Basics concepts in manufacturing

processes
Dr. P. Pandithevan
Two Plate Mold

Injection Unit

Clamping Unit

Defects in injection molding

 THE MOLD

• The mold is the special tool in injection molding

• It is custom-designed and fabricated for the given

part to be produced.

• When the production run for that part is finished

– the mold is replaced with a new mold for the next
part.
Two-Plate Mold
 Two-Plate Mold
• Consists of two halves fastened to the two platens of
the molding machine’s clamping unit.

• When the clamping unit is opened, the two mold

halves open

• The most obvious feature of the mold is the cavity,

– which is usually formed by removing metal from the
mating surfaces of the two halves.
• Molds can contain a single cavity or multiple
cavities
– to produce more than one part in a single shot.

• The parting surfaces are where the mold opens to

remove the part(s).

• A mold must have a distribution channel

– through which the polymer melt flows from the nozzle
of the injection barrel into the mold cavity.
 Two-plate mold (open)

Mold has two cavities to produce two cup-shaped parts with each injection shot.
The distribution channel consists of
• (1) a sprue, which leads from the nozzle into
the mold;
• (2) runners, which lead from the sprue to the
cavity (or cavities); and
• (3) gates that constrict the flow of plastic into
the cavity.
• An ejection system is needed to eject the molded part
from the cavity at the end of the molding cycle.
• Ejector pins built into the moving half of the mold
usually accomplish this function.
• The cavity is divided between the two mold halves in
such a way that
– the natural shrinkage of the molding causes the part to
stick to the moving half.
• A cooling system is required for the mold.
• This consists of an external pump connected
to passageways in the mold,
– through which water is circulated to remove heat
from the hot plastic.

• Air must be evacuated from the mold cavity as

the polymer rushes in.
• Much of the air passes through the small ejector pin
clearances in the mold.
• In addition, narrow air vents are often machined into
the parting surface;
– only about 0.03 mm deep and 12 to 25 mm wide

• These channels permit air to escape to the outside

– but are too small for the viscous polymer melt to flow
through.
To summarize,

A mold consists of

• one or more cavities that determine part geometry,

• distribution channels through which the polymer melt

flows to the cavities,

• an ejection system for part removal,

• a cooling system, and

• vents to permit evacuation of air from the cavities.

 Injection Units

• Two types of injection units are widely used today

• The reciprocating- screw machine is the most common.
• This design uses the same barrel for melting and
injection of plastic.
• The alternative unit involves the use of separate barrels
for plasticizing and injecting the polymer
• This type is called a screw-preplasticizer machine or
two-stage machine.
Screw preplasticizer
Plunger type
 Clamping Units

• Clamping designs are of three types:

– toggle,

– hydraulic,

– and hydromechanical.
 Toggle clamps

• Toggle clamps include various designs

• An actuator
– moves the crosshead forward,

– extending the toggle links

– to push the moving platen toward a closed position.

• Toggle clamps provide both high speed and high force

at different points in the cycle when they are desirable.
Toggle clamp (1) open (2) closed
 Hydraulic clamps

• Hydraulic clamps are used on higher-tonnage

injection molding machines,
– typically in the range 150 to 1000 tons

• These units are also more flexible than toggle

clamps
– in terms of setting the tonnage at given positions
during the stroke.
Hydraulic clamp (1) open (2) closed
• Out of the three clamping types we have
discussed the toggle and hydraulic.

• Prepare a report about the hydro-mechanical

type clamping units for injection molding.
 SHRINKAGE AND DEFECTS IN INJECTION MOLDING

• Polymers have high thermal expansion coefficients

• Shrinkage can occur during cooling of the plastic in the
mold.
• Shrinkage is usually expressed as the reduction in
linear size
• Occurs during cooling to room temperature from the
molding temperature.
• Appropriate units are therefore mm/mm
Typical values of shrinkage for moldings of
selected thermoplastics

Plastic Shrinkage, mm/mm

ABS 0.006
Nylon-6,6 0.02
Polycarbonate 0.007
Polyethylene 0.025
Polystyrene 0.004
PVC 0.005
• Fillers in the plastic tend to reduce shrinkage.

• In commercial molding practice,

– shrinkage values for the molding compound
should be obtained before making the mold.

• To compensate for shrinkage,

– the dimensions of the mold cavity must be made
larger than the specified part dimensions
 D c = D p + D pS + D pS 2

• where Dc dimension of cavity, mm;

• Dp molded part dimension, mm, and

• S shrinkage values obtained from Table.

• The third term on the right-hand side corrects

for shrinkage that occurs in the shrinkage.
Problem

• The nominal length of a part made of

polyethylene is to be 80 mm. Determine the
corresponding dimension of the mold cavity
that will compensate for shrinkage.
• From Table provided in the previous slide, the
shrinkage for polyethylene is S = 0.025.
• Using the Equation discussed, the mold cavity
diameter should be
Dc = 80 + 80 (0.025) + 80 (0.025)2
Dc=82.05 mm
• In addition to the shrinkage issue, other things
can also go wrong.
• Some of the common defects in injection molded
parts:
– Short shots
– Flashing
– Sink marks and voids
– Weld lines
 Short shots

• As in casting, a short shot is a molding that has

solidified before completely filling the cavity.
• The defect can be corrected by increasing
temperature and/or pressure.
• The defect may also result from use of a machine
with insufficient shot capacity,
– in which case a larger machine is needed.
 Flashing

• Flashing occurs when the polymer melt is squeezed into the

parting surface between mold plates;
• It can also occur around ejection pins.
• The defect is usually caused by
– vents and clearances in the mold that are too large;
– injection pressure too high compared with clamping force;
– melt temperature too high;
– excessive shot size.
 Sink marks and voids

• A void is caused by the shrinkage manifests itself as an

internal void because of high tensile stresses on the
still-molten polymer.
• A sink mark occurs when
– the outer surface on the molding solidifies,
– but contraction of the internal material
– causes the skin to be depressed below its intended profile.
 Weld lines
• Weld lines occur when
– polymer melt flows around a core or

– other convex detail in the mold cavity and

– meets from opposite directions;

– the boundary thus formed is called a weld line

• May have mechanical properties that are inferior to those in the rest of the part.
– Higher melt temperatures,

– higher injection pressures,

– alternative gating locations on the part, and

– better venting

• are ways of dealing with this defect.

Thermoforming

Applications

Product design considerations

 Thermoforming

• Thermoforming
– flat thermoplastic sheet is heated and deformed into
the desired shape.

• The process is widely used

– to package consumer products and
– fabricate large items such as bathtubs,
– Internal door liners for refrigerators.
 Steps Involved

Thermoforming consists of two main steps:

– heating and

– forming
• Heating is usually accomplished by
– radiant electric heaters,
– located on one or both sides of the starting plastic
sheet at a distance of roughly 125 mm

• Duration of the heating cycle needed to

sufficiently soften the sheet depends on the
– Polymer and
– Thickness
• Methods by which forming is accomplished
can be classified into three basic categories:
– vacuum thermoforming,

– pressure thermoforming, and

– mechanical thermoforming
 Vacuum Thermoforming

(1) a flat plastic sheet is softened by heating;

(2) the softened sheet is placed over a concave mold cavity
 Vacuum Thermoforming

(3) a vacuum draws the sheet into the cavity;

(4) the plastic hardens on contact with the cold
mold surface, and the part is removed and
subsequently trimmed from the web.
 Vacuum Thermoforming

• Negative pressure is used to draw a preheated

sheet into a mold cavity

• The holes for drawing the vacuum in the mold

are on the order of 0.8 mm in diameter

• so their effect on the plastic surface is minor.

 Pressure Thermoforming

• An alternative to vacuum forming involves

positive pressure
– to force the heated plastic into the mold cavity.

• This is called pressure thermoforming or blow

forming
 Pressure Thermoforming

(1) Similar to vacuum forming

(2) sheet is placed over a mold cavity; and
(3) positive pressure forces the sheet into the cavity.
 Mechanical Thermoforming

• Uses positive and negative molds that are

brought together against the heated plastic
sheet, forcing it to assume their shape.

• In pure mechanical forming, air pressure is not

used at all.
 Mechanical Thermoforming

(1) heated sheet placed above a negative mold,

(2) mold is closed to shape the sheet.
 Applications

• Thermoforming is a secondary shaping process, the

primary process being that which produces the sheet
or film

• Only thermoplastics can be thermoformed

– polystyrene, cellulose acetate and cellulose acetate
butyrate, ABS, PVC, acrylic (polymethylmethacrylate),
polyethylene, and polypropylene.
 Applications

• Mass production thermoforming operations are

performed in the packaging industry.
• The operations are often designed to produce multiple
parts with each stroke
• Thin film packaging items that are mass produced by
thermoforming include
– blister packs and
– skin packs.
 Product Design Considerations

• Plastics are an important design material, but the

designer must be aware of their limitations.

• We will discuss the

– design guidelines for plastic components,

– beginning with those that apply in general, and

– applicable to extrusion and molding

 Strength and stiffness

• Plastics are not as strong or stiff as metals.

• They should not be used in applications in which high
stresses will be encountered.
• Creep resistance is also a limitation.
• Strength properties vary significantly among plastics,
• Strength-to-weight ratios for some plastics are
competitive with metals in certain applications.
Impact resistance
• Capacity of plastics to absorb impact is
generally good;
• plastics compare favorably with most metals.
• Service temperatures of plastics are limited
relative to engineering metals and ceramics.
• Thermal expansion is greater for plastics than
for metals

• Dimensional changes resulting from

temperature variations are much more
significant than for metals.
• Many types of plastics are subject to degradation from
sunlight and certain other forms of radiation.
• Some plastics degrade in oxygen and ozone atmospheres.
• Plastics are soluble in many common solvents.
• On the positive side, plastics are resistant to conventional
corrosion mechanisms that afflict many metals.
• Weaknesses of specific plastics must be taken into account
by the designer.
 Design recommendations for
conventional extrusion

Wall thickness
• Uniform wall thickness is desirable in an extruded cross
section.
• Variations in wall thickness result in
– non-uniform plastic flow and
– uneven cooling

• that tend to warp the extrudate.

 Hollow sections

• Hollow sections complicate die design and

plastic flow.

• It is desirable to use extruded cross sections

that are not hollow yet satisfy functional
requirements.
 Corners

• Sharp corners, inside and outside, should be

avoided in the cross section

• Because they result in

– uneven flow during processing and

– stress concentrations in the final product.

 Guidelines for injection, compression and
transfer molding

Economic production quantities.

• Each molded part requires a unique mold, and the mold for
any of these processes can be costly, particularly for
injection molding.

• Minimum production quantities for

– injection molding - around 10,000 pieces;

– compression molding - 1000 parts

– Transfer molding – lies between the other two.

 Part complexity

• More complex part geometries mean more costly

molds

• Another approach - individual components assembled

together.

• Advantage of plastic molding is that it allows multiple

functional features to be combined into one part.
 Reinforcing ribs

• Can be used in molded plastic parts

– to achieve increased stiffness without excessive
wall thickness.

• The ribs should be made thinner than the

walls they reinforce,
• To minimize sink marks on the outside wall.
 Tolerances

• Tolerances specify the allowable manufacturing

variations for a part.

• Although shrinkage is predictable under closely

controlled conditions,
– generous tolerances are desirable for injection
moldings
 Corner radii and fillets
• Sharp corners, both external and internal, are
undesirable in molded parts;

• they interrupt smooth flow of the melt,

• tend to create surface defects, and

• cause stress concentrations in the finished part.

 Curing

• Curing is required for all thermosetting resins used in FRP

laminated composites.
• Curing accomplishes cross-linking of the polymer,
– transforming it from its liquid or highly plastic condition into a
hardened product.
• There are three principal process parameters in curing:
– time,
– temperature, and
– pressure.
• Curing normally occurs at room temperature for the TS
resins
– used in hand layup and spray-up procedures.

• Moldings made by these processes are often large,

– So, heating would be difficult for such parts.

• In some cases, days are required for curing

• If feasible, heat is added to speed the curing reaction.

 FILAMENT WINDING

• Filament winding is a process in which

– resin-impregnated continuous fibers are wrapped around a
rotating mandrel

– that has the internal shape of the desired FRP product.

• The resin is subsequently cured and the mandrel removed.

• Hollow axisymmetric components (usually circular in cross

section) are produced, as well as some irregular shapes
• A band of fiber rovings is
– pulled through a resin bath

– immediately before being wound in a helical pattern onto a

cylindrical mandrel.

• Continuation of the winding pattern finally completes a

surface layer of one filament thickness on the mandrel.

• The operation is repeated to form additional layers

• Each having a criss-cross pattern with the previous

• Until the desired part thickness has been obtained.

• There are several methods by which the fibers can be impregnated
with resin:

• wet winding
– in which the filament is pulled through the liquid resin just before
winding

• prepreg winding (also called dry winding),

– in which filaments pre-impregnated with partially cured resin are
wrapped around a heated mandrel; and

• post-impregnation,
– in which filaments are wound onto a mandrel and then impregnated
with resin by brushing or other technique.
Filament winding
• Two basic winding patterns are used in

filament winding:

• helical and

• polar
Two basic winding patterns in filament winding:
(a) helical and (b) polar.
• In helical winding,
– the filament band is applied in a spiral pattern around the
mandrel, at a helix angle θ.

• If the band is wrapped with a helix angle approaching 90°,

– so that the winding advance is one bandwidth per revolution
and

– the filaments form nearly circular rings around the mandrel

• This is referred to as a hoop winding

• It is a special case of helical winding.

• In polar winding,

– the filament is wrapped around the long axis of

the mandrel after each longitudinal revolution,

– the mandrel is indexed (partially rotated) by one

bandwidth, so that a hollow enclosed shape is

gradually created.
• Hoop and polar patterns can be combined in
successive windings of the mandrel

• To produce adjacent layers with filament

directions that are approximately
perpendicular;

• This is called a bi-axial winding

• Filament winding machine has a drive motor
– to rotate the mandrel and

– a powered feed mechanism to move the carriage.

• Relative motion between mandrel and carriage must

be controlled to accomplish a given winding pattern.

• In helical winding, the relationship between helix angle

and the machine parameters can be expressed as
• where θ = helix angle of the windings on the
mandrel,

• Vc = speed at which the carriage traverses in

the axial direction, m/s;

• D diameter of the mandrel, m; and

• N rotational speed, 1/s.

• Various types of control are available in filament winding machines.

• Modern equipment uses computer numerical control

– in which mandrel rotation and carriage speed are independently
controlled

– to permit greater adjustment and flexibility in the relative motions.

• CNC is especially useful in helical winding of contoured shapes

• Ratio vc/DN must remain fixed to maintain a constant helix angle θ.

• Either vc and/or N must be adjusted on-line to compensate for

changes in D.
• The mandrel is the special tooling that determines the
geometry of the filament wound part.
• For part removal, mandrels must be capable of
collapsing after winding and curing.
• Various designs are possible, including
– inflatable/deflatable mandrels,
– collapsible metal mandrels, and
– mandrels made of soluble salts or plasters.
• Applications of filament winding are often classified as
– aerospace or commercial

• Aerospace applications include

– rocket-motor cases, missile bodies, radomes, helicopter
blades, and airplane tail sections and stabilizers.

• These components are made of advanced composites

and hybrid composites
– with epoxy resins being most common and

– reinforced with fibers of carbon, boron, Kevlar, and glass.

 Pultrusion

• Pultrusion is a process in which

– continuous fiber rovings are dipped into a resin bath and

– pulled through a shaping die where the impregnated resin cures.

• Cured product being cut into long, straight sections.

• The sections are reinforced throughout their length by

continuous fibers.

• Like extrusion, the pieces have a constant cross section,

whose profile is determined by the shape of the die
opening.
 Pultrusion process

(1) filament feeding

(2) resin impregnation
(3) pre-die forming
(4) shaping and curing
(5) pulling and cutting
• filament feeding, in which the fibers are unreeled from
a creel (shelves with skewers that hold filament
bobbins);

• resin impregnation, in which the fibers are dipped in

the uncured liquid resin;

• pre-die forming—the collection of filaments is

gradually shaped into the approximate cross section
desired;
• shaping and curing, in which the impregnated
fibers are pulled through the heated die whose
length is 1–1.5 m and whose inside surfaces are
highly polished; and

• pulling and cutting—pullers are used to draw the

cured length through the die, after which it is cut
by a cut-off wheel with SiC or diamond grits.
• Common resins used in pultrusion are
– unsaturated polyesters, epoxies, and silicones, all thermosetting
polymers.

• There are difficulties in processing with epoxy polymers

because of sticking on the die surface.

• Modulus of elasticity and tensile strength increase with

reinforcement content.

• Products made by pultrusion include

– solid rods, tubing, long and flat sheets, structural sections
 Pulforming
• The pultrusion process is limited to straight sections of constant cross
section.

• There is also a need for long parts with continuous fiber reinforcement
– that are curved rather than straight and

– whose cross sections may vary throughout the length.

• The pulforming process is suited to these less-regular shapes.

• Pulforming can be defined as pultrusion

– with additional steps

– to form the length into a semi-circular contour and

– alter the cross section at one or more locations along the length.
Pulforming process
Rubber Processing and Shaping
• Production of rubber goods can be divided into two basic
steps:
– production of the rubber itself, and
– processing of the rubber into finished goods.

• Production of rubber differs, depending on whether it is

natural or synthetic.
• The difference is in the raw materials.
• Natural rubber (NR) is produced as an agricultural crop
• Whereas most synthetic rubbers are made from petroleum.
• Production of rubber is followed by processing
into final products; this consists of
– (1) compounding,

– (2) mixing,

– (3) shaping, and

– (4) vulcanizing.
 Problem 1

• A cylindrical riser must be designed for a sand-casting

mold. The casting itself is a steel rectangular plate with
dimensions 7.5 cm 12.5 cm 2.0 cm. Previous observations
have indicated that the total solidification time (TTS) for
this casting 1.6 min. The cylinder for the riser will have a
diameter-to height ratio 1.0. Determine the dimensions of
the riser so that its TTS 2.0 min.
 Steps

• V/A ratio in cm3

• Identify mold constant Cm = TTS/(V/A)2
• Volume of the riser V = (pi x D2 x h)/4
• Surface area of the riser A = (pi x D x h) + [(2 xpi x
D2 )/4]
• Take D=H, as D/H ratio is 1.
• Now apply the identified V/A ratio in Chvorinov’s
equation
• It will result in D=4.7 cm
 Problem 2

• A sand core has a volume = 1875 cm3 and is

located inside a sand mold cavity. Determine
the buoyancy force tending to lift the core
during pouring of molten lead into the mold.
 Steps

• Density of the sand core is 1.6 g/cm3

• Determine the weight of the core in kg
• Density of the lead is 11.3 g/cm3
• Determine the weight of the lead displaced by core in kg
• Calculate the difference in weight
• Given that, 1 kg = 9.81 N, evaluate the buyonacy force Fb.
 Problem 3

• Two gating designs for

mould of 50 cm x 25
cm x 15 cm are shown.
The C-S area of the
gate is 5 cm2.
Determine the filling
time for both the
designs
 Steps
• Calculate velocity, v = √(2 ∗ 𝑔 ∗ ℎ), h from top gating
• 171.6 cm/sec
• Calculate volume of the mould V
• Time to fill up the mold tf = V/A.v
• 21.86 sec
• Repeat the procedure for bottom gating
• 43.71 sec
• Ans: time taken by bottom gating > top gating
• Provide your justification for this
 Problem

• Estimate the force required in extruding 70-30

brass at 700 deg C, if the billet diameter is 125
mm and the extrusion ratio is 20.
 Solution

• K = 180 Mpa at 700 deg C

• F = (pi/4) x (D)2 x (k) x (ln 20)

• 6.62 MN
 Justification needed

• We already discussed that,

• Significant cost improvement using forgings
when compared to the extrusion-based design
is possible
• List and explain the reasons why you think
these cost savings were possible.
 Reason

• By reducing the total number of parts, the tooling

and assembly cost is significantly reduced.
• Because it is a near net-shape process, machining
and finishing costs are significantly reduced.
• Material costs may be very different; the
extruded alloy, for example, may be more
expensive than the forged alloy.
Alternative Pressing And Sintering Techniques
 Isostatic Pressing
• A feature of conventional pressing is that pressure is applied uniaxially.
• This imposes limitations on part geometry, because metallic powders
do not readily flow in directions perpendicular to the applied pressure.
• Uniaxial pressing also leads to density variations in the compact after
pressing.
• In isostatic pressing, pressure is applied from all directions against the
powders that are contained in a flexible mold
• Isostatic pressing takes two alternative forms:
(1) cold isostatic pressing and
(2) hot isostatic pressing
 Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP)
• (CIP) involves compaction performed at room temperature.
• The mold, made of rubber or other elastomer material, is oversized to
compensate for shrinkage.
• Water or oil is used to provide the hydrostatic pressure against the
mold inside the chamber.
• Advantages of CIP include more uniform density, less expensive
tooling, and greater applicability to shorter production runs.
• Good dimensional accuracy is difficult to achieve in isostatic pressing
because of the flexible mold.
• Consequently, subsequent finish shaping operations are often required
to obtain the required dimensions, either before or after sintering.
Cold isostatic pressing: (1) powder is placed in the flexible
mold;
(2) hydrostatic pressure is applied against the mold to
compact the powder; and
(3) pressure is reduced and the part is removed.
 Hot isostatic pressing (HIP)
• HIP is carried out at high temperatures and pressures, using
a gas such as argon or helium as the compression medium.
• The mold in which the powder contained is made of sheet
metal to withstand the high temperatures.
• HIP accomplishes pressing and sintering in one step.
• It is a relatively expensive process and its applications seem
to be concentrated in the aerospace industry.
• PM parts made by HIP are characterized by high density
(porosity near zero), thorough interparticle bonding, and
good mechanical strength.
 Powder Injection Molding
• Injection molding is closely associated with the plastics industry.
• The same basic process can be applied to form parts of metal or
ceramic powders
• Difference being that the starting polymer contains a high
content of particulate matter, typically from 50% to 85% by
volume.
• When used in powder metallurgy, the term metal injection
molding (MIM) is used.
• The more general process is powder injection molding (PIM),
which includes both metal and ceramic powders.
 Steps in MIM
(1) Metallic powder is mixed with an appropriate binder.
(2) Granular pellets are formed from the mixture.
(3) The pellets are heated to molding temperature,
injected into a mold cavity, and the part is cooled and
removed from the mold.
(4) The part is processed to remove the binder using any of
several thermal or solvent techniques.
(5) The part is sintered.
(6) Secondary operations are performed as appropriate.
• The binder in powder injection molding acts as a carrier
for the particles.
• Its functions are to provide proper flow characteristics
during molding and hold the powders in the molded
shape until sintering.
• The five basic types of binders in PIM are:
(1) thermoset polymers, such as phenolics;
(2) thermoplastic polymers, such as polyethylene;
(3) water;
(4) gels; and
(5) inorganic materials
Casting Numericals
 Problem 1

• A round casting is 0.2 m (7.9 in.) in diameter and 0.5 m

(19.7 in.) in length. Another casting of the same metal is
elliptical in cross-section with a major to minor axis ratio
of 2 and has the same length and cross-sectional area as
the round casting. Both pieces are cast under the same
conditions. What is the difference in the solidification
times of the two castings?
 Solution 1 :

• For the same length and cross-sectional area (thus

the same volume), and same casting conditions, the
same C value should occur.
• The surface area and volume of the round casting is
• Around = 2πrl + 2πr2
• Vround = 2πr2h
 Solution 1 (contd)
• Since the cross-sectional area of the ellipse is the same
as that for the cylinder, and it has a major and minor
diameter of a and b, respectively, where a = 2b, then
• πab = πr2 → 2b2 = r2 → b can be obtained
• So that a also can be found. (a=2b).
• Calculate the surface area of the ellipse-based part is
(see a basic geometry text for the area equation
derivations):
• Aellipse = 2πab + 2π (a2 + b2h)0.5
 Solution 1 (contd)

• We know that,
Tround /Tellipse = (V/Around)2 /(V/Aellipse)2

=(Aellipse/ Around)2
With this we can identify the difference in the
solidification times of the two castings
 Problem 2

• A 100-mm (4-in.) thick square plate and a right

circular cylinder with a radius of 100 mm (4 in.)
and a height of 50 mm each have the same
volume. If each is to be cast using a cylindrical
riser, will each part require the same size riser to
ensure proper feeding? Explain.
 Soln. 2

• First note that it is important for the riser to

solidify after the casting. A casting that
solidifies rapidly would be expected to require
a smaller riser than one that solidifies over a
longer period of time.
 Soln. 2 (Contd.)

• For the cylindrical part, we have

V = πr2h

A = 2πr2 + 2πrh

So, based on Chvorinov's rule

tcylinder = C(V/A)2

• Similar procedure for square plate.

 Soln. 2 (Contd.)

• For a square plate with sides L and height h,

we have

V = L2h

A = 2L2 + 4Lh

tplate = C(V/A)2
Q3. Defects and discontinuities in cast products.
Review each one and offer solutions to avoid
them
 Some suggestions to the previous slide

• (a) Notice that fracture occurred at one of the two

steps in the casting, so that fracture is at stress riser.
• A better design would utilize a more gradual fillet
radius.
• (b) Fracture at the gate indicates this runner section
is too narrow and will solidified first; this gate should
be larger.
 Q4.

• One method of relieving stress concentrations

in a part is to apply a small, uniform plastic
deformation to it. Provide your
recommendations if such an approach is
suggested for a casting.
 Soln.

• The plastic deformations, if tensile or flexural,

need to be applied with great care on castings.
• The main reason is that castings are typically
weak in tension, due to micropores which act as
stress risers.
• While the intent may be to relieve residual
stresses, the result may be to fracture the part.