In turn the new sciences laid the theoretical foundation

for the invention of the steam engine. Although

waterpower and wind power remained the basic sources
of power for industry, the steam engine, began to slowly
replace them as new applications could be found for it.
The researches of a number of scientists, especially
those of Robert Boyle of England with atmospheric
pressure of Otto von Guericke of Germany with a
vacuum, and of the French Huguenot Denis Papin with
pressure vessels, helped to equip practical technologists
with the theoretical basis of steam power. The first
commercially successful industrial use of steam power
was due to Thomas Savery in London in 1698.
Metallurgy and mining
Important experiments in the iron industry include using
coal instead of charcoal to smelt iron ore and to process
cast iron into wrought iron and steel. The first success
came in 1709, when Abraham Darby used coke to
reduce iron ore in his improved blast furnace.
Other processes, such as glassmaking, brick making, and
the manufacture of pottery. In ceramics European
manufacturers imitated the hard, translucent quality of
Chinese porcelain.
Stoneware, requiring a lower firing temperature than
porcelain, had achieved great decorative distinction in
the 17th century as a result of the Dutch success with
opaque white tin glazes.
Mining for minerals other than coal and iron also
increased. These include gold and silver and other
nonferrous metals such as tin and lead. Brass, an alloy of
copper and zinc, was manufactured in foundries. This
knowledge is preserved in the book De re Metallica by
Agricola which became a worldwide manual on metal
working and mining practice.
Of the crafts, the largest one was in cloth making. By
the Middle Ages, the location of textile production was
usually a household where the man was the weaver and
the women prepared and spun yarn for the loom. All
cloth was woven by hand on a loom and the most
common materials of this time period were wool, cotton,
silk, and linen. Each of these materials had its own
production and most of them required the contributions
of more than one individual. Manufacturing techniques
remained unchanged over a long period of time. To
produce wool, the fleece needed to be washed and then
combed to remove tangles. Next, the yarn needed to be
spun with a spindle.
During the Medieval Age, wool was the dominant
textile with linen as the next important manufactured
textile produced. Linen is a particular difficult finished
product to manufacture. Linen is derived from flax, a
plant that has been cultivated for material since 3000
BC.
Another key innovation in the 13th century was the
introduction into Europe of the spinning wheel. The
Great or Jersey wheel, introduced around 1350, was the
first improvement made in the process of cotton
spinning. Thread could be spun faster on the wheel than
with the traditional distaff. The final Medieval technical
improvement to the spinning wheel was the addition of a
foot treadle that powered the wheel.
The processes of cloth manufacture had been partially
mechanized upon the introduction of fulling mills and
the use of spinning wheels. But in the 18th century the
industry remained almost entirely a domestic or cottage
one, with most of the processing being performed in the
homes of the workers, using comparatively simple tools
that could be operated by hand or foot. The most
complicated apparatus was the loom, but this could
usually be worked by a single weaver.
Evolution of the Clock
In Europe during most of the Middle Ages, there was no
technological advancement in time keeping. Sundial
styles evolved but didn't move far from ancient Egyptian
principles. During these times, simple sundials placed
above doorways. By the 10th century, several types of
pocket sundials were used.
Then, in the first half of the 14th century, large
mechanical clocks began to appear in the towers of
several large Italian cities. These public clocks, which
were weight-driven and regulated by a verge-and-foliot
escapement.
Variations of the verge-and-foliot mechanism reigned
for more than 300 years, but all had the same basic
problem: the period of oscillation of the escapement
depended heavily on the amount of driving force and the
amount of friction in the drive. Like water flow, the rate
was difficult to regulate.
Another advance was the invention of spring-powered
clocks between 1500 and 1510 by Peter Henlein of
Nuremberg. Replacing the heavy drive weights
permitted smaller and portable clocks and watches.
Although they ran slower as the mainspring unwound,
they were popular among wealthy individuals due to
their small size and the fact that they could be put on a
shelf or table instead of hanging on the wall or being
housed in tall cases.
The Dutch polymath and horologist Christiaan Huygens,
the inventor of first precision timekeeping devices
pendulum clock and spiral-hairspring watch. From its
invention in 1656 by Christiaan Huygens until the
1930s, the pendulum clock was the world's most precise
timekeeper, accounting for its widespread use.
The Artesian well was invented in the early 12th century
in France by Carthusian monks at Artois. The main idea
of an Artesian well is to use natural water pressure and
avoid pumping the water out of the earth.
A thin iron rod, with hard cutting edges along its side
would be inserted into a shaft which was drilled in the
ground and repeatedly hit with a hammer. The idea was
to have the rod make contact with the underground
spring or water table and force the water back up the
hole without the aid of a pump.
The key insight was to use the natural water pressure
resident in an aquifer. Certain geographies have large
amounts of water trapped in the earth, reasonably close
to the surface 60-200 feet in depth in the form of an
aquifer, or a layer of soft rock which accumulates water
from either natural water recharge, rain, or from nearby
lake and river systems. The soft rock does not block the
passage of this water into natural holding areas, located
between impervious rock layers. If you sink a shaft into
this aquifer basin and pressure drill, you can force the
water back to the surface.
Water supplies were absolutely critical to medieval
castle life. A chain pump was a device used for
transporting water uphill, and was used for centuries in
ancient China and Egypt, as well as in Europe during the
early Renaissance in Europes dockyards and naval
vessels. The pump consisted of a long loop of chain,
mounted over two wheels at the top and bottom. As the
looped chain was cranked around, either by hand or by
animal-power, the upward moving section of chain
passed through a pipe and drew water up with it, which
then flowed out at the top of the pump.
Historians have estimated that the first European glasses
were invented around the 1280s CE in Venice Italy
since it was the place known for glass making.
The Dutch spectacle maker Hans Janssen and his son
Zacharias built probably the first compound microscope
in the last decade of the 16th century.
Hans Lippershey 1570-1619 was a German-Dutch
spectacle-maker. He is commonly associated with the
invention of the telescope, because he was the first one
who tried to obtain a patent for it. It is, however, unclear
if he was the first one to build a telescope.
Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions
which can be varied to achieve varying mechanical and
electrical properties. Brass is similar to bronze, another
alloy containing copper that uses tin in place of zinc.
The earliest consistent and continued use of
wheelbarrows in Europe begins in the 12th century CE
with an adaptation of the cenovectorium. The
cenovectorium Latin for "muck carrier" was originally a
cart with handles at both ends and carried by two
individuals.
The Invention of Movable Type Printing Press
 Johannes Gutenberg invented the first real printing
press in Germany.
Gutenberg first printed book was the bible.
For the first time in history, the average person had
access to printed materials
The Scientific Revolution 1543-1687
The Scientific Revolution was a time of thinking of the
known natural world in new ways. Scientists of this
period recorded their careful observation and possessed
a willingness to question accepted beliefs.
Causes of Scientific Revolution
When people traded around the world, they brought
new ideas and new items back to Europe.
In the Middle Ages, universities started to study
ancient science.
The Renaissance brought more interest in math and
the human body.
Humanism made people believe that man can
accomplish anything!
The Reformation made people less religious.
The Scientific Revolution was an intellectual movement
that accompanied the Renaissance. For 1500 years the
authorities of Classical Antiquity like Aristotle in
mechanics, Ptolemy in astronomy, and Galen in
medicine stood unquestioned and their works taken as
dogma. Beginning in the 16th century they were now
challenged by scientists who used observation and
experiment instead of relying on pure reason and logic
to establish new theories for the natural world. One
characteristic of this new knowledge was that they were
developed using the evolving scientific method. This
natural philosophy would be progressive and self-
correcting building upon the work of others.

The Scientific Revolution

Nicolaus Copernicus 1473-1543 was a Polish
mathematician and astronomer, who formulated a model
of the universe that placed the Sun rather than Earth at
the center of the universe.
The publication of Copernicus' model in his book De
revolutionibus orbium coelestium On the Revolutions of
the Celestial Spheres, just before his death in 1543, was
a major event in the history of science, triggering the
Copernican Revolution.
Tycho Brahe 1546-1601 is a Danish astronomer whose
work in developing astronomical instruments and in
measuring and fixing the positions of stars paved the
way for future discoveries. His observations-the most
accurate possible before the invention of the telescope-
included a comprehensive study of the solar system and
accurate positions of more than 777 fixed stars.
Johannes Kepler 1571-1630 was a German
mathematician and astronomer who was a key figure of
the Scientific Revolution. His most famous
accomplishment are:
the three laws of planetary motion which laid the
foundation of celestial mechanics.
laid the foundation of modern optics.
formulated the inverse-square law governing the
intensity of light
invented an improved refracting telescope
correctly explained the working of a human eye.
 made a systematic work on the calculation of areas
and volumes by infinitesimal techniques and laid the the
basis of solid geometry and integral calculus
he derived logarithms purely based on mathematics,
independent of Napier's tables published in 1614.
Galileo Galilei 1564-1642 born in Pisa, Italy and lived
in Florence was an astronomer, physicist and engineer,
sometimes described as a polymath. Galileo has been
called the "father of observational astronomy", the
"father of modern physics", the "father of the scientific
method", and the "father of modern science. He was the
most well-known and successful scientist of the
Scientific Revolution, save Isaac Newton.

If I have seen further than others, it is by standing upon

the shoulders of giants
This quote is from a letter written to fellow scientist,
Robert Hooke in February 1675. The phrase is
understood to mean that if Newton had been able to
discover more about the universe than others, then it was
because he was working in the light of discoveries made
by fellow scientists, either in his own time or earlier.
Sir Isaac Newton 1642-1727, an English physicist and
mathematician, more than anyone else, led the world
towards scientific revolution. His book Principia is
regarded by many as the most important scientific work.
Isaac Newton changed the way how numerous
phenomena were viewed by scholars and due to his
influence in the development of humankind he is
regarded by many as the greatest scientist of all time.
His accomplishments include:
his three laws of motion and the conservation of
momentum laid the foundation of classical mechanics
first to formulate the notion of gravity as a universal
force
discovered the generalized binomial theorem in 1665
invented calculus
formulated an empirical law of cooling
studied the speed of sound
built the first practical reflecting telescope
 developed a theory of color based on observation that
a prism decomposes white light into a visible spectrum
inferred correctly the oblateness of earths spheroidal
figure
De humani corporis fabrica libri septem is a set of books
on human anatomy written by Andreas Vesalius and
published in 1543. It was a major advance in the history
of anatomy over the long-dominant.
Luigi Galvani 1737-1798 was an Italian physician,
physicist, biologist and philosopher, who discovered
animal electricity. He is recognized as the pioneer of
bioelectromagnetics. In 1780, he and his wife Lucia
discovered that the muscles of dead frogs' legs twitched
when struck by an electrical spark.

Robert Boyle 1627-1691 was an Anglo-Irish natural

philosopher, chemist, physicist, and inventor. Boyle is
largely regarded today as the first modern chemist, and
therefore one of the founders of modern chemistry, and
one of the pioneers of modern experimental scientific
method. He is best known for Boyle's law which
describes the inversely proportional relationship
between the absolute pressure and volume of a gas, if
the temperature is kept constant within a closed system.
Among his works, The Sceptical Chymist is seen as a
cornerstone book in the field of chemistry.
In 1656 Otto von Guericke 1602-1686 invented the air
pump, and demonstrates the properties of a vacuum by
using his air pump to take the air from within his famous
"Magdeberg hemispheres," which, though easily
separated in normal conditions, could not be parted by
two teams of sixteen horses once he had removed the
air. He thus proves that air indeed has weight and exerts
pressure.
A large step in the understanding of the properties of
gases was the invention of the barometer, to measure air
pressure, by Italian physicist and mathematician
Evangelista Torricelli 1608-1647, in 1643. He filled a
sealed tube with mercury, and with the open end
immersed in mercury, noted that the height fell in the
tube to a consistent level, leaving a void above it.
Torricellis experiments started a controversy since
Aristotle has said that vacuums do not exist in nature
and air has no weight.
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek 1632-1723 was a Dutch
scientist is commonly known as "the Father of
Microbiology" and is best known for his pioneering
work in microscopy and for his contributions toward the
establishment of microbiology as a scientific discipline.
In 1674 he discovers microorganisms and observes of
spermatozoa arguing they are not forms of disease but a
source of reproductive material.
An English physician William Harvey 1578-1657 was
the first to demonstrate, by dissection and in detail, the
continuous systemic circulation and properties of blood
being pumped to the brain and body by the heart in his
Anatomical Exercises on the Movement of the Heart and
Blood De motu cordis He broke with the beliefs of the
Galen who assumed that the blood consisted of two
types, one in the veins and the other in the arteries.
Rene Descartes 1596-1650 was a French philosopher,
mathematician, and scientist. His best known
philosophical statement is "cogito, ergo sum" "I think,
therefore I am" Descartes has often been called the
father of modern philosophy. He laid the foundation for
17th-century continental rationalism.
Descartes's influence in mathematics is equally
apparent; the Cartesian coordinate system was named
after him. He is credited as the father of analytical
geometry, the bridge between algebra and geometry-
used in the discovery of infinitesimal calculus and
analysis.
The Age of Enlightenment: The Age of Reason
The Age of Enlightenment also known as the Age of
Reason was an intellectual and philosophical movement
that dominated the world of ideas in Europe during the
17th and 18th centuries. The Enlightenment emerged out
of a European intellectual and scholarly movement
known as Renaissance humanism and was also preceded
by the Scientific Revolution and the work of Francis
Bacon, among others. French historians traditionally
date its beginning with the death of Louis XIV of France
in 1715 until the 1789 outbreak of the French
Revolution. Most end it with the beginning of the 19th
century.
Antoine Lavoisier 1743-1794 prominent French chemist
and leading figure in the 18th-century chemical
revolution who developed an experimentally based
theory of the chemical reactivity of oxygen and
coauthored the modern system for naming chemical
substances. Having also served as a leading financier
and public administrator before the French Revolution,
he was executed with other financiers during the
revolutionary terror.
Joseph Priestley 1733-1804 was an English chemist,
natural philosopher, separatist theologian, grammarian,
multi-subject educator, and liberal political theorist who
published over 150 works. He has historically been
credited with the discovery of oxygen, having isolated it
in its gaseous state. During his lifetime, Priestley's
considerable scientific reputation rested on his invention
of carbonated water, his writings on electricity, and his
discovery of several "airs" gases, the most famous being
what Priestley dubbed "dephlogisticated air" oxygen.
However, Priestley's determination to defend phlogiston
theory and to reject what would become the chemical
revolution eventually left him isolated within the
scientific community.
Alessandro Volta 1745-1827 was an Italian physicist,
chemist, and pioneer of electricity and power who is
credited as the inventor of the electric battery and the
discoverer of methane. He invented the Voltaic pile in
1799, and reported the results of his experiments in 1800
in a two-part letter to the President of the Royal Society.
With this invention Volta proved that electricity could
be generated chemically and debunked the prevalent
theory that electricity was generated solely by living
beings animal electricity of Luigi Galvani. Volta's
invention sparked a great amount of scientific
excitement and led others to conduct similar
experiments which eventually led to the development of
the field of electrochemistry.
Pierre-Simon marquis de Laplace 1749-1827 was a
French scholar and polymath whose work was important
to the development of engineering, mathematics,
statistics, physics, astronomy, and philosophy. His work
translated the geometric study of classical mechanics to
one based on calculus.
Laplace is remembered as one of the greatest scientists
of all time. Sometimes referred to as the French Newton
or Newton of France, he has been described as
possessing a phenomenal natural mathematical faculty
superior to that of any of his contemporaries. He was
Napoleon's examiner when Napoleon attended the Ecole
Militaire in Paris in 1784.
As the role of universities in institutionalized science
began to diminish, learned societies became the
cornerstone of organized science. After 1700, a
tremendous number of official academies and societies
were founded in Europe, and by 1789 there were over
seventy official scientific societies. The 18th century
might well merit the epithet of the Age of Academies.
The essential spirit of the age as embodied in the motto
of the Royal Society of London 1660, Nullius in Verba
Takes nobodys word for it. This is the signature of the
Fellows determination to establish facts only via
experimentation.
The Royal Society, is a learned society and the United
Kingdom's national academy of sciences. Founded on
28 November 1660, it was granted a royal charter by
King Charles II as "The Royal Society". It is the oldest
national scientific institution in the world.
The French Academy of Sciences is a learned society,
founded in 1666 by Louis XIV, to encourage and protect
the spirit of French scientific research. It was at the
forefront of scientific developments in Europe in the
17th and 18th centuries, and is one of the earliest
Academies of Sciences.
THE PHILOSOPHES
18TH century French intellectuals
Interest in addressing a broad audience
Committed to reform
Celebrated the scientific revolution
Science applied to society

What was this Enlightenment?

Characterized by an increase in intellectualism deep
thinking which had the affects of...
Reform society through reason and individualism
Challenged tradition, religion and superstition
Promoted solving social problems using scientific
method-
developed from scientific revolution associated
with the Renaissance
Challenged Absolutism
Impact of Enlightenment
 The writings and ideas of enlightenment thinkers will
be used to challenge monarchy
Revolutions will ensue throughout the 1700s and
1800s based around enlightenment thought
Many of these revolutions will bring about the first
republics people choosing their governments since
Rome
TOPICS
British Agricultural Revolution
The First Industrial Revolution
Evolution of the Steam Engine
Advancements in:
Textile industry
Iron and Steel making
Transportation
Communication
Electricity
The birth of the Petroleum Industry
The birth of the car industry
The British Agricultural Revolution of the mid-17th to
late 19th century was significant because it increased
agricultural productivity in Britain and freed peasants
from working in the farms allowing them to migrate
from the rural areas to the cities where they can work in
the factories. This effectively ended feudalism in Britain
and ushered in capitalism. The British Agricultural
Revolution was the precursor to the First Industrial
Revolution that started in Britain. There are three main
events in this period:
1. The Enclosure Movement
2. Charles Townshends crop rotation
3. Jethro Tulls seed drill
The Enclosure Movement
In the decades and centuries before the 1700s, British
farmers planted their crops on small strips of land while
allowing their animals to graze on common fields shared
collectively. However, in the 1700s, the British
parliament passed legislation, referred to as the
Enclosure Acts, which allowed the common areas to
become privately owned. This led to wealthy farmers
buying up large sections of land in order to create larger
and more complex farms. Ultimately, this forced smaller
farmers off of their land. Having lost their way of life,
many of these farmers went to local towns and cities in
search of work. This was important to the overall
Industrial Revolution, because it helped create a system
that created a large workforce for the factories and
mines.
The Four Field System
Charles Townshend successfully introduced a new
method of crop rotation on his farms. He divided his
fields up into four different types of produce with wheat
in the first field, clover or ryegrass in the second, oats or
barley in the third and, in the fourth, turnips or swedes.
The turnips were used as fodder to feed livestock in
winter. Clover and ryegrass were grazed by livestock.
Using this system, he found that he could grow more
crops and get a better yield from the land.
The four field system was successful because it
improved the amount of food produced.
Clover is a plant which is able to add nitrogen
compounds to the soil because its roots have special
structures, called root nodules, attached to them. Inside
these nodules are found symbiotic bacteria which feed
by fixing atmospheric nitrogen and producing nitrates
nitrogen-containing salts. The clover, which is more
nutritious than grass, was used for grazing the livestock.
In turn, the livestock produced manure which could be
ploughed back into the soil.

Jethro Tulls Seed Drill

Jethro Tull invented the seed drill in 1701 as a way to
plant more efficiently. Prior to his invention, sowing
seeds was done by hand, by scattering them on the
ground or placing them in the ground individually, such
as with bean and pea seeds.
His seed drill included a hopper to store the seed, a
cylinder to move it, and a funnel to direct it. A plow at
the front created the row, and a harrow at the back
covered the seed with soil. It was the first agricultural
machine with moving parts.
The First Industrial Revolution 1760-1840
Textile Production: Liverpool and Manchester
Iron Production: Birmingham
Coal Mining: Newcastle
Why did it start in Britain?
Britains Coal
Britain had a large quantity of coal which was found to
be an effective form of power. Britains coal could be
mined easily. The coal mines were also close to the sea
which allowed the it to be easily shipped to other
European countries.
Britains Iron
Britain also had large quantities of iron. Englishman
Abraham Darby discovered a cheaper, easier method to
produce cast iron. Iron was an essential material, used to
make everything from appliances, tools and machines,
to ships, buildings and infrastructure.
Britains Intellectual Climate
Britain allowed its scientists, inventors and free thinkers
to work, discuss and debate openly without the threat of
the church or state. This provided the atmosphere for a
cascade of scientific breakthroughs. However, this was
not the case across Europe where people were censored
by their church and state.
Historical Significance of the Industrial Revolution
 An ancient Greek or Roman would have been just as
comfortable in Europe in 1700 because daily life was
not much different-agriculture and technology were not
much changed in 2000 years
The Industrial Revolution changed human life
drastically
More was created in the last 250 years than in the
previous 2500 years of known human history
What was the Industrial Revolution?
The Industrial Revolution was a fundamental change
in the way goods were produced, from human labor to
machines
The more efficient means of production and
subsequent higher levels of production triggered far-
reaching changes to industrialized societies
The Industrial Revolution
Machines were invented which replaced human labor
New energy sources were developed to power the new
machinery-water, steam, electricity, oil gas, kerosene
 Some historians place advances in atomic, solar, and
wind energy at the later stages of the Industrial
Revolution
Increased use of metals and minerals
Aluminum, coal, copper, iron, etc.
Transportation improved
Ships
Wooden ships Iron ships Steel ships
Wind-powered sails Steam-powered boilers
Trains
Automobiles
Communication improved
Telegraph
Telephone
Radio

Developments
Mass production of goods
Increased numbers of goods
 Increased diversity of goods produced
Development of factory system of production
Rural-to-urban migration
People left farms to work in cities
Development of capitalism
Financial capital for continued industrial growth
Development and growth of new socio-economic
classes
Working class, bourgeoisie, and wealthy industrial
class
Commitment to research and development
Investments in new technologies
Industrial and governmental interest in promoting
invention, the sciences, and overall industrial growth
Factory System
Developed to replace the domestic system of
production
Faster method of production
Workers concentrated in a set location
Production anticipated demand
 For example: Under the domestic system, a woman
might select fabric and have a businessperson give it to a
home-based worker to make into a dress. Under the
factory system, the factory owner bought large lots of
popular fabrics and had workers create multiple dresses
in common sizes, anticipating that women would buy
them.
 Domestic System Factory System
Methods Hand tools Machinery
Location Home Factory
Ownersh Small hand tools Large power-
ip and owned by worker driven machines
Kinds of owned by the
Tool capitalist
Producti Small level of Large level of
on production production
Output Sold only to local Sold to a
market worldwide market
Manufactured on Manufactured in
per-order basis anticipation of
demand
Nature of Worker Worker typically
Work manufactured entire made one part of
Done by item the larger whole
Worker Henry Fords
assembly line early
20th century kept
workers stationary
Hours of Worker worked as Worker worked set
Work much as he she daily hours
would and could,
according to
demand
The Textile Industry
Textiles-cloths or fabrics
First industry to be industrialized
Great Britain learned a lot about textiles from India
cotton and China silk
Great Britain imported raw materials like cotton first
from India then from North America and silk from
China.
Necessity Is the Mother of Invention
Spinning machine
Need to speed up weaving
Power loom created
RICHARD ARKWRIGHT
A significant invention of the Industrial Revolution was
the water frame, which was invented by Richard
Arkwright in 1769.
The machine replaced the need for manual labor and
enabled the production of inexpensive spun cotton by
using the moving force of a creek or river that spun a
shaft. This was because the water frame essentially
mechanized all of the process of spinning the yarn and
required very little human labor.
The water frame, which could produce a much stronger
yarn than that produced by the spinning jenny. The
water frame was a major advancement over previous
types of machinery including James Hargreaves'
spinning jenny.
EDMUND CARTWRIGHT
A significant invention of the Industrial Revolution was
the power loom. The first power loom was developed by
Edmund Cartwright in 1784 and completed in 1785.
Edmund Cartwright was an English inventor and is
remembered today for inventing the power loom along
with other devices important to the textile industry in
England. A loom is a device that is used to weave
together threads in order to produce a fabric. Traditional
handlooms were slow and required several laborers to
operate. Cartwrights invention of the power loom was
significant because it used mechanization to automate
much of the weaving process.
Necessity Is the Mother of Invention
Power loom
 Increased demand for raw cotton
Invention of the cotton gin
In 1775 Samuel Crompton produced his Spinning Mule,
so called because it was a hybrid that combined features
of two earlier inventions, the Spinning Jenny and the
Water Frame. The mule produced a strong, fine and soft
yarn which could be used in all kinds of textiles.
The machine simultaneously drew out and gave the final
twisting to the cotton fibres fed into it, reproducing
mechanically the actions of hand spinning.
The Spinning Mule could also be driven by the new
steam engines that were being produced by James Watt
and Matthew Boulton.

The Birth and Growth of the Textile Industry

Samuel Crompton English
Spinning mule, 1779
Combined the spinning jenny and the water frame
into a single device, increasing the production of fine
thread
Edward Cartwright English
 Power loom, 1785
Water-powered device that automatically and quickly
wove thread into cloth
Eli Whitney American
Cotton gin, 1793
Device separated raw cotton from cotton seeds,
increasing the cotton supply while lowering the cost of
raw cotton
Elias Howe American
Sewing machine, 1846
Speed of sewing greatly increased
The Steam Engine
The steam engine, either used on its own or as part of a
train, is the iconic invention of the industrial revolution.
Experiments in the seventeenth century turned, by the
middle of the nineteenth, into a technology which
powered huge factories, allowed deeper mines and
moved a transport network. In a steam engine, hot
steam, usually supplied by a boiler, expands under
pressure, and part of the heat energy is converted into
work.
Development of Steam Engines
Early water power involved mills built over fast-
moving streams and rivers
Early water power had problems
Not enough rivers to provide the power needed to
meet growing demand
Rivers and streams might be far removed from raw
materials, workers, and markets
Rivers are prone to flooding and drying
Thomas Saverys Pump
The first commercially successful industrial use of
steam power was due to Thomas Savery in London in
1698. He took out a patent for a new Invention for
Raising of Water and occasioning Motion to all Sorts of
Mill Work by the Impellent Force of Fire in 1698. His
apparatus depended on the condensation of steam in a
vessel, creating a partial vacuum into which water was
forced by atmospheric pressure. It generated about one
horsepower hp and was used in numerous water works
and in a few mines hence its "brand name", The Miner's
Friend. Savery's pump was economical in small
horsepower ranges, but was prone to boiler explosions
in larger sizes.
Thomas Newcomens Steam Engine
The first commercially successful piston steam engine
was made by Thomas Newcomen, who erected his first
machine in 1712. The engine was operated by
condensing steam drawn into the cylinder, thereby
creating a partial vacuum which allowed the
atmospheric pressure to push the piston into the
cylinder. The piston was connected to one end of a
rocking beam, the other end of which carried the
pumping rod in the mine shaft. His engines were robust
but unsophisticated and produced power upwards of 5
hp. Their heavy fuel consumption made them
uneconomical when used where coal was expensive, but
in the British coalfields they performed an essential
service by keeping deep mines clear of water and were
extensively adopted for this purpose. A total of 1,454
engines had been built by 1800.
James Watts Steam Engine
Newcomens atmospheric steam engine was perfected by
James Watt when the latter patented a separate
condenser in 1769. Whereas Newcomens engine used a
single cylinder were the steam was expanded and then
cooled, Watt separated the two actions of heating the
cylinder with hot steam and cooling it to condense the
steam for every stroke of the engine. The upper part of
the cylinder was closed off thereby making the low
pressure steam drive the top of the piston instead of the
atmosphere. In Newcomens engine cooling water had
been injected directly into the cylinder, which cooled the
cylinder and wasted steam but in Watts design the use of
a condenser chamber and a steam jacket kept steam
from condensing in the cylinder improved fuel
efficiency by 75 to 80 . The engines generated power
from 5 to 10 hp.
James Watts Steam Engine Rotative Type
The original design of a single-acting reciprocating type
i.e., applying power only on the downward stroke of the
piston was transformed in 1783 by Watt into a double
acting rotative type, which meant that it could be used to
directly drive the rotary machinery of a cotton mill and
to large-scale grain milling. Many other industries
followed in exploring the possibilities of steam power
and it soon became widely used. With the help of
industrialist Matthew Boulton from 1775 and 1800, they
produced some 500 engines of both types, which despite
their high cost in relation to a Newcomen engine were
eagerly acquired by the tin-mining industrialists of
Cornwall and other power users who badly needed a
more economic and reliable source of energy.
Steam Engine Horizontal Type and Table Type Steam
Engine
Until about 1800 the most common pattern of steam
engine was the beam engine, built as an integral part of a
stone or brick engine-house, but soon various patterns of
self-contained rotative engines readily removable, but
not on wheels were developed, such as the table engine.
By this time also the conventional beam-type vertical
engine began to be replaced by horizontal-cylinder
designs.
Trevithickss Puffing Devil
The next improvement on the steam engine was the use
of higher steam pressures. Cornish engineer Richard
Trevithick and the American Oliver Evans constructed
machines that used high-pressure steam which was then
passed to the other side of the piston, where it
condensed and there it acted as a sub-atmospheric
pressure engine. High pressure yielded an engine and
boiler compact enough to be used on mobile road and
rail locomotives and steam boats. The first successful
steam locomotive was the Puffing Devil or Puffer in
South Wales in 1804. The success, however, was
technological rather than commercial because the
locomotive fractured the cast iron track of the tramway.
The age of the locomotive and railroad had to wait until
the development of steel.
Cornish Steam Engine
Meanwhile, the stationary steam engine advanced
steadily to meet an ever-widening market of industrial
requirements. High-pressure steam led to the
development of the large beam pumping engines with a
complex sequence of valve actions, which became
universally known as Cornish engines; their distinctive
characteristic was the cutoff of steam injection before
the stroke was complete in order to allow the steam to
do work by expanding. These engines were used all over
the world for heavy pumping duties. Cornish engines,
however, were probably most common in Cornwall
itself, where they were used in large numbers in the tin
and copper mining industries.
Sterling Steam Engine
Although all the successful engines during this era used
steam as its moving fluid, Robert Stirling in 1816
invented an external combustion engine that used air.
The hot-air engine depends for its power on the
expansion and displacement of air inside a cylinder,
heated by the external and continuous combustion of the
fuel. Various constructional problems limited the size of
hot-air engines to very small units, so that although they
were widely used for driving fans and similar light
duties before the availability of the electric motor, they
did not assume great technological significance.
Compound Steam Engine
The use of high-pressure steam led to the practice of
compounding, of using the steam twice or more at
descending pressures before it was finally condensed or
exhausted. Arthur Woolf in 1811 produced a compound
beam engine with a high-pressure cylinder placed
alongside the low-pressure cylinder, with both piston
rods attached to the same pin of the parallel motion,
which was a parallelogram of rods connecting the piston
to the beam.
McNaughts Steam Engine
In 1845 John McNaught introduced an alternative form
of compound beam engine, with the high-pressure
cylinder on the opposite end of the beam from the low-
pressure cylinder, and working with a shorter stroke.
Other methods of compounding steam engines were
adopted, and the practice became increasingly
widespread; in the second half of the 19th century triple-
or quadruple-expansion engines were being used in
industry and marine propulsion.
Models of a Steam Engine
Electronic Dynamo
By the 1880s the electric dynamo was invented and a
demand for electricity stimulated new thinking about the
steam engine. The problem was that a normal
reciprocating engine i.e., with a piston moving backward
and forward in a cylinder could not achieve rotational
speeds to make the dynamo efficient. The first radical
modification was to enclose the working parts of the
engine and force a lubricant around them under
pressure.

Charles Parsons Steam Turbine

The invention of the steam turbine by Sir Charles
Parsons in 1884 constituted a major technological
innovation working on a completely different principle.
By passing high pressure steam through the blades of a
series of rotors of gradually increasing size to allow for
the expansion of the steam the energy of the steam was
converted to very rapid circular motion, which was ideal
for generating electricity.
Modern Steam Turbine
Many refinements have since been made in turbine
construction and the size of turbines has been vastly
increased, but the basic principles remain the same, and
this method still provides the main source of electric
power. Even the most modern nuclear power plants use
steam turbines. In marine propulsion, too, the steam
turbine remains an important source of power despite
competition from the internal combustion engine.
The History of Steel
Steel is an iron alloy, with carbon being the most
commonly used alloying element.
 The carbon is important within the structure as
without it the pure iron metal can become soft, ductile
and weak.
In the 17th century irons properties were well
understood but as urbanisation grew in Europe there was
a larger and more desperate need for a more versatile
structural metal.
How To Smell Iron?
Wood
Wood was needed as timber and it takes too much
wood to smelt iron.
Coal
Although cheap and plentiful, coal contained Sulphur
that made the iron too brittle to be of any use.
Abraham Darby
In 1709, Abraham Darby finally succeed in smelting
iron with coke.
Coke
Coke is a solid carbonaceous residue derived from
low-ash, low-sulfur bituminous coal.
 Coke is used as a fuel and as a reducing agent in
smelting iron ore in a blast furnace.
It is further used in making steel
Abraham Darbys cooking process, which baked the
impurities from coal, gradually replaced scarce charcoal
as the fuel for iron production.
19th Century
Iron was being used increasingly for railroad
development in the 19th century, however there was still
a need for a more versatile metal and the growing
market provided an incentive to find a solution to the
problems of iron-namely its brittleness and
inefficiencies.
Steel was still unproven as a structural metal and the
production for it was slow and expensive.
1865 Developments
In 1856 Henry Bessemer designed an effective way to
introduce oxygen to molten iron to reduce the carbon
content within the alloy. This is known as the Bessemer
Process.
 Henry Bessemer used a pear shaped receptacle the
converter where iron can be heated whilst oxygen is
blown through the molten metal.
As it is blown through it reacts with the carbon,
releasing carbon dioxide and producing more pure iron.
Bessemers Smelting Process
Bessemer Process was the first inexpensive industrial
process for the mass production of steel
Remove impurities from the iron by blowing air
through it
Allowed the manufacture of bridges, railroads,
skyscrapers, and large ships
Transportation
Nicholas Cugnot, a French army officer is generally
given credit for developing the three wheeled, steam
driven horseless carriage in 1769. The carriage was later
used in 1770.
Transportation improved because of the developments
in steam and coal.
American Robert Fulton built the first commercially
successful steamboat.
 British engineer Richard Trevithick built the first
railway steam locomotive.
British engineer John McAdam developed a new
process for road construction which made roads easier to
travel on.
On August 17, 1807, the Clermont, Robert Fultons
first American steamboat, left New York City for
Albany, serving as the inaugural commercial steamboat
service in the world. The ship traveled from New York
City to Albany making history with a 150-mile trip that
took 32 hours at an average speed of about five miles
per hour.
Richard Trevithick first developed an engine called
The Puffing Devil, that traveled not on rails, but on
roads. Its limited ability to retain steam prevented its
commercial success, however.
In 1804, Trevithick successfully tested the first
steam-powered locomotive to ride on rails. At seven
tons, however, the locomotive-called The Pennydarren-
was so heavy it would break its own rails.
The Rocket a pioneer steam locomotive built by the
English engineers George and Robert Stephenson ran in
1825 on a 64 km line between the cities of Liverpool
and Manchester.
For a short stretch the Rocket achieved a speed of 36
miles 58 km per hour.
Development in Trasportation System
Roads, Railways and Canals were built
Canals-Canals began to be built in the late eighteenth
century to link major manufacturing centres
Rail Road-The construction of major railways
connecting the larger cities and town
The Second Industrial Revolution 1850-1914
Essential Question
What was the Second Industrial Revolution and what
differentiated it from the First Industrial Revolution?
1st Industrial 2nd Industrial
Revolution Revolution
Time Frame c. 1760-1830 c. 1850-1914
Methods of Hand Machine Increased
Production Automation
Mass Textiles Steel Bessemer
Production Process
Power Water, Coal and Petroleum and
Sources Steam Electricity
New Engines Steam Engine Internal Combustion
Inventions Spinning Jenny Automobiles
Water Frame Chemicals
Spinning Mule Railroads
Cotton Gin Telegraph,
 Telephone and Radio
Standard of AWFUL Still bad, but
Living Think Tocqueville in improving Sewers,
Manchester Sanitation, etc.
Expansion of Middle
class
The Second Industrial Revolution
The first Industrial Revolution started in Britain but
the Second Industrial Revolution started in the United
States
This new era began with numerous discoveries that
significantly altered manufacturing, transportation and
communication which include:
Bessemer process
Electric dynamo and generators
At first coal fired steam engines were the power
sources for factories but increasingly dynamos and
generators began replacing the steam engine
There was an abundance of inexpensive steel because
of the newly invented Bessemer process.
Steel was used in construction of heavy machinery,
railroads, and bridges and unlike iron steel does not rust
and much stronger
Using steel to create a skeletal frame in buildings
allowed architects to design larger, multistory buildings
Electricity
 Scientists like Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania,
Alessandro Volta of the University of Pavia, Italy, and
Michael Faraday of Britain were the first pioneers in
electricity. Benjamin Franklin demonstrated that
lightning is static electricity and Alessandro Volta
produced electric currents using chemical reactions
within voltaic piles or batteries. But it was Faradays
experiments in 1831 that discovered the elusive
relationship between electricity
and magnetism. He mechanically generated electric
currents and utilized such current in producing rotary
motion thus making the first electric dynamo and
electric motor.
Simple Electric Motor and Simple Electric Dynamo
The mechanical generator and the electric motor depend
on the same principle which is that a rotating a coil of
wire between the poles of a strong magnet produced a
current. Conversely passing a current through the coil
causes it to turn. Both generators and motors underwent
continuous development in the 19th century particularly
in the design of the armature the coil of wire and
produced the dynamo. This made the large-scale
generation of electricity commercially feasible and
available to many industries.
Gas Lighting
 The first use of electricity however was in lighting and
its main competitor was the use of coal gas.
William Murdock in 1792 at Cornwall experimented
in lighting the buildings there by gas, and use of gas
lighting spread all over in Britain in the first half of the
19th century. The first models used a fishtail jet of
burning gas, but were improved by the invention of the
gas mantle because of competition from electric
lighting.
Thomas Edisons Light Bulb
Thomas Edison did not invent the incandescent bulb
but he was the first to find new uses for electricity.
The development of the carbon-filament bulb showed
how this form of energy was better than gas lighting. In
a filament lamp a very thin conductor could be made to
glow brightly when an electric current passed through it.
The bulb had to be sealed in a vacuum to prevent the
filament from burning out.
Edison and the English chemist Sir Joseph Swan made
lamps with different types of filaments and eventually
choosing carbon. The new invention was an immediate
commercial success and different sizes of bulbs could be
made depending on the circumstances. However gas
lighting still remained popular for some forms of street
lighting until the middle of the 20th century.
Dynamo-Michael Faraday 1832
The dynamo was the first electrical generator to power
factories. This produced direct current DC electricity
This dynamo, connected directly to a high-speed
steam engine produced direct current
DC at Thomas A. Edison's electric power station in New
York City. Edison set out in
1878 to provide an electrical distribution system to bring
lighting into houses. His first
filament lamp lit on October 21, 1879.
Tesla AC Motor-Nikola Tesla 1888
Also called an alternator, Tesla's motor produced
alternating current AC. This was more efficient in
providing electricity over great distances than Edisons
DC dynamo. It has since been adopted as main source of
power for industry and residential housing.
Electric Trolley
In the 1880s and 1890s due to the availability of
electric generating equipment urban electric tramways
became popular and electric traction on subway systems
were used such as the London Underground.
Petroleum
The main demand for crude oil at first was for the
kerosene, the middle fraction distilled from the raw
material, which was used as the fuel in oil lamps. The
heavy fraction also yielded paraffin wax and lubricating
oils for machineries and asphalt for paving roads and
waterproofing boats. Most of the other products were
discarded.
In America in the late 1700s explorers reported the
Seneca Indians practice of skimming oil from
bituminous matter floating at the surface of oil springs at
Oil Creek, Pennsylvania. In 1859 Edwin L. Drake bored
successfully to strike oil. The success of the well, plus a
demand for kerosene, triggered an oil rush thus
inaugurating the search for and exploitation of the deep
oil resources of the world. It marked the beginning of
the modern petroleum industry.
Oil Refinery
The most volatile fraction of the oil, gasoline, remained
an embarrassing waste product until
it was discovered that this could be burned in a light
internal-combustion engine; the result
was an ideal prime mover for vehicles. The way was
prepared for this development by the
success of oil engines burning cruder fractions of oil.
Kerosene-burning oil engines, modeled
closely on existing gas engines, had emerged in the
1870s, and by the late 1880s engines using the vapor of
heavy oil in a jet of compressed air and working on the
Otto cycle had become an attractive proposition for light
duties in places too isolated to use town gas.
International Combustion Engine
The problem with the steam engine and its boiler and
with electrical generators are they are too big to be used
for small vehicles.
A new machine had to be developed that has to be
sufficiently small and light to be carried by the vehicle.
An example of this is the internal combustion engine.
Lenoirs Engine Using Natural Gas
Etienne Lenoir made the first successful gas engine in
Paris in 1859. It was patterned
after the horizontal steam engine, with an air-gas natural
gas mixture ignited by an electric spark and introduced
on both sides of the piston. The engine was expensive to
operate but was technically satisfactory.
Otto Gas Engine
It was not until the refinement introduced by the
German inventor Nikolaus Otto in 1878 that the gas
engine became a commercial success. He used gasoline
rather than natural gas for its fuel. Otto adopted the four-
stroke cycle of induction-compression-firing-exhaust
that has been known by his name ever since. Gas
engines thus replaced steam engines with their big
boilers and high maintenance costs as the new power
source for small industrial establishments.
Internal Combustion Engine-Gottlieb Daimler 1886
The internal combustion engine used gasoline to
power an engine. The first engines were used in
industry. This would later on provide power to the first
automobile.
The Diesel Engine
The greatest refinements in the heavy-oil engine are
associated with the work of Rudolf Diesel of Germany
in 1892. Working from thermodynamic principles of
minimizing heat losses, Diesel devised an engine in
which the very high compression of the air in the
cylinder secured the spontaneous ignition of the oil
when it was injected in a carefully determined quantity.
This ensured high thermal efficiency, but it also made
necessary a heavy structure because of the high
compression maintained, and also a rather rough
performance at low speeds compared with other oil
engines. It was therefore not immediately suitable for
locomotive purposes, but Diesel went on improving his
engine and in the 20th century it became an important
form of
vehicular propulsion.
Diesel Engine-Rudolf
Diesel 1892
The diesel engine designed for the vehicle proved fuel
could be ignited without a spark by using petroleum.
This was in contrast to the engine developed by Daimler
Benz which ran on gasoline and needed a spark.
The First Gasoline Automobile
Meantime the light high-speed gasoline petrol engine
predominated. The first applications of the new engine
to locomotion were made in Germany, where Gottlieb
Daimler and Carl Benz equipped the first motorcycle
and the first motorcar respectively with engines of their
own design in 1885. Benzs horseless carriage became
the prototype of the modern automobile, the
development and consequences of which can be more
conveniently considered in relation to the revolution in
transport. By the end of the 19th century, the internal-
combustion engine was challenging the steam engine in
many industrial and transport applications.
The Wright brothers-Orville and Wilbur were two
American pioneers generally credited with inventing,
building, and flying the world's first successful motor-
operated airplane. They made the first controlled,
sustained flight of a powered heavier-than-air aircraft
with the Wright Flyer on December 17, 1903.
Advances in Communication
The great innovations in communications derived from
electricity.
The first was the electric telegraph invented by two
British inventors, William Cooke and Charles
Wheatstone, who collaborated on the work and took out
a joint patent in 1837. Its first use was for signaling on
the British railways
Almost simultaneously, the American inventor Samuel
F.B. Morse who devised the signaling code called the
Morse Code that was subsequently adopted all over the
world..
The electric telephone, invented by Alexander Graham
Bell in 1876 and adopted quickly for short-range oral
communication
By the end of the century, Guglielmo Marconi had
transmitted messages over many miles in Britain and
was preparing the apparatus with which he made the
first transatlantic radio communication on Dec. 12,
1901.
The smaller Cooke and Wheatstone telegraph
instrument, now believed to date from about 1849
Science Museum Science or Society Picture Library.
The First Electrical Communication Device
 In 1837, invented by Samuel Morse came the
Electrical Telegraph. With this device he sent the first
public message in 1844.
The First Telephone
The first telephone was invented on March 10th of
1876 by Alexander Graham Bell.
The first sentence said over the first telephone was, Mr.
Watson-come her- I want to see you.
He patented it as the talking telegraph
The First Typewriter
In 1829, the typewriter was invented by W.S Burt on
the 4th of April. It was the most important device of its
days.
The Improved Typewriter
The improved typewriter or the modern typewriter was
made on the 4th of April in 1867. Christopher Scholes
invented it in 1867. Even though it is improved from the
last, it still has similar functions.
The typewriter gave more jobs to women who did
clerical work and the main task was to type.
Guglielmo Marconi Italian-1874-1937
Developed technology to send the first long-distance
wireless radio telegraphs
1897-started the Marconi Wireless Telegraph
Company
 1899-transmitted a message across the English
Channel
1901-transmitted a message across the Atlantic
Ocean