Australian Asphalt Pavement Association

Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP)

Management Plan
___________________________________

Version: v1.0
12 June 2018

Published by
National Technology & Leadership Committee

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 3.0 Australia License.
Preface
This Reclaimed Asphalt Pavement (RAP) Management Plan has been prepared for use by AAPA
members involved in the processing of asphalt millings from the cold milling process, returned asphalt
and plant waste. The primary aim of this document is to set a standard for control of quality and
consistency in the winning of RAP and the delivery of the processed RAP for the reuse in asphalt
mixes.

Acknowledgements
As with all AAPA publications, this document was the result of a collaborative effort between AAPA
members. AAPA gratefully acknowledges the input to this document provided by various
representatives of road agencies and asphalt producers. The AAPA National Technology and
Leadership Committee would especially like to thank the Queensland Department of Transport and
Main Roads, the Australian Road Research Board and the AAPA NTLC Asphalt Subcommittee for
their contributions.

Disclaimer
Although the information in this specification guide is believed to be correct at the time of printing, the Australian Asphalt Pavement
Association, and agents of that organisation together with individuals involved in the preparation of this specification guide do not
accept any contractual, tortious or other form of liability for its contents or any consequences arising from its use. People using
the information contained in this guide should apply, and rely upon, their own skills and judgement to the particular issue they are
considering.
Suggestions for improvements are welcomed, please forward suggestions to the AAPA head office. Contact details available at
aapa.asn.au.

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1. Introduction

Asphalt is 100% recyclable and the most reused construction material in the world. AAPA
and its members strongly support the principles of reuse both from a sustainability and a
cost efficiency perspective. Reuse of asphalt will reduce the demand for imported bitumen
and need for newly crushed high-quality aggregates. The value of RAP is maximised by
reusing it in asphalt pavements as it replaces expensive new raw materials. Wherever
possible RAP should not be downcycled to lower value applications

There is a widely held perception that material properties in RAP stockpiles are highly
variable and that using RAP, especially at high proportions, will negatively affect
consistency of the asphalt product. This perception is unfounded. Published research
shows that, provided that RAP stockpiles are properly managed, the grading of the
aggregate in the RAP will be at least as consistent as that of virgin sources, binder
content and binder properties of the RAP can be expected to be consistent as well.
Compliance with this RAP management plan will ensure a homogeneous RAP product.

2. Selection of Materials Suitable to be Processed into RAP

Incoming loads shall be inspected to ensure that the material is suitable to be processed
into RAP and free from any contaminants. Contaminants that may be encountered in RAP
include:
● Concrete
● Geo-fabric/textiles
● Plastics
● Bricks
● Wood
● Road base
● Vegetation
● Clay
● Metal
● Tar
Some of these contaminants can be screened out after which the RAP can be processed.
In all other cases contaminated materials should be stockpiled separately from RAP that
will be used in asphalt mixes. Contaminated RAP shall not be used in asphalt mix.

AAPA members are not aware of any historic use of asbestos in Australian asphalt
pavements. Since processed RAP should be free of contaminants and only contain
asphalt profilings and asphalt plant returns, there should be limited concern around the
presence of asbestos in the final asphalt that includes processed RAP. Care should be
taken however not to inadvertently accept asphalt profilings from an unknown source.
Details such as the source of the asphalt profilings e.g. road, plant returns, etc. shall be
recorded.

Sites likely to contain coal tar shall be tested for its presence. Such sites include airport
aprons where tar historically was applied to provide a fuel resistant membrane. Tests can
be conducted on material cored from the site using Roads and Maritime Services Test
method T542. Material can also be tested on site by applying a thin coating of white
enamel paint (Note – a yellow-brown tinge to the applied paint indicates the potential of
the asphalt to contain coal tar). Millings containing coal tar are not to be included in
processed RAP.

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 The presence of polymer modified binder (e.g. SBS or crumb rubber) in the RAP does not
necessitate changes to the RAP processing procedures in this document. Only in cases
where a stockpile contains a high proportion of asphalt with polymer modified binder this
needs to be appropriately managed. In such cases keeping RAP that contains modified
binder separate from the other RAP may be a consideration.

3. Reclaiming and Processing RAP

3.1. Milling
The process of milling the asphalt pavement breaks the original aggregate and so a new
material is generated with its own gradation. Ideally, the asphalt millings are stockpiled
separately to returned asphalt and plant returns. Care should be taken during profiling to
ensure that the RAP is not contaminated with crushed rock from the granular base
course. This might require that the old asphalt surface is profiled in two passes to ensure
a good quality uniform RAP is obtained for reuse in asphalt. The two-pass milling
operation may also be economical when the cost of new friction aggregates is very high
and the project specifications allow the surface-course RAP to be used in new surface
layers.

3.2. Plant returns

Plant returns is the binder coated aggregate from the start up and end of production runs
that is re-directed to waste. Generally. the amount of plant returns generated will be
greater for a continuous mixing plant and more frequently that the mix type being
produced is changed. Plant returns also include asphalt returned to the plant from due to
overordering.

3.3. Processing
Feedstock materials shall be processed to enable a consistent, free flowing RAP to be
obtained.

The processing shall include:

1. Blending of feedstock
2. Crushing - the process of passing large slabs of RAP material through an
appropriate crusher to create a continuously graded RAP material
3. Screening the RAP profilings over a grizzly to remove oversized material before
fractionating the RAP into single or multiple sized fractions (e.g. 0/20 mm, 0/10
mm, etc)
4. Crushing the oversized RAP retained on the screen so it can be fractionated into
smaller sizes.
5. Final stockpile

Blending of the RAP feedstock material is required to ensure the formation of a

homogeneous stockpile for asphalt production. A bulldozer, excavator, or similar
equipment should be used to blend materials from different locations in the multiple-
source RAP stockpile as it is fed into the screening and crushing operation. Blending is
required due to the multiple combinations of different site profilings, plant waste and plant
returns. Careful blending of the feedstock is a critical part of the recycling operation to
achieve consistency in the RAP with regard to particle size distribution and binder
content. If a large portion of plant waste and returned asphalt needs to be recycled
compared to RAP then consideration to adding a small portion of crusher dust should be
blended with the fresh asphalt to prevent it from becoming tacky should be undertaken. It
is also important to only process sufficient RAP to meet the plant demand to limit

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 stockpile height, so it does not consolidate under its own weight and with high ambient
temperatures.

4. Stockpiling of Processed RAP

The processed RAP is stockpiled separately away from incoming asphalt millings, plant
waste and returned asphalt.

Each stockpile lot shall not exceed 1,000 tonnes, or the typical weekly usage of RAP at a
particular plant, whichever is greater.

Any processed RAP that has been left unused for too long such that it has hardened into
lumps is to be re-processed. To prevent compaction of the completed stockpile, heavy
equipment such as front-end loaders, shall not travel on the stockpile.

Processed RAP stockpiles should be walled and covered to reduce the impact of
moisture during the mixing in the pugmill or mixing drum with hot aggregates. Where this
cannot be done then:
● The stockpile shall be formed on a sloped pad so that the water drains away from
the loading end
● Stockpile shall be shaped so that the water drains off the sides and the angle of
sides not to be too steep to reduce the potential for segregation
● Stockpile height should be controlled to prevent consolidation of the RAP
● Adequate separation to eliminate the potential for contamination with other
aggregates
● Appropriate signage such as lot number, product description, approval for release,
etc.

If segregation occurs, or consolidation occurs, a front-end loader can be used to re-mix

the stockpile. Where consolidation results in large lumps, additional crushing of the
material may be required.
Stockpile lots are tested for binder content, moisture content and particle size distribution
prior to being released for use. Characterisation testing on the RAP binder may also be
required as discussed in Section 5.

5. Testing of the RAP

5.1. Sampling
Samples shall be taken from each stockpile to allow characterisation of the RAP material
and to verify homogeneity of the stockpile. Representative RAP samples shall be taken in
accordance with AS1141.3.1 by a competent person. A minimum of three samples shall
be taken using this procedure from each stockpile.

5.2. General characterisation tests

For each of the samples from the stockpiled lot, the following properties shall be
recorded:
● Bitumen content determined in accordance with AS/NZS2891.3.1,
AS/NZS2891.3.2 or AS/NZS2891.3.3
● Aggregate gradation determined in accordance with AS/NZS2891.3.1,
AS/NZS2891.3.2 or AS/NZS2891.3.3
● Moisture content determined in accordance with AS/NZS2891.10

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 5.3. Aggregate density

There are various methods available to determine the density of aggregate in RAP. Each
method has known advantages and disadvantages. Aggregate recovery through ignition
oven may lead to damaged aggregate. The accuracy of back-calculating aggregate from
the RAP maximum density by subtracting the binder is highly dependent on the assumed
amount of absorbed binder. It is also possible to determine aggregate density after
solvent binder extraction, this method however is not often used in Australia due to the
large aggregate sample required for density testing.

5.3.1. Ignition oven method

Extract the binder by means of ignition oven method (AGPT/T236) and determine
aggregate density in accordance with AS1141.5 for fine aggregate and AS 1141.6.2 for
coarse aggregate.

5.3.2. Back-calculation from maximum density

To estimate the density of the combined aggregate in the RAP (ρa(RAP)):

1. Determine maximum density (ρmax(RAP)) of the RAP in accordance with
AS/NZS2891.7.1
2. Calculate the apparent density of the RAP aggregate (ρae(RAP)) from Equation 1, where
Pb is the percentage binder in the RAP and ρb is the assumed density of that binder.
100−𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)
𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)
(1)
100
� �−� �
𝜌𝜌max(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) 𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏

3. Calculate ρa(RAP) from Equation 2, where Pba is the assumed binder absorption.
𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅)
𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) = 𝑃𝑃𝑏𝑏𝑏𝑏 ×𝜌𝜌𝑎𝑎𝑎𝑎(𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅𝑅) (2)
� +1�
100×𝜌𝜌𝑏𝑏

5.4. RAP binder properties

Unless otherwise specified, the properties of the binder in the RAP shall be characterised
where more than 15% RAP by mass of total mix is added to asphalt mixes. Binder
characterisation shall be performed on a minimum of three samples from each stockpile.
There are a number of suitable methods in use for both the recovery of the binder and the
measurement of binder viscosity or similar rheological properties.

5.4.1. Binder recovery

Binder can be recovered by means of centrifuge in accordance with Austroads

AGPT/T191, Rotary Evaporator in accordance ASTM D5404, or the Abson method in
accordance with ASTM D1856.

5.4.2. Binder characterisation

The binder can be characterised using one of the following methods

● Viscosity at 60 °C measured by means of dynamic shear rheometer (DSR) in
accordance with AGPT/T192
● Dynamic Viscosity at 60 °C, AS/NZS 2341.3

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 It is also possible to characterise the binder properties with the following methods,
however these are not compatible with the viscosity target ranges presented in Section 8
and an alternative suitable method would therefore have to be established to control the
binder blend.
● Sliding plate viscosity at 45 °C, AS/NZS 2341.5
● The combination of penetration and softening point in accordance with AS 2341.12
and AS 2341.18 respectively

6. Delivery and Stockpiling of Processed RAP at the Asphalt Plant

The processed RAP lot is delivered to the asphalt plant site in such a way that there is no
segregation or contamination of the processed RAP material. The deliveries of processed
RAP should be tipped to ensure the distribution of aggregate in the stockpile is visually
homogeneous.

The constituent proportions and binder type (or amount of rejuvenator if added) may need
to be amended in the asphalt plant control system for any change in the binder content,
binder properties, aggregate gradation and moisture contents prior to use of any new lot
of processed RAP.

All processed RAP from each bin must be used to prevent the build-up of lumps and to
ensure that the processed RAP remains free flowing. An air cannon or offset oscillating
vibratory motor can be installed on the RAP hopper to prevent RAP build up.

If a rain event of sufficient intensity to impact on the moisture content of the RAP occurs
between the time the RAP stockpile was tested and when the RAP is to be used the
moisture content shall be retested.

7. Incorporation of RAP into the Asphalt Mix

At the asphalt plant the processed RAP shall be stored in stockpiles or cold aggregate
storage bins that are covered with a permanent roof and protected from the direction of
prevailing weather by permanent walls.

The aggregates are heated sufficiently to ensure that the binder in the processed RAP is
activated sufficiently for the RAP to be thoroughly incorporated in the asphalt. The heating
process should not involve exposing the RAP to a direct flame. Care shall be taken not to
heat the aggregate to an excessive temperature that will damage the virgin binder and the
binder of the RAP. The difference in temperatures between the binder and the aggregate
(including RAP) shall be maintained so that it does not exceed 30 ºC.

The processed RAP is thoroughly mixed so that there is no apparent physical or

temperature segregation in the mix or increased variability in the resulting asphalt
production test results.

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8. Mix design for asphalt mixes containing RAP

8.1. General
Asphalt mixes incorporating RAP should be designed to meet the same performance
criteria as asphalt mixes without RAP.

8.2. Binder content

The binder content of the RAP shall be determined as described in Section 5.2. All the
binder in the RAP contributes to the binder content of the final asphalt mix. The binder
content of the mix design is therefore equal to the binder content of the RAP proportion
plus the virgin binder added to the mix.

8.3. Aggregate grading

The maximum nominal size of the RAP shall be not greater than the maximum nominal
aggregate size of the asphalt mix the RAP will be used in.

The process of developing a target grading for an asphalt mix containing RAP is like that
for a mix without RAP. The grading of the aggregate in the RAP shall be determined in
accordance with the procedures in Section 5.2. The RAP aggregate is considered as an
aggregate fraction on the mix design sheet. The aggregate density may be determined
using an appropriate method described in Section 5.3.

8.4. Volumetrics
To calculate volumetric properties such as binder volume and voids in mineral aggregate,
the bulk density of the RAP aggregate determined in accordance with Section 5.3 may be
used, provided that the known limitations of the methods are understood.

8.5. Accounting for RAP binder properties

Inclusion of RAP in asphalt mixes has a stiffening effect on the binder, as the RAP binder
has a higher viscosity than virgin bitumen. This effect can be turned into an advantage if
the intention is to create a mix with a higher modulus than would be achieved by using
virgin binder only. Within the current specification framework the aim of asphalt mix
design containing RAP will be to create a mix that has properties equivalent to that of a
mix containing virgin binder only.

8.5.1. Mix designs containing up to 15% of RAP

For mixes containing up to 15% RAP by mass of total mix no intervention is required to
correct for the stiffening influence of the RAP binder.

8.5.2. Mix designs containing more than 15% of RAP

Including RAP above 15% will produce asphalt that provides performance equivalent to
non-RAP mixes provided that measures are taken to correct for the stiffening effect of the
RAP binder on the viscosity of the total binder blend in the mix. At RAP contents between
15% and 30% it will usually suffice to use a softer virgin class binder to correct the
viscosity. At percentages RAP greater than 30%, it may be necessary to introduce a
rejuvenator to control the viscosity of the overall binder in the mix.
RAP binder characterisation or other means of performance assessment shall be
undertaken to assess the need to use a lower viscosity binder or a rejuvenator to achieve
the desired resultant binder.

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 The following procedure may be used to design a binder blend to a specified viscosity
value. A worked example of a binder blend calculation for a mix containing two RAP
fractions, a virgin binder and a rejuvenator is provided in Appendix A.

1. Collect a representative sample of the RAP as described in Section 5.1

2. Determine the binder content of the RAP as described in Section 5.2.
3. Extract a representative sample of RAP binder using one of the methods listed in
Section 5.4.1.
4. Determine the viscosity of the extracted RAP binder, the virgin binder and/or
rejuvenator (where applicable) using one of the test methods listed in Section 5.4.2.
5. Calculate the proportion of RAP binder, virgin binder and/or rejuvenator by mass of
total binder. Note that this is an iterative process, the proportion of virgin binder /
rejuvenator required to produce a conforming blend may have to be assumed. Also
note that the proportion of RAP binder in the binder blend generally differs from the
percentage of RAP by mass of total mix.
6. Predict the viscosity of the binder blend from Equation 3 below
7. If the predicted viscosity is outside the desired range for the design, adjust the
proportion of the binder blend components iteratively.

3 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝜗𝜗𝑖𝑖
𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 =
6 + 𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝑙𝜗𝜗𝑖𝑖

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝛽𝛽 = ∑𝑛𝑛𝑖𝑖=1 𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 ∙ 𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 (3)

3𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝛽𝛽
� −3�
1−𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝛽𝛽
𝜇𝜇 = 10

where:

𝜗𝜗𝑖𝑖 = viscosity of ith component (in Pa.s)

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑖𝑖 = viscosity blending index of ith component

𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝑉𝛽𝛽 = viscosity blending index of the blend

𝑥𝑥𝑖𝑖 = volume fraction of ith component

µ = viscosity of the blend (in Pa.s)

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 To design a binder blend with a viscosity equivalent to AS2008 bitumen classes the
following viscosity ranges apply:

Table 1: Viscosity ranges

Target Binder Class Viscosity Range (Pa.s)

Class 320 320 to 500
Class 450 450 to 680
Class 600 600 to 880

Note that these viscosity ranges are set to produce a binder blend with a viscosity no
lower than the midrange viscosity of the target binder class.

9. Warm Mix Asphalt and RAP Mixes

The use of warm mix asphalt technologies is strongly recommended by AAPA. Also, for
mixes including RAP. The use of warm mix technology will help reduce the virgin binder
ageing during mixing thus reducing the viscosity of the comingled binder.

10. Using RAP in Mix Designs Containing PMBs

The use of RAP in mix designs containing polymer modified binders shall be limited to
15% RAP unless a concentrated PMB blend is used which has been designed to achieve
the desired resultant binder properties.

11. RAP process control

A robust system of process control shall be implemented to ensure a consistent end

asphalt is produced from the addition of processed RAP. The system shall include an
Inspection and Test Plan (ITP) to clearly document all relevant testing and acceptance
criteria, including the following:
• Binder content
• Aggregate Grading
• Moisture content
• Binder properties (for mixes including more than 15% RAP)

11.1. RAP grading and binder content

A target grading and binder content shall be established for the RAP and a tolerance
applied as shown in the table below:

Table 2: RAP Grading and Binder Content Tolerances

Description Tolerance

Passing 26.5 mm AS sieve and larger ± 10

Passing 4.75 mm to 19.0 mm AS sieve ±8
Passing 1.18 mm and 2.36 mm ±6
Passing 0.300 mm and 0.600 mm ±5
Passing 0.150 mm ±3
Passing 0.075 mm ±2
Binder Content (%) ±0.5

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 11.2. Moisture content
The contractor shall nominate the acceptable maximum value for moisture content
appropriate for the asphalt plant. The process control documentation shall include a
detailed process describing the management of fluctuations in RAP moisture content in
the asphalt production process. The variation of the RAP moisture content shall be
monitored based on the samples taken from the stockpile.

If a rain event of sufficient intensity to impact on the moisture content of the RAP occurs
between the time the RAP stockpile was tested and when the RAP is to be used the
moisture content shall be retested. Any change in moisture content for the lot, where it will
have an impact on the final asphalt product, is to be input into the asphalt plant control
system. An increase in moisture content will limit the amount of RAP that can be used as
it will affect the operation of the bag house extraction system and the safe operation of
the plant.

11.3. Binder properties

For mixes containing more than 15% RAP, the viscosity result for the RAP in each
stockpile shall be used to verify that the calculated viscosity for the binder blend is within
the target range for the binder nominated in the mix design (as per Table 1).

Alternatively, binder blend properties may be monitored using sliding plate viscosity or the
combination of penetration and softening point, but the procedure is not presented in this
guideline.

11.4. Non-conforming RAP

Where the RAP, or the RAP binder blend does not comply with the requirements, an
assessment of the impact of the resultant properties on the asphalt shall be undertaken. It
may be necessary to change the relative proportions of RAP and virgin product in the mix,
within the limits of the relevant asphalt material specification. The total RAP content of the
altered mix shall not exceed the RAP content on the mix design certificate. The decision
to use or reject the RAP shall form the disposition for this non-conformance.

References
Austroads 2013. Maximising the re-use of reclaimed asphalt pavement: Binder blend
Characterisation, AP-T245-13, Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 2015. Maximising the re-use of reclaimed asphalt pavement: Outcomes of
Year Two - RAP mix design, AP-T286-15, Austroads, Sydney.
Austroads 2016. Maximising the re-use of reclaimed asphalt pavement: Field validation.
AP-R517-16, Austroads, Sydney.
NAPA 2015. Best Practices for RAP and RAS Management, Quality Improvement Series
129, National Asphalt Pavement Association, Lanham.
Roads and Maritime Services 2012. Test method T542 Identification of tar or Pitch in
asphalt.

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Appendix A: Example binder blend calculation
Aim: design a binder blend for a mix containing 35% RAP such that the viscosity of blend meets the target for
Class 320 bitumen in Section 8 of this guide (320-380 Pa.s). RAP will be added to the mix in two size fractions
(RAP fraction 1 and 2)

Given:
Total RAP content in the asphalt mix: 35%
RAP fraction 1 content in the asphalt mix: 20%
RAP fraction 2 content in the asphalt mix: 15%
RAP fraction 1 binder content: 4.83%
RAP fraction 2 binder content: 3.16%
Asphalt mix total binder content: 4.2%
Viscosity Class 320 binder: 362 Pa.s
RAP fraction 1 binder viscosity: 15580 Pa.s (taken as 15,600 Pa.s as per AGPT/T192)
RAP fraction 2 binder viscosity: 10060 Pa.s (taken as 10,100 Pa.s as per AGPT/T192)
Rejuvenator viscosity: 0.02 Pa.s

Determine proportion of rejuvenator to be added to blend (proportion by mass of virgin binder)

Calculation in accordance with procedure in Section 8.5.2.

Solution
1- Determine the viscosity blending index of the blend components (virgin binder, RAP fractions 1 and 2 and
rejuvenator agent

3 + log 362
VBIvirgin binder = = 0.6495
6 + log 362
3 + log 15600
VBIRAP1 binder = = 0.7057
6 + log 15600
3 + log 10100
VBIRAP2 binder = = 0.7001
6 + log 10100
3 + log 0.02
VBIrejuvenator = = 0.3025
6 + log 0.02

2- Calculation of volume fraction of the blend components of the two RAP fractions:

20 4.83
xRAP1 = × =0.230
100 4.2

15 3.16
xRAP2 = × = 0.113
100 4.2
The volume proportion of the rejuvenator is assumed at 6% for this example, if the assumed proportion
results in a blend viscosity outside the recommended range, the proportion should be changed in the
calculation. For most problems it is also possible to mathematically solve the equation for the desired

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 viscosity. The percentage of virgin binder is determined from the proportions of RAP1 and RAP2 and
rejuvenator:
xvirgin = 1 - (0.230+0.113+0.06) = 0.597

3- The viscosity blending index of the binder blend (VBIβ) can then be calculated:
n

VBIβ = � xi . VBIi = 0.230×0.7057 + 0.113×0.7001 + 0.597×0.6495 + 0.06×0.3025 = 0.6473

i=1

4- Once VBIβ is obtained, the viscosity of the binder blend can be calculated
3VBIβ
� - 3� �
3×0.6473
μ=10 1-VBIβ - 3�
= 10 1-0.6473 = 321 Pa.s
This is within the targeted range of 320-380 Pa.s

The final binder composition is as follows:

Rejuvenator = 0.06 × 4.2 = 0.25 % by mass of mix
Virgin binder = 0.597 × 4.2 = 2.51 % by mass of mix
Contributed by RAP1 = 0.23 × 4.2 = 0.96 % by mass of mix
Contributed by RAP2 = 0.11 × 4.2 = 0.47 % by mass of mix

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