxgscqf, War, Jweiss11, Urbane Legend, LoganFive, Mike Peel, Miserlou, Ligulem, LjL, Bubba73, Brighteror-
ange, Cassowary, Ropez, Fish and karate, Exeunt, Strobilomyces, Wragge, FlaBot, Eubot, RobertG, JdforresterBot, Kmorozov, Bubbleboys,
Czar, Alexjohnc3, Str1977, Diza, Bornhj, DVdm, Bgwhite, Joseph11h, YurikBot, Wavelength, Sean Et Cetera, Huw Powell, Zafiroblue05,
Jengelh, Raquel Baranow, Gaius Cornelius, Miskatonic, David R. Ingham, Anomie, SEWilcoBot, Leutha, Jmacaulay, BlackAndy, This-
eye, Shiner, Tony1, Xompanthy, Lockesdonkey, Gujamin, Kortoso, Bota47, Stevendahlin, Nick123, Noosfractal, Mütze, Bakkster Man,
Reyk, Bondegezou, JQF, Petri Krohn, CWenger, Nae'blis, Peter, Geoffrey.landis, JDspeeder1, Patiwat, The Wookieepedian, Attilios, A
bit iffy, JJL, SmackBot, Nahald, Jasonuhl, Unyoyega, Vald, Davewild, RedSpruce, ZeroEgo, AKismet, Edgar181, Eloil, Cuddlyopedia,
Peter Isotalo, Ohnoitsjamie, Evilandi, Skewetoo, Bluebot, Rrohbeck, ElTchanggo, Green meklar, Neurodivergent, Stevage, Jeskeca, Ned-
lum, Zven, Mikker, Emurphy42, Gyrobo, Scalene, Beowulf314159, Heapchk, Glloq, OOODDD, Nima Baghaei, Xiner, Rrburke, GRuban,
LouScheffer, Andy120290, Aarondude919, Quokkapox, PiMaster3, Bigturtle, Steve Pucci, “alyosha”, Richard001, Gregwmay, Mini-
Geek, Daveschroeder, Nairebis, Acdx, PhiJ, Clicketyclack, TenPoundHammer, Byelf2007, Playanaut, Thesmothete, Kimholder, Harry-
boyles, Khazar, ML5, Foolish Child, Berek Halfhand, Timwakefield, JorisvS, Minna Sora no Shita, Ben Jos, Mattpersons, Redherring, Ck-
atz, BoyliciousDarian, Lampman, SQGibbon, Hypnosifl, Vedexent, Doczilla, Davesilvan, TPIRFanSteve, Moretz, Peyre, Dfred, Celeritas,
Vincecate, Hu12, Stephen B Streater, Ossipewsk, Michaelbusch, Alessandro57, Dansiman, Colonel Warden, JoeBot, RokasT, Planet-Earth,
Courcelles, Loyh, Mostly Zen, Baqu11, Harold f, Eastlaw, Heisencat, Jpxt2000, Jeremy Banks, CmdrObot, Wafulz, Centered1, Baroques-
mguy, Lighthead, Palendrom, AGTMADCAT, Cydebot, O. Harris, Shandydrinker, ANTIcarrot, Rracecarr, Michael C Price, Manfroze,
Robertinventor, Scarpy, Arb, NotQuiteEXPComplete, Thijs!bot, Mawfive, Fournax, TK421, Headbomb, Marek69, Second Quantization,
Fenrisulfr, Db26, Noclevername, Northumbrian, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Mrshaba, Itistoday, Bakabaka, Richardhod, P.D., Ingolfson,
Serpent's Choice, JAnDbot, Stevedix, Sonicsuns, Jeff560, Emax0, 100110100, NSR77, Joxernolan, Rothorpe, Geniac, Murgh, Rhwawn,
5.1. TEXT 255

Dekimasu, Ekrumme, SHCarter, J mcandrews, Froid, Althai, ZackTheJack, Jondeere, BatteryIncluded, Tswsl1989, Emw, DasHermit, Tu-
viya, Gwern, Otvaltak, Ulkomaalainen, EGI, Threedots dead, CommonsDelinker, N4nojohn, Qwanqwa, Uncle Dick, KrytenKoro, Thaurisil,
OttoMäkelä, OingoBoingo2, FriendlyRiverOtter, Infocat13, OAC, Plasticup, Cadwaladr, SJP, Mufka, BrettAllen, Equazcion, Ross Fraser,
BernardZ, Idioma-bot, Sobrien140, VolkovBot, Amikake3, BoogaLouie, TXiKiBoT, RC Pinchey, GimmeBot, BuickCenturyDriver, Jacob
Lundberg, Vincent naveen morris, Udufruduhu, Myles325a, Thmazing, Zanardm, Rei-bot, Deep Atlantic Blue, Aymatth2, Macslacker,
Pah246, Oxfordwang, SoniaZ, CanOfWorms, Brian Eisley, Lou.weird, Room429, Seb az86556, Waycool27, Itemirus, Sapphic, Rob Pom-
mer, Peter.thelander, PlanetStar, Paradoctor, Ypps, METIfan, Wildonrio, Flyer22, VideoRanger2525, Mimihitam, Nk.sheridan, Jruder-
man, Spartan-James, StaticGull, Maxime.Debosschere, Hamiltondaniel, Albert.a.jackson, Kalidasa 777, DRTllbrg, Finetooth, Romit3,
Martarius, Sfan00 IMG, ClueBot, Agaribotti, Reargunner, Deanlaw, Panopticon70, Pi zero, Hungwunfai, Drmies, SuperHamster, Pheny-
lalanine, Homonihilis, BobKawanaka, Sun Creator, Nabukhadnezar, SchreiberBike, Tired time, Nasageek, MelonBot, DumZiBoT, Inter-
netMeme, Jeturcotte, Dthomsen8, WalrusLike, Rohsage, Noctibus, WikiDao, Blnewbold, JCDenton2052, Blackspotw, Ianeke, Addbot,
Roentgenium111, DOI bot, Maddude11, Yobmod, Silas Stoat, Ronhjones, Fluffernutter, Arthur Hal, MrOllie, MatrixArsenal, Debresser,
LinkFA-Bot, PopularOutcast, Tassedethe, Tide rolls, Verbal, Lightbot, OlEnglish, Olsen-Fan, Luckas-bot, Zhitelew, Yobot, EchetusXe,
Reargun, Mdw0, AnomieBOT, Diderot08, Jim1138, Wtachi, Materialscientist, Citation bot, Kjellmikal, Brightgalrs, ArthurBot, Xqbot,
Millahnna, Dkelly1966, Gap9551, Pra1998, 3starhunter, GrouchoBot, Bizso, False vacuum, Omnipaedista, MagicalSkyMan, Alexander-
popoff, Greengrapes, Locobot, Bigger digger, Vantine84, Amicianthony, Andrewhayes, Twhair, Citation bot 2, Mr.rastapopolus, Citation
bot 1, DrilBot, Pinethicket, Julzes, Tom.Reding, Mithvetr, Medic463, Shadroth, Farmer21, Tlhslobus, Fartherred, Graham france, Sky-
Machine, IVAN3MAN, Silviu Mihaila, Abpotato, Bernat mussons, DrCrisp, Race911, RjwilmsiBot, Mrsnuggless, Metaferon, EmausBot,
Grrow, Faolin42, Gardaud, 8digits, Lounorte, The Mysterious El Willstro, Winner 42, Mmeijeri, Einkleinestier, Solomonfromfinland,
Anir1uph, Alpha Quadrant (alt), AarCart, H3llBot, Kingaero, AManWithNoPlan, David J Johnson, Card Zero, Ontyx, EvenGreenerFish,
Robin Lionheart, 我輩は犬である, Topdownquark, ClueBot NG, Horoporo, Andrei S, David O. Johnson, GodBlessYou2, Dream of
Nyx, 78562X, JoshKW, Antiqueight, Helpful Pixie Bot, Strike Eagle, Bibcode Bot, BG19bot, Disguised22, M0rphzone, Interchangeable,
MusikAnimal, Olev Vinn, MrBill3, NotWith, Newburyjohn, MisterMorton, Duxwing, Taps333, Wer900, RavelTwig, BattyBot, Phinizys-
palding, Pratyya Ghosh, ChrisGualtieri, Tandrum, Elric Grey, Dexbot, Bree's Block, Cerabot, Acoma Magic, Frosty, Jamesx12345, Mi-
gratingmynah, CorinneSD, Qqminuss, ToFeignClef, Sndeep81, Epicgenius, BreakfastJr, Loganfalco, ProKro, Anrnusna, Xenxax, Fafnir1,
Raichu234352, Unician, Formuse, ChristianJorn, Bar5555, Yeowe, Splićanin, Andrew Bearne, The Yesterday Trilogy, Stormfoogle, Tetra
quark, Lhachrism and Anonymous: 781
• Grandfather paradox Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Grandfather%20paradox?oldid=650700417 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Vicki
Rosenzweig, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, Karl E. V. Palmen, SJK, Quercusrobur, Stevertigo, Oliver Pereira, GUllman, Ixfd64, Graue, Karada,
Barkingdoc, Paul A, Tregoweth, Ahoerstemeier, Darkwind, Netsnipe, Thegline, Schneelocke, Greenrd, StAkAr Karnak, Maximus Rex,
Furrykef, Morwen, Wampa Jabba, Tempshill, Morven, AnonMoos, Olathe, Phil Boswell, Auric, Wereon, Superm401, Giftlite, Marc Weil,
ComaVN, ShaneCavanaugh, Bfinn, Peruvianllama, Everyking, Abu badali, Khaosworks, SimonLyall, Sam Hocevar, Histrion, Rgrg, Finog,
SYSS Mouse, Rich Farmbrough, Jpk, Digamma, Corvun, Bender235, Cmdrjameson, Pikawil, I9Q79oL78KiL0QTFHgyc, Nhandler,
Dfeldmann, Elwood00, Hu, Kdau, Tony Sidaway, Drat, Mnemo, Guthrie, DV8 2XL, New Age Retro Hippie, UTSRelativity, BerserkerBen,
Hq3473, Shreevatsa, Riffsyphon1024, Taragui, Jok2000, Al E., Sega381, Plrk, Waldir, Pictureuploader, Ashmoo, David Levy, Rjwilmsi,
TerrorBite, Mkuehn10, OneWeirdDude, Bob A, Orville Eastland, Josiah Rowe, Stardust8212, Mike Peel, Ligulem, Dudegalea, Dermeister,
Platypus222, Matharvest, SchuminWeb, SDaniel, Ewlyahoocom, Arctic.gnome, Quuxplusone, Consumed Crustacean, Saswann, Hibana,
Marc pasquin, Adoniscik, YurikBot, Calamari, Rob T Firefly, Zafiroblue05, OldRight, 1Winston, Shawn81, Hydrargyrum, Mythsearcher,
Stephenb, Shell Kinney, Obi2Kenobi, Arichnad, Trovatore, Trer, Amcfreely, Voidxor, Nate1481, Bota47, Modus Ponens, Saric, Jpm-
ccord, MattManic7325, Halcyonhazard, ArielGold, Giant89, Wannablessedbe, GrinBot, Serendipodous, TheChancellor, UltimatePyro,
Robertd, Gezman, KnightRider, SmackBot, Braindigitalis, Lashiec, McGeddon, The Monster, Maian, Milesnfowler, Cactus Wren, Shaen,
Gilliam, Brianski, Jushi, Quadratic, El Cubano, Kmarinas86, Drn8, Burnside65, EncMstr, The Rogue Penguin, Monkeycheetah, Gsp8181,
TKD, Cybercobra, Viewdrix, Nakon, EVula, Richard001, Eran of Arcadia, Dcamp314, PsychoJosh, Junyor, Jitterro, Byelf2007, Lambiam,
SingCal, Ser Amantio di Nicolao, Sbmehta, Soumya92, Mwboyer, Robofish, DHBoggs, Smartyllama, Rundquist, Backstabb, Majorclanger,
Chris 42, 041744, Loadmaster, Tasc, Imagine Wizard, Hypnosifl, RememberMe?, Doczilla, Luiz48, Captain Wacky, Mranostay, Douglas-
Calvert, BananaFiend, Cat's Tuxedo, Lord E, Igoldste, CmdrObot, Ale jrb, Kameraad Pjotr, Ben 10, Swwright, Thrashmeister, St Fan,
Mattbuck, Wwcsa, Enigmatical, Tonyv414, Steel, Goldfritha, StarDigian, Densus, Myscrnnm, Daniel J. Leivick, DumbBOT, Mallanox,
Vanished User jdksfajlasd, Atomsmasher86, ATD, Letranova, Qwyrxian, Mbell, Keraunos, Nalvage, John254, WillMak050389, JustA-
Gal, Jonny-mt, Witteafval, Gioto, Seaphoto, DOSGuy, JAnDbot, Fiona CS, Candent shlimazel, Sanchom, Hello32020, Garda40, MSBOT,
VoABot II, Fusionmix, Adam keller, Raiki15, Sith Lord 13, ***Ria777, Nyttend, DAGwyn, Duggy 1138, Mr. Garrison, TheAnimus,
Acthompson, Paliku, Superbiate, CPRdave, Oren0, Stephenchou0722, MartinBot, PaulLev, Mustangwill, Pupster21, Patar knight, Trusil-
ver, KrytenKoro, Acalamari, Katalaveno, Segagman, Ryan Postlethwaite, Jon Ascton, TehPhil, Coollettuce, Lilwik, Antepenultimate,
OsirisV, Stephen P. Merchant, Wulf eng, Ja 62, Tkgd2007, GrahamHardy, Idioma-bot, Signalhead, Midasminus, Shahid1618, John Dar-
row, VasilievVV, Chicagorob1, Gunnar Guðvarðarson, Notshabti, Gyohng, Philip Trueman, Lazzzzze, Icyisamu, DoktorDec, Henryodell,
Jamelan, Futuresuperstar scw, Nenva, Gorank4, Turgan, Mthteh, Mike4ty4, Bhig3, K69, Wraithdart, Kent28, SieBot, WereSpielChe-
quers, Paradoctor, Caltas, Yintan, Calabraxthis, Mritaly1000, Voldemore, Gvimalku, SpecialAgentUncleTito, Humanist92, Man It's So
Loud In Here, Bolddeciever, Maelgwnbot, Kanonkas, I.am.lost, Dstebbins, Martarius, ClueBot, Mablanco, WDavis1911, Dominic sub-
key, Shawnallen, Strength rune, Kwinki, HovisM, PMDrive1061, Coralmizu, Eeekster, Abrech, Reformparty82, Peter.C, Calhobs23,
Rphb, Aerie124, JasonAQuest, Simonfielder, XLinkBot, Skwinch, Delicious carbuncle, Koro Neil, Alexius08, JIMfoamy1, Mattmanp,
Lab-oratory, Abomasnow, Enochjli642, Addbot, DOI bot, Captain-tucker, Montgomery '39, Coanda-1910, Yobmod, CanadianLinuxUser,
LaaknorBot, Cambalachero, Glane23, Tyler8779, Kisbesbot, Dayewalker, OffsBlink, Lightbot, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Ht686rg90,
Reenem, Writelf, Mrmets26, AnomieBOT, Brendanmiddleton, Hughesdavidw, AdjustShift, Ulric1313, Benhen1997, Maxis ftw, Xenyph,
Addihockey10, Cactusbin, Heslopian, GrouchoBot, Foreverprovence, Anotherclown, Razasyed, Wikieditor1988, Jezebel1669, K-twist808,
Vhbelvadi, Chatul, Eugene-elgato, Ineedrevelation, Thewiki userxd, Sastra Manurung, Citation bot 1, Pinethicket, Demon Lord 302,
MJ94, Petaseakittenarmy, SpaceFlight89, Wikidmage, Rewop777, Trappist the monk, Vinodkotiya, Max Jetzer, Zonafan39, Sherqnill,
Deniskrasnov, Soccerluke22, PcGnome, WikitanvirBot, Andromedabluesphere440, Are You The Cow Of Pain?, Wikipelli, Hhhippo,
ZéroBot, THATSBETTER, Quae legit, Wayne Slam, Brandmeister, S Whistler, Senjuto, ClueBot NG, Imagine me2, Thinkr, O.Koslowski,
Jsoulas, Groupuscule, Adam9812, Bibcode Bot, Puap, Beam022, Brian Tomasik, Greenodd, Victor8948, Mark Arsten, Altaïr, Jakeyb33,
Prasadbeeraka, Efflo74, BattyBot, Teammm, Codeh, Khazar2, Futurist110, Pirhayati, Marisusis, Bobthegreat157, Prehistoricmanthe2nd,
Razibot, Kornboim, NikolaiNyegaard, Strani Beeap, FunkyMunkyParty, Po43026, Mad Pedant, Brandiino12, Maplestrip, Swaggyppart2,
Camo.vog and Anonymous: 503
• Liar paradox Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Liar%20paradox?oldid=650827192 Contributors: AxelBoldt, Ed Poor, BenBaker,
William Avery, Heron, Chas zzz brown, Michael Hardy, Wshun, FlufflyTheLoveBunny, Dominus, Karada, Delirium, Stevenj, Angela,
256 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Julesd, Error, Vzbs34, Tim Retout, Rotem Dan, Andres, Evercat, Dcoetzee, Jitse Niesen, Hyacinth, JonathanDP81, AnonMoos, Scott
Sanchez, Bamos, Chealer, Chris Roy, Henrygb, AceMyth, Anthony, Cutler, David Gerard, Pretzelpaws, Lupin, Karn, Andris, Andycjp,
Alexf, Sonjaaa, Kachooney, Jossi, Askewchan, Ropers, JasticE, Chrisjwmartin, Dryazan, Mike Rosoft, Nathan Ladd, Guanabot, Qutezuce,
Rspeer, Smyth, ESkog, Brian0918, Kinitawowi, DrewRobinson, Autrijus, Liberatus, Nrbelex, Causa sui, Cretog8, BrokenSegue, MM-
cCaghrey, Beige Tangerine, Nortexoid, Treborbassett, Larry V, Haham hanuka, Licon, Jumbuck, Anthony Appleyard, Alexg, DreamGuy,
Snowolf, Poleris, Noahjz, Feezo, Simetrical, Mindmatrix, Sandius, Eras-mus, OCNative, Graham87, JIP, Rjwilmsi, Xgamer4, Anthony-
morris, Zinoviev, Wahkeenah, Seraphimblade, Jriddy, Ayla, Mitsukai, Revolving Bugbear, Tedder, Nicholasink, Chobot, Aethralis, Sceptre,
Hairy Dude, Ste1n, Richjkl, Takwish, Anagram4819, Trovatore, Sir48, TakingUpSpace, Matthew0028, Lucky number 49, Acetic Acid,
Flooey, CubicStar, C h fleming, Ninly, Dark Lord Revan, SMcCandlish, Scoutersig, Allens, Jaysbro, GrinBot, Tom Morris, Robertd,
SmackBot, MattieTK, Reedy, InverseHypercube, McGeddon, Pgk, Brossow, Edgar181, Hmains, ERcheck, PSPone, SquarePeg, Gra-
cenotes, Emurphy42, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, Jahiegel, Lazar Taxon, Gabetarian, Avb, Addshore, Lessthanthree, Shushruth, An-
deggs, Elvstone, Byelf2007, Eliyak, AThing, Minaker, C.jeynes, Briantist, Loodog, Loadmaster, H, Nbhatla, Jcblackmon, Arathald, Joe-
Bot, Twas Now, Whaiaun, Rahulchandra, Geezerbill, DANNEWS, FMcGady, Addict 2006, CBM, Jokes Free4Me, Justdig, Tialla, Phase
Theory, TheRegicider, Mblumber, MC10, Zgystardst, Countchoc, 879(CoDe), Chrislk02, JayW, Thijs!bot, Epbr123, Nolamatic, West
Brom 4ever, JSmith60, PHaze, Z10x, 9mmx19, Xtra3847, Oxinabox, Arno Matthias, JamesBWatson, SineWave, Nyttend, Althai, Look-
ingGlass, NeighborTotoro, Nbeckman, Syazwan1995, You Can't See Me!, Glamlex, R'n'B, PStrait, Jsh726, J.delanoy, It Is Me Here,
LordAnubisBOT, Fermatslasttheremin, Comp25, Advancewars177, NewEnglandYankee, Joshua Issac, Ziqidel, WinterSpw, DrDentz, Ge-
offw1948, WnaStdyEvrythng, Youngvariety, TXiKiBoT, RayHume, Deleet, The Tetrast, Ponden, McM.bot, Amgadpasha, Jamelan, Eu-
bulides, W1k13rh3nry, Brianga, Logan, Angelkat72, AS, Paradoctor, Hertz1888, Mbz1, Thehotelambush, Sunrise, Skeptical scientist,
Escape Orbit, Troglodyto, ClueBot, Lomin, Boing! said Zebedee, Tubestowns13, BANZ111, NuclearWarfare, SchreiberBike, DumZ-
iBoT, XLinkBot, Moorezy, Drlight11, Addbot, Giftiger wunsch, LightSpectra, MrOllie, AnnaFrance, Issyl0, Legobot, Jack who built
the house, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Amirobot, Obscuranym, Dbkliv, AnomieBOT, Flopsy Mopsy and Cottonmouth, Lendtuffz, Materialsci-
entist, LilHelpa, Ute in DC, Unomi, Machine Elf 1735, Pinethicket, Inconspicuous93, TobeBot, 777sms, Diannaa, WillNess, Alexf96,
RjwilmsiBot, Digichoron, Alsims, GoingBatty, Qrsdogg, Benburgis, Your Lord and Master, Wikipelli, Serketan, Namastheg, Ebrambot,
Jay-Sebastos, Computationalverb, Donner60, Ameliabedelia546, Tijfo098, ClueBot NG, Binkyuk, Abc-mn-xyz, LyraCovington, Parcly
Taxel, O9i8u7z6, Helpful Pixie Bot, PatternOfPersona, TheModerGuy, BG19bot, Jlblythe, Siftpodcast, AaronSand, Ido66667, Achowat,
BattyBot, Gavylad11, Rectipaedia, Ducknish, Yong Zixian, Deltahedron, Eurekafaye, Vanamonde93, 7532665a, Eliazardini, Kingkward,
ParadoxxodaraP, EB3506, Thrasuboula, Skipbond and Anonymous: 308

• List of paradoxes Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20paradoxes?oldid=653004119 Contributors: The Anome, Ed Poor,

Michael Hardy, Chinju, Karada, Cyan, Dcoetzee, Markhurd, Hyacinth, Shantavira, Henrygb, Blainster, Superm401, Giftlite, Dbenbenn,
Gene Ward Smith, Subsolar, ALE!, Quarl, DragonflySixtyseven, Robin klein, Salem, Eliazar, Mike Rosoft, RossPatterson, Discospin-
ster, Florian Blaschke, Bender235, Andrejj, Rgdboer, Root4(one), Alderbourne, Cretog8, Reinyday, Teorth, Jemfinch, Free Bear, Rgc-
legg, Batmanand, Mysdaao, Joris Gillis, Kgashok, Sciurinæ, Spambit, Tiger Khan, Kay Dekker, Firsfron, Jeffrey O. Gustafson, Justavo,
Igny, Jeff3000, Mangojuice, Btyner, Joerg Kurt Wegner, Mandarax, IIBewegung, BD2412, Melesse, Sjakkalle, Koavf, Urbane Leg-
end, Trlovejoy, Salix alba, The wub, FayssalF, Spencerk, DVdm, Whosasking, Wavelength, Jimp, KSchutte, Anomalocaris, Rohitbd,
Trovatore, Schlafly, JocK, Retired username, Davilla, Frogular, Syrthiss, Nlu, SMcCandlish, Reyk, The 13th 4postle, Serendipodous,
AndrewWTaylor, Snalwibma, Brizimm, SmackBot, WilliamThweatt, Pokipsy76, Eternal th33v, Kopaka649, Skizzik, Afa86, Amatulic,
Jprg1966, Liamdaly620, Ted87, Colonies Chris, Emurphy42, Scwlong, Can't sleep, clown will eat me, GeorgeMoney, Korako, Thewebb,
Charles Merriam, Cubbi, MathStatWoman, DMacks, Byelf2007, Dollyknot, Lambiam, Sunik.lee, Rwald, STyx, Teutanic, Loadmas-
ter, Makyen, Cstella23, Ambuj.Saxena, Novangelis, Cmbalin, Darry2385, White Ash, Team.chaotix, Skorpion87, Lage, Scarlet Li-
oness, Tauʻolunga, Winston Spencer, Leon01323, INkubusse, CRGreathouse, Aaronak, Bogdan Preunca, BeenAroundAWhile, Gregbard,
CumbiaDude, Grahamrichter, Reywas92, ST47, Michael C Price, DumbBOT, Chrislk02, Eubulide, Epbr123, Qwyrxian, LeeG, Ucan-
lookitup, N5iln, Why1991, Leon7, D.H, Michas pi, Daimanta, Widefox, Mashiah Davidson, Billyoneal, Storkk, Somerset219, Acroterion,
VoABot II, Kuyabribri, Yakushima, Arno Matthias, Albmont, Eroshiyda, Swpb, Baccyak4H, Animum, Chris G, Agamemnon117, Der-
Hexer, QuasiChameleon, Sarathklal, Lunakeet, Otvaltak, Stephenchou0722, MartinBot, AntiochCollege, Jigsy, D2B, EagleEyes, R'n'B,
Hilltoppers, HEL, Brix., J.delanoy, AstroHurricane001, Bogey97, MistyMorn, Peytonbland, Necropedal, Fartknocker, Gmazeroff, Brass-
mouth, Tokyogirl79, Sao123, Katharineamy, Trumpet marietta 45750, BryanDavis, Gemena, Jake Rilko, Mach Boy, Robertgreer, Action
Jackson IV, LakewoodBrian, Ja 62, Soccerman90, Bennerhingl, Hammersoft, VolkovBot, DrDentz, Geoffw1948, Philip Trueman, Blah-
ber, Jhon montes24, Cosmic Latte, Robinson weijman, Hqb, Carlangas, Anonymous Dissident, Karmos, Feldgrau, Konamiuss, Feong
changer, Martin451, Don4of4, UncleZeiv, Aaron Rotenberg, Jackfork, Jmc6171, Falcon8765, @pple, Sylent, Seresin, Asdfazerty, Ben-
sondaled, Jr.lizardking, Why Not A Duck, Dmcq, AlleborgoBot, Neparis, Littleherby2412, Pdfpdf, Eminence Grise, Defender 911,
Ishvara7, PlanetStar, Paradoctor, TriBulated, Dawn Bard, Dryfee, Yintan, Soler97, Flyer22, Thehotelambush, AlexHOUSE, ClassA42,
TwoTeasChris, Eouw0o83hf, Kortaggio, RQJ, ClueBot, Loginks, Dominiquedoandd, Sammmttt, Julianhall, Wysprgr2005, Drmies, Der
Golem, Mild Bill Hiccup, HovisM, DragonBot, Anonymous101, Mack-the-random, Takethemeatbridge, Gabbbbby, Daniel111111, Ceil-
ican, YouMoo!, Bjalmeida, Tired time, Isabelle1220, Nblschool, Djk3, Crowsnest, XLinkBot, April8, Gerhardvalentin, AnaxMcShane,
WikHead, Shakalooloo Doom, OlenWhitaker, JVPiano, Ijbond, WikiDao, Paulginz, Tayste, Marcus MacGregor, Addbot, Proofreader77,
Flying Leukemia, Some jerk on the Internet, Manu4manu, LightSpectra, Wingspeed, Zarcadia, Eddynorton, EmbraceParadox, Peridon,
Tide rolls, Matzeachmann, OlEnglish, Alpalfour, A:-)Brunuś, Yobot, Ht686rg90, Legobot II, Bility, AnomieBOT, Marlight, Hairhorn,
Jim1138, AMuseo, Flewis, Paradoxcontained, TheTechieGeek63, Citation bot, Pcb95, Prettehkitteh9, LilHelpa, Billy huge, Xzex, Ayda D,
Capricorn42, Shanman7, Kiatipis, The GoldenAge, Omnipaedista, Foreverprovence, Shadowjams, DeNoel, Fshen11, FrescoBot, Torag22,
Seelum, Dsmith9 99, Machine Elf 1735, Станислав Крымский, Tubbsybaby, Toran61, Pinethicket, X Legende x, Danny84, Incuba-
torfunk, Wimmeljan, Σ, Hessamnia, LauraineCrafts, SkyMachine, Polarfire, Gryllida, Lishanchan, Double sharp, Pollinosisss, Aoidh,
Tbhotch, Minimac, Svkanade, Dylan Quint, RjwilmsiBot, Ryou419, Sapslaj, Perspeculum, EmausBot, TheClerksWell, Cstorm15, Roy-
mainak2009, LucasBrown, Racerx11, Robearto, Fire407, Watson edin, Slightsmile, Tommy2010, Winner 42, Grud1872, Pheticsax, Jor-
mungandrWorm, Askedonty, Thewhyman, Anir1uph, Master of philosophy, Hazard-SJ, Richardmaximillioncooper, Flightx52, Donner60,
Surajt88, David Rolek, Ontyx, Bharasiva96, Rocketrod1960, E. Fokker, ClueBot NG, Explodr, Satellizer, SunCountryGuy01, Lanthanum-
138, HelpMeChooseAUsername, WhiskeyDiet, Scoobynshag, Brianne the Freak, Eli7675, Michael13567, Joriq, GTAIVfan1234, Helpful
Pixie Bot, Tjfloyd, Strike Eagle, KLBot2, Neviaser, Lowercase sigmabot, Toke Beard, Calvin1221, Wiki13, Salirp, Jobin RV, KeeperC,
CitationCleanerBot, Realitycheck4seven, WhatsHisName, Immmmmsocool, Aceofspadesx11, Spedster777, ProfessorParadox, Iluvmarch-
ingband, Camzabob, Ant314159265, Wormhole0512, Delimute, Eelco de Vlieger, Popopo8776, Gageisgreat38, Themeasureoftruth, Duck-
nish, JYBot, Gliese581g, Xtremex333, Mogism, Lugia2453, Shivamshaiv, Reatlas, Emmjaybee, Double positive, Dsmosk, I am One of
Many, Mozzie13, PhantomTech, EvergreenFir, B14709, Georgieyoshi, Ugog Nizdast, Dfcfozz, Bblangfield, Dodi 8238, TheBeastofRibs,
Wasp12b1926, Monkbot, Lmr97, Comments2010, Zachvitale, BoeJeddoes, Spacebro007, DrakeFurlong, Ethanlogic7, Flazer6424, In-
5.1. TEXT 257

teresting101, Sphinx065, RishiAryan!23, Bensteinwr, Darealslenderman, Kumar19nikkil, Polimind, Thrasuboula, REDS R0CK 223 and
Anonymous: 599
• Sorites paradox Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sorites%20paradox?oldid=649245191 Contributors: Damian Yerrick, The Anome,
Ant, Heron, Ryguasu, Stevertigo, Gabbe, Karada, Cherkash, Nikola Smolenski, Reddi, Mwoolf, Greenrd, Hyacinth, Zandperl, Cholling,
Auric, Mervyn, Paul Murray, Mshonle, Everyking, Jason Quinn, Eequor, Maclyn611, Saucepan, Oneiros, Lucidish, Cacycle, Sbb, Kndiaye,
Dbachmann, Bender235, Root4(one), Susvolans, Phiwum, Giraffedata, Lysdexia, Anthony Appleyard, Keenan Pepper, Joriki, Madmardi-
gan53, Sburke, CaptainValor, Jeff3000, GregorB, BD2412, Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Salix alba, Williamborg, AlexCovarrubias, Nimur, FrankTo-
bia, YurikBot, Hairy Dude, Lincolnite, MrCheshire, Aam, A.bit, Markicus, Knullare, Tomisti, Kronocide, AndrewWTaylor, JJL, Smack-
Bot, McGeddon, BiT, UrsaFoot, Harbinger42, Iain.dalton, Matt9090, Nbarth, Emurphy42, Kcordina, Monguin61, Cybercobra, Pwjb, Jk-
lin, Andeggs, Bejnar, Byelf2007, Lambiam, Euchiasmus, Koft, Saluton, Robofish, STyx, Loadmaster, Grumpyyoungman01, Vwoodstock,
Olivierd, Tauʻolunga, ILikeThings, CBM, Sdorrance, Gregbard, ProfessorPaul, Cydebot, Reywas92, CaliforniaKid, Jimpartame, Yester-
dog, Alaibot, PKT, Thijs!bot, Sobreira, Ingolfson, Skomorokh, Wasell, Froid, Shentino, RockMFR, TomS TDotO, Ianboggs, Sarregouset,
Vlasisva, Shureg, Raymondwinn, Jamelan, Graymornings, Paradoctor, Gerakibot, Marquetry28, Svick, Smkstoll, Sandan222, Jaimehy,
Singinglemon, Passargea, DragonBot, Eheadstream, XLinkBot, Wikiuser100, Libcub, Addbot, Brumski, DOI bot, Icanhasedit, Matěj
Grabovský, Yobot, GateKeeper, AnomieBOT, Citation bot, Dromioofephesus, Xqbot, Omnipaedista, Cwbm (commons), RicHard-59,
Vernaculardragon, Citation bot 1, Rock mechanics, Technophant, Jim Michael, Klelith, Tijfo098, Pragmaknowledge, Turbos9, Ngodilan,
Helpful Pixie Bot, Macbeth1313, Halfb1t, Slowlikemolasses, ChrisGualtieri, Jochen Burghardt, Jimi621, Monkbot, Ihaveacatonmydesk
and Anonymous: 118
• Unexpected hanging paradox Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Unexpected%20hanging%20paradox?oldid=652726972 Contribu-
tors: AxelBoldt, LC, Lee Daniel Crocker, Bryan Derksen, Magnus, Nairobiny, Karada, Eric119, Tregoweth, GGano, LittleDan, Tim Retout,
Drz, Jengod, Charles Matthews, Wik, Hyacinth, Texture, Robinh, Giftlite, J heisenberg, Bfinn, Reyemile, Woggly, Ravikiran r, Nathan
Ladd, Rich Farmbrough, Bender235, Jnestorius, Ben Standeven, Nortexoid, Dfeldmann, Keenan Pepper, Axl, Burn, LunaticFringe, Simet-
rical, Tabletop, Dah31, Macaddct1984, Marudubshinki, Rjwilmsi, OneWeirdDude, Mathbot, Hyphz, BradBeattie, DVdm, Stoive, Yurik-
Bot, Maelin, Wilfried Elmenreich, Ihope127, Vibritannia, Anomalocaris, Arichnad, Nabav, Jmackaerospace, Ordinary Person, Smack-
Bot, McGeddon, Unyoyega, Lawrencekhoo, Pokipsy76, Kaaphi, Oli Filth, Cralize, Chlewbot, MBlume, Andeggs, Byelf2007, Quendus,
John, Mgiganteus1, Hetar, Nehrams2020, Khromegnome, Ripounet, Justdig, NoahTye, Reywas92, SimenH, DumbBOT, Barticus88, Iae,
Nalvage, Reil, EdJohnston, Zfishwiki, Gioto, Gimme danger, JAnDbot, Em3ryguy, SiobhanHansa, Ghost420, JustinRosenstein, Falcor84,
Chryzoumas, Laurusnobilis, Action Jackson IV, Ilya Voyager, Juror 8, Idioma-bot, Rei-bot, Anonymous Dissident, Seb az86556, Kmhkmh,
Billgordon1099, Daveofthenewcity, Edderiofer, Dogah, Caulde, Paradoctor, Flyer22, Dipakgoyal, Mygerardromance, Alexbot, Conical
Johnson, I Enjoy Commenting, Addbot, Ettrig, Luckas-bot, The Earwig, Ningauble, AnomieBOT, Xqbot, Zhu rongji, RedBot, Trappist
the monk, RjwilmsiBot, Faolin42, ClueBot NG, Joefromrandb, Thefightmaster, Dusk Orchestra, Nasser Ali Khan, Dylanvt, Sahityapremi
and Anonymous: 113
• Blind men and an elephant Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blind%20men%20and%20an%20elephant?oldid=649833664 Contrib-
utors: Shii, Paul A, Sehrgut, DJ Clayworth, Academic Challenger, Paul Murray, Ancheta Wis, Jason Quinn, Discospinster, Art LaPella,
Ramashray, Anthony Appleyard, Cormaggio, Ricky81682, Andrew Gray, Recury, Angr, Shreevatsa, Uncle G, WadeSimMiser, BD2412,
TheRingess, Darguz Parsilvan, Winterstein, Pathoschild, King of Hearts, Wavelength, Deeptrivia, RussBot, Severa, Ksyrie, TheMandarin,
Anomalocaris, SigPig, Zzuuzz, Nolanus, Jaranda, SmackBot, Kevinalewis, Chris the speller, Thumperward, Rhtcmu, Sadads, Scwlong,
Liontooth, Cybercobra, Just plain Bill, Shyamsunder, CillanXC, Tawkerbot2, George100, Binky The WonderSkull, Egmonster, TXAggie,
MRN, Unmitigated Success, Cydebot, Adam Newton, Slp1, Crossmr, Hebrides, Siba, Teratornis, Ameliorate!, IamthatIam, Thijs!bot,
Hit bull, win steak, Oerjan, Sacca, ARTEST4ECHO, Indian Chronicles, Omeganian, OhanaUnited, Ikanreed, Unused0029, Bongwar-
rior, Dadaw, Sandman42, InTeGeR13, WODUP, Caesarjbsquitti, KConWiki, B9 hummingbird hovering, Slowmotionrevolution, Tgeairn,
RockMFR, Rrostrom, PhiloNysh, AdamBMorgan, Kesal, Mazemode, Cwluc, Butwhatdoiknow, Soundofmusicals, Anonymous Dissident,
Munci, GoonerDP, Calliopejen1, Dmcoxe, Invertzoo, Robby.is.on, Piledhigheranddeeper, Okoth6125, Grantus4504, Tarheel95, Delicious
carbuncle, Dthomsen8, Addbot, Annielogue, MrOllie, Numbo3-bot, Lightbot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Carleas, GateKeeper, AnomieBOT,
Flewis, Materialscientist, Neurolysis, Srich32977, Applewikimom, Anonymous from the 21st century, Wilfredtr, Aaron Kauppi, Citation
bot 1, Full-date unlinking bot, Lotje, Rain drop 45, EmausBot, Mzilikazi1939, GoingBatty, Maš Mânú, Solomonfromfinland, ZéroBot,
Cobaltcigs, Xerographica, Scientific29, Ego White Tray, ClueBot NG, HenryCauthon, Jamfrank, Robthepiper, DanTrent, Helpful Pixie
Bot, Mophedd, HMSSolent, MusikAnimal, Rahuljain2307, Arnavlavan, BattyBot, Metalello, Khazar2, Drmwalk, Ginsuloft, Delunaluno,
Qwertyxp2000, Abhishek Garg1, Jordanjlatimer and Anonymous: 116
• Camel's nose Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Camel'{}s%20nose?oldid=641027549 Contributors: Michael Hardy, Altenmann,
Nurg, JerryFriedman, Bradeos Graphon, Leonard G., Andycjp, Rich Farmbrough, Mqduck, SidP, Vuo, Stefanomione, Wctaiwan, Sbrools,
Fourohfour, Elliskev, Cm205, SmackBot, Jeffreykopp, Cybercobra, Grumpyyoungman01, CmdrObot, Mercury, AgentPeppermint, MER-
C, Hut 8.5, CopyToWiktionaryBot, Timmccloud, RenniePet, Butwhatdoiknow, Burpen, Rockfang, Lightbot, Dzied Bulbash, Jim1138,
Citation bot, Senator2029, ClueBot NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Chrisminter, Helpful Pixie Bot, Br'er Rabbit, Monkbot and Anonymous:
26
• Parable of the broken window Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parable%20of%20the%20broken%20window?oldid=645597978
Contributors: Bryan Derksen, Robert Merkel, The Anome, Ed Poor, Toby Bartels, Fubar Obfusco, William Avery, Olivier, PhilipMW,
Michael Hardy, LenBudney, Haakon, Faré, KayEss, Nikola Smolenski, Charles Matthews, Alexs, Gutza, Tpbradbury, Maximus Rex, Ccady,
Stormie, Phil Boswell, Donarreiskoffer, E0N, Llavigne, Rfc1394, Xanzzibar, David Gerard, Somercet, Dbenbenn, Ds13, Lussmu, Crag,
Gregb, Dan Gardner, ChicXulub, Jdevine, Beland, Mikko Paananen, J0m1eisler, Gary D, Picapica, Wesha, DanielCD, Rich Farmbrough,
Phssthpok, Florian Blaschke, Dave souza, Ddimatteo, Bender235, Ground, Jarsyl, Franc28, Richard W.M. Jones, Thanos6, Giraffedata,
Hajenso, AppleJuggler, ClementSeveillac, Diego Moya, Logologist, Hoary, Paperweight, Spangineer, Hu, Shoefly, BDD, Johntex, Dismas,
Mindmatrix, Localh77, DeadlyAssassin, RiseAbove, Seraphimblade, SchuminWeb, Nogburt, Fresheneesz, Srleffler, Common Man, Ed-
die Parker, Metropolitan90, Samwaltz, Hairy Dude, Splash, Chris Capoccia, Hogeye, Flaming.muskrats, Dotancohen, Member, Grafen,
Korny O'Near, PhilipO, Epipelagic, Palpalpalpal, Johndrinkwater, Jcrook1987, Arthur Rubin, CWenger, Skittle, SDS, Robertd, Smack-
Bot, Melchoir, Gribeco, Lawrencekhoo, Quidam65, Hmains, Thumperward, Mark7-2, G7game, Philc 0780, G-J, Deepred6502, Esrever,
Loadmaster, Ace Frahm, Pimlottc, Walsellers, Raysonho, Alexey Feldgendler, MicahDCochran, N2e, Ankimai, Atticmouse, Septagram,
Thijs!bot, N5iln, Gnurkel, Mmortal03, Widefox, Dylan Lake, AlmostReadytoFly, .anacondabot, Freedomlinux, Yakushima, Dausuul, JM-
Bryant, KConWiki, Gomm, ForgottenManC, Mailman-zero, Jez9999, Ronbtni, Alsee, EscapingLife, TyrS, Saben4, Cabbruzz, Cpiral,
Amake, LordAnubisBOT, Giddyupbg, Atanamis, Tarotcards, Marioosz, Al B. Free, TreasuryTag, Calwiki, Anonymous Dissident, Mz-
madmike, Baon, Wykypydya, Blackray, Lamro, AlleborgoBot, Kapalama, Bob Blaylock, Graemeblake, Hertz1888, Triwbe, Visipace,
258 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

Theaveng, Capitalismojo, ClueBot, Snigbrook, SouthStExit, Doobie61, Mykljonzun, Aprock, BigK HeX, Pichpich, Dejaphoenix, Sweet-
Nightmares, Knowalles, Addbot, Man with one red shoe, Roentgenium111, MrVanBot, Ehrenkater, Luckas-bot, Yobot, AnomieBOT,
PublicSquare, Kingpin13, Citation bot, Xqbot, Grifterlake, Bihco, Westermark-Ost, Mac520, Srich32977, GrouchoBot, Oneeyedguide,
Celuici, FrescoBot, Pestergaines, Distinct Kicking Motion, Jonesey95, Katach, Mack1231, Fletchermichael, DerAlcazar, HolKann, Lotje,
Dewritech, Tisane, ZéroBot, Jci2297, Xerographica, TurtleMelody, Hmcst1, Ebehn, Psztorc, Vincent Moon, Helpful Pixie Bot, Garyaryary,
YFdyh-bot, PradaLaw, SPECIFICO, Ihaveacatonmydesk and Anonymous: 214
• The Gift of the Magi Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Gift%20of%20the%20Magi?oldid=645334623 Contributors: Axel-
Boldt, Bryan Derksen, Ed Poor, Eclecticology, SimonP, Zoe, 6birc, Ahoerstemeier, DropDeadGorgias, Jengod, Stismail, Jeffq, Postdlf,
Dmadeo, Merovingian, David Gerard, Mark T, Varlaam, Glengarry, Neutrality, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Jonathancamp, Vsmith,
The Iconoclast, Orlady, Gershwinrb, Bobo192, Stesmo, OGoncho, Gary, LFaraone, MattGiuca, Isnow, Stefanomione, Graham87, Rjwilmsi,
Kazrak, MarnetteD, Eldamorie, Harmil, Mhking, DTRY, NawlinWiki, Justin Eiler, R.G., Nescio, Bantosh, Lumper5, NeilN, SmackBot,
Unschool, Georgeryp, Rrius, Antrophica, Gilliam, Kevinalewis, Team Red Eye, Thumperward, SchfiftyThree, Toughpigs, Dethme0w,
Rrburke, Bigturtle, Eewanco, Astorian, Gobonobo, Akaji, Agonizing Fury, Fredil Yupigo, Iridescent, The editor1, I'mMe!!, CapitalR,
Newyorkbrad, Userdce, Zotdragon, Neilymon, Anubis3, AlbertSM, Agger, Andkore, Cydebot, Fraggy4, XLRQ, Tkynerd, PamD, Dgf-
man63, Epbr123, Yukichigai, The Wednesday Island, Jbl1975, Moshka, Seaphoto, Awesomepenguin, Ekabhishek, Auasr, Bongwarrior,
VoABot II, Ecksemmess, Lawrencewinkler, KConWiki, Indon, Vanished user ty12kl89jq10, CheetahMan1, DerHexer, ColorOfSuffering,
Mschel, J.delanoy, Tlim7882, Apple1013, Xenotropic, Superdude028, Mdumas43073, Wavemaster447, Useight, Happytrombonist16,
TheScaryOne, Deor, Amikake3, Lolicaust, DrNietzsche, Philip Trueman, Liachan, Aymatth2, Dewey Finn, Dirkbb, ObiWanBillKenobi,
Xowgax, KevinalewisBot, AtreemFromVenus, Thebisch, Demong, Dusti, Hopelessshade, Smsarmad, Langtucodoc, Generous G, Bento-
goa, BassSinger, Dlkwiki, Fairlightseven, Denisarona, Elassint, ClueBot, Compdude47, Fyyer, Tynansanger, JasonAQuest, Chaosdruid,
Wxkat, DumZiBoT, Good Olfactory, Addbot, Hajoma, Tcncv, Fyrael, Soundout, Ronhjones, Ccacsmss, Lihaas, L - l4LO 7l - l1233, Tide
rolls, KVK2005, Legobot, Luckas-bot, Yobot, Bunnyhop11, AWI, Amirobot, Victoriaearle, AnakngAraw, AnomieBOT, Glenfarclas, Ma-
terialscientist, Protogarrett, Darksheik, Xqbot, Sketchmoose, 4twenty42o, Coretheapple, Gwenstacyfanboy, Noelcaprice, TOMBOCHI,
Dilip.jaya, Armchairslugger, Thehelpfulbot, FrescoBot, HJ Mitchell, Bolanka, Lady Lotus, I dream of horses, RandomStringOfCharacters,
December21st2012Freak, TobeBot, Yunshui, Dinamik-bot, Minimac, DARTH SIDIOUS 2, Technophant, MMS2013, G4343, The Stick
Man, Salvio giuliano, EmausBot, WikitanvirBot, GoingBatty, RA0808, Jourell, Wikipelli, Nivrex, MikeyMouse10, Answerkey, ZéroBot,
John Cline, Ὁ οἶστρος, Wagino 20100516, Thine Antique Pen, L Kensington, Jbergste, Senator2029, Стюарт Радзинский, ClueBot
NG, Gareth Griffith-Jones, Jack Greenmaven, MelbourneStar, O.Koslowski, Widr, Kylexandrew, Helpful Pixie Bot, Apollo5, Gothic-
film, Ftftlove424, Dalit Llama, Nbnavs, Wreck Smurfy, HueSatLum, Ctg4Rahat, Rosemary1024, Lugia2453, Kevin12xd, StewieBaby05,
Cadillac000, Eyesnore, Kdunnigan, JaconaFrere, Styles2001, KanishkD, Kevjiangba, The deadeye marksman 14, Ethannations12, Bad-
bammajamma and Anonymous: 310
• The Lady, or the Tiger? Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Lady%2C%20or%20the%20Tiger%3F?oldid=651487915 Con-
tributors: Tarquin, Nealmcb, Ixfd64, Rossami, DJ Clayworth, CBDunkerson, AnonMoos, Cvaneg, MD87, DavidA, Lowellian, Meelar,
Kent Wang, Carnildo, David Gerard, HangingCurve, Christopherlin, Mucket, Discospinster, Pavel Vozenilek, Bender235, Elipongo, Alan-
sohn, Batmanand, Snowolf, BRW, Richard Arthur Norton (1958- ), Mindmatrix, TotoBaggins, Dionyziz, Cuchullain, Koavf, Bill37212,
DVdm, Sceptre, Cwlq, Shawn81, Zhaladshar, D. F. Schmidt, Aaron Schulz, DeadEyeArrow, SmackBot, McGeddon, Delldot, Alan Mc-
Beth, Gaff, Jushi, Bluebot, Quinsareth, Roscelese, Toughpigs, Darth Panda, EvelinaB, Bigturtle, Barbov, Linnell, Optakeover, Norm mit,
Mjgilson, Clarityfiend, Adambiswanger1, JayHenry, Cydebot, Lindsay658, Hazmat2, AntiVandalBot, John1987, Ingolfson, Dman727,
Seddon, MegX, VoABot II, Tedickey, KConWiki, Twinofvoss, Breed Zona, Gwern, MartinBot, Arjun01, Johnpacklambert, Gorgstien,
Nullie, Majusca, J.delanoy, Dylan anglada, Trusilver, Ali, TyrS, Whitehall6, Lygophile, Homer Landskirty, GrahamHardy, VolkovBot,
Philip Trueman, WikiCantona, SwordSmurf, Meters, Seresin, Milowent, Kktor, Malcolmxl5, Srn101, Flirtacious chicana, Svick, Geor-
gette2, Henry Merrivale, ClueBot, Excirial, Imsohood101, SoxBot III, XLinkBot, Jovianeye, DaL33T, Little Mountain 5, Good Olfactory,
Addbot, Willking1979, Glane23, Centt, Tide rolls, Lightbot, Nargis 2008, Luckas-bot, Riverstepstonegirl, Daniel Benfield, Xqbot, I Feel
Tired, LucienBOT, Pinethicket, Melvinoo, Lotje, Sir Tiki, TheGreenMartian, Jdf8, DASHBot, EmausBot, Spoonman405, Tommy2010,
Princess Lirin, ZéroBot, Jamesminhanh, Inka 888, DASHBotAV, Rocketrod1960, ClueBot NG, Widr, Shovan Luessi, Helpful Pixie Bot,
Novusuna, IrishStephen, Emayv, PhnomPencil, JephthahsDaughter, Acer4666, Wolfflover, Eyesnore, Jerry Pepsi, Polyviou, BenStein69,
Etroll900014, Monkbot, Merp5632, Mark Wilsons, Elizabethlsu, Jazzieshaw4995, Thecoolestkidontheblock, Matt 1632, Overwieght pasta
and Anonymous: 239
• Three men make a tiger Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Three%20men%20make%20a%20tiger?oldid=639736755 Contributors:
Mrwojo, Mandel, Instantnood, Agimcomas, Alanmak, Remurmur, Windchaser, DannyWilde, Kmorozov, K.C. Tang, Herbertxu, Shawnc,
SmackBot, Mdd4696, Alex earlier account, Nbarth, Naja Haje, Cybercobra, Audioman, Derek R Bullamore, A-cai, Anakata, Richard
Keatinge, RobotG, Maurice Carbonaro, TomS TDotO, Sfan00 IMG, MatthewVanitas, Addbot, Xqbot, Solomonfromfinland, Shrigley,
Papg2010, Numbermaniac and Anonymous: 7

5.2 Images
• File:10-alimenti,uova,Taccuino_Sanitatis,_Casanatense_4182..jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/
10-alimenti%2Cuova%2CTaccuino_Sanitatis%2C_Casanatense_4182..jpg License: Public domain Contributors: book scan Original artist:
unknown master
• File:A_Christmas_Carol_-_Mr._Fezziwig'{}s_Ball.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/ba/A_Christmas_
Carol_-_Mr._Fezziwig%27s_Ball.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.gutenberg.org/files/46/46-h/46-h.htm Original
artist: John Leech
• File:Acap.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/52/Acap.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work
Original artist: F l a n k e r
• File:Allisvanity.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c9/Allisvanity.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
• File:Ambox_important.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b4/Ambox_important.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work, based off of Image:Ambox scales.svg Original artist: Dsmurat (talk · contribs)
5.2. IMAGES 259

• File:Arc_length.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dc/Arc_length.gif License: Public domain Contributors:

Own work Original artist: Lucas V. Barbosa
• File:Arclength.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5a/Arclength.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Original uploader was Dariusofthedark at en.wikipedia
• File:Arecibo_message.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Arecibo_message.svg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors: Own drawing, 2005 Original artist: Arne Nordmann (norro)
• File:Atheism_template.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Atheism_template.svg License: CC BY-SA
3.0 Contributors:
• Atom_of_Atheism-Zanaq.svg Original artist: Atom_of_Atheism-Zanaq.svg: User:Zanaq
• File:Backcasting.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b7/Backcasting.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/06kptcg8dli9vi1/TE%26CA.pdf Original artist: Dr Lindsay B Yeates
• File:Banach-Tarski_Paradox.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/74/Banach-Tarski_Paradox.svg License:
Public domain Contributors: Based upon en:Image:Tarksi.png by en:User:Sean Kelly. This version created by bdesham in Inkscape. Original
artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
• File:Blind.JPG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e1/Blind.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: Phra That
Phanom chedi, Amphoe That Phanom, Nakhon Phanom Province, northeastern Thailand. Original artist: Pawyi Lee
• File:Blind_men_and_elephant3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Blind_men_and_elephant3.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: From Charles Maurice Stebbins & Mary H. Coolidge, Golden Treasury Readers: Primer, American
Book Co. (New York), p. 89. Original artist: Illustrator unknown
• File:Blind_monks_examining_an_elephant.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/Blind_monks_
examining_an_elephant.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This image is available from the United States Library of Congress's
Prints and Photographs division under the digital ID cph.3g08725.
This tag does not indicate the copyright status of the attached work. A normal copyright tag is still required. See Commons:Licensing for more information.
Original artist: Hanabusa Itchō
• File:Book_collection.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Book_collection.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Book_cover_of_\__xunadd_text_character:nN{\textquotedbl}{"}{}A_History_of_Murphy'{}s_Law”.jpg Source:
http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Book_cover_of_%22A_History_of_Murphy%27s_Law%22.jpg License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: http://www.historyofmurphyslaw.com Original artist: Periscope Film LLC
• File:Boyle'{}sSelfFlowingFlask.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Boyle%27sSelfFlowingFlask.png
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Brain.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/73/Nicolas_P._Rougier%27s_rendering_of_the_human_
brain.png License: GPL Contributors: http://www.loria.fr/~{}rougier Original artist: Nicolas Rougier
• File:Britain-fractal-coastline-100km.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/
Britain-fractal-coastline-100km.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Britain-fractal-coastline-50km.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f9/
Britain-fractal-coastline-50km.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Buridan'{}s_bridge.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Buridan%27s_bridge.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors:
• Almanach_phalanstérien.jpg Original artist: Almanach_phalanstérien.jpg: Papety (inv.)
• File:CMB_Timeline300_no_WMAP.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/6f/CMB_Timeline300_no_
WMAP.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Original version: NASA; modified by Ryan Kaldari Original artist: NASA/WMAP
Science Team
• File:Color_gradient_illustrating_a_sorites_paradox.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Color_
gradient_illustrating_a_sorites_paradox.png License: Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Jochen Burghardt
• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: ? Contributors: ? Original
artist: ?
• File:Cristo_Redentor_-_Rio.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/Cristo_Redentor_-_Rio.jpg
License: Public domain Contributors: http://picasaweb.google.co.uk/sean.crasto/Corcovado/photo?authkey=jascxXymkiA#
5056247582402143986 Original artist: Sean Vivek Crasto
• File:DNA_Overview.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f0/DNA_Overview.png License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Created by Michael Ströck.
Copied to Commons from en.wikipedia.org. Original artist: Michael Ströck (mstroeck)
• File:Deliberations_of_Congress.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/22/Deliberations_of_Congress.jpg Li-
cense: Public domain Contributors: New York Herald (Credit: The Granger Collection, NY) Original artist: W. A. Rogers
• File:Dharma_Wheel.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Dharma_Wheel.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Shazz, Esteban.barahona
• File:Dyson_Sphere_Diagram-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Dyson_Sphere_Diagram-en.svg
License: Public domain Contributors: Vector version of en:Image:Dyson_Sphere_Diagram.jpg by ed629 on the English Wikipedia Original
artist: User:Bibi Saint-Pol
• File:Earthlights_dmsp.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Earthlights_dmsp.jpg License: Public
domain Contributors: http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/ve//1438/land_lights_16384.tif Original artist: Data courtesy Marc Imhoff of NASA
GSFC and Christopher Elvidge of NOAA NGDC.
260 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Edit-clear.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg License: Public domain Contributors: The

Tango! Desktop Project. Original artist:
The people from the Tango! project. And according to the meta-data in the file, specifically:“Andreas Nilsson, and Jakub Steiner (although
minimally).”
• File:EndlessKnot03d.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/14/EndlessKnot03d.png License: Public domain
Contributors: en:Image:EndlessKnot03d.png , Created by en:User:Rickjpelleg in Paint Shop Pro 7 for the “Endless Knot”articles (to
replace the simpler drawing EndlessKnot.png) Original artist: en:User:Rickjpelleg, first uploaded to en.wikipedia on 20:13, 28 October
2005
• File:Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/48/Folder_Hexagonal_Icon.svg License: Cc-by-
sa-3.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Fractal_fern_explained.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Fractal_fern_explained.png License:
Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: António Miguel de Campos
• File:Golden_Aum.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/23/Golden_Aum.png License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Grandfather_Paradox.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Grandfather_Paradox.ogg License: CC
BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was S Whistler at English
Wikipedia
• File:Greek_letter_uppercase_Phi.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Greek_letter_uppercase_Phi.svg
License: ? Contributors: A character from the font Linux Libertine. Original artist:
• SVG by Tryphon
• File:Green_pog.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ab/Green_pog.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
? Original artist: ?
• File:HamletSkullHCSealous.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/HamletSkullHCSealous.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Hatching.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d9/Hatching.jpg License: CC BY-SA 2.0 Contributors:
Flickr Original artist: grendelkhan
• File:Hieronymus_Bosch_013.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Hieronymus_Bosch_013.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors: art database Original artist: Hieronymus Bosch (circa 1450–1516)
• File:Hindcasting.jpeg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Hindcasting.jpeg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors:
https://www.dropbox.com/s/06kptcg8dli9vi1/TE%26CA.pdf Original artist: Dr Lindsay B Yeates
• File:HumanismSymbol.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/HumanismSymbol.PNG License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: http://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HumanismSymbol.PNG Original artist: Created by Tinette, user of Italian
Wikipedia.
• File:IPD_Venn.pdf Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/30/IPD_Venn.pdf License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Jplotkin8
• File:Immanuel_Kant_(portrait).jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Immanuel_Kant_%28portrait%29.
jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Irvington_statue_of_Rip_van_Winkle.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3e/Irvington_statue_of_
Rip_van_Winkle.jpg License: ? Contributors: Own work Original artist: Daryl Samuel
• File:Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c8/
Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: National Portrait Gallery: NPG 413
Original artist: Henry William Pickersgill (died 1875)
• File:Khanda.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/71/Khanda.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Uni-
code Original artist: Self-made
• File:Leprechaun_or_Clurichaun.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/55/Leprechaun_or_Clurichaun.png
License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Logic_portal.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/7c/Logic_portal.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Con-
tributors: Own work Original artist: <img alt='Mate2code.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mate2code.
svg/24px-Mate2code.svg.png' width='24' height='24' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mate2code.svg/
36px-Mate2code.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Mate2code.svg/48px-Mate2code.svg.png 2x'
data-file-width='360' data-file-height='360' /> Tilman Piesk alias Watchduck
• File:Loudspeaker.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8a/Loudspeaker.svg License: Public domain Contrib-
utors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:MARTIN_John_Great_Day_of_His_Wrath.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8d/MARTIN_
John_Great_Day_of_His_Wrath.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: http://www.artrenewal.org/asp/database/image.asp?id=24776
Original artist: John Martin
• File:Matrix_sphere.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Matrix_sphere.jpg License: CC0 Contributors:
Own work Original artist: Medic463
• File:MontreGousset001.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/45/MontreGousset001.jpg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors: Self-published work by ZA Original artist: Isabelle Grosjean ZA
• File:Monty_open_door.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3f/Monty_open_door.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cepheus
5.2. IMAGES 261

• File:Nearest_terrestrial_habitable_exoplanets.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/38/Nearest_

terrestrial_habitable_exoplanets.png License: CC0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zhitelew
• File:Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8b/Nuvola_apps_kalzium.svg License:
LGPL Contributors: Own work Original artist: David Vignoni, SVG version by Bobarino
• File:Office-book.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a8/Office-book.svg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors: This and myself. Original artist: Chris Down/Tango project
• File:PSM_V10_D562_The_hindoo_earth.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c0/PSM_V10_D562_The_
hindoo_earth.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Popular Science Monthly Volume 10 Original artist: Unknown
• File:Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/Paradiso_Canto_31.jpg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Alighieri, Dante; Cary, Henry Francis (ed) (1892) "Canto XXXI" in The Divine Comedy by Dante, Illustrated, Complete,
London, Paris & Melbourne: Cassell & Company Retrieved on 13 July 2009. Original artist: Gustave Doré
• File:Paradox.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/46/Paradox.ogg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
• Derivative of Paradox Original artist: Speaker: Halidecyphon
Authors of the article
• File:Parkes.arp.750pix.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4b/Parkes.arp.750pix.jpg License: ? Contribu-
tors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Paul_Gauguin_-_D'ou_venons-nous.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Paul_Gauguin_-_D%
27ou_venons-nous.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Museum of Fine Arts Boston Original artist: Paul Gauguin
• File:People_icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/37/People_icon.svg License: CC0 Contributors: Open-
Clipart Original artist: OpenClipart
• File:Pinocchio_paradox.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2b/Pinocchio_paradox.png License: Public do-
main Contributors: File:Pinocchio paradox.jpg Original artist: Carlo Chiostri, User:Mbz1
• File:Pluralitas.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/Pluralitas.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
Transferred from en.wikipedia
Original artist: Latinist. Original uploader was Latinist at en.wikipedia
• File:Portal-puzzle.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/fd/Portal-puzzle.svg License: Public domain Contributors: ?
Original artist: ?
• File:Portrait_of_Friedrich_Nietzsche.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Portrait_of_Friedrich_
Nietzsche.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: featured on the cover of “What Nietzsche Really Said”by Robert C. Solomon
Original artist: Unknown
• File:Prediction,_Forecasting_and_Nowcasting.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/29/Prediction%2C_
Forecasting_and_Nowcasting.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: https://www.dropbox.com/s/06kptcg8dli9vi1/TE%26CA.pdf Orig-
inal artist: Dr Lindsay B Yeates
• File:Prisoners_Dilemma.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/Prisoners_Dilemma.ogg License: CC-BY-
SA-3.0 Contributors:
• Derivative of Prisoner's Dilemma Original artist: Speaker: JebJoya
Authors of the article
• File:Question_book-new.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/99/Question_book-new.svg License: Cc-by-sa-3.0
Contributors:
Created from scratch in Adobe Illustrator. Based on Image:Question book.png created by User:Equazcion Original artist:
Tkgd2007
• File:ReligionSymbolAbr.PNG Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/ReligionSymbolAbr.PNG License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Created by Tinette user of Italian Wikipedia. Original artist: Tinette.
• File:Rembrandt_Harmensz._van_Rijn_038-crop.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Rembrandt_
Harmensz._van_Rijn_038-crop.jpg License: Public domain Contributors:
The Yorck Project: 10.000 Meisterwerke der Malerei. DVD-ROM, 2002. ISBN
3936122202. Distributed by DIRECTMEDIA Publishing GmbH. Original artist: Rembrandt
• File:Retrodiction_or_Postdiction.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9b/Retrodiction_or_Postdiction.jpg
License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: https://www.dropbox.com/s/06kptcg8dli9vi1/TE%26CA.pdf Original artist: Dr Lindsay B Yeates
• File:Ringstone.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5f/Ringstone.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
en.wikipedia Original artist: Unknown
• File:River_terrapin.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/River_terrapin.jpg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Pelf at en.wikipedia
• File:Russell_in_1938.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3a/Russell_in_1938.jpg License: Public domain
Contributors: http://www.personal.kent.edu/~{}rmuhamma/Philosophy/Russellimages/br-images.html Original artist: Unknown
• File:SanRenChengHu.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/SanRenChengHu.ogg License: CC-BY-SA-
3.0 Contributors:
• Derivative of Three men make a tiger Original artist: Speaker: Audioman
Authors of the article
262 CHAPTER 5. TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

• File:Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg

License: Public domain Contributors: Web Gallery of Art: <a href='http://www.wga.hu/art/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1/athens1.jpg' data-
x-rel='nofollow'><img alt='Inkscape.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/20px-Inkscape.svg.
png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/30px-Inkscape.svg.png
1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Inkscape.svg/40px-Inkscape.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='60'
data-file-height='60' /></a> Image <a href='http://www.wga.hu/html/r/raphael/4stanze/1segnatu/1/athens1.html' data-x-
rel='nofollow'><img alt='Information icon.svg' src='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/
20px-Information_icon.svg.png' width='20' height='20' srcset='//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_
icon.svg/30px-Information_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Information_icon.svg/
40px-Information_icon.svg.png 2x' data-file-width='620' data-file-height='620' /></a> Info about artwork Original artist: Raphael
• File:Schrodingers_cat.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Schrodingers_cat.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Dhatfield
• File:Shinto_torii_vermillion.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Shinto_torii_vermillion.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Recoloured version of Image:Torii.svg Original artist: MesserWoland

• File:Sierpiński_curve_order_1.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Sierpi%C5%84ski_curve_order_1.

svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wrtlprnft
• File:Sierpiński_curve_order_2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Sierpi%C5%84ski_curve_order_2.
svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wrtlprnft
• File:Sierpiński_curve_order_3.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/56/Sierpi%C5%84ski_curve_order_3.
svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wrtlprnft
• File:Sierpiński_curve_order_4.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Sierpi%C5%84ski_curve_order_4.
svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wrtlprnft
• File:Sierpiński_curve_order_5.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Sierpi%C5%84ski_curve_order_5.
svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Wrtlprnft
• File:Socrates.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Socrates.png License: Public domain Contributors:
Originally from en.wikipedia; description page is/was here. Original artist: Original uploader was Magnus Manske at en.wikipedia Later
versions were uploaded by Optimager at en.wikipedia.
• File:Sorites_paradox_heap_down.png Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/96/Sorites_paradox_heap_down.
png License: CC BY-SA 4.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: Hyacinth
• File:Sound-icon.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Sound-icon.svg License: LGPL Contributors:
Derivative work from Silsor's versio Original artist: Crystal SVG icon set
• File:Sunlight_over_Earth_as_seen_by_STS-29_crew_-_GPN-2003-00025.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/
commons/a/a4/Sunlight_over_Earth_as_seen_by_STS-29_crew_-_GPN-2003-00025.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Great
Images in NASA Description Original artist: NASA
• File:Symbol_book_class2.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Symbol_book_class2.svg License: CC
BY-SA 2.5 Contributors: Mad by Lokal_Profil by combining: Original artist: Lokal_Profil
• File:Symbol_list_class.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg License: Public domain Con-
tributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Terrestrial_Planet_Finder_PIA04499.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Terrestrial_Planet_
Finder_PIA04499.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Text_document_with_red_question_mark.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/Text_document_
with_red_question_mark.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Created by bdesham with Inkscape; based upon Text-x-generic.svg
from the Tango project. Original artist: Benjamin D. Esham (bdesham)
• File:TheLadyOrTheTiger.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/2c/TheLadyOrTheTiger.jpg License: Fair use Con-
tributors:
http://www.securenet.net/tbcl/TBCL_AHOME_Mystery1.htm Original artist: ?
• File:The_Counterfactual_Thought_Experiment.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a4/The_
Counterfactual_Thought_Experiment.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: https://www.dropbox.com/s/06kptcg8dli9vi1/TE%26CA.pdf
Original artist: Dr Lindsay B Yeates
• File:The_Gift_of_the_Magi.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/5f/The_Gift_of_the_Magi.jpg License: Fair use
Contributors:
It is believed that the cover art can or could be obtained from the publisher.
Original artist: ?
• File:The_Prefactual_Thought_Experiment.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a0/The_Prefactual_
Thought_Experiment.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: https://www.dropbox.com/s/06kptcg8dli9vi1/TE%26CA.pdf Original artist:
Dr Lindsay B Yeates
• File:The_Scream.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f4/The_Scream.jpg License: Public domain Contribu-
tors:
• Page: http://www.ibiblio.org/wm/paint/auth/munch/ Original artist: Edvard Munch
• File:The_Semifactual_Thought_Experiment.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/db/The_Semifactual_
Thought_Experiment.jpg License: CC BY 4.0 Contributors: https://www.dropbox.com/s/06kptcg8dli9vi1/TE%26CA.pdf Original artist:
Dr Lindsay B Yeates
5.3. CONTENT LICENSE 263

• File:Time-travel-causal-loop.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/13/Time-travel-causal-loop.gif License: CC-BY-

SA-3.0 Contributors:
I (Grondilu (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist:
Grondilu (talk)
• File:Time-travel-continuous-version.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/5/52/Time-travel-continuous-version.gif
License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
I (Grondilu (talk)) created this work entirely by myself. Original artist:
Grondilu (talk)
• File:Time-travel-illustration3.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Time-travel-illustration3.gif License:
CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Sfan00_IMG using CommonsHelper. Original artist: Grondilu
at English Wikipedia
• File:Time-travel-parallel-universe2.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/2/26/Time-travel-parallel-universe2.gif Li-
cense: GFDL Contributors:
I (Grondilu (talk)) created this work entirely by myself, using synfig. Original artist:
Grondilu (talk)
• File:Time_dilation02.gif Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/eb/Time_dilation02.gif License: CC-BY-SA-3.0
Contributors: Own work Original artist: Cleonis
• File:Trolley_Problem.ogg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Trolley_Problem.ogg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons. Original artist: The original uploader was S Whistler at English Wikipedia
• File:Twin_Paradox_Minkowski_Diagram.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Twin_Paradox_
Minkowski_Diagram.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work by uploader, based on File:Twin paradox Minkowski
diagram.png Original artist: Acdx
• File:Venn-diagram-association-fallacy-01.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/
Venn-diagram-association-fallacy-01.svg License: Public domain Contributors: I ( —Quicksilver* T @) created this work entirely
by myself. Original artist: —Quicksilver* T @
• File:Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1c/Wiki_letter_w_cropped.svg License:
CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contributors:
• Wiki_letter_w.svg Original artist: Wiki_letter_w.svg: Jarkko Piiroinen
• File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.
svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:Bastique, User:Ramac et al.
• File:Wikiquote-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg License: Public domain
Contributors: ? Original artist: ?
• File:Wikisource-logo.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg License: CC BY-SA 3.0
Contributors: Rei-artur Original artist: Nicholas Moreau
• File:Wiktionary-logo-en.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f8/Wiktionary-logo-en.svg License: Public do-
main Contributors: Vector version of Image:Wiktionary-logo-en.png. Original artist: Vectorized by Fvasconcellos (talk · contribs), based
on original logo tossed together by Brion Vibber
• File:William_James_b1842c.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/William_James_b1842c.jpg License:
Public domain Contributors:
[1]

Original artist: Notman Studios (photographer)

• File:Wooden_hourglass_3.jpg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Wooden_hourglass_3.jpg License: CC-
BY-SA-3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: User:S Sepp
• File:Yin_yang.svg Source: http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/17/Yin_yang.svg License: Public domain Contributors:
From Image:Yin_yang.png, converted to SVG by Gregory Maxwell. Original artist: Gregory Maxwell

5.3 Content license

• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0