' •; ·" .. ' .. . . . .

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Constructional Features and

Working of l.C. Engines

Syllabus
Introduction Classification of l.C. Engines , Parts of l.C. Engine and their materials, Cycle of operation
in Four stroke and Two-stroke IC engines and their comparative study ,Fuel air cycles and their
analysis, Actual working cycle, Valve Timing Diagram.
LHR Engines, Homogeneous charge compression Ignition, Rotary engine,Six stroke engine concept.

Definition and Types of Heat Engines The heat energy of hot products of combustion (flue.
and Their Applications gases) is used· directly as in case of gas turbines to
develop mechanical power.
1.1 Internal Combustion (1.C.) Engines
AJtemately, this heat energy of hot gases is used to
r::il" Definition of Heat Engine I Thermal Prime raise the pressure and temperature of another working
Movers fluid like steam. This steam is subsequently used in

DLLT .·. j'1 A '1z:~at engine is a . device in.which· t~ steam engines or steam turbines to develop mechanical
~ a
chemical energy of fuel first co"riv~rl;d is power.
into heat energy, subseqitently this :. hf!a~
Such external combustion engines are not suitable for
ene;gy is converted into mechanical ~nergy/
mobile plants used in transportation since these are
Heat engines are also called as thermal prime movers. heavy and bulky.
r3" Types of Heat Engines
~ 2. Internal Combustion Engines

Types of Heat Engines In these engines, .the combustion of fuel takes place
inside the cylinder itself with air inducted from
1. External combustion engines
atmosphere.
2. Internal combustion (l.C.) Engines i
The chemical energy of fuel released raises the pressure
·-· . l
Fig. Cl.l : Types of Heat Engines and temperature of the products of combustion.

-> 1. External Combustion Engines These hot gases are subsequently expanded to develop
the mechanical power and finally the gases are rejected
In the external combustion engines, the combustion of
back to the atmosphere.
fuel takes place outside the cylinder in a furnace.

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1.1.1 Com - . :.,
par1son between External and 1.1.2 Applications of l.C. Engines ,·~
Int · I ..
erna Combustion Engines
l. Most of the I. _
c . engines are used in transport system'
The
comp · . i.e. in automobiles, diesel locomotives, trucks, tractors,
anson between external and internal ··~
I )·
I
combustion enoine · .
b'"-U s with theu relative merits is given below
two wheelers like scooters and motor cycles etc.
Table 111 ·
• • • ompanson of
c .
Engines over I.e. · · 2. J.C. engines are used in aeropJan~s and marine
,.
E.c. Engines transports, motor boats, generating sets etc.
... ,_. .• ' .
'
..
Sir.. 3. J.C. engines are used for industrial applications for
· lnte~~l Combustion External Combustion
'No. running milJs, concrete mixtures, Jawn movers and in
(LC) Engines {E.C) Engine5
earth moving plants.
(A)
Advantages of J.C. engines over E.C. Engines 4. Diesel generators are used for as power plants upto

1. 100 MW capacity.
_T hese are compact and These are large in size
efficient. Ci!" Specific applications of type of l.C. engines are
and less efficient
given below
2. These have low weight These have high
Table ·1.1.2 : Specific Applications of I .C. Engines
to power ratio. weight to power ratio. ·,
Application . '
Sr. Type of '
3. Need less maintenance Need high No. J.C. r~ . .... '.• , •
·'

cost, thus requiring law Engine .,

maintenance cost thus

operating cost I. Two stroke Used in mopeds, scooters, motor
required high
petrol cycles, lawn movers etc due to their
- operating cost engines . simplicity in working and low
maintenance cost. These are used for
4. Does not need Needs auxiliary capacity upto 12 kW upto 600 rpm.
auxiliary equipment equipment like furnace 2. Four These are used in cars, Jeeps, motor
like furnace and heat stroke cycles, pumping sets, small power
and heat exchangers.
petrol generating sets etc. Earlier they were
exchangers engines used in aircrafts which have been
replaced by gas turbine power plants.
5. Suitable for mobile Less suit.able for These have high running cost
compared to diesel engines.
applications mobile applications.
3. Four These are commonly used in
B. Disadvantages of LC. Engines Over E.C. Engines stroke automobiles, pumping sets,
diesel construction machinery, motor boats,
engines high power generating sets etc. due to
1. Requires costly fuels Can use cheaper fuels
their high efficiency compared to
like p~trol and diesel like coal since petrol engines and low running cost.
These engines can develop 1 kW to
since combustion takes combustion takes
40000 kW of power per cylinder with
place inside the cylinder place outside speed ranging 100 rpm to 4500 rpm.

4. Two stroke These are preferred for generation by

2. Not suitable for large Highly suitable for
diesel high power because of their lower
- large power p]ants engines weight to power ratio (almost 50%)
power plants
compared to four stroke diesel
engines. Diesel power plants are used
upto a capacity of 100 MW.
 Constructional Features & Wo mg
· rk' of I c
. .
Engines
.
t.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
1-3

Syllabus Topic : Parts of l.C. Engine and

Their Material

1.2 Engine Components Exhauel@

valve

a
The sketch of four stroke, aircoo1ed petrol engine is @tMI
valve
. COITlblmiOO@
c;hmnber

shown in Fig. 1.2.1 (a) and water cooled engine in ?1s1on ©.

mos
_Fig. 1.2.l(b). @cooung
nns
----c~©
The main components ~fa 4-stroke petrol engine are : Gudgeon@ .
. pin .
@Piston
Engine Components
of a 4-stroke petrol engine c6medlng©
rod

1. Cylinder
Crankptn@)

2. Cylinder Head Crank@

Crank~©
3. Piston

@Balancing Crankcase©
4. Piston Rings weight

5. Connecting Rod

Fig. 1.2.l(a) : Parts of 4-Stroke I.C. Engine

6. Crank
Brief description of main components of the engine are
7. Crankshaft
given below :
8. Gudgeon Pin or Piston Pin
~ 1. Cylinder
9. Crankcase A cylinder (I) in an I.C. engine has to withstand very

10. Spark Plug high pressures upto 70 bar and temperatures upto
2500°C because the combustion of fuel is carried out
11 . Valve and Valve Mechanism within the cylinder.

12. Engine Bearings Therefore, cylinders must be cooled. It may be

aircooled in case of low capacity engines (e:g. two
.13. Flywheel
wheelers) or water cooled in case of high capacity
engines (e.g. cars, trucks etc.)
14. Carburettor
a MateriaIS
15. Fuel Injection Pump
Materials used f or cylinder are high grade cast iron or
Fig. Cl.2 : Engine Components of a 4..stroke alloy steels. ·
p~trol engine
It may also use aluminiuµi alloys where weight is
consideration as in case of aeroplanes and automobiles.

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I.e. Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) 1-4 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. En in;s.:;:~
,·
-t 2. Cylinder Bead .. 6. Crank
, , . ..;,r

The function of cylinder head (2) is to seal top end of Crank (6) is the integral part of the crankSbaft ~7) ·
the cylinder.
'·
.. 7, Crankshaft
~ Material
Crankshaft is supported in main bearings and Carries
Space is provided to carry the valve mechanism, spark the balancing weights (18) It also carries the flywh~J
,,
plug etc. It is made ofcast iron or aluminium. to ev~n out the fluctuating torque.
.. 3. Piston
ls. Material

The function of piston (3) is to transmit the gas force to Crank and crankshaft are steel forged and machined to
connecting rod, hence, to the crank. It slides in the smooth finish.
cylinder.
~ 8. Gudgeon Pin or Piston Pin
~ Material
It connects the piston to small end of the connecting
Usually, piston are made of cast steel and aluminium rod and the bearings fitted in it are called small end
alloy since it requires strength. These are made hollow bearings.
because only one face on cylinder side is a working . a Material
face.
It is made of hardened steel in the shape of spindle.
_. 4. Piston Rings
-+ 9.. Crankcase
Piston rings (4) made of cast steel are provided to
prevent the leakage of gas to crank case. Upper rings Crank, crankshaft and main bearings are set in the
are called compr~ion rings. crankcase (9).

Low.er piston rings are oiling rings. These rings have a The bottom of the engine is closed by means of oil
oil groove with several holes so as to discharge the sump, which carries lubricating oil.
excess lubricating oil from cylinder walls to drainage ~ 10. Spark Plug
holes in the piston from where oil is sent back to oil
sump. The function of a spark plug (I 0) is to provide a high
intensity spark for combustion of fuel and air in the
-> 5. Connecting Rod cylinder in spark ignition engines.

One end of the connecting rod (5) is connected to -V 11. Valve and Valve Mechanism
piston through a gudgeon pin (8) called small end and
The engine bas two valves, namely, the inlet or suction
the other end to crank through the crank pin (18) called
valve (11) and the exhaust valve (12). These valves are
big end.
operated by cam mounted on camshaft.
Connecting rod transmits the piston load (gas force) to [Refer Fig. 1.2.i (b)]
the crank. It converts the reciprocating motion of the
The camshaft rotates. at half the speed of . the
piston into rotary motion of the crankshaft.
crankshaft, in case offour stroke engines with the help
'5. Material of timing gears having a tooth ratio of 1: 2.

These are made of nickel, chrome and vanadium steels.

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 l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech 1·5 . Constructional Features & Working of 1.C. Engines

_. 12. Engine Bearings ~ Material

Crankshaft is supported in main bearings, which are It is made of steel or cast iron disc.
lubricated. _. 14. Carburettor
Function of bearings is to facilitate smooth motion to
The function of carburettor is to prepare the mixture of
crankshaft and reduce friction between them.
fuel and air and meter it before sending it to induction
_. 13. Flywheel system of the engine according to operating conditions
of the engine in case of spark ignition engines.
A heavy rotating mass is attached to crankshaft outside
the crankcase called flywheel. _. 15. Fuel Injection Pump
It's function is to smooth out the cyclic fluctuations of Function of fuel pump is to inject the atomised fuel to
torque developed by the reciprocating engine during a the cylinder under very high pressures in case of
cycle. compression ignition engines.

inlet valve
(B~gin~ to ope!l)

Exhaust cam shaft

Inlet cam Exhaust cam

Exhaust cam
shaft gear

Crank shaft gear

Fig.1.2.t(b): Sectional vi~w of water ccolcd engine with valve operating mechanism
·-·
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'· It also prevents the gases from passing from the -v~ve· :~-~
12 •~
.. " ·1 Materials for Main Components of port to the valve chamber of the engine block.
" 1.C. Engine -The valve spring fits be_tween the engine block and ~ ':~·~
' ""! ( <'. . •
:sr.- ·.·•.. Co
.'--~- .... _-.::'.- ___ • • ~I "' ~ • • • .' • • sp ring retainer in which the valve stem is locked by .•
;_'. ' .:-- : .-- ~ponent . - .- Material - , ·
.No~:- ·._. -,;· -.. ·_.,_-.\ ~; :- :- .. . . . .. .:··
~
. ;-: means of a conical split collar. The pressure of the _ E
spring on the retainer holds the valve in the closed '
1. Cylinder position until it is lifted by the valve tappet by the-
Cast iron or alloy steel
2. rotation of cam.
Cylinder head C~t iron or aluminium
When the valve is closed, a small clearance is
3. Piston and piston Cast steels or aluminium necessary between the valve tappet and the valve stem.
rings alloys This valve tappet clearance allows the expansion of
4. Gudgeon pin valve stem when the engine is heated. The clearance
Hardened steel
can be adjusted by rotating the adjusting screw. ·
5. Connecting rod Nickel chrome and More clearance is provided for exhaust valve as
vanadium steel compared to inlet valves since the exhaust valve are
6. Crankand Steel forged heated comparatively to much higher temperatures.
crankshaft The clearance to be provided depends upon th~ material
length of the valves and the temperatures it is subjected
7. Flywheel Steel or cast iron disc
to.
1.2.2 Valve Mechanism
Valve face

As discussed above, the poppet valves are usually used Valve seat insert

?
for automobiles which are operated by the cam mounted on -
-
the camshaft driven by crankshaft at half the speed through - Engine block
-
gears or chain.
Valve port_.........~
Based on the location of valves, the valve mechanism
are of two types :
1. Valve mechanism for operating the valves in engine
block for (L-T-F) head designs.

2. Valve mechanism for operating the overhead valves.in

the cylinder head for I and F - head design engines.

1.2.3 Valve Mechanism for Valves in Engine J--- -- Valve tappet

I

Block
Flat faced follower
A valve m echanis m for operating the valves in engine
block used for L-T-F bead designs is shown in Cam

Cam shaft
Fig. 1.2.2.
-when the camshaft rotates, the valve stem guide acts as Fig.1.2.2: Valve mechanism in engine block
a slipper bearing to allow the valve to move up and

down.

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.!(fr1.c. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1-7 Constructional Features & Wor1<ing of 1.C. Engines

1.2.4 . Valve Mechanism for Overhead Valves 1.2.5 Camshaft

In Engine Cylinder
The camshaft provides a means for opening and closing
The valve mechanism for overhead valves used in I and . of the inlet and exhaust valves. The cam shaft is driven
F design cylinder heads is shown in Fig. 1.2.3. As either through meshing gears or by chain drive from the
compared to valve mechanism for valves in cylinder crankshafL The speed of the cam shaft is half that of
block discussed above, it requires two additional the crankshaft.
components viz. the push rod and the rocker arm. The camshaft is mounted on bearings in the lower part
When the cam shaft rotates, the cam mounted on it lifts of the cylinder block. It has two cams for each cylinder.
the valve tappet. It actuates the push rod. One to operate the inlet valve and another to operate

The push rod in tum rotates the rocker ann about its the exhaust valves. Thus for a four cylinder in line

shaft or a ball joint to cause its other end to push down engines, the Jong camshaft will have eight cams.

the valve stem in its guides. Thus the valve opens into The cams are so arranged to ensure proper firing order
the cylinder head and connects to its combustion of the engine. The camshaft also provides a drive for
chamber. the ignition distributor and the mechanical fuel pump.

In this mechanism the clearance is kept between the The camshaft is forged from alloy steel or cast of cast
· rocker arm end and the valve stem end. This clearance iron which is case hardened. The camshaft is machined
can be adjusted by adjusting screw. and the cams are hardened to withstand wear.

There are various designs and systems used for Terminology used in l.C. Engines
operation of overhead valves.
Adjusting screw 1.3 Terminology used in l.C. Engines
Rocker arm
Cylinder head
Clearance
volume (Ve}

Spring retainer Cylinder

rn.~-- Spring
..___ _ Valve guide Piston position
atT.D.C.
Bor • (d)
Cylinder head
Piston position
Combustion
at B.D.C.
chamber
Piston
-...._
Connecting '
N' \
Cylinder
rod
I
Crank I
I
F
' ..... __._
I ........ /

B.D.C.

Engine block Fig. 1.3.1 : Bore, stroke and Oearance Volume

Valve tappet

Carn
Carn shaft

Fig. J.2.3: Valve mechanism for overhead valve

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r. ! '·..
constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engi~\
IWr l.C. Engines (MU·Sem. V~Mech) 1-B %oil .~

r:r Definition of clearance ·ratio

1• Dead Centres

ln case of vertical engines, when the piston is at the top

most position, the crank position is called top dcnd
center (T.D.C).
When the piston is at the bottom most position, the . .. (1.3.2)
crank position is called bottom dead center (B.D.C.).

In case of horizontal engines, the crank positions (where d is bore of cylinder)

corresponding to the inner most position and outer most
s. Total volume of the cylinder or cylinder
pos1'ti on of the piston are called inner dead center
O.D.C) and outer dead center (O.D.C.) respectively.
volume
r:Jl9 Definition of total or full volume the cylinder
2. Cylinder Bore, d
DEFDllTlON
1
Definition of bore
OJ
Cfl9 .
.

3. Stroke Length, L :. Total volume of the cylinder

Definition of stroke .. .(1.3.3)
r,;;;--:---:--:--:-:-----:------~
<:if8
DfFIXITlOW = Clearance volume, Vc + Stroke volume, V1
r TL-;ii The tr:ivel of the piston·' from .'its \Tbq :toI
b.J.-1.J BDC is called the s'troke ofpiston: , ·. '"·;:I 7. Compression Ratio, r
r:Jl9 Oeflnitlon of compression ratio
If 'r is the radius of crank, it is obvious that :

Stroke length, L = 2 x r ... (1.3.1)

4. Clearance Volume, Ve

ar Definition of clearance volume

The volume contained in the cylinder above Cylinder volume= Clearance volume, 01J +stroke volume, 01.)
the piston from its top dead centre position . . Cylinder volume
is called clearance volume, Ve. Compress10n ratio,r = ~C------­
1earance volume

5. Stroke Volume V 11 and clearance ratio, C V,+Vc

= ...(1.3.4)

CJr Definition of stroke volume

8. Piston Speed
DlfIIITTIOit
The travel ofpiston from T .D.C. to B.D.C. i.s
OJ called piston stroke denoted by 'L' and
the volume displaced by the piston is called
The average speed of piston is called piston speed and
it is equal to 2 LN. Let N = speed of the crankshaft in
r.p.ro
stroke volume, Va.
. . Piston speed= 2 x L x N (mlmin) .. . (1.3.5)
. N
P1ston speed= 2L x 60 (mis) ... (1.3.6)

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-i l.c: Engines MU-Sem. V-Mech 1-9 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines
I
I
·1
Syllabus Topic : Classification of l.C. Engines
.I

i
I
1.4 Classlficatlon of l.C. Engines
1
The internal combustion engines are classified based on the following systems :

Tho Internal combustion engines aro classified

based on the following systems

(1) Based on number of strokes per cycle

(a) Four stroke engine (b) Two stroke engine

(2) Based on thennodynamlc cycle used

(a) Otto cycle , (b) Diesel cycle (c) Dual combusUon cycle
J .
(3) Based on number of cylinders

(a) Single cylinder engine (b) Multicytinder engine

(4) Based on arrangement of cylinders

(b) V-engines I (c) Radial engines

.em::exzsa
I
(d) Opposed cylinder engine (e) Opposed piston engine

(5) Based on Ignition system

(a) Sp~rk ig_niti~~~S.I.) en_~~n~s.J (b) Compression ignition (C.1.) engines

(6) Based on cooling system

(a) Water cooled engines (b) A:Jr cooled engines

(7) Basod on fuel used

(b) Diesel engines (c) Gas engines

(8) Based on fuel supply sy stem

(9) Based on lubrication syatem

(a) We t sump lubrication l

Fig. Cl.3 : Classification of I.C. Engines

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l$fC l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) .1-10
• ~ ·_~ ._;·~-? ~!

-t (a) In-line engtnes . . · . · . ·. 1

-+ (1) Based on Number of Strokes Per. Cycle
In this all the cylinders are arranged With ~:::.1
(a) Four stroke engine in which one cycle is
axes parallel Wid transmit the power to a sin~•&C<I
·
completed in four strokes of the piston in two
' •,·
crank-shaft.
revolutions of the crankshaft.

(b) Two stroke engine in which one cycle is

-+ (b) V-engines

completed in two strokes of the piston in one These engines contain two banks of cylinder

revolution of the crankshaft. connected to same .crank and crank-shaft Their

axes are inclined to each other.
_. (2) Based on Tberoiodynamic Cycle Used

(a) Constant volume combustion cycle or Otto cycle.

-+ (c) Radial engines

In this the cylinders are arranged radially and are

(b) Constant pressure combustion cycle or Diesel
connected to a single crank-shaft
cycle.
_. (d) Opposed cylinder engiile
(c) Partly at constant volume and partly at constant
pressure combustion cycle or Dual combustion In this engine there are two cylinder banks which

cycle. are located in the same plane on opposite sides of

crankshaft. It can be visualized as two in-line
~ (3) Based on Number of Cylinders
engine arrangements 180° apart. The connecting
(a) Single cylinder engin~. rods of the two cylinders are connected to a single

(b) Multicylinder engine. crank. It provides a well balanced engine.

~ (e) Opposed piston engine

~ (4) Based on Arrangement of Cylinders

(Refer Fig. 1.4.1) In this engine a single cylinder houses two pistons,
each of which drives a separate crankshaft as
shown in Fig. 1.4.l(e). It is also a well balanced
engine and the advantage of such an engine is that
it requires no cylinder head.

-) (5) Based on Ignition System

(n) In-line engine (b) v:..engine
(a) Spark ignition (S.I.) engines_

~ Petrol engines use the spark ignition system for

\ I
--- igniting the compressed charge.

(b) Compression ignition (C.I.) engines

Diesel engines utilize the high temperatures raised

(c) Radial engine (e) Opposed piston due to high compression ratio of the cylinder.

Fig. 1.4.1 : Arrangement of Cylinders

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 . . . . ..

KJ?r 1.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1-11 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines

Compression ignition engines can be further classified as : _. (b) Solid injection engines

(i) Normal type based on the type of liquid fuel used i.e. In case of diesel engines the fuel is injected with

light diesel oil (LOO), high speed diesel oil (HSD) and the help of a fuel pump.

heavy oil diesel engines. _. (c) Air injection engines

(ii) Dual-fuel type diesel engines. In these engines, a In certain diesel engines the fuel is injected into
gaseous fuel or highly volatile fuel is supplied along the·cylinder with the help of compressed air.
with air during suction stroke or initial part of
_. (9) Based on Lubrication System
compression stroke through a gas valve in the cylinder

head and the liquid fuel is injected into the combustion (a) Wet sump lubrication

chamber near the end of compression stroke. (b) Dry sump lubrication

_. (6) Based on Cooling System (c) Pressure lubrication.

(a) Water cooled engines Syllabus Topic : Cycle of Operation in Four Stroke
Engines
(b) Air cooled engines.
1.5 Four Stroke Cycle Engines
~ (7) Based on Fuel Used

(a) Petrol engines In a four stroke engine, the cycle consists of four

strokes of· the piston completed in two revolutions of the

(b) Diesel engines
crankshaft. These are :
(c) Gas engines
1. Suction stroke.
(d) Bi-fuel engines : These engines use the main fuel
2. Compression stroke.
as gas and the liquid fuel is used for the starting
purposes. 3. Expansion or power stroke.

~ (8) Based on Fuel Supply System 4. Exhaust stroke.

-> (a) Carburettor engines

In such engines the mixture of petrol and air from

carburettor is supplied to the engine cylinder.

'. '

1-12 Constructional Features & Workln

WflRKING OF 4 STROKE S.L ENGINE

[ (•) Soctlq~ 1~ke .·1 j
Inlet valvo
Inletvatve
closed .Exhaust
Exhaust
valve(EV) valve(EV)
closed closed

Cylinder Cylinder

Piston

Connecting
Crank rod

Crank
-1:C.~>'¥ipj(nslor~';Stro~P:iJ
... -,-:,,.,.,< ·(d) Exha"ushtro1¢ .
Inlet valve
closed Inlet valve Exhaust valve
closed (EV) open
:;...-"8ctlaust gases

Piston

Cylinder
Cylindsr

- Piston
•,,

Crank

Seamed w ith CemScann~

: . ..
;.

lq?r l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1·13 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines

During this stroke, the During this Stroke Inlet (l.V.) and During this stroke the During this stroke, the inlet
inlet valve (l.V.) opens Exhaust Valves (E.V.) both inlet and exhaust valve remains closed and the
and the exhaust valve remain closed. valves remain closed exhaust valve is opened.
(E.V.) remains closed.

The mixture of fuel and The charge is compressed upto its The piston moves The piston moves from BOC to
air called charge is clearance volume and Piston from TDC to BOC. TDC and· during this motion,
drawn during the piston moves from B.D.C. to T.D.C. the piston pushes out the burnt
movement from T.D.C gases from the cylinder.
toB.D.C.

It is represented by It is represented by process It is represented by Heat rejected is represented by

process (0-1). (l -2). process (3 -4). process (4 - 1) and the exhaust
The piston bas now During the process the pressure High pressure and process by (1 - O).
made one stroke during and temperature of the mixture temperature gases The exhaust valve closes at the
the 180° of crankshaft rises. Just before the end of push down the piston end of the stroke and a part of
rotation. compression stroke, the mixture is to create the motive burnt gases called residual
ignited with the help of spark plug power. gases remain in the clearance
and due to instantaneous release space. Again the inlet valve
of chemical energy of fuel, the opens and a new cycle starts.
pressure and temperature of the
mixture further rises. It is
represented by process (2 - 3).

p (ii) Compression ignition (C.I.) engines.

3
The petrol or gas engines work on Otto cycle.

During the suction stroke the mixture of fuel and air is

Compression stroke supplied and the mixture is ignited with the help of
Ignition

Intake stroke
___
....._ __;;;::..
4
-1-
R-e:i-

~-1- Exhaust stroke

rro
)-
- ~di
-_ o-
n:-
·t4l
~
-,,-51 spark provided by spark plug before the end of
compression stroke. These are called S.l. engines.
i.....~~~~~~~-t>V
Volume The compression ignition engines work on diesel cycle
(e) p-V diagram for
otto cycle engine with working fluid as diesel. In these engines, only air
is inducted during suction stroke and the fuel is injected
Fig. 1.5.1 : Working of 4-stroke S.I. engine
at the end of compression stroke. These employ high
Each of the above stroke in sequence is completed in of
compression ratio in the range of 14 to 20.
crank rotation.
Thus, the air compressed is at very high pressure and
Four stroke engines are of two types :
temperature and the fuel auto ignites.
(i) Spark ignition (S.L) engines Working of four stroke engines is discussed below :·

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I.e. Engine.s (MU-Sem. V·Mech) 1-14

...- ,.
l .S.l Working of Four Stroke S.I. Engines or p HeataddltiOO

\ 1•'
Petrol Engines 2
The WO rkingof four stroke ideal cycle for spark
ignition engmes
· · based on the actual cycle developed
1s
by German Engineer, Otto in 1862.

The working fluid for these engines is petrol or gas.

Four strokes are completed in two revolutions of the

crankshaft.

The compression ratio used in these engines varies v

(b) p· diagram for diesel cycle
from 5 to lO.
Fig. 1.5.2 : Schematic Diagram of 4-stroke C.I. Engine
The series of operati~n of the engine are shown by the
schematic diagram in Fig. l.S.l. The working of a compression ignition engine is based
on the engine designed by German Engineer, Rudolf ·
Working of Four Stroke Diesel Engines
Diesel in 1892 using very high compression ratio.
1•5•2 Working of Four Stroke C.I. Engine or The working of diesel engine is similar to petrol
Diesel Engines engines working on Otto cycle except that in case of
Fuel pump
C.I. engines the air is only drawn during its suction
Fuel injector (F.1.)
with nozzle Diesel from stroke instead of mixture of fuel and air drawn in case
--tank
Air filter
Exhaust valve (E. V.) of S.I. engines.

In case of C.I. engines the fuel is injected into the

cylinder before the end of compression stroke under
Cylinder
very high pressures.
Piston
The working fluid for C.I. engines is diesel and it
operates on diesel cycle.
Gudgeon pin
The compression ratio used for diesel engines varies
Connecting
rod from 14 to 20.

The schematic diagram of a four stroke diesel engine

Crank pin with main components is shown in Fig. 1.5.2.

The ideal sequences of operation of a four stroke diesel

Crank shaft
engine are as follows :
Crank
(a) Suction Stroke

(b) Compression Stroke

(c) Expansion or Power Stroke

(d) Exhaust stroke

(a )
Fig. 1.5.2(Contd•••)
 .l ·• •

... ~- ' .

kJ?r 1.c. Engines (MU-Sem. v-Mech) 1-15 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines

Various stroke of the cycle are shown in Fig. 1.5.3.

WORKING OF 4 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Inlet valve Inlet valve

opens closed
Exhaust
·valve(EV)
closed

Piston c=g
~ ....
Cylinder
!8
~CD
Cylinder

-E
I I
B:g
I I
PISton

I I

I I

I
Crank • Connecting
Crank rod
shaft shaft
Crank

(c) Expansion stroke

Inlet valve Inlet valve Exhaust valve (EV)
closed closed
Exhaust open
valve (EV) :::::.'Exhaust gases
closed

~8
em0
Piston c:g
Q)
~ ....
~8
>-
Cylinder Cylinder
~8
c 1- cm
~ E .9 E
-a.-
e e
.!!!
a._
Piston

Connecting
rod

Connecting
Cranl< rod

Fig. 1.5.3 : Four strokes of Diesel Engine Cycle

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_lWr LC, Encinas (MU-Sem. V-Mech)

!.
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·j
·:.i
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exhaust valve (E.V.) closed. (E.V.)
remains closed. remain closed.

Piston moves from T.D.C. Piston moves from B.D.C. to After the injection of The piston traveling from
to B DC d . fuel 15
· over (1·.e. after BOC to TDC pushes out the
· · · unng the T.D.C. during the stroke.
stroke. fuel cut-off), the combustion gases.

products of combusti~n
expand during piston
movement from T.D.C.
toB.D.C.

Only the air is inducted The air sucked during suction Though the fuel Since diesel engine uses very

during the suction stroke. stroke is compressed upto its injection starts nearly high compression ratio, the
clearance volume. at the end of temperature of the air at the
compression stroke, but end of compression stroke is
the rate of injection of very high and it is sufficient
fuel is such the to self ignite the fuel.
combustion maintains Due to this, in case of C.L
the pressure constanL engines a spark plug is not
Due to combustion of needed. This method of
fuel, heat is assumed to ignition of fuel is called auto
be added at constant ignition.
pressure.

Comparison of Petrol (S.I.) and Diesel (C.I.) Engines

1.6 Comparison between S.I. (Petrol) Engine and C.I. (Diesel) Engine

Both are four stroke internal combustion engines completing one power stroke in two revolutions of the crankshaft.
However, the basic differences in their cycles of operation areas shown in Table 1.6.1.

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.l$fC 1.C. Engines (.MU-Sem. V~Mech) 1·17 Constructional Features &Worldng of l.C. EnQlnes

Table 1.6.1

1. Basic cycle Based on Otto cycle Based on Die5el cycle

2. Fuel used Gasoline (Petrol) having high self Diesel having lower self ignition
ignition temperature temperature compared to gasoline

3. Induction A carburettor is used to prepare the No carburettor is needed. Fuel is injected

required strength of mixture of fuel with the help of fuel pump under high
and air. pressure directly into the combustion
chamber before the end of the compression

stroke.

4. Compression ratio (C.R.) Varies from 5 to 10. Upper limit is Varies from 14 to 20. Upper limit is fixed
limited by antiknock rating of fuels. due to increasing weight of the engine with
the increase in C.R.

5. Ignition Spark is used to ignite the mixture. The self ignition of fuel occurs due to high
temperature of air bCcause of high
compression of air.

6. Load control Quantity of mixture of fuel and air Fuel pump regulates the supply of fuel
inducted is controlled by throttle. injected to cylinder.

7. Speed. High speed engines due to light Low speed engines due to heavy weight.
weight.

8. Thermal efficiency Low efficiency due to low High efficiency because of higher
compression ratio (C.R.) compression ratio (C.R.)

9. Weight Lighter due to lower peak pressures. Heavier due to higher peak pressures.

10. Starting Easy due to low C.R. Difficult due to high C.R.

11. Running cost More as they use costly fuel. Low as they use cheap fuel.

12. InitiaJ cost. Low High.

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l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
1 8 ... , _1 constructional Features & Workln
'.
The top of the piston usually has a deflector. The f ::. .:1 ~
Syllabus Topic : Cycle of Operation of ~'
= Two Stroke Engine
charge sweeps out the remainder of the .burnt 8~ ;·
T . while 'passing over the deflector. Th.is ProcCss -0; ·~
1.7
wo Stroke I.e. Engines
sweeping out the burnt gases from the cylinder by ~ ·

In two Stroke engines,

· one cycle is completed in one fresh charge is called sca••enging.
revolution of the .......~'--
- "·~haft by eliminating the suction
and exhaust strokes.
However the .
• suction and exhaust processes are carried
out simultaneously during the compression and
expansion strokes. Gudgeonpln
or piston pin
The working of SJ· and CJ. cog.mes
. working on two
stroke cycle are being described below.

1.7.1 Working of Two Stroke S.I. (Petrol)

Inlet port

Engine

....."-----~ di agmm of two stroke

Fig. 1.7.1 shows the .-UQu.:wc
CrankC8118
engine. In this type of en~inc the \'11.h'c.." of the four
stroke engmc
.· Crank
3fC repl:K~ hy ports which urc lhrcc in

numbers. n.:uncJy, transfer po~ inlet or Induction

port and aha.ust port.

C.on..~i-da tb:s.t the pis.ton is 3t T.D.C. which h3s the high

Fig. 1.7.1: Two Stroke S.I. Engine
piessure :md high tcmpcr.uure t~s of the previous

strclr ~ the fresh clurge in the er.ml: c.3.~ During the upward motion of the piston from BOC to

\"\'hen the piS1..:oo mo\"es from TOC to BOC. the burnt TDC, U1e piston first uncovers the inlet port allowing

g3:SeS e..~ :md de\'clop the moth-e power. the fresh charge to be admitted into the crank case due

to the partial vacuum created in the crank case and then

Wben the piSUln mo\·es downwards during its
it uncovers the transfer and exhaust ports.
cxpmrioo !t:rol:e. lhe pisron first CO\'et'S the inlet port

l!:ld ~the fresh c-h.3rgc held in the crank case. 111e fresh charge admitted into cylinder in its previous

stroke is now compressed. Before the end of

After c::om;:t!ctioo of :about 80% of expansion stroke, the
compression stroke a spark is supplied which burns the
pi:slon WlCO\·cn the cxlwlst port and some of the
fuel air mixture.
proda;..-u of cc:nbustiCY.J esczpc to 3tmospbere.
Cycle is now again repeated.
On furtha IDO'Joo of the Jili,10n, the piston uncovers the

tr.msfa port and allcr..i.·s the !>lightly compressed charge

from the cranl: case to be admiue.d into the cylinder via

the uansfer pert.

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· ·mi-1.c. Engines (MU-Serri. V-Mech) 1·19 constfucticina1 Features &working 01 1.c. Engines . · ·

·WORKING OF 2 STROKE PETROL ENGINE .

Piston .
•movement
·Transfer port Transfer port
(T.P.) dosed (T.f>;) closed

Spar1( plug

Piston

Transfer port
mOVement
Transfer pori
(T.P.)open .(tP;) open .

I
I
\

Fig. 1.7.2: Working of two stroke petrol engine

The fuel is supplied with the help of fuel injection

1.7.2 Working of Two Stroke C.I. (Diesel) pump and the injector to the cylinder.
Engine The working of diesel engine is similar two stroke S.l.
engine except that only air is inducted into the crank
Fig. 1.7.3 shows the schematic diagram. of a two stroke, case in case of C.I. engine in place of mixture of fuel
diesel engine. and arr.

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 . .., .... .

"·
'1·
1·20
motion, the piston firstly uncovers the exhaust l>Ort ;.

8
little later it uncovers the transfer port. ..
'lid
The air compressed during .the previous. stroke in ·u:.,
·~ crank case is transferred mto the cylinder via ·
. . . h the
transfer port. This mcommg arr pus es out the bU?nt ·
gases while passing over the deflector. This Process ~ .
sweeping out the burnt gases is called scavenging.
The piston ~oves upwards i.e. from B.D.C. to T.D.c. It ·
first closes the transfer port and a little later the exhaUst
port.
The air transferred earlier into the cylinder is now
compressed with further movement of piston upwards.
Simultaneously, the vacuum is created in the crank case
' I

" due to which fresh air is drawn inside the crank case
through the inlet port.
Before the end of compression stroke, the fuel is
Fig. t.7 .3 : Two stroke diesel engine injected and the atomised fuel bums due to · high
;·I :·, ' ~mperature of air called auto ignition.
The working of the engine Is ~follows :
\' '
The ·resulted hot gases will again expand, thus
\ ' (Refer Fig. 1.7.4)
completing a cycle.
\'· Consider the piston at T ·0 .C. When piston
. moves
"
down, the hot gases expand. During its downward

wo~~KING OF 2 STROKE DIESEL ENGINE

Piston
rnOv&I!
· Cylinder . .:
T.D.C. to . Defledor Pjston .
B.D.C.. !OOvem.ent :
(Expansion
.Transfer
port closed
stroke) P!ston
1
.,
'
:

Connecting
rod

Crankcase

Crank

Fig.1.7.4: Continued..--·

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I 1-21 Constructional Features & Working of 1.C. Engine$

Fuel Inject

Deflector Piston
mo~ea
Cylinder 1·Piston
Deflector movement
B.0..C. to
Pision
r;o.c:
(Compression
•lmke)
Tranafer port .Transfer port
closed
Inlet port
open
Connecting
rod Connecting
rod
Crankcase
Crank
Crank
-'

Fig.1.7A: Two stroke diesel engine

Syllabus Topic : Comparison of Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engines

1.8 Comparison between Two Stroke and Four Stroke Engines

.+ (MU· May 12, May 13, May 16)

Ma 12,Ma 13, Ma 16

1. Completion of cycle Cycle is completed in four strokes of. the Cycle is completed in two strokes of
piston or in two revolutions of the the piston or one ·revolution of the
crankshaft. crankshaft

2. Power produced for same Less High.

cylinder dimensions and Power produced is almost twice of four
speed. stroke engine practically 70% to 80%
higher.

3. Size of flywheel Heavier flywheel is needed since turning Lighter flywheel is need since more
moment is not so uniform. uniform turning moment is produced.

· 4. Initial cost and space Occupies more space and costly due to Occupies less space and cheaper.
requirement for same size complicated valve mechanism.
of engine

s.;.i1111utJ w1 lh Ca11~ m 1t.'f

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N~~ - ~ CJOl).~IQO\k)r\"' f'g{!!Uft:\I! l\ W_QJkln -ot 1.0, llri ':~i

Cm~. \l'\1d..s1h11,\\1:-tf\n\ "'"~11\~ll. SC\l\\1'11\f\1'll Scuolc1~ I moto1· ll)'\llos '"'l' to their

\'t~. Clllll\11\Cl 1llt.o.

1.9 How to Toll Whether an Englno ls llm\'c\'~''i n\tl\\S~" l'lilns th~ m11l11 constltuonl of air
Four Stroke or Two Stroke Englne ? wh\~h lll.ics not \11\(lor~.o uny chl'\mlcnl 1\'luctlon: ln tha
comllllst\\)11 l'\1111nhc1', th~1'\)fol'1, tho working t1u\d
\, A "-.-.:St\\)\;_¢• ""\.~
. •\\\¢ l llX·s twit h:w~ \'U ~\Imp mu\ o\\ filter dosd)' t~somhlcs with 11\r nt 1111 times.
l'1\\S. whe~t\$ the$c t-:o1.ht \\\ ·l-$tmk~ c.t'Sino.
...,.. Doflnltlon of nlr atondnrd oyclo
2. The t.xh:mst ~Hi:'l\l.X'.f ls lt1stt1\\('\\ nt thi."1 hl'ml l"I\,\ l't'
cyUmk.r ut c"<.h:mst \':\\\'~\I\ -l~h\}kc c.t~ll\~ wh\11.) \t is
11li
~ 1/w clrnmd ~.yclos l.vitl& air as working
~ .substmll.'ll wltit}l closely 1'Csm1t1'los with
installed tow:\tds tho micMk of ~ylimk\t it1 ~""h''"'-li octuol opon c.ydm.1 is collcd an air.
Cl\£_ti\¢,
altmclard C)'Cltt.'
3. Lubric:\th~ <'il i~ mh.eli with {)etm\ ~-st~'k\' 1."tl{lhll' l'""' In pmet\cc, it Is \mpossih\o to l'C\lC:ll tho 1~111 cycles
to thh• it d~s not h:wc oU llmins :me\ tdi\ls ns it is
prccS~\llCd hy tho thl~Ol'dicnl cyclo~ for tho following
neccs...~\I)' in -'"~trokc ei1sint
rcnsons:
4. In two stmkc c1~h1c-s the munc t'l:1tc l'I\ \'.ng\nc (11) lntt"nml um\ C.'\tcnm\ ln'3vcrnibilltlcs \Ike tluid und
re<:i.'mmend..-. to mh nil with \~lt\l\ while h1 \.':isc . .,r .,. m~dumkn\ friction, 1:omhustii.m etc.
stroke engine tho munc plate pruvidc-i; the infommtion
(h) tlnlntcmtl'll hcnt \ossos.
like the c3p:1city of cmnk c:i.~c :md t)'\~ or l)i\ to be
\l~i. (c) Different 1wopcrtlcs of working medium..

Review of Alr Standard Cycles Efflctonclos ond

(d) Vnrlnlion In S\1Ceific hcut of gnscs wilh tompcmturo.
Mean Effective Pressure (mop) Howo,·cr, thc nir stnm.hud cycles nrc uscfol nm\ become
1m hn111.,rt:mt \0()\ to 11ro\•idc t\ simple method fot nchicving n
1.1 o Review of Air Standard Cycles qmmtih1ti\'o t-ompnrisol\ of cycle \'!Crfonmmcc.

An internal comhustion (1.C.) t"nginc wNks on open 1.11 Assumptions of Air Standard Cycle
cyck but it i~ dc~in1\'llc to dc\•IC'O cto,"l'<l cyde thnt
~ (MU - May 13)
would nppro:dnmtc the nc-trn\l Clpen cycle.
ttmh§i.M•.hil!im .,:,. -:·"-<;· · .·' :, ...:,:.··· ,:_- · .,.~
Jn nn nctunl engine. the working fluid ch:mges from t1ir
nnd fuel to products of comhustion during the cydc.
,o,.:'., .,. :~fot&, ~ho· ~~¥~~.e.tto~i: 1~·. ~n ·:A;r.~~t~~~~r? -'. ey~~§;(
. "' ":": ,. ·....... ·~·.""~ .. ~,· . ~.~:·· ~:- . '• ~. • - '~~- , -~ ,

- ·· ... -· .
l
1
1
j ~ l.C. En ines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) •
1 23
l · of t· · Engines
· & Working
Constructional Features . c·
i ~ollowing are the assumptions made m the an ys1s o
j _,,,--
air standard cycles :
· a1 · f 1.12.3 Relatlve Efficiency

I (i) The w.orking medium in the cylinder is air. ~ r::r Definition of relative efficiency
j ;:{ii)
-- The air behaves like an ideal gas i.e. it obeys the gas
I laws and its specific heal is constant al all temperatures.
: c = 1.005 kl/kg K. CV= 0.718 kl/kg~ y = 1.4 .
I' -- -- . - . - · - ·---. '"'= •
disc~arging operations are omitted,
p - · ·- -
[ (iii) The charging and
: therefore, a constant mas_s of the medium is carried Thermal efficiency
Relative efficiency · = Air standard efficiency
through the entire cycle.
Acutal workdone
(iv) Ari the processes are internally reversible. There are ~o == Theoretical or ideal Workdone ...(1.12.4)
unin~nded heat los~s and friction is neglected.
1.12.4 Work Ratio
(v) The heat energy added to the working medium is
transferred from
a heat reservoir. .There is also a r:ir Definition of Work Ratio
provision for transfer of heat from the working medium
tq a heat reservoir sink s.o th~t the cyc~e is completed.
1.12 Air Standard or Ideal Efficiency and
Other Efficiencies
Net work transfer
•· Work ratio, rw · == Positive work transfer
Cir Definition of air standard efficiency
= Positive work tr:mSfer - negative work tr.msfer ...( u 2.S)
Positive work transfer ,

It is desirable to have work ratio approaching to unity.

It is also called as ideal efficiency. 1.12.s Mean Effective Pressure (m. e. p.)

1.12.1 Air Standard Efficiency '6"'. Definition of Mean Effective Pressure (m. e. p.)
DEmartON

Air standard efficiency is the ratio of ideal workdone to

the heat supplied. Therefore, UJJ
· Air tandard ffi . Ideal work done
. s e ciency = Heat supplied ...(1.12.1)
_ Heat suplied - Heat rejectM
·- Heat supplied ...(l.l 2·2)
Refer Fig. 1.12.I.
1.12.2 Thermal Efficlency
Let,
W = Workdone during the cycle :·

Pm == Mean effective pressure

By definition,

Pm x ar~a of piston x stroke :::: '!/orkd~ne'~'- (W)

:. Pin x volume displaced., (V~) ~Vi
Therefore,

Tberina1 efficiency A_ctual workdone

= Heat supplied- ...(1.12.3)

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,W- l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1_24 construcllon•I Features & Worl<Jng of t.c. ~

p 1•12.6.1 factors Affecting the Volumetri·: ·.~ ·

Efficiency of an Engine

''
J· The volumetric efficiency of the engine is affected .
. drit .
to following reasons. ·

Factors Affecting the Volumetric ·

Efficiency of an Engine

1. Effect of inlet air temperature

· V
v. 2. Effect of suction and exhaust pressures

.
Fig. J.12.J

----
... Mean effective Ptts.mre, (P...) = Workdone, (W)
Swept volume , (VJ

...(1.12.6)
3. Resistance of inlet valves

4. The valve overlap

5. Effect of speed I
1 12 6
• • Volumetric Efficiency or Charge 6. Effect of valve timing
- Efficiency, 11v
Fig. Cl.4 : Factors Affecting the Volumetric Efficiency
rir- Definition of volumetric efficiency of an Engine · ·

w
Df!JJUnoN ,< • •

... 1. Effect of inlet air temperature

Due to heating of fresh charge/air in the intake

. manifolds and by hot cylinder walls, T'lv reduces.

·.+ 2. Effect of suction and exhaust pres.rures

Alternately, the volumetric . efficiency can also be In narurally asp~ated engine the suction or inlet

defined.as the ratio of mass of the fresh charge present in pressure, P; is Jess than the exhaust pressure, Pe whereas

the cylinder per cycle to the maximum possible of the fresh P; > Pe in supercharged engines. The ratio of p/p,

charge which can be admitte~ into the cylinder during the affects the volumetric efficiency.

admission stroke per cycle at the given suction conditions. (a) When P; < Pe , the clearance volume is filled with
residual gases at Pe· When the inlet valve opens
Fresh charge represents the air in case of diesel engines
and the mixture of liquid or gaseous fuel with air in case of and the exhaust valves closes, the residual gases

spark ignition or petrol engines. · will flow into 'intake manifolds and these gases
will expand isentropical1y and mix with fresh
Therefore,
charge. As a result the fresh charge admitted into
~- ·--· - ·

j Actual mass of fresh charge/cycle admitted the cylinder is less and its volumetric efficiency
into the cylinder at suction conditions
\ 1lv = Mass of fresh charge/cycle that can be admitted reduces.
'
1
corresponding to its stroke volume (b) When P; > Pe in supercharged engines, it increases
1
the volumetric efficiency since more charge will
be admitted into the cylinder.

.. ..,.,~~ - ~ ' - ~ -- -· -- - ·-- ---"------

 ~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V·Mech) 1·25 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engin.es .

. . · 3. Resistance of Inlet valves _1.12.7 Useful Thermodynamic Relations

and Equations ·
Resistance of inlet valves which depends upon the area
provided for charge to flow into the cylinder reduces 1• 1• law of thennodynamlcs
the volumetric efficiency. For closed system : d'Q - d'W dU = .. .(1.12.7) .

· Q-W =AU ...(1.12.8)

. . . 4. The valve overlap

The valve <:>verlap remains for q~te some period during

Where, d' W = p d V and dU = m Cv dT
. T2
the suction of charge and the exhaust gases. Some of
the fresh charge admitted is used to drive out the
:. AU=m JCvdT=m Cv (1'2 -T1)

exhaust gases, therefore, it reduces the volumetric F.;r oi>t:n.system or Dow process .
efficiency. d'Q = d'Wat +dH
(when changes in ICE and P. E. are neglected)
-+ s.. Effect of speed ...(l.12.9)
or Q-Wat = MI ...(l.12.10)
The velocity of suction air depends on Ille piston speed
d' w.f = - v. dp and dH = m cp dT
(2 _L N). At low piston speeds, the llv almost remains Tl

constant. but the volumetric efficiency increases with Ml = m JCPdT =m<;(T -T1) 2

T,
the increase in piston speed upto a certain optimum
velocity. However, further increase in piston speed 2. Gas Equation
... (1.12.11)
beyond certain optimum value, the volumetric pV = mRT
efficiency decreaSCS due to increased resistance to flow. 3. Mayer's Equation for Relatlonshlp between
cpand c .. .
-+ 6. Effect of valve timing
Cp-Cv = R
The inlet valve closing and valve overlap are decided
c ... (1.12.12)
based on the engine speed. and Y -- .:::J2
CV

At low speeds. the pressure at the end of suction stroke

4. Law of Process
is equal to the inlet pressure and closing the L V beyond
(a) [sotbennal
BOC may cause the fresh charge to flow back into the intake . : ..(1.12. 13)
manifolds causing the reduction in volumetric efficiency.
p·V =P1 V1 =P2 V2 •·· =C
(b) Reversible Adiabatic or Isentropic
However, at higher speeds the delay in closing the LV y y c ...(1.12.14)
P1 V1 = P2 V2 = · · · =
will help to draw more fresh charge into the cylinder due to
. b . ~: effiect, therefore the volumetric efficiency
(~t1' =(~f"
. .. (1.12.15)
.
its hig er we. u.a .
increases· , .
-'""""t° ·valve is opened few degree (c) Polytropic
C ... (1.12.16)
siJililarly the e~ after TDC The closing
. n n
, p . V1 = P1 v I =P2 v2 ••• =
before BOC and closes few degrees .
-"'""' Trv"" reduces the·back pressure and it improves
of E.V. _& ......r IJ'- ¥. = (~r"~ =(*.r" •.. (1.12.17)

the volumetric efficiency·

Scanl'led w l1h c amScanner

 ·I
, ,. ~I.e. Englnes (MU-Sem.
·
V-Mech) 1-26
Constructional Features & Workin

~--
T 3
.Wor1c Transfer w

i·" (a) ISOlhennai

(b) lsenlropic W=e,v,-p,v, s

(y-1)
(b)
_mR (!1 - Ti) .
(Y-1) Fig. 1.13.1 : Otto cycle
(c) Polytroplc W-f!1V1-1l2V2
- (n-1) W=(n~1 )mR (T,~TJ (I) Processes Involved
:: mR (T1 -Tzl
(n-t) Otto cycle consists of two constant volume and two

ll"d reversible adiabatic processes as shown in Fig. 1.13.l(a)

6.
Law of ~ermodynamics
and (b).
_@ ,
" dS - T ,

d'Q = T. dS . .. (1.12.18) Consider 'm' kg of air in the cycle at · state-1

Tl (p 1, V 1, T 1) . The various processes are:
Heat transfer, Q "." J T. dS ... (l.12.19) (a) Process (1·2) : Reversible adiabatic compression or
T,
isentropic compression during which air is compressed
Al Sta .
r ndard Otto, Diesel and Duel Combustion Cycles from state-I to state-2. The law of process is p · vr = C.
1.13 Air Standard Otto Cycle (b) Process (2·3) : Heat is added to air from a heat
\ {-::: (_ ~ (MU· May 16) reservoir at constant volume and state changes from

~"Universit
. •', ~ . .. ' Question
'. . ·)>_::;:, ~~~-:<)\;~;:g~~~~J.:\\;{;~~~:;.,
state-2 to state-3.
Heat supplied, Q2•3 =mCv (T3 - T J ...(i)
.a,\ ,: '-~·~-lh~ e~ci~~ ~i~i~J~~-; (c) Process (3-4) : The air expands from state-3 to state4
Spark ignition engines operate on theoretical Otto reversible adiabatically according to law p · yY =C.
~ycl~. The cycle is represented on (p-V) and (T-S) diairams
(d) P~ (4·1) : During this process heat is rejected at
m Fig. 1.1.3.l(a) and Fig. 1.13. l(b) respectively.
p 3 constant volume and the system returns to its original
Reversible
1
acfiabalics (pV = C) state. Therefore, a cycle is completed.
Heat rejeeted, ~• - t> ·= mcv (T4 - T 1) · ... (ii)

"'- ·. ·-.. (II) Analysis of the cycle

4 ,1

-· --"J'o ',./\ Net workdone, W = Heat supplied - Heat reject

'a b'
v
Air standard efficiency,
(•)
Fig. 1.13.l(Contd•••) = Net workdone _ mCv (T3 -T2)-mCv (f4 -T1)
11 Heat supplied - mCv (f3 - T 2)

- ---- - --- ·--- - - -- - - - -------

Sc<lnn9d w it h CllmScan 1wr
I~
!
I!
I
I ~ l.C. Engines {MU-Sem. V-Mech) ·1·27 Constructional Features & Working of 1.C. Engines

...(iv) - (II) Mean Effective Pressure (m.e.p.) ,..·

~ Definition mean effective pressure

As the compression and expansion processes are

isentropic with the same volume ratio, we can write,
T ~~(y- I) .• T ·~~(y-1) ·Refer Fig. 1.13.3. -
~-
.!.Z.... ..!..1.
TI-v and ..!.l
T-v
3 Let, W = Workdone during the cycle
Since V2 = V3 and V 1 = V 4 it follows that, Pm = Mean effective pressure
~y definition,
. .!.l T _ ~~<y-IJ
T - .!.l ..!..1. - ( )(y-1) Pm x area of piston x·stroke= Workdone, (W)
: T 1 - T4 - V - r ...(v)
: • . Pm x volume displaced (VJ = W
With the help of Equations (iv) and (v) we get, . · . · Workdone, (W)
. . Mean effective pressure, <Pm> = Swept volume, (VJ

_
Tl - 1 -
[(~- (r)
.~i-1~]'J
(r)
(T3 -Tz)
p
...(1.13.2)

. 1
= 1--w:n
(r)
..•(1.13.1) .

~--Y = 1.67 (Monoatomic)

~--Y =1-4 (dhatomic)

0
" 8 12 16 20 24 28
v
Compressi.on ratio, r
Fig. 1.13.2: Otto cycle efficiency Vs comp~ion ratio Fig.1.13.3
It is evident from Equation (1.13.1) that the thermal
. I ~ Mean effective pr~ure for Otto cycle can be
efficiency of the Otto cycle increases with the increase
calculated as follows :
in compression ratio.
v1 v,.
The effect of compression ratio is illustrated in Compression ratio, r =v=v 2 3
Fig. 1.13.2. Though the thermal e.fficiency can be
increased, theoreti~ally, by increasing the compression
ratio but in actual engines a limi~ is put on the P2 p3
It follows : Pt =r=-
y

p4
compression ratio due to detonation chatacteristics, of
the gasoline used. · Let, pressure ratio (explosion ratio),

However, the development of fuels for antiknock p3 p,.

properties have made it possible to use higher
a = p; =p;-
compression ratios in actual engines. Usually, a
compression -ratio of 6 to 10 ·is used in petrol engines.
 eonsuuctlonai Features & Wor1dn
·'
~I.e. En Ines (MU-Sem. V-Mech · 1-28

Mcllll effective pressure,

'·

m.e.p. = Wo- ·o-WCl-21

(V 1 -V 2)

Pl V3-p4 V4 P2 V2-P1 V,
(y-1) Cy-t)
=

= P"· V4 (~1 V1 ) (p2 V2 ) ciearancs yOlume

\P.;'Y;-1 -p 1 V1 \Pi·v.-1 (•)

' v, (1-.~) (y-1) T

3 -

=(y-1) lr-1) v1 x[p. v.Gv ·7-1)-P1 v, Gv ·7-1)]

' \•

r [r<v-•>-11
Pt
V
I
[p4p V1,v - 1]
:: I I
(r- l) V 1 (y-1)

r([r<Y-ll_l])p 1 V,(a.-1)
I (r-1) V 1 (y-1)
!I'
11'

.(s~ce V = V and::= a.)

i, (b)
','
.. 4 1
., .
1' Fig. 1.14.1 : Air standard diesel cycle
I , .

,,!· P1 • r (a-1) [ r<y-l) -11

\, :. m.e.p. = ... (1.13.3) ' The difference between otto and diesel cycle is in the
(r-1) (y-1)
heat addition process. In case of otto cycle the heat is
1•
I
"
added at constant volume while in case of diesel cycle,
the heat is added at constant pressure.

Point l represents the condition of air at the end of

suction stroke or at the beginning of the compression
stroke. This air is compressed isentropically with a
compre~sion ratio of 'r' which ranges from 14:1to20:1
'i
represented by the process (l-2).

Heat is transferred at constant pressure to air from a

1.14 Air Standard Diesel Cycle
beat reservoir. This process (2-3) corresponds to the
.,· .+ (MU - Dec. 16)
injection and burning of the fuel in an actual engine.
Universit Question
The point 3 is called the point of cut-off or the lo~

ratio.

Now the hot air expands isentropically to its initial

volume represented by the process (3-4).
An air standard cycle for diesel engines is shown in Finally the heat is rejected to a heat reservoir at
Fig. l.l.4.l(a) and (b) on (p-V) and (f-S) diagrams. Diesel constant volume in the process (4 - 1) so as to
engines are also called as compression ignition (C.I.) complete the cycle.
. I
engines.

~· ...-, .
L •
~ l.C. En Ines (MU·Sem~ V·Mech) Constructional Features & WorWng of 1.C. Engines

· · . 1[ T, • ~y -Ti 1.
r:-;:-;_y iitfJ~~ '~t(1.1
. 'll = 1-- (y-) (y- i)J

4.t)
,) (r) . . -
. . . . ""_,..,_. - . '. _._. .... ~ - ..... ·- ~-.1•:.0-
~;Ti--~..,.-- .
•..(i)
lt can be noticed from Equation (1.14.1) that the di~l
efficiency depends .upon the value of compression ratio
.,
Thermal efficiency of the cycle, r! ratio of s~ific heats y and cut-off ratio p.
= Heat supplied , (Q2 _ 3) - Heat rejected , (Q. _1) Diesel efftciell:CY differs. from ,Otto cycle only by the
'll . · . Heat supplied, (Q2 _ 3)
bracketed tei:m, this factor is always greater than unity.
mCP (f3 -T1)-mCv (f-4 -T1)
= mCP(f3 -TJ For this reason, the efficiency of diesel cycle is always

. j-=---'l(T;:T;)~-~ less than Otto cycle at a given compression ratio.

•• . 'll ~ l-y(f3-TJ ...(ii)
' .-'·
~ ~---~--~~------
For lsentroplc p~ (1-2)
.· ---- However, this comparison of efficiencies of a given
compression ratio is not of any practical importance
; · since the diesel engines operate at much higher

~
(y-1)
T
.!.1 (Yi . (y-1)
T = \V =(r) compression ratio ( 14 to 20) compared to spark ignition
1
(y-1) . (S.1.) engines operating on Otto cycle which use
T1 = T1 -(r) ...(lll)
~ compression ratio in the range of 6 to 10.
For constant p~ process (2-3) Due to higher C.R. used in . diesel engines, it's
efficiency is always higher than S.I. engines.
~
Tl -- PJ..Y.i.
T3 I
but P2 =p3
It can be further noticed from Equation (1.14.1) that the
• T3 = T1. Yi
V
l
efficiency of diesel cycle increases with the.increase in
compression ratio and with the decrease in cut-off ratio.
On substituting the value of T1 from Equation (iii),
The cut-off ratio in diesel engines is proportional to the
(y-1)
T 3 = [..T 1 • (r) ) •p ...(iv) load on the engine, for this reason, the efficiency of the
diesel cycle decreases with the increase in load on the
Finally, for constant volume the process (3-4) engine.
~ =@(y-l)=(~r-1) 1.14.1 Mean Effective Pressure

(p)y-1 . Workdone
T" = T3 • ---cy:i)
m.e.p. = Displacement v~lume
(r)
mCP (T3-: T1)- mCV er.. -Ti)
=
On substituting the value of T3 from Equation (iv), we CV1 - V1)
get, m • y • Cv (f3- T 2) - mCv(f4 - T 1)
=
v1(1-~~
1
. _ m • Cvy [ (T1 • p • r1 - l - T 1 • r1- ) ] - mCv (P1 • T 1 - T t)
...(v)
- mR T1 (
1
_!'\
Substituting the values of T1 , T3 and T.. from Pi . i)
1

Equations (iii) to (v) in Equation (ii) we get,·

.:' .)

Scanned with Ca mSconner

 . :-: (
. : . ; ;:~

~I.e. Engines (MU..Sem. V-Mech)

' -~.

1-30 eonstrucdonal Fealures & WOltcing o1 1.c. ~:

:: ~\Cy• Ti[ y • ry-t (p- 1)-(py - I)] The air standarcr" efficiency_ of_ this_ cycle can · ~·
~(r-(\ calculated as follows :
P1 \ r )
Let, Compression ratio,
I ,

. l ,· B Cy --L
Ut. R ::
I
(Y-1)
.. ,..=El
.)-------~~~;[;:~Y-l·{p--l>~{py-1)) ( Pressure or explosion ratio, ..... p2
m.e.p. ~ (Y-1) (r-1) \ ...(1.l 4·2>
.- J
Cut-off ratio,
1.15 ·Air .Dual Co;b~stlon or"
Standard Heat rejected. (~ _1) ,
Limited Pressure Cycle Efficiency, '1 = 1 - Heat supplied <Oi-3 + °-1-J ·

mCv(T5 -T1)
The combustion process in case of actual S.I. and C.I.
engines do not take place at constant volume and at
constant pressure respectively. . T5-Tt
:. Tl= l-(T3-TJ+y(T4_-T3) ...(i)
In order to approximate more closely to these actual
cycles, the dual combustion or limited pressure cycle For isentropic process (1-2)
has been developed as shown in Fig. 1.15.l(a) and (y-1) y-1
Fig. l.15.l(b) on (p-V) and (T-S) diagram in which the T2 = T1~ =T1 ·(r) ..•(ti)
heat is supplied partly at constant volume and partly at
constant pressure. For constant volume process (2-3)
p
3 Reversible Ii - Pl_,..
1
adiabatics {pV = C)
T2 - P2 - .....

T3 = a·T2
(y-1)
2 .. T3 = a·T1 (r) ...(iii)

5 For constant pressure process (3-4)

I! - Yi_p
T3_ - V3 -

v T4 = p ·T3
(a)
i.e. T4 = p ·a T1 (r)y-1 ...(iv)
T
p=C For isentropic process (4-5)

~)Y- ll - [V,.N~ <Y-ll

Ts = T4 V - T,. VsN

[V4N~<v-i>
= T,. V N
1

i.e. Ts = T4 ; tr-·> =[pa·T1(r)<r-•>] · ; rr-I)

.. Ts = P1 · cx·T1 ... (v)
(b)
On substituting the values of T 2 , T 3, T 4 and Ts with the
• 1•15. 1_ •• Air standard dual combustion cycle
F 1g.
help of Equations (ii) to (v) in Equation (i), we get,

-------------====::_:___--------~-=nnedWithCOmScOrlrl«
-
~ l.C. Engines {MU~Sem. V-Mech) 1·31 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines

= 1- [
.
. . (y-1)
' Py ·Cl · T 1 -T1
(y-IJ (y - h
· · .
(y-1)
J
(a·T1·r - .T 1 · (r) )+y(pa · T 1r -aT1 · r )

... = 1-[ y-1

(a· Py -1)
.
] ...(1.15.1)
1\
(r) . [(a-1) +y · a(p-1)]

Above expression shows that the efficiency. increases with. increase in compression ratio and.decrease
.
in
'
cut-o~ ..ra~o.
It can be noted from Equation ( 1.15 .1) that a value of p~surc ratio a > 1 results in an increased efficien~y for given
value of r ~d. p,_~us,_ the efficiency of ~e dual cycle lies between the Otto and Diesel cycles .for ·given value of a
compression ratio.
' "
1.15.1 Mean Effective Pressure

Workdone, W mCv(T3-T2) + mCP (T4-T3)-mCv CTs-T1) ,

m.e.p. = Displacement Volume, V, = ·(V 1 -V2)
1 1
[ m • Cv (ex· T 1 • l- - T 1 • ry- ) + m • y • Cv (P' • a· T 1 • ry- t - a.T1 • ry.- t ) - m • Cv (PY· a· T 1-T1)
= mR T 1 (i _.!.)r
P1
'''.
Pt· r Cv -1 ·
= (r-l) ·R~[ry (a-l)+y·cx(p-1)-(pY·a-l)]

Cy 1
But, R = y-1 ·
' l
P1 • r [ rY- [ (a-1) + y ·a (p -1) ] - (py ·a- 1)]
m.e.p. = ...(1.15.2)
(r-1) (p-1)

Air standard efficiency

Problems on Air Standard Cycles
Tl = 1-+. ... [According to Equatjon (1.13.l)]
Example 1.15.1 (r) , .
. 1
An engine wooong on Otto cycle, air has a pressure of 1 bar Tl = 1- 1.4-1
(7)
and temperature of 27°C. Air is compressed adiabatically
= 0.5408 or 54.08% ••.Ans.
with a compression ratio of 7 and then heat is added at
constant volume till the temperature rises to 2000 K. Find the
To find pressure of air : .
air standard efficiency, pressure of 8:ir at the end of For adiab~tic process (1-2):
' y ..
compression and heat addition process and the mean
P2 : V2 = P1. Vy1
effective pressure of the cycle. Assume, Cv =0.718 kJlkg K,
r= 1.4 and R =287 Nm/kg K.
Solution:
•• P2 = P1~y
Refer Fig. 1.15.1. . . Pressure at the end of com:pression,
ffi(l.4) .
Given: p1 =fbar, T1 =27°C =27 + 273 = 300 K, P2 = l \j.J = 15.245 bar •..Ans.
.. .
r= 7, T3 = 2000K rY..ll(y-1) ' (l.4 ..:.'1) '

'' .
Also, T2 = T~ \VJ = (273 + 27) G)
'~ .. = 653.37 K : _

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 • I

r.:
I
. I
l• Constructional Features & Workln
l.C. Engines (MU-Sem:.V-Mech 1-32
. . , l.

For coostan ·
. t volume heat addition process (2-3) :
p

Pl = P2 ~ = 15.245 (6~i)
,.
= 46.666bar
To find mean effective pressure :
Heat supplied per kg of air, . .
.. . \

'la-3) = CV (T3 -T~ L-------...v

= 0.718 (2000 - 653.37) = 966.88 kJ/kg
Fig. P.1.15.2
:. Workdone, W= Tl x ~ _ > = 0.5408 x 966.88
23
. 'I

For adiabatic process (1-2) and (3-4) we can write,

= 522.88 kJ/kg
(y-1) y-1
Since P1 V1 = RT1 ~ · =@ =(r)
vi = 287 x 300 0 86 3 k . .
lxl05-. lm/g . (y-1) I
rf.il
.Yi. 0.861 3
T
~ =\VJ =(r)
y-

V2 = r =--=;-=0.123m /kg
where, r =Compression ratio·
:. Swept volume, . (y-1)

V, = V 1 -V2 =0.861-0.123
:. T2 = T1 • r
!' -(y-1)
!
3
= 0.738 m /mg and T4 =T 3 • (r) ...(ii)

Mean effective pressure, From Equations (i) and (ii) we get.

= mc.,[{r3-T1·r(y- 1 )}-{r3·(r)-(y- )~T1}]

w522.88 1
W
Pm = V 1 = 0.738

= 708.51 kN /m
2
•••A.ns. From maximum work, d: = 0 if T3 and T, are fixed

Example 1.15.2 temperatures.

Therefore,
For an Otto standard cycle with fixed intake and maximum
dW Y- 2 -Y
temperatures, find the compression ratio that renders the -;k=O=mC,[O-T1 ·(y-l)·r +T3 · (y-l)r +OJ

efficiency is given by the expression : 1 - (

Solution:
=
work per cycle, a maximum and show that the cycle

~ J
,ri
:. T 3 • (y-1) r-Y

. (r)[(y-2)-(-y)] - ·
••
= T 1 (y-1) · rY- 2
!i
- T, .•
(r)2 (y-1)
.
= f I

=~
Refer Fig. P. 1.15.2.
:. (r)y-1

1 1
'lmax = 1 - (r{- l =1 - - lfi
"\jt.
Workdone, W = Heat supplied - Heat rejected

= Qi _3-Q4-1 ...Proved.

= mCv (f3 - T2)- mCv (T4-T1) ...(i)

 _,

J
1 .1·33 Constructional Feattires & Workln nes'
1 Example 1.15.3 Heat supplied =m Cv (T3 -Ti)

II A four stroke engine working on Otto cycle has a swept

a
volume of 0.1 m . The compression ratio Is 7. The condition
at the start of the cycle Is at 1 bar, 90°C. The heat addition at
constant volume Is 100 kJ/cycle. And the Ideal efficiency,
mean effective pressure and pressure and temperature at
JOO = 0.112 x 0.718 (T3 -790.6)
:. T 3 = 2034.J K
For constant volume process (2 - 3),

!l
p3 = P2 "T2 .
! . key points In the cycle. Assume air as working substance
=
with Cv 0.718 kJ/kg K and y 1.4. = 2034.1
= 15.25 x _ = 39.24 bar
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 1.15.3. 790 6

Given : Compression ratio For adiabatic process (3 - 4),

y
- 7-Yl_.Y.i
r - - V 2 - V3 i.e. Vt = 7 V2 •.. (i) p4 = p3 · @

p 1 =1 bar; T 1= 90°C = ·363 K, Q2_3 = 100 kJ . 1A

p = 39.24 (t) .= 2.57 bar

1.4-1
= 2034.1 (t)
= 934.0K
1

v
Fig. P. 1.15.3
. 3
Swept volume, V1 - V2 = 0.1 m 1. 1 0.11669 363.0
[ from Equation (i) ] 2. 15.24 0.01667 790.6

.. 7V2 -V2 = 0.1 3. 39.24 0.01667 2034.1

0 4. 2.57 0.11669 934.0
V2 = (/ =0.01667 m3
•••Ans.
V1 = 7 V2 = 0.11669 m3 Heat rejected = ~- 1 ~mCv (T4 -T1)
P1 V1 = mRT1 = 0 .112 x 0.718 (934-363)
1xtcrx0.1169 = m x 287 x 363 = 45.92 kJ/cycle

:. m = 0 .112kg Workdone,

To fmd p~ and temperature at key points :

w = Heat supplied - Heat rejected

y y = 100-45.92 = 54.08 kJ/cycle

P1 · V 1 = P2 · V2
Ideal efficiency
4
Pi- = 1 x (7/ =15.25 bar Workdone 45.92
y-1 Tl = Heat supplied = 100
T2 = T1 • (#) 4
= 363 (7)1- -l
= 0.4592 or 45.92 % •••Ans.
= 790.6K
 ..
. ,.
\ ?,· , ·onal Features & Working of I.e.
.;(.34 Construeti ..
lit 1 111.4_

Mean effective Presmtre :

t .J . . 3

P n1 = Workdone (Nm) _ 45.92 x 1000

Swept volume (m3) - 0.1
=o.06Um .
.. _. · · ure beataddition proce.s s (2-3) : · '·: ·:
· · For consUUJt press . . · · .· · ,. · ·.
== 45.92 x 10 N / m 4 2
=4.592 bar ••• Am.
"',.. . ""/ -:\.:1 . . .._: ;
v..
_. =
~V '-!:;: ~ - -? .--- . '···· '.
__.;.----
T2 T3 ,r··-.:1""'·
•• .
.;fl 'i1._ .
(./ 01' -• -
T3
YJ. T _ _...:..- x 886.78=1449.99K . ...Ans, .
= v X 2 - 0.0612 . , , ..
2

From Expansi~n process (3-4) :

y y
P3 v3 = P4 v4
1.4

= ~!Y·p3 =(¥) x50 .

.. p4
'

.r'
= 1.991 bar.
p y-1/y . . [1.99lr4-l/l.4
.. T4 = T3 • ~J =1449.99 x so
••.Am.
= 577:29 K ·
2. Diesel cycle e~l~lency (1)) :
[ P - l
fl= 1-(r)y-I • y(p-'l) .
1
1
J
v . ~ · 1
(a) where, r = compression rate = _y = Q06i2
2
T
3
= 16.34

p = cut-off ratio =~-_JU_

V 2 -o.0612

= 1.634
290K

s : . Tldiesel cy.:Jc
1
= 1.- (16.34)0.4. =
[ (1.634( - 1
1.4 (1.634- 1)
4
J
(b) = 1- 0.3271 [l.11382]
Fig. P. 1.15.4
= 0.6357 or 63.57 % •••Ans.
1. Temperatures at salient points of the cycle
MU ::Dec>1Si 10 Marks
CT2,T3,TJ
. . ,
For compression process (1-2):
:/1·
y - 1/y (1 .4-' 1)!1.4
5
· T - T · (£i
~J
l , .= 290 · ( Q'_ .--
1 ).(.,
\ .. .
•• 2 - 1
(""' I/ - /
/ ~

= 886.78K "r· J ••:J\ns.

 MU-Sem.-V-Mech ines
1-35 Constructional Features &Wor1dn
Solution:
'· p4 = 2.976 bar
p1 =1 bar, · T1 =37°C =37 + 273 = 310 K (y- I) 0.4

P2 = 15 bar, T3 =2000 K, ~ =0.717 kJ/kg K: y =1.4 T4 = T3 x@ = 2000' (6.k)

(1) Tbeoredcal thermal eftlclency, 11
= 922.5 K
v~ =P:z • v~ ; ~ =r·=~ 1r =(\~in-•
1

p1 • Heat rejected, (4_1 = m Cy (T4 -T1)

= 6.92 . =--: 1x0.717 (922.5 -:-: 310)

. -1 1 -I 1 . = 4.39.2 kJ/kg
11 - (r)(y-1) .--::, ' (6.92)0.4
Workdone, .w = Heat supp~~ Qz-3
· = 0.5387 or ·5 3,87 ...Ans. - heat rejected, ~ _1
(ii) Heat supplied I kg of air, QZ-.1 \~t~ l) = 952.2 - 439.2 = 513 kJ/kg ...Am.
T2 = T1 ~Jy-1)11= 310 el~o.411.4 ~ , Alternately, w = 11 x heat supplied,
Q2·3 = 0.5387 x 952.2 =513 kJJkg ...A.ns.
= 672K
Qi.3 = mCv(T3 -T~

= 1 x 0.717 x (2000- 672)

= 952.2kJ/kg
p
3

Diesel cycle is shown in Fig. P. 1.15.6.

i.----v•.- - - - v
Given : Compression ratio, r ='if= 18
v 2

Fig. P.1.15.S (V3 - V2) = 10 % of strbke volume (V1 - v~

(ill) Pressure at the end of expansim~, p 4 and p 1 = 1 bar, T 1 ='20°C=20 + 273 = 293 K
workdoneW 3
V 1 .= (V 1 -V2)=1~m . /hr
vA v· p
- _..!.1_692
V3 - Y2 - .
2 3

Consider constant volume process (2 - 3) :

• . - I.
n. T 2000
~ = -;f! ;P3 = 15 x 672 = 44.643 bar
' 4

1 bar -1-------v------- ,1 (20"C)

1· • •·
v
Fi • P .1.15.6
 .l.C.En In
·' ·
: ', I
es MU-Sem. V-Mech 1-36 Constructional Features & Workln
I
Let. v1 -v2 ==
100 ml /hr ... •

.
I •
V2 &- 1) = 100
Heat supplied,
I •
.' ~ .. v2 os-1> == 100
I
0,2 _ 3> = mcp (T3 -T2>
.·. v2 :: J7
100
= 5.8824 m3 I hr = .0.03497 x I.DOS (25 I3.9 - 93 J.1)
'= SS.63 kW

Heat rejected,
- 105.8824 m3 /hr
Since
V3-V2:: 0.1 (V1 -V2) Q(4 - I) = mCy (T4 -°T,)
... V3 :: O.l x 100 + 5.8824 =15.8824 m3 /hr = 0.03497 x 0.718 x (1461.2-293)

(i) Maxhnum Ptts.w = 29.33kW

re and temperat~re or the cycle
Thermal efficiency,
fY (y)
Pi = P1 • \.~ = 1 (18)
14
' =57.2 bar n
•1 =
H.S - H.R _ l H.R _ l 29.33
}l.S - - H.S - - 55.63
•" Maximum pressure
• = 0.4728 or 47.28 % ···An....
••• Ans. (Ill) Indicated power or the engine
(y- 1) J.P. = H.S - ·H.R =SS.63 - 29.33
T2 =Ta·® =293(18)(l.4 -t)
= 26.3 kW •••Ans.
t ' ·,~.'")-;,
= 931.IK •••Ans. I '·
V

. .
'

1Examp1e 1..1s.1 IMIM•l§W•I€1

,.
•' '

. . .·
I ' ,:· • .1 t

.· :.. ·· .... ·. ·. .:.. ~· . :.:·~~;.,:(::/

- ," . . -
~
';-:-,

~~
."',;· ,.,;,;;:
'j}.

For constant pressure (2 - 3), we can write iAn air-standard Dual cycle .has acompression ratl~ ofj (>j
.!J -~ .
;The ·pressure and . temperat~re · at the .. f?eglnnl~~f.Co(
;compression .are 1. bar and. 27°C. The maximum pressure!
T2 - V2
[reached Is 42 bar.and the maximum temperature.is 1soo~q~ .
.YJ 'oetermine - (I) temperature at the end of constant .voiu'me'. ·
.. T 3 =V2. T 2 = 15.8824
5.8824 x 93 1.1
1

heat addition, (Ii) cut-off ratio; (Ill) work done·por kg of air'aiid1

••• Maximum temperature during the cycle.

;<Iv) cycle efllcienc~:~ ~.~,~~~:~~ ..fP, ~ "1~o·~,!~t~·;·f~~~;;J%,~;.~
.cv =.=J:>!!f~ ~!Jcg ,~:.2!.a!r!..._ .....;:.:::·.~-:•.1::....::.:.:·•. ,.:.·..::.., _~~u. ~.,s!'J
T1 = 2513.9K ... Ans. Solution:

Refer Fig. P. 1.15.7

(lJ) Thermal efficiency or the cycle
. v
For isentropic process (3 - 4), we can write,
Given : Compression ratio, r =~
2
=10
~l(y-J) p 1 =1bar,T1 =27 °C = 300K; p3 = p4 = 42 bar
T4 = Tl '\,VJ T~ = T4 = 1500°C =1773 K, m =1 kg
(J.4- l)
cp 1.004
= 2513.9 ( ~~~~) 1 = 1461.2 K y = Cy =o.717 =t.4
Mass flow rate, of air, R = Cp-Cv= 1.004-0.717

.Ei..Yi. _ 1 x w' x 105.8824 = 0.287 kJ/kgK =287 Nm/kg/K.

m = RT1 - 287X293

= 125.914 kg/hr

St:nnnl'K1 wit hf::im:..r.nnn11r

172 .. . . ·.·. .- . . .. ..
... ·, ..
~-

1-37
p (W) Workdoneperkgofalr, W
- ' . -. 3 .
'-42bar
Consider adiabatic process (4-5),
(y-1)

2
I
T, = T4 ·(if,)
I 04
I 5 - {!O 1211) ·
I = 1773 \.. 0.861 = 700.2 K
I
1 bar - L - - - - - - - - - 1
Vc I Va Heat supplied/kg of ak,
v
QI = Qz...3+~ ·
Fig. P. 1.15.7
= 'mcy(1'3-Tz} +mCP {T4-T~
mR T 1 _ 1 x287 x300 _ 3/k
Vi = 1x103 0861 m g
P1 - - ·
= lx0.717(1260-753.6)
Yi 0.861 .
V2 = r =-w =0.0861 mlkg=V3
3
+ 1x1.004 (1773-1260)

(I) . Temperature at the end of comtant volume heat = 878.1 kJ/kg

addition, T 3
Heat rejected per kg of air,
Consider adiabatic p~ (1- 2) :
(ii' (y-1)
T2 = T 1 ·\.yJ = 1x0.717 (700.2-300) =293.4 kJ/kg

W = Heat supplied, Qi - Heat rejected, Qr

= 300(10)0 ·4 =753.6 K
y y = 878.1-293.4
Pv
I I
:n..·V.
FJ. 2 •
= 584.7 kJ/kg ••• A.ns.
= 4
1 (10{ = 25.12 bar
(iv) Cycle efficiency,"
Consider constant volume heat addition process (2-3) Workdone,W _ 584.7
Tl = Heat supplied.Qi - 878.1
El - !i
P2 - T2
= 0.6659 or 66.59 % •••Ans.
T3 =T2 ·~=753.6x 2~~ 2
= 1260K ••• Ans.
. . v
(ii) . Cut· off ratio, p = ~

Consider constant pressure process (3 - 4),

~ '.!!
V3 = T3 =1773
1260 =I.40?

v Solution:
. • Cut-off ratio, p = -ij-3 =1.407 •••Ans.
Refer Fig. P. 1.15.8
V4 = p • V3 = 1.407 x 0.0861 .. . . =~
Compression ratio, r V =8
2
3
= 0.1211 m /kg
p1 = 1 bar, T 1 = 373 K. plIWt = p3 = 50 bar

; ~ !

Scan ~ w1tti CamSCanner

 l.C. Engines MU-Sem. V-Mech
I.

Assume : <;. = 0.718 kJ/kg K, 'Y =1.4,

R = 287 Nm/kg K

Mass of air =1 kg
1•. Pressure, volume and temJ,erature at salient points
p

1.0705 1014.69
4. 2.72
Ve ---v. --.1

v 2. Ratio of beat.rejected ~d beat supplied Le.~

Fig. P.1.15.8 . 2-3

·: P1 V1 = mRT1 ~ _ ·m C1 (T. -Ti)= (T4 -Ti)

Q2-3 - m Cv(T3 - T:z) (1'3 - Ti)
v 1 = m R Ti _ 1 x 287 x 373
P1 - 1x103 (10)4.69-373) _ O 4353 A-~
= (2331.15-856.93) - • ~
. vl = 1.0705 m3/kg
Consider ise11tnopic
· · compression process (1- 2): Syllabus Topic : Actual Working Cycles and Val:'
. Timing Diagrams
v
2 = Yir =--g
1.0705 3
=0.1338 m /kg . -
1.16 Theoretical and Actual (p-V)
!2. = (V;')cy-1>
T1 (V2) T2 -T
-
1
1· r cr- > . Diagrams for 4-Stroke Petrol Engine

T2 = 373(8)'1.4-1) =856.93 K The theoretical and actual (p-V) diagrams for petrol
Pt v~ =Pi v~ ; engine working on Otto cycle are. shown in Fig. 1.16.l(a)
and Fig. 1.16.l(b) respectively.
Pi= Pt (r)Y =I x (8)t.
4
=18.38 bar
Difference between their (p-V) diagrams are discussCd
Consider constant volume process (2 - 3):
as follows :
11_11.
T - Pi •
2
T3 =856.93 x 1~.~ 8 =2331.15 K
B.D.C.
V3= V2= 0.1338 m3/kg p I
I
Consider isentropic process (3 _ 4): I

v.
= V1.,; 1.0705 m3
t 2 I
I.
I
.Yi .Yi 4
V3 = V2 =8
patm

(.1~ 1.4 -v
\8) = 2.12 bar (a) Theoretical cycle
.Fig.1.16.1 : (Contd••••)

-
. ,. _-... ' 1 . r;'
~ .· ..
"l

!
1
1-39

4.
Constructional Features & Workln of l.C. Engines

Combustion process (2 - 3) is carried out by providing

:l a spark to mixture few degrees before T.D.C. The
Ignition
i
J B.D.C.
pressure rise takes place thi-ough some crank rotation.
l
I I s. Exhaust at point 4 is not instantaneous since there is a
I
I I time gap in opening the exhaust valve.
j
j
I
I 6.
l 4
7.
Processes are not ideal.

I
1 Work developed in the theoretical ·cycle equals to area
(a) and in actual cycle it is equal to area (a1 - ~.
•
I where, area (lli} represents ihe pumping losses.
ll (b) Actual cycle
1.16.3 Valve Timing Diagram for Four Stroke
l Fig.1.16.1: (p-V) diagram for petrol en~
j Petrol Engine
1.16.1 Assumptions made In Theoretical ~ (MU. May 16; Dec.17)

I Cycle [Refer Fig. 1.16.1 (a)] .rnn i/;.Js-.• . : . ;i!--'·"\ ,,.,.,,:...; ;,,!;/ . ;f>. ,f•''..;.,;3:r ·</"

1 1. The suction and exhaust strokes are at atmospheric

I pressure.

2. Each of the suction (0-1)~ compression (1-2), expansion

(3-4) and exhaust (4-0) strokes take place during 180°
Of crank rotation.
Considering the actual cycles discussed above. the
3. Compression and expansion processes are reversible valves need to be operated to meet the mechanical and
adiabatic. . dynamic requirements.

4. Heat addition process (2-3) and heat rejection process ~ Definition of valve timing diagram
(4-1) are both at constant volume and takes place
instantly. There are no other unintended heat losses.

5. The air behaves like a perfect gas and

6. All dissipative effects like friction and viscosity are

neglected. · ·
Valve timing has to be ~justed according to speed of
1.16.2 Actual Cycle [ReferFig.1.16.I(b)] the engine.

For example, the ~et valve is made to open some what

Actual cycle differs from theoretical cycle in the
followings aspects earlier with)ncrease in speed due to inertia. effect and
the time required in attaining the full opening.
1. During suction stroke (0-1) the mixture of fuel and air
Si.milady exhaust valve is made to open few degrees
is admitted instead of only air. The process is only
more before BDC and close few . degrees more after
possible below atmospheric pressure to admit the
BOC with increase in speed.
mixture.
2. The exhaust stroke (4-0) is above atmospheric pressure
since the gases have to be expelled to atmosphere.

3. The compression process (1 - 2) and expansion process

(3 - 4) are polytropic due to heat transfer between the
stem and surroundin s.

___
-...,,.,.,.
- - - - ---··--·--- -- - - - - - - - -- - -- - - - - - - - - - -- -
S\;;Jm>e..>d w 1lh Ca rnScarmc r
,I
Constructional ·Features & Workln
1-40

(I) Inlet valve

Top dead
lm.t vatv. centre ExhlUlt The inlet valve opens few degrees before 1'.n ' "_,~
opem T valve cloees
shown in Fig. J.16.2, when ~e pressure <hops·~· ~
inside the cylinder, fresh ch,..... .~
I· aunosphere -ie~· ~
admitted.
When the piston reaches B.D.C., and Slartg •
compression stroke, the charge continues to rno"e . Ill
the cylinder due to its K.E. To take its advantage,~.llllO
inlet valve is ~ept opened for few degree after B.n.c.
The K.E. of the charge prod.uces .a ram eft'ect ""hie~
forces more charge to be admitted mto the cylinder.
The inlet valve for slow speed engine opens 100 beri
T.D.C. and closes 20° . after B.D.C.,. while_:
respective values for a high speed cog.me ~ 100
Bottom before T.D.C. and 50° after B.D.C. '
dead
Inlet valve centre
CIOMS
(II) Exhaust valve
(a) The exhaust valve opens few degree before B.D.C. and
closes few degree after T.D.C. .
The exhaust valve remains open even after the in]~
valve has opened. This period of valve overlap helps in
driving out the exhaust gases efficiently.
Exhaust valve opens 25° before B.D.C. and closes 50
after T.D.C. for slow speed engine.
While, it opens 45° before B.D.C. and closes 200 after
T:D.C. for high speed engines.

(Ill) Ignition

er Definition of Ignition advance

Inlet valve
closes Bottom
w
DmlllTJOll

to-)D- Lj)-1--0 dead opens

centre
(b) ~jh5 PUA Spark is provided 15° before T.D.C. in case of slow
Fig. L16.2: Actual valve timing diagram for four stroke
speed engine and 30° before T.D.C. in high speed ·
petrol engine
engines.
The valve timing is controlled by cam shaft. It can be
Related definitions are as follows :
varied either by modifying the camshaft or it can be
v~ed during engine operation by variable valve 1. Valve lead
timing. The amount on crankshaft ,degrees by which valves
A typical valve timing diagram for slow and high speed open before TDC or BDC is called valve load.
petrol engine is shown in Flg. 1.16.2(a) and (b) The valve closing and opening n~eds a definite time, a
respectively. slight lead time is necessary for its operation.

- - -- - ------ -- -
·- Scanned w ith ComScOnn«
 ---
'
1-41 Constructional Fesh.Ires & Wor1<1ng of l.C. Engines

z. . Valve lag · 1.17.1 Assumptions made In Theoretical

The ungle turned by the crank shaft degrees by which Dlesel Cycle [Refer Ag. 1.11.1 (a)l
the valve close before TDC or BOC is reached is called I. · The suction and exhaust strokes are at atmospheric
valve lag.
pressure. During suction stroke (0-1), only air is sucked
3, Valve overlap. instead of mixture of fuel and air in case of diesel
engines.
There is a overlapping in closing the exhaust valve and
opening the suction valve. This overlap is called valve 2. Each of the suction (0-1), compression ( 1-2), expansion
overlap. It helps in cooling the exhaust valves. (3-4) and emaust (4-0) strokes take place during 18<>°
of crank rotation.
1.17 Theoretical and Actual (p-V) 3. Compression (1-2) and expansion (3-4) processes are
Diagrams for Diesel Engines reversible adiabatic.
4. Heat addition process (2-3) at constant pressure and
+ (MU· May 13)
heat rejection process (4- l) at constant volume are
Un1ve1 sit Ollestions from heat reservoirs and there are no other intended
heat transfers.
5. The air behaves like a perfect gas.
6. All dissipative effects are neglected.
The theoretical and actual (p-V) diagrams for· a diesel .
engine working on diesel cycle are shown in Fig. 1.17.l(a) 1.17.2 _Actual ~cle [Refer Fig. 1.17. l(b)]
and Fig. 1.17.l(b) respectively.
T.O.C. Actual cycle differs from theoretical cycle .·in the --
I
B.D.C. following aspects :
p
2'--- pVY =CI
I
1. During suction stroke (0-1), air is admitted at a pressure
t 1
I
I
I below atmospheric pressure.
I I
I "14 2. The exhaust stroke (4-0) is only possible above
I
·I atmospheric pressure since the g~s have to be
lo expelled to atmosphere from cylinder.

-v 3. The compression process (1-2) and expansion process

(3-4) are polytropic due to heat exchanged between the
(a) Theoretical cycle system and surroundings.
4. Combustion process (2-3) is due to self ignition of high
Fig.1.17_.1
T.O.C. temperatures gases caused by high compression ratio.
I The fuel is injected few degrees before end of
P I
compression upto the point of fuel cut-off. Hence, the
t 8.0.C.
I combustion process is not at constant pressure due to
I continuous fuel injection.
-----1-ExpanSion
I
5. Exhaust at point 4 is not instantaneous due to time
14
lapse in opening the exhaust valve.
~:.=..=.:;:~;:.==-- 1 . .
6. Processes are not ideal and mixture does not behave
-v
like a perfect gas.
(b) Actual cycle
7. Work developed in theoretical cycte ·equals to area (a)
Fig.1.17.1: (p-V) diagram for diesel"engine and for actual cycle it is equal to area (a1 - al). Area .
(~)represents the pumping losses.

ftfts<n • - -- ··- - - --· --- . _. . . _....~~"tTlo~--""""- ......ri=n.,,..,""=··"'h'""''"-""""'tlC,....htwi,..,,..,W... ..

=~t&!l!!'!.!!l!!&E!'!!!!!!
=""·™""""™~™!!t'ro:™oz:·""&!!;>! .&&!ftWC-=-·=·ccM---l'!l!!&!l!!'ES---= ;m:,,,1
rr; -- tf,,
..

I.e. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)

1-42
1 73
"1 • Valve Timing Dfagram for Dlesel
Engines
I
l"
; I•

r:r Assumptions In Ideal cycle

1. Compression and expansion processes are isentropic.

2. Combustion process lalres place instantaneously.

3. Exhaust pressure reduces to atmospheric Pl"esslJrC

instantly at constant volume.

4. Transfer of fresh charge through transfer port and

exhaust lalce place at atmospheric pressure.
Exhaust Valve S. There are no dissipative effects.
opena
Flg. L17.2: Vah·e tintlng diagram ora dJesel engine Piston travel
p
3 In uncovering
the ports
1be \-al\•e timing di.lgram for actual engine is shown in
Fig. I.I 7.2 for :i cypic.U diesel engine. I !
l.!.J
I

I I
1be ' 'ulous strokes are modified for similar reasons as I I
I
exp~ in case of petrol engine. I
I
c:r Fu&l ln}ection tfmfng

The fueJ ne.ed,s to be injected few degrees before T.D.C.

(a) Ideal
for beuer evapor-.ition and mixing of fuel and air. p

~ fueJ valve is closed few degrees after T.D.C. ac;

shown in Fig. 1. 17.2.
t
VaJye timings ha\•e to be adjub'ted depending upon lhe
speed of rbe engine. Usual timings are a'l follows:
Inlet valve opens (IVO) Transter port opens
~
JO., to 25° before T.0.C.
Inlet vaJ\'e closes (IVC)
-+
Fuel injection starts (FVO)
25° to 50° after B.D.C. -------------+-----..
Exhaust port doses
- - Transter port doses
V
-+ 5° to JO" before T.D.C. (b) Actual
FueJ injection stops (FVC) Fig. l.18.1: Ideal and actual {JrV) diagram for two
-+ 15° to 25° after T.D.C.
stroke S.L engine

-: ":""--~--·----

S\;;Jm>e..>d w ith Ca rnScarmc r

' '!~----~---:-------
.,

d I

..1
1 1.C. Engines (MU-Sam. V~ech) 1-43 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. Engines.
.i
·1 A] Actual (p-V) diagram
l The actual (p-V) diagram differs from ideal cycle in the
following aspects :
1. Compression and expansion .. processes are
j polytropic due to heat exchange . with
. surrou~dings.
I
2. · Combustion process is carried out gradually due to
time lapse from the poin~ of ignition upto the
completion of combustion through some degree of
crank rotation.
' .
3. Admission of fresh charge and exhaust both take
place slightly above atmospheric pressure.
4. There is power loss due to dissipative effects
present in the system.

BJ Port timing diagram

Typical port timing diagram of a two stroke engine is

shown in Fig. 1.18.2 which is self explanatory. The timing· F.lg. 1.18.3 : Port timing diagram for 2-stroke diesel
engine
for various events are :
Top dead Since in case of diesel engines only air is supplied~
centre
there is no danger of loss of fuel during scavenging period.
For this reason the port timing for scavenging is kept
90° for diesel engine~ as compared to 70° of petrol engine.
Similarly, the exhaust is for 120° in case of 2-stroke diesel
engine as compared to 90° for petrol engine. ·

Syllabus Topic : Fuel Air Cycles and Their Analysis

1.19 Fuel-Air Cycles

+ (MU-Dec.12, May 13)

Tn1nsfer port closes Tn1nsfer port opens

35• later BOC centre 35• before BOC

Fig. 1.18.2 : Port timing diagram of two stroke

S.I. engine

1.18.1 Port Timing Diagram for Diesel Engine

In case of idealized cycles so far discussed, it was
Port timing diagram for 2-stroke diesel engine is
assumed that' the working substance is air which
similar to 2-stroke petrol engine except the positions of ·
behaves like a perfect gas and the specific heat of air
opening and closing of fuel valves. It is shown in
remains constant throughout. ·
Fig. 1.18.3.

Scanned with CamScanner

FF
~r i·'..1
. ..
'
·, ·' .
l.c:\ Englnes (MU-sem. V-Mech) 1-44
\ er Assumptions In fuel-air cycles
In case\ of actual engines the working substance is . ...;,+:;
I ~
t
(i) Subsequent .to combustion process, the mixture is .)
j
mixture of WJ:: and fuel with presence of residual gases chemical equilibrium. .. ~:
I of the previous stroke in the clearance space. In other
i (ii) The intake and exbaUSt process are both at atxnoSplicric'.·,.
I!··l' .- words the Workin°i·· substance is entirely different than
pressure. · : ...,
.
the lllr. ' ,.,
l i . (ill) Compression and expansion processes arc adiab~·.
The specific heat of gases increase with the. increase in without friction.

tcmpe~· except in 'case of m;~o-atomic gases due es in kinetic energy are negligible.
(iv) 1bechang
to hi h ' ,. ( ) In case of Otto cycle. the mixture of fuel and air .
':
" w c • the value of y representing' ..the. ratio of
v homogeneous and it b~ ins~taneously at co~
specific heats at constant pressure ~d at ~-nstant
. " volume Varies during . the various processes of the
volume.

1.20 Effect of various Factors on Ana1y818 ·

actual cycle.

It is also observed that at high temperatures the of Fuel-Air Cycles

--~~~~----~------
products of combustion tends to dissociate since these ·+ (MU - May 12, Dec. 12, May 17)
are not stable at temperatures beyond 1200oc. ---~=~~~~

.Due to these factors the performance of idealized

cycles are no where near to actual cycles.

~ Definition of fuel-air cycle

m
The detailed effect of various aspects of fuel-air cycle
analysis are as follows : .
The analysis of fuel-air cycles leads to more closer
approach to actual performance of the engines compared to 1.20.1 Compression and Air-Fuel Ratio
air standard cycles.
er Definition of lean mixture
c:r Analysis of fuel-air cycles takes Into
consideration the following aspects

(a) The mixture of fuel and air with residual gases.

(b) Variation of specific heat with temperature.

(c) The variation of air-fuel ratios.

(d) The change in number of moles due to combustion

which affects the pressure and temperature of system.

( e) The chemical equilibrium and dissociation. Fig. 1.20. l shows the effect of air-fuel ratios on the
thennal efficiency with the variation of compression
ratio.
 ':. .. ., • .· .. ·:.'

·.1

nes (MU-Sem. V-Mech · 1-45 Ines .

Constructional Features & Wor1dn

In actual practice, the specific beat of a gaS increaSCS

with the increase in temperature except in case of

150% monoatomic gases because molecules have high degree

52 Theoretical
air (lean ml>dunl) .o f freedom at higher temperatures.
120% The variation of specific beat with temi>eraturc above

100% 1500 K is given by the relation,

(SIDichiometric
mixture)
CP · = a+ bT +er
90% Fuel
air Cv = a 1 +bT+cr
32 cydes

28 75% (Rich m
where a. b, c and a 1 are constants. It can be seen that
the ratio of two specific beats,
24
c .
20.__.......~.......~......~.i..----i~.....1.--
3 .. 5 6 . 7 8
Y= if. decreases with the increase in temperature.
9 y

Compression ratio
Since, CP - Cy = R, it implies that (a- a 1) = R.
Fig. t.20.1 : Effect of air-fuel ratio and comp~lon ratio
on thermal efficiency It should be noted that the variation of specific heat in
the temperature range of 300 K to 1500 K is almost a
It could be observed from Fig. 1.20.1 that the fuel-air
cycles with lean mixtures tend to be more closer to straight line. Therefore, the variation of specific heat in

theoretical cycle compared to with rich mixtures. this range of temperature may be considered as :

The main reason is that the lean mixtures tend to reach CP = a+bTandCv=a1 +bT.
their chemical equilibrium just at the beginning of
r:r Change In Internal Energy and Enthalpy
expansion stroke. Also the value of ratio of specific
The effect on change in internal energy with variation
beats 'y' for rich mixtures tend to decrease at low '
in specific heat for unit mass of gas can be evaluated as
temperatures.
follows:
Fuel-air cycle efficiency increases with compression T1 T1
ratio in the same manner as air standard ef:ficiency. Uz _u 1 = f Cv. dT = f (a+ bT) dT
T1 T1
1.20.2 Variation of Specific Heats

+ (MU· Dec. 15)

= a(f2-T1)+b (T~-T~)
2

Uni vers it 1 Question

Ui-U1 = a(f2-T1)+b(f2-T1)x(T2~T,)

Where, Tm represents the mean temperature

In case of ideal cycles the specific heat of the working
... (i)
fluid was assumed to be constant throughout.
Cy~ is called mean specific heat

...(ii)

S;c;,11nt ..>dw1ll1 CarnSc:.mnt.'f

 - .......--,..---
..

I
II

' I
JfC ;.c. Engines (MU·Sem. V·Mech)
1-46

The effect of variation of specific beat in case of Otto

cycle is shown in Fig. 1.20.2. Cycle (1·2-3-4)
represents the ideal Otto cycle.
:
Dutjng compression process the value of Y decreases
With the increase in temperature due to which the actual
temperanire of gas after compression will be lower than 1

'·
the ideal compression temperature.
p l__-------------v
Fig. t.20.3

process (1-2') repre~nts the . actual compressi<>i"i:

., ., e to decrease in y, the actual. pressure ~
process. D u th 'deal .
temperature will be lower than e 1 compression
.
process.
•
Due to mcrease
cP with temperature, the temperature
m
·
·
To will be lower than T 3 for the same amount of heat
3
lied Process (3'-4") represent the process for
.
Fag. v supp . al of y and (3'-4') represents. the actuai
1.20.2 : Otto cycle with variation In specllic heat constant v ue . . .
process d ue
to increased value of y with reduction in
I '
Process ( l - 2') represents the actual compression
temperature during expansion process.
process. For the same amount of beat supplied, the
The work developed in actual cycle (1-2'-3'-4') is le~
maximum. pressure and temperature achieved is also
than the work developed in ideal cycl~ (1-2-3-4). ~
lower and it corresponds to state 3' due to increased
loss of work is due to variation in specific beat.
specific beat at con~tant volume.
1.20.3 Molecular Change
.
Process (3' - 4"') shows the adiabatic process for the
constant value of 'y' corresponding to state 3': But,
In an ideal cycle it is assumed that the number of moles
during the expansion process the value of 'y' increases
of the working substance before and after combustion
with the decrease in temperature, therefore, actual
remains constant since the heat transfer to and from the
expan.8ion process is shown as (3' -4').
working substance were assumed with-the help of heat
Actual cycle is represented by ( 1 - 2' - 3 ' - 4') with reservoirs. However, the number of moles present
variation in spe.cific heat. The work developed in actual before and after the combustion would be different in
cycle is Jess than the ideal cycle. case of fuel-air cycles e.g. consider the following
The difference of theoretical or ideal work and the combustion equations :
actual work is calied the loss of work due to variation c +02 --t C02
In specific heat.
1 mole 1 mole --t 1 mole
1.20.2.1 Effect of Variation of Specific Heat
fn Case of Diesel Cycle 2 moles 1 mole --t 2moles

Effect of variation of specific heat is shown in It could be seen that the total number of moles before
Fig. 1.20.3. Cycle (1-2-3-4) represents the ideal cycle. and after combustion of fuel are differenL The variation
in number of moles is commonly known as molecular
contraction or expansion.

scanned w ith c amScannef

 1-47 . Constructional Features &Workln of l.C. Engines
According to gas equation,
ca_+02 ~C02

= n R T ; (R =Universal gas constant)

0 0

p. V Therefore the effect of dissociation is to reduce the

The pressure of the gas is proportional to number of maximum pressure and temperature expected· during
the combustion process.
moles at a given temperature and volume. Therefore
• -
the actual pressure in the combustion chamber will be At the late stage of expansion proces~, when the
different compared to theoretical cycles due to temperatures_ fall, a part of dissociated products· may
recombine to release the heat energy which can not be ·
variation in number of moles caused by the combustion
utiliz.ed effectively for producing work. A portion of
of fuel.
this heat is carried away by exhaust gases.
The pressure attained in the cylinder further depends on
We conclude that the reduced maximum· pressure 'and
fuel-air ratio, type of fuel used and extent of reaction in
temperatures are achieved during the combustion
·the cylinder. This pressure directly affects the
pi'ocess due to dissociation, there is a loss of work and
workdone by the gases on the piston. efficiency. These losses are called as ~tion
los.ws.
1.20.4 Chemical Equlllbrium and Dissociation
It has been practically observed that C02 tends· to
+ (MU· May 15, Dec.16) dissociate above 1000°C. ·
Dissociation is only 1% at 1500°C ~-9f
dissociation
~-
increases
~
with-~-
the increase~ in temI>.Crature.
- --~ -
. . ............ . .. . - - .- - -·. - • -. ... J'• •

The effect of dissociation on power and efficiency is

much less compared to specific heat variation loss.
Fig. 1.20.4, shows the loss in·temperature of the exhaust
If a fuel is burnt in presence of air and the combustion gas mixtures due to dissociation with respect to mixture
process goes to completion, the heat energy is released strength.
representing an exothermic reaction.
3200
This beat energy released is utiliz.ed to heat the
~ / N o dissociation .
products of combustion which raises its pressure and 3000
II'
temperature. I I '
.6 2800 I I ' ,
t... / I ',
However in actual practice such high theoretical
~
I
2600 I
temperatures, as expected, will not be achieved in an e I
I

~
I
actual cycle because the products of combustion like 2400 I
With dissociation
~ 1.
C02 and H20 are not stable at temperatures above
2200
1000°C and 1300°C respectively.
2000 .__...__ __._ __.._ _.__......__.........
Product of combustion like C02 may dissociate into 60 40 20 0 20 40 60
their components as CO and 0 2• Lean Rich
Degree of richness(%)
During ·the dissociation process, it absorbs heat from
Fig. 1.20.4 ·: Effect of dissociation on temperature
the combustion space representing an endothermic
reaction. This ·lowers the temperature of the Curve shows that the maximum temperature is attained
combustion till a chemical equilibrium is achieved at a with stoichiometric air-fuel ratio without dissociation
particular · temperature and at this condition the while the maximum temperature is obtained with
chemical reaction can proceed in eithei direction. The dissociation at about 10% rich mixture.
equation becomes,

Scanned w ith CamSc.anner

....
t. •..;,.
,.
12
. Constructional Features & Workin

· ~.s shows the results of a test between B.P. and

~

:''·.
Fig.
f dissociation on Otto .cycle is . 1.~ :. ~~ I
A...F. ratio .on a four sim.1ce spark ignition engine when Effect o · 8
"0% '· ·'.'
,... lllnning at constant Speecf. .It sbo.ws that the power is
. 1 20 6 Cycle (1-2-3-4), represents the n... · :.j J
F1g. · · · , ~'(() C)c~" ·I
lllax.inillln With st~icbiometric mixture when there is no
"thout dissociation. T3 < Tl, due to dissaciati ~.~j
disSOciation. · WJ . • . .Ott Qf
(3, _ 4') would have been the tSCntropic · . -..~ ·'
~;
gases. . , . . P~ . i
.
w1tbou t •_........,
...,sociation
. of dissoc1atec1
· gases and· (3' '4j
. "";:·
th
shows eactual process. : · · . . .. ·;:
B.P.With dlssocla1lon
T,.,, > T... i>Ccause of the heat rel~ du~·--g.·. '
.
reassociation of dissociated gases · at
1O\\oct
temperatures.

The energy corresponding ' ( is Carried away in tbc .

11
12 13
Oxbaust g.,.. ,;,,.,; it can not be utiJi'<d ~.. · 1

14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 expansion of gases. . . .
_Alr-tue1 ratio_
Actual Air Cycles I
1

Fig. 1.20.s : ~ of power due lo dissodatfon

. ~ shacfed area shows . the loss of. power due to 1.21 Actual Cycles
~SOciation.
dissociation. When the mixture is very lean, there is no
FoIIowing....
. ""e the deviations of an actual cycle from an.
However, as the air-fuel ratio decreases, the maximum ideal cycle :

temperature rises and dissociation commences with I. The working substance is not pure air but it is a mixture
lllaximum dissociation <>ccurring at stoichiometric
mature. of fuel-air vapour in case of petrol engines and the air
and atomised fuel supplied before the end of
With the furtbcc decrease in air-fuel ratio i.e. when the compression in case of diesel engines.
mixture becomes rich. the effect of dissociation on
power tends to de.cline due to reduced temperatures of 2. Heat added is not by heat reservoirs but it is due to
83Ses in the cylinder caused by the incomplete combustion of fuel which alters the composition of
COmbustion. wor~g substance of the cycle.

Effect of dissociation in case of C.L Engines is not 3. Variation of specific heat with temperature and
appreciable because overall temperatures due to dissociation of products of combustion alters the ideal
COmbustion are low. It is due to the fact that excess air cycle and there is loss of power called specific heat
is supplied and mixture is heterogeneous. variation and dissociation losses respectively.

3 4. The residual gases alters the composition, pressure and

temperature of the fresh mixture.

5. In an ideal Otto cycle the heat supplied is assumed to

be at constant volume while the burning of fuel is not
instantaneous due to which there are time losses.

6. Compression and expansion processes are not adiabatic

since there is heat transfer between the working
substance and the surroundings. The loss of work are

Fig.1.20.6 called direct heat losses.

 . ... ' . .. , ., ..... .
'

.; •' . ..
- : ~

· ;' . I '

.111.c. Engines (M0-Sem. v~M8Ch) Constructional Featur~ & Wb~rlg of 1.C. Englnas .
1. nm ~ J~ due to incomplete_combUstion of .fuel of fuel doeS ·not . take place. inStantane~sly . and. thC :.
m" cue of actual cycl~. entire proccsS .of combustion takes a .definite time ·
. - . . ..
S, .'JJle v~es do not open and close instantaneously. Due . interval.
to early opening of exhaust valve there is an expansion During this period of combustio~ the gases experience
work loss called emamt blow down losses. a change in volume.
Suction and. exhaust processes are carried out below The increased volume due to moti~n of piston results in
9.
and above the atmospheric pressure respectively and lower maximum pressure and less work on the piston. ·
not at atmospheric pressure. The loss of work are called Fig. 1.22.1 shows the difference between ideal. fuel-air
pumping )05.WS. and actual cycles.

JO. There arc losses due to friction and leakages. p

Points 1 to 4 have already been discussea in fuel-air

cydes. Points 5 to 10 differenti~tc between fuel-air and
acniaI cycles.

1.22 Losses In Actual Cycles other than

of Fuel-Air Cycles

+ (MU· May 12)

v
Un1vers1t Oues.t1on ' .
Fig. 1.22.1 : Otto cycle-time 1os.ws
.-the~ losses ~ning In :~I~. Point 3 represents the maximum pressure in case, of ·
. Oesaibe Exhaust Bk>w-dOwn and Pu~ng .!<>sses·
ideal cycle while point 3' represents the pressure in
In detal.
case of fuel-air cycles if burning would have been
Apart from the losses considered and discussed earlier carried.out instantaneously.
in case of fucl-3.i.r cycles. the other important losses of nctua.l
However, d~e to time lag in combustion the maximum
cycles are as follows :
pressure achieved correspond~ to point - a. The shaded
Lossa o.f actual cyc.ln area represents the loss of work due to time losses or
burning time losses which includes the incomplete
(a) rme losses combustion losses also.
Temperature T; will also be less in case of incomplete
{b) Heat transfer losses
burning of fuel which will also result in loss of power
( c) Exhaust blow-down losses I and efficiency.

(d) Pumping losses er Effect of spark timing

(e} Ri.W.ng friction losses Spark advance affects the power out of the cycle.

Fig. Cl.S : Los.ses or actual cycles The maximum pressure after combustion should reach
in such a manner that. the work done during expansion
1.22.1 Time Losses stroke is high. The burning of fuel is varied by varying
the spark advance timing.
In ideal cycles the heat addition process was assumed
3.t constant volume whereas in actual cycles the burning

- - -- - - - - -- - -- - - - - - -- - - ------·--- -- -
Scanned with CamScanner
r. ,. :,· ·,• ·'

.
~
.
..

1 ' •
1-50
eat Losses.
1.22.2 H
cession and expansion proec~8 .·,\
p
:. 1
.,,.
·
3 ideal comP . . . .. :l.'trt:}
'fbe diabatic, however m actual pr~.~ ?
. ,·· med to be a · · ~·
uanstier trom the working substance 't'o ti.:• ~-:
' .
assu
there is beat . . ·' 'tit:
ACtualcyde
i:.. der walls. .. ,
2
cy~ . .·
. rable amount of heat loss Particlllatt ~
There is cons1de . . . . .Y
bustion and expansion processes due to .
1 during the com . . . .
· f work and efficiency. These los .
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 which there is Joss o . se,

Compression ratio are called heat losses.

Fig. l.22.2 : Spark at IDC i.e. spark advance 0° = 1.22.3

Exhaust Slow-down Losses

Fjg, 1.22.2 shows that when the spark js supplied at . umed to open at bottom dead cen~
Exhaust valve is ass . . .
TDC ie. spark advance is zero degrees. .d al cycles while m actual engme8 it
(BDC) in case of 1 e .
The combustion results into Jower maximum pressure . . abo t 500 before B.D.C. .
P; compared to p 3 due to expansion of gases, the
is opened at u . .
. the pressure in the cylinder during
combustion being jn expansion stroke. I t heIps in reducwg
·
·
th t the work required ·
the expansion stroke so a . . tn
In case the spark.advance js so adjusted that maximum xh st gases by the piston 1s reduced.
pushing out the e au
pressi.Jre occurs at point 3, in that case the work o~
. f beat energy is carried away by
compression will be maximum since additional work is Due to this 1ot o
ulting into the . loss of work. .
.required to compress the burning gases. exhaust gases res ·
th ideal and actual cycles.
Fig. 1.22.4 shows e
Though expansion work is maximum, it results into
resents the loss of work called
low work output. The shaded area rep
exhaust blow down losses.
Therefore, it is necessary to adjust the sp_!Y'~advance in p
such a manner at all loads that it results into maximum
output as shown in Fig. 1.22.3.

It occurs when the combustion results into maximum

pressure about 5° after TDC. Ideal
p
3

Actual cycle Fig. 1.22.4 : Exhaust blow-down losses

1.22.4 Pumping Losses

L-.....,.......__.~..,_--------v In case of ideal cycles the suction and exhaust

01234567
processes were assumed to be at atmospheric pressure.
Compression ratio
H<:Jwever some pressure differential is required to carry
Fig. 1.22.3 : Optimum spark advance {13° - 26°) out the suction and exhaust processes between the fluid
pressure and cylinder pressures.
p

·nes
1·51 Constructional Features & Wor1<lng of 1.C.
p
Therefore some work is done on the gases during
suction and exhaust stroke.

.
This work is called ·
pumpmg work as shown in

Fig. 1.22.5 by shaded area.

-~ Suction
1.22.5 Rubbing Friction Losses

These losses are due to friction between the piston and

cylinder walls, in various bUrings and other auxiliary
Pumping losses v
equipments such as pumps and fans.
Fig. 1.22.S : Pumping I~
Friction losses increase with the speed rapidly while the
During suction the cylinder pressure is ·lower than the effect of mean effective pressures on friction losses is
fluid pressure in order to induct the fluid into the to a very small extent.
cylinder and the exhaust gases are expelled at a
pressure higher than the atmospheric pressure.

1.23 Comparison between Air-standard Cycle, Fuel-air Cycle and Actual Cycle of a
Gasoline Engine

Assumed that working substance is Actual working substance is mixture of Same as fuel - air cycle.
pure air fuel and air and residual gases
2. Heat is added by heat reservoirs. Heat is added due to combustion of Same as fuel - air cycles.
fuel and air which alters the
composition of fuel and air.
3. Specific heat of gases and y does not Variation of specific heat with Same as fuel - air cycles.
change with temperature. There is no temperature is considered. The
chemical reaction. dissociation of gases at high
temperatures is considered.
4. There is no change in Chemical Residual gases and combustion Same as fuel - air cycles.
Composition of working substance. changes the number of molecules
before and after combustion.
· 5. Gases are in chemical equilibrium. Due to combustion of fuel and air, the Same as fuel air cycle
dissociation and chemical equilibrium
is considered
6. The heat is supplied of constant Burning of fuel and air takes place at Burning of fuel and air is not at
volume in case of Otto cycJe constant volume. constant volume, therefore there
are time losses
7. Compression and expansion processes Processes are not adiabatic. Heat losses are considered.
are isentropic i.e; no heat exchanged
between gases and cylinder walls.
8. Valves open and close instantaneously. Same as air- standard cycle. There are exhaust blow down
losses since there is a time lag in
opening and closing of exhaust
valve.

~, ,.M:!CJw.thC:in~llf ltc'O
 10. Friction is neglected Friction is neglected.

p ' .
roblems on Fuel ~ Air Cycles

Example 1.23.1 Dividing by T, we get,

p ..dV m Cx dT _ O
One kg of ga
. s expands lsentroplcally from 390 K to 330 K. T + T -
The specific he8 t
at constant volume is given as
Cv = 0 71 + 2 1 1 o-•
. · · x T, where T Is In KeMn.
, But ¥=~ ...from gas equation p · V = mRT
Find the work done during the process.
Solution:

Given:
m =l ~g•.T1 =390 K, T2 = 330 K On dividing by m, we get,

. From first law of.thermodynamics, R· dV +r dT

V '-'v T
=O ...(i)
d'q-_d'w = .. du
CP = a+KT and
d'w = - m Cv dT (Since q =O) Cv = b + KT (given)
T1
.. w = - JCvdT :. R = cP - cv = (a+ KT) - (b +KT)
T1
= (a-b)
330
=- J(0.71+2.1x10- T) dT
4 On substituting the values of R and c. in Equation (i),
390 we get \.

= -[0.71 (330- 390) + 2_.1 x 10-• (3302 23902)]. (a-b) ~ +(b+KT). ~ = 0

= 47.136 kJ/kg . On.integrating the above equation,

•••Am.
(a-b)loge V+blo8e T+KT = logeC
...(where C is a constant)
. (a-b) KT
i.e. lo8e V + lo8e Tb+ lo& (e) = lo8eC
a-b KT
•• lo8e V . Tb . e

Solutlon: Talcing antilog on both sides,

a-b KT
111 law equation can be writt~n as : V ·Tb·e = Constant, C
d'q = d'w +du •••Proved
But, d'q = 0 for isentropic process, d'w =p · dV and
du= m c. · dT, therefore, the above equation reduces to :

scanne<1 with cam.scanner

 Constructional Features & Wor1dn

Tl
m,xC·V = J l x (0.997 + 21x10-' T) dT
833.4
l T ~
26 x 44000 = [0.997 TJ 3 + 21 x 10 (Tl ~ 833 42)
833.4 2 3 •

1692.3 =0.997 (T3 -833.4) + 10.5 x 10-s (T: - 833.4l

On rearranging the terms :
10.5 2 .
103""T3 +0.997T3 -2596.13 = 0
Refer Fig. P. 1.23.3.

Given: Pa = 1 b~, Ta = 50°<;.= 50 + 273 = 323 K

2
:. T 3 + 9495.2 T 3 -247.25 x Ur = 0

. . Yi T = - 9495.2 ~ y(9495.2)2 + 4 x 247.25 x 103

compression ratio, r = V = 15
. 2
3 2

Cv = 0.71+21x10-s. TkJ/kg = 2127.3K

For process (2 _ 3)
C.V. of fuel = 44000 kJ/kg, ~= 25,
!J ~
Tl = V2
R = 287 J/kg K ::= 0.287 kJ/kg K .
p . v3=V2XT!J
··
2127.3
= V 2 x 833.4 =2.5526V2
2

· · Percentage of stroke at which combustion is

completed.

1 bar 1 (so·cr

v (2.5526-1)
= c15 _ 1) x mo= 7.143 % ••• Ans.
Fig. P.1.23.3
. .
For comp~ion process (1- 2)

(efJ
. (1.35 - 1)
T1 = Ta = 3i3 (15)(1.3~ -1)
- 833.4K

cp = cv + R =co.11 + 21 x 10-' n + 0.281

..
= 0.997 + 21x10-' kJ I kg

For 1 kg of charge, the fuel required,

1 1 r
IDr = A.F. ratio + 1 =25+1 = 26 kg

T3 . Solution:
Heat supplied, Q(2 _ 3) = J mCP · dT Refer Fig. P. 1.23.4
T1 -

seamed with CamScan~

IO!I,
If' ·•.
• I

.ional Features & Wori<ln

construe"
1-54
Mass of fuel burnt.
Compress.ion ratio. r =#= 10 l1lp _j_ kg
. l
m, = A.F. ratio - 15
c.v = 48000kJ/kg
rocJucts of combustion,
1',. AF. ratio ·= ..!!!&.= 15 Mass of P 1 16
m,
m, = m.+mr= 1 +TI' =15 kg.
P1 = lbar
. process (2' - 3') at constant volume"'"
For combusuon ..~
T 1 = 57° C= 51+273 =330K
, '
Y = 1.36, C,. = 0.7ll7 + 2.1x10- 4 T have,
p
m,x C.V. = ro, x Cv x (T;-: T~)
3

)( 48000 ..,-~ [o.7117 +1.05><10- (1~+75s)]>< (1;-756)

4
1
1s 15 )(

48000 1§. _ 0 7117 (r'3 -1ss) + 1.05 x 1cf 4 [ (r;)2-(7sa~]

- 16 ><15 - . .
-o 7117 r'3 -538.05 + 1.05x·10-4 x (1;)2 -60.01
3000- .
2
1.05 x 10-4 T'3 +07117T'
• 3
-538.05-60.01-3000=0
v
Flg. P. 1.23.4 1.05 x 10- 4 T;2 + 0.7117 T; -3598.06 = 0

P1 v•36I = Pl v'-"'
l ; T ,2 + 6778.1 T; - 3426.7 x 104 = 0
------.r------:-:-:-:--=:--::-:r
~ = P1 ~~136
~
3
- 6778.1 ± y(6778. 1)
2
- 4 x (- 3426.7 x 105
1
T3 = 2
p; = 1 x (10)1-"' =22.91 b:ir - 6778.1 ± 13527 .3
p~ xv,
= 2
E.tYi = ..
T1 i-; = 3374.6 K (on neglecting negative value) ...Am.
,
v..
P~
T'l = --- xvxT
I

... .&. 11
I

P1 1
I T'3 = T'l

...~ \
T':I = -22.91 ] , 3374.6
1- x lox 330=756K P3 = 756 x 22.91 = 102.26 bar
Let T; be the tem.perarure aft.er combustion.
For comtant specific heat, c. = 0.7117 kJ/kg K
~f.ean te:mperarure during combustion,
m,xC.V. = m1 Cv (T3 -T;)
T:xT; T;+756 1 16
T = 2 = 2 ls x 48000 = ls x 0.7117 (T3 -756)

Mean specific bea1. T3 = 4971.3 K

_ (T;+756J
c.. = 0.7Jl7+2.1 x 10 4 x 2 J
4
= 0.7JJ7 + J.05 x 10- (T; + 756)
.!i., xp I 4971.3
p3 = 2 =~x22.91
Let mass of air, fila = J kg T2

= 150.65 bar ••• Ans.

---- ------- - -
Scanned ¥>1lh camSeannl'f
1111
.... . .
·

1-55 Constructional Features & Working of l.C. En Ines

CbaJ)ge in maximum pressure,
Therefore there 'is decrease' In :1~026 ·% · of efficiency_
.;, p3 - p~ =150.65 ~ 102.26 with Increase in 1.6 %. specific
. ' . ' ' . beat .a t constant.
. .. . ' . " . . -
volume
~ .
• ' -~

=48.39bar •~ .Ans. .. . ••.A..ns.

Example 1.23.6

A petrol engine using a compression ratio 7 and air-fuel ratio

of 15:1 has the pressure and temperature at the end of
suction stroke as 1 bar and 5rc'.;es·p ectively. The fuel used
Solution: has a_ calorific value of 44000 kJ/kg. Compr~ssion follows the
=.Constant·~d specific heat at constant volume
1 33
d(C) law P · v
Given: r = 8, ~= 1.6% =0.016 ·
v
is given by the relation, Cv =o. 718 '.f. 2:1 x 1o""" ·T; wtiere 'T'
Otto cycle efficiency is given by, is In degree Kelvin.

Determ· th · ·
Tl = 1--1.._-
·
1
Y- I - -
1
1.4 - l =0 .5647 ine e ,maximum pressure and temperature In the ·
(r) (8) cylinder and comi>are this value wlth·that of eoiisbint specific
=
heat, Cv 0.718 .
Solution:
Cy (y-1) i::: R .. p 'I

3
R
(Y-1) .= C.,
... (i)

Tl = 1 - -RICy
L_ - 1 - <)-Ric.
r
(r) -

1-Tt = (r)-Rlc.
On taking its log, .. -
:. log,,(1-n) - _R l.
1 • - -C., og,,r v
· Fig. P. 1..23.6
. I ' I

Differentiating Tl With na~~ . Refer Fig. P. i.2:i_6 , · "

-~l"-"-t to C where ' ' .
constant v • r 1s kept Given:
-~
· (1-ri) = -R log,, (r>[ -~. d (Cy)]
.·. dT] _= -O -ri) ~log,,(r) -[ !~C.J] . 'I.33 .
i!!l 0-11) v
. · P; - =. P_~ ~ 7= ~ (7>1_·3~ ·
·· Tl = -~. ~Y- l)log,, (r>[~~.J]
= 13.304 bar ..
[ .. R
. c:=(y...:l)]
!2.'Y_i -
T1 -
.&2
T ·
Given, 2

•i!n = -(1.:- 0.564Z\

Tl 0.5647) 0.4- I) Ooge 8) X 0 .016

---= -o.01026arc-1;026 %)

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 r•mor nr '?•._,,., di'N P %U-'!Im Ul ·mu.....,,· · Fl ·

. 1-56 Constructional Features & Workl

Let T; be the temperature after combustion Example 1.23.7

Mean temperature during combustion, A petrol engine using a compresslOn ratio of 6 Is SUppl19d ·
heat at constant volume till the temperature becomes ·
_ T;+~ T,+627.2 . l

- 2 2 2927°C. The gas now expands in Its power stroke and the
mean Index of adiabatic expansion Is 1.2. · · -~
:. Mean specific heat, Specific heat per mole is given as : .
· · .... (r+621.i') c v =20.8 + o.007 T (kJ I
0 k9rno1e) where, T Is In KeMn.
.
Find
Cy = .0.718+2.1x10 x~ 2 ) the mean value of ratio of specific heats and work done per ·

Cy = 0.718 + t.05 x 10"" (T; + 627.2) mole during expansion process. Assume, universal gaa
constant, A0 =8.314 kJ/kgmo19.
Let mass of air, m. be I .kg
Solutlon:
I
•. Mass of fuel burnt. m, = ls kg Given : r = 6, T1 = 2927°C = 2927 + 273 = 3200 K,
n =1.2
M~ of prod~cts of combustion, m. =(1 + 1~) kg Let (p1 V 1 T1) and (p2 V2 T2) be the states of gas before
and after expansion: For adiabatic process,
For p~ (2' - 3')
n-1 n-1
Heat supplied by fuel =Heat absorbed by gases T2 = T1 ~) =T1 (~)
m,xC.V. = m.xCy(T; -T~) J.2-1

:. 1; x ~ = (1+1~) x (0.718 + 1.05 x 10"" T2 = 3200 (i) =2236.2 K

n; + 627.2)] (T; - 627.2) Average temperature,
On solving, ~ = 2918.4 K •••Ans.
, ,
T = T,; T2 _ 3200 + 2236.2 _ 2718_1 K
2
.& - El
~-~ Cv
0
= 20.8 + 0.007 x T

, 13.304
p3 = (2918.4) x 627.2 = 20.8 + 0.007 x 2718.1
= 39.827 kJ/kgmole
= 61.904 bar •••Ans.

For constant spedlic heat,

.. Co -co · = Ro
p v

m,xc.v = m, xcy (T3--r;) .. cop = 39.827 + 8.314 = 48.141 kJ/kgmole

1~ x 44000 = J + (1+J~)x0.718 (T3-627.2) More correct vaJue of ratio of specific heats will be,
co
= 4457.JK p 48.141
T3 ••• A.ns. . Y1 = Co = 39.827 = 1.2088 , ••Am.
. , v

Tl -- .&
.El
T
, Exact temperature after expansion would be,
2
r-1
13.304
PJ = (4457.3) x 627.2 T2 = T (~) 1

= 94.54bar •••Ans. (l:'I(1:2088 - 1)

= . 3200~6)
.1
= 2201.26 K .J

.j
~If..
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 1·57 Constructional Features & Workln
q-W = U2-U1
For 1 kg of charge, tho fuel required.
o-w = n c: CT2 -T1) : (process is ndiabatic)
[·: m,=m.+111t=m, (-;;+ 1)]
:. w = - 1 x 39.827 (2201.26 - 3200) ' I 1
1 ---kg
= 39776.SkJlkx..,.. 111t = A·Frotio+ 1=29+1-30
••• Ans.
Heat supplied,
1
T3

I
~
. ~-3

m,xc.v _
= f m CP • dT
T2

Tl
f 1 x (0.996 + 2.8 x 10""' T) dT

ll
900
Tl
l
30X42000 = fl x (0.996 + 2.8 x lO""'T) dT
900 .

I -!![T2JT3
= [0.996T1:: + 2.8 x210 2 900
I
I
1400 = . 0.996 (T3 -900) + 1.4 x 10-5 (Tl3 - 9002)

On arranging tenns
Given: Tl= 900 K; 1.4 x 10-s T~ + 0.996 T3 - 2307.74 = 0

Cy= (0.709 + 0.000028 T) kJ I kg K: ~ + 71142.8 T3 -164.83 x 106 = O

Cy of fuel = 42 MJ/kg =42000 kJ/kg K - 71142.80 ±y(71142.8)2 -[4 x 1(-164.83 x 1Q8)]
Ts = 2x 1
R =287 J/kg K. NF ratio= 29 : 1, R = 287 J/kg
T3 = 2244.99K
For compression process (1 - 2)
p For proc~ (2-3)

Il = .Yi
Tl V2
Il v 2244.99
V3 = V 2XT2 2X 900

=2.4944 V 2

:. Percentage · of stroke at which combustion is

completed.
v
V3-V2
Fig. P. 1.23.8 = v. - v2 x 100
Tz
T1 = ~<r-t>
900
(l 6{' =296.9 K · ~-1)
=wv ) 2
-1
x 100
CP = Cy+ R =(0.709 + 0.000028 T) + 0.287
(2.4944-1)
= 0.996 + 2.8 x 1O-!! T kJ/kg K = (16 - l) x 100

= 0.09962 =9.962% ...Am.

~
!.'.
l
•
.
Constructional Features & Worldng of l.C.
1-58

For constant presswe process,

Example 1.23.9

A diesel engine uses a compression ratio of 16 and at the .

· ~-!z.
V - T
1 1
. end of compression the temperature of the air is 1100 K
2356.7 - 2 142.5
Now the air is supplied heat at constant pressure by burning = 1100 - .
fuel of calorific value of 44200 kJ/kg and the fuel-air ratio is
y 2 = 2.1425 V,
0.04:1 . Specific heat at constant volume Tis given as :
4
Cv = 0.762 + 2 x 1o- T, where T is in Kelvin. (Wbei:e, V1 = Clearance vollllnc)
Find the cut-off ratio of the engine.
Let. clearance volume,
Assume, R =0.287 kJ/kg K
V1 = 1 (unity)
Solution:

Given: r= 16, T 1 =1100 K. Stroke volume = r-1=16-1= 15

C.V = 44200 kl/kg, fuel : air= 0.04 : 1 and V2 = 2.1425

Let state (p1 V 1 T 1) and (p2 V2 Ti} be the properties of V2-V1 lOO
the gas before and at the end of heat addition process. Let Percentage cut-off = Stroke volume x
the amount 'of air compressed be 1 kg, then the amount of
fuel supplied is 0.04 kg.
= (2. 14~ -1) x 100·
Mass of gas, mg = Mass of air, Cm.) +Mass of fuel, (rD.r)
= 7.6% ···~
= 1 + 0.04 = 1.04 kg
IIlg
Example 1.23.1 o
Heat supplied = IDr x C.V. =0.04 x 44200
An engine working on Otto cycle has compression ratio 6
= 1768 kl/kg of air
uses C8 H18 as fuel. The calorific value of fuel is 44000 kJlkg:
For constant pressure process,
Stoichiometric air-fuel ratio is 15:1 . Determine :
. 2 (a) Maximum pressure and temperature during the cycle
Heat supplied = fII1g CP dT without molecular contraction.
·I
(b) Maximum pressure and temperature during · the cycle
~ut. cp = Cv+R considering the molecular contraction and the molecular

= (0.72 + 2 x 10-• T) + 0.287 expansion.

= 1.007 + 2 x 10· T
4
Assume, Cv =0.718 kJ/kg Kand the conditions of mixture
Ti before compression are at 1 bar, .57° and mean index of
.. 1768 = f t.04x (t.007+2x10-'n dT compression is 1.32.
1100
Solution : Refer Fig. P. 1.23.10.
[ ~-(1100)2]
1768 = 1.04 1.007(Tz-1100)+2x 10'" 4
2 Given: p 1 = I bar, T 1 = 57°C = 57 + 273 = 330 K;
n = 1.32,
1768 _;.
1.04 = 1.007 Ti-1107.7 + 10- Ti -121
4

Compression ratio,
:. ~ + 1.007 x 104 Ti - 2928.7 x 10 =· 0
4
r - ~-6 '·
- V2 -
2 4
· - t.007x10' ±vc1.007 x 104) +4 x 2928.1x10
.. Ti= 2
c.v. =44200 kl/kg; Air : fuel= 15 : 1 ;

= 2356.7 K CV= 0.718 kl/kg K.

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1·59

(•) ~(1-2) (b) CombustJon equatJon of C. H11 fuel Is :

6 (l.4 -
( )(y- l) = 330 ()
T2 = T ,·r
•> Ce Hie+ 12.5 0 2 + 12.5 x a.76 Nz= 8 C02 +9 ~ 12.5 x 3.76 N2
:. C. H 11 + 12.5 0 2 + 47N2 = 8C02 + 9H20 + 47 Ni
= 585.S K
p
:. No. of moles before burning = 1 + 12.S + 47
3' = 60.S
3 No. of moles after burning = 8 + 9 + 47 =64
Percentage molecular expansion = \..f.6400.5 - ) x 100
- roJ:)
2
= S.4%

Mass of fuel does not vary during the molecular

expansion, therefore, the temperature after combustion will
v remain the same for the given amount of heat supplied. Let
Fig. P. 1.23.10 the new pressure be p'.
3

From law of process between state l to state 2, From gas equation,

0
·v1.32
Pt . I = P2. v1.32
2 p· V = nR T

lll.32 :. p cc: n; (since clearance volume and temperature are

... P2 =.Pt • ~J = l x (6) l.
32
constant)

= 10.645 bar
Assume, mass of air,
1
m. = l kg : . Mass of fuel, ffir =
15
kg

. 64
Heat supplied = Ille x C.V. =751 x 44200 = 80.28 x _ = 84.924 bar •••Ans.
60 5

= 2933.3 kJ/kg of air Syllabus Topic : Low Heat Rejection (LHR) Engine
1 16
Mass of gases, ~ = m. +Ille= 1 +15=75kg
1.24 Low Heat Rejection (LHR) Engine
:. Heat supplied = mg· Cv (T3 -T2)
16 The internal combustion engines with its combustion
2933.3 = 75x 0.718 (T3 -585.5)
chamber walls insulated · using thermal barrier coating
T3 = 4415.6K ••• Ans. materials to prevent heat losses are called LHR engines.

For cons~t volume combustion process (2 - 3) : The aim of using the thennal barrier caating is to
reduce the engine coolant heat losses. It results into higher
combustion temperatures.

The higher combustion temperatures will result into

higher power output and efficiency of the engine. According
4415.6 to some researchers, it is found that the exhaust emissions
= 10.645 x 585.5
also reduce alongwith improvement in the fuel economy.
= 80.28 bar ••• AllS.
 1-60

In case of petrol engines, the higher combustion Syllabus Topic : Homogeneous Charge
Compresalon Ignition (HCCI) Engine
chamber temperatures using thermal insulation will increase
the tendency for the engine to detonate. for this reason the
1.25 Homogeneous Charge Compreaaton
thennaJ insulation of walls of combustion chambers is not · Ignition (HCCI) Engines
found suitable.
-.... 1
There nre two types of engine i.e. S.l. and C.I. enginca ·
Therefore, the concept them1al insulation of
which nre commonly used. A spnrk ignition (S.I) engine
combustion walls can only be done in case of diesel engines. uses homogeneous mixture of fuel Md air ignitc<t by a

The NO.ll and hydrocarbon (HC) emis.'\ions in LHR spark. Such engines hnve low cost and low exhaust.
emissions but their part load efficiency is pocir due to large
engines are found to increase compared 10 conventional
heat losses. Whereas, compression ignition (C.I.) engines
diesel engines. According 10 rcsearehes carried out on LHR use high compression ra1io for auto ignition of mixtu~
engines it is found lhar the NOx emissions can be reduced having high initial cost, high part load efficiency but these
by using biodie..~I using blends of Jntropatrn. Mahnu, Necm engine have high emissions of NO. and particulate maue11

etc. in dittct injection type diesel engines. (PM).

Jn order to truce the advantages of SJ. and C.I. engines
The matt'rials USt'd ror coatings on combustion walls
and ro overcome their respective disadvantages, one of the
are ~c co:itings of pruti!llly Stabilized Zirconia (PSZ) design is the Homogeneous Charge Compression Ignition
of 0.5 nun thickness or 3.luminium Timnate, Silicon Nitride, (HCCI) engine.
0-..romium oxide A HCCI engine is a mix of both conventional S.I. and
C.J. engines technology. It uses homogeneous mixtures of
Ar.o:f~r rr-'thod is tk use of air gap lxrwun cylinder
fuel and air throughout the engine but using Jean mixtures as
firring .sir:c-t' air is a good insularing material. in cuse of SJ. engines. However, instead of using the
electric discharge to ignite a portion of the mixture of fuel
,r r Advantages of LHR engfne
and air, the mixture of fuel and air auto ignites due to use of
J. lnc:tc-.:1SC in power output and efficiency. high compression ratio in these engines as in case of diesel
2. Less ioaeasc: in cylindec pressure engines. The result of such a HCCI engine is the optimum
power output, low exhaust emissions and high fuel
J. ~<.od e.x.ha.ust temper.uures makes it suitable for
efficiency. Therefore. the special characteristic of HCCI is
rurbocharged diesel engines.
that the ignition of mixture occurs at several places and
4. Lu"·er .fi'{Xcific fuel consumption. bums the mixture almost instantaneously.
5. Suit.?bl.e for oper.s.tion with bi<Hfiesel since it reduces er Working of HCCI engine

These engines use direct fuel injection system in which

er Dlsadvantage·s the fuel is injecred into rhe cylinder during its suction stroke.
Whereas, rhe afr is sucked independently during suction as
I. It is no< suitable for gawline engines.
in case of diesel engines. Dy the end of the suction stroke, a
2. Incre.ases the problem of cooling of cylinden>. homogeneous lean mixture of air-fuel duly mixed is
3. Increases the problem of lubrication since lubricanlS prepared inside the cylinder. The engine uses compression
need co resists high temperatures and maintain the r.uio of more than JS.
viscosity required for low frictions. During compression stroke, the pressure and
temperature of the mixture rises above its self ignition

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I 1-61

1ernpor11iure (SIT) due to uHC or high comprcH11lon rutio. Syllabua Topic : Rotary Engine
mixture auto lgnhc11 jw1t ul TDC nlmoHt 11pontuncouHly.
1110
such un auto Ignition rcrmllJI Into high preH11urc11. 'The 1.26 Wankel Engine
combuHtlon of fuel 11ml ulr In thl11 cu11e IK with lean mixturcii + (MU. May 11, Dec.11, May 12, Dec.12, May 13,
nt Jow tcrnpcruture11 with numeleHH releWIC or energy acrOKll Dec. 13, [)ec.17)
the entire cornbu11tlon chnmhcr unlike in the ca11C of SJ, and
Un1vcrHil Questions
c.1.englnc11. The power'" produced during expanHion Klrokc
and finally the burnt gru;e11 arc exhau11t.cd Lo the 11urrounding11
during Jts exhaust stroke.
Jn thc11e engines, the cxhau11t valvcK arc clol!Cd 111ightly
early WI compared to conventional engine. It helPH to trap
ihe heal or exhaust gases in the cylinder and a small quantity The schematic diagram of Wankel rotary engine
of fuel iH injcct.cd so as to initiate lhe pr~mbu1>tion developed in 1957 is shown in Fig. 1.26.1.
reactions before the start of the next intukc stroke.

r:r Merits of HCCI engines

I. Low emissions like S.I. engines with extremely low

NO. emissions. Thus, these engines do not require
catnlytic converters for treatment of NO••
2. The HC and CO emissions are still high thus they need (•)SooctlM

after treatment to meet the required standards of E.P. LP. E.P. l.P.

emissions.
3, Power output is high with high fuel efficiency.
4. Part load efficiency of the engine is high.
s. Possibility of knocking is avoided since the entire . S.P.

mixture bums simultaneously without causing the (cl) Eipauloe ud mast

pressure difference for shock wave to travel across the Fig. L26.1: Wankel engine
cylinder. However, at high loads using high fuel air
It works on similar principle on Otto cycle.
ratio, knocking is possible even in HCCl engines.
It consistc; of three lobes rotor, the casing, spark plug,
er Challenges In HCCI engine suction and exhaust ports.
The control of combustion process in HCCl engines is The ro!Or of the engine is driven eccentrically in the
challenging since there is no direct method of initiating the casing in such a way that there are three separate
combustion as in case of S.I. and C.I. engines. The control volumes trapped between the rotor and casing as shown
of combustion in HCC( engines requires the closed loop in Fig. 1.26.1.
combustion control (CLCC). However, the microprocessors The volume trapped in each lobe perfonns the function
can be used for dynamic operation of these engines by of suction, compression, ignition, com.bustio~
controlling one or few variables like C.R. (in variable expansion and exhaust processes. Therefore, we get
compression ratio engines), the suction gas pressures and three. power strokes in one revolution of the rotor.
temperatures, air-fuel ratio, quantity of exhaust to be
In case of four stroke I.C. engines, we get one power
retained in the cylinder by varying the timing for exhaust
stroke in two revolution of crankshaft. Thus, Wankel
valve closing etc. With these controls, the appropriate
engine develops six times the power for same capacity
conditions needed for ignition to occur at desirable timings
of cylinder compared to reciprocating I.C. engines.
can be achieved.

~\\\\\\i\111'"''"~ ...- --
Sr.annMI wlTh r'A mSr..annM
 '" Working
Co111tld1.w 0110 or llN
loho, NllY AU. Whon tho rotor
1.27 Six Stroke Engine
t\llnlc~. It l11duclN tho frcHh mlxllll'O of' fool 1111d ulr
1h1\111Sh ltN Inlet 1x11'I during 1111c1lo11 1111 Hhown ht
Hcoonrchcrs in the past have tried to develop six 8IJ'Okt
111~. l.2ci,l(u).
c11glne11 Jn the curly of 20'" century. Recently, the interest iJi
With l\11·thcr 1\lt111h111 ol' m1or, Jiil l11lol. (11ucllu11) port iH dc'vclopmcnt of 11ix 8 troke engines by the researchers have
~1loscd 1111tl tho volu1110 hc1wco11 tho loho und c1111l11g IH been revived due to reduction in specific fuel consumPtion,
l'elhlCOll, 'l'hc1~lbrc 1 tho COllllll'CHlllOll of lllllltUl'O lukcll
reduced exlwunt emissions and the mechanical complexity
plnco us Nhown In 111s. 1.2<;.1 (h).

- J1111I bolhro lho Olld or Clllll(ll'CNNIOll Hiroko, tho mixture

Is ll\llllcll whh lhci help or 11p111'k provided by Hpark
of 4 stroke engine11.
The six stroke engine is an alternate to exist.ing two or
four 1Jtrokc engines.
plug. Ouo lo co111b1111tlo11 of 111lx111ro th" prc111mrc 1111d
tOlll(lCl'llllll'l' or g11so11 l1111lclo rli;ci 1111 HhOWll in Dmicd 011 the number of pistons, these are of two types
Flti. l.26.1 (c). 1111 follows :
With l\nthor movement of rotor, tho volu1110 between 1. Slngle piston six stroke engine
IOI.le uml l~nslng l11cro11sc11.
A single piston type six i;troke engine is provided with
As n result, hol 811scs c.xpund 10 develop mollvo power
udditiona) 'two valves as air suction valve or air exhaust
shown In Fig. 1.26.1 (d). Tho rotor co111i11ue11 lo move
valvc11us11hown in Fig. 1.27.1.
1111<1 lho oxl11111st lltll't 01~11s.
Alr Air
Tho burnt gnscs um dischurgcd 10 lhe sun-oundi11g11. S.V S.V. E.V. E.V.
Thus ll co111plc1cs 11 cycle. Samo opcrulion will 111ke
pince with UC 1111d CA lobes 11l11111llur1cou:;ly.
During dc.wclopmcnl singe of 1his engine Lhc problem:;
uf scnllng, scnl wc:ir urnl hcnt lrunsfcr were faced.
However, rhcse problems were 11uhscque11tly 1mlved.
Fig. J.27.1 : Four valves of six stroke engine
This engine is used in sporls cur.
Jt performs the usual four strokes of a conventional
r.r Advontogos of Wonkol Engine over
four stroke engine i.e. suction, compression; power and
\ Roclprocotlng Englno
exhaust strokes. At the end of exhaust stroke, the engine
I. lt hus high pc>wcr 10 weight rurio for snme cupacity of draws air or water during downward motion of the piston
engine. lhrough the air suction valve and it absorbs heat from the
11 hns no rcciproculing purls nnd connccllng rods. cylinder walls. Air/steam expands while absorbing the heat
2.
J fonco, baluncing pro~lcm ls climlnnlcd. and finally in the upward motion of the piston the air
exhaust valve opens the air/steam is exhausted to the
3. u hos very low vlbrntions.
surroundings.
4. No vnlvo mcclumlsm Is needed lo opcrnlo suction nnd
From above it is evident that this engine captures the
exhnust vnlvcs.
heat lost from the conventional engine. This heat is utilized
5. Volumcrric efficiency is high duo lo long suction
lo produce an additional power in the expansion stroke of air
stroke. I steam and reduces the lempcrature of the resultant final
exhaust. Jt results into increased power, increased fuel
efficiency and reduced exhaust emissions.

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 ines
1-63 Constructional Features & Worid

2- . rwo piston type six stroke engine are that these are compact. efficient having low weight
to power ratio, less maintenance and operating cost
In this design, it use8 two piston which arc opposed in
with mobile applications. ·However, its disadvantages
one cylinder like in case of opposed cylinder engine. Only
are the use of costly fuels and not suitable for large
difference is that one of the piston makes the 4-strokcs of a
conventional engine while the other piston makes 2-strokes capacity power plants.

in one cycle. The refore, one of the piston would work at half Main engine components of an air cooled engine arc
the cyclic rate of the other piston. cylinder, cylinder bead, piston, connecting rod. crank
and crankshaft. inlet and exhaust valve, cooling fins,
1bere is another design of two piston six stroke engine
in which the valve mechanism of the four stroke bearings etc.

conventional engine is replaced by the second piston. Such Engines are cla.smied based on number of strokes per
an arrangement helps in increasing the compression ratio cycle, thermodynamic cycle used. number of cylinders,
and reduces the complexity of the valve mechanism. It arrangement of cylinders, ignition system. cooling
should be noted that the replacement of the valve by piston system. fuel used, fuel supply system and lubrication
also efuninates the possibility of fonnation of hot spot due system.
to increased compression ratio. A four stroke engine has suction. compression, .
The cylinder is filled with mixture of fuel and air / air expansion and exhaust strokes completed in two
only depending upon the type of engine. Tue filling process revolutions of crankshaft. In case of S.I. engines the
is due to piston movement and the exhaust gases are mixture of fuel and air prepared by carburettor is
removed in the same way as in case of tvio stroke engine by supplied during the suction stroke and mixture is burnt
providing exhaust ports in the cylinder. The supply of fuel to by a spark supplied by spark plug.
the cylindCr is by fuel injection system. It is provided with While, in C.L engines the combustion of fuel injected
two spark plugs in each side of the piston to initiate ignition. takes place by auto ignition caused by high temperature
The increased expansion ratio for the second piston gases.
increases the power output and efficiency of the cycle.
In two stroke engines the cycle is completed in one
'78 Advantages of six stroke engines revolution of crankshaft by eliminating the suction and
exhaust strokes. These processes are carried out
(i) It can reduce fuel consumption upto 4Q%.
simultaneously during compression and expansion
(ii) It can use multi fuels like petrol, diesel, LPG etc. strokes.
(ill) There is a high reduction in exhaust emissions. Two stroke engines have the advantage of more
(iv) Provides higher output and better efficiency. uniform turning moment, compactness, twice the power
(v) Cost is almost comparable to conventional engines. produced per revolution and elimination of valve
mechanism compared to four stroke engines,
. (vi) There is reduction in weight to power ratio.
however, they are less efficient due to loss of fresh
charge dti.ring the scav~nging process.
A muffler or silencer is provided to reduce noise
A beat engine is a device which converts the chemical
caused due to difference in exhaust and atmospheric
energy of fuel into heat energy and ·subsequently into
pressures.
mechanical energy.
. Energy balance of I.C. engine is based on the first law
Types or heat engines are external and internal
of thermodynamics. Energy input to engine system is
combustion engines. Advantages of internal
due to release of chemical energy of fuel on
combustion engines over external combustion engines

' \;_;,, .....

,JJ:i;,
~.
. ·, ~-~~i ,
. ' .!~~~
l '\

. ·.~~:.~~·
·'
' /
I , ~.·': ·
' l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 1-64 Constructional Features & Wor1dn of I.e. ·'':;,:,
I
=::i;;~~~~~~6=--==-===--~~~~~~~~=-===--~s
'" combustion with arr.
Out of this energy, part of this instantaneous due to time lapse in opening the v~i·· .•
. . "l\'cr
energy is lost in cooling water, exhaust gases and by and develops less power due to vanous losses. ·. ~"-~
. t.
radiation. Reminder of the energy a~ailable to push the · Fuel-air cycles are more closer to actual eye~ w~· ·~:
..I piston is called the I.P. Out of the LP. a part of the takes into account the variation specific ~~ heats,~~··
.l
I
energy available is lost in overcoming the friction
l~sscs called mec~cal l«mes. The remainder of the
.

and dissociation.
.
temperature mixture of fuel and llll', molecular ci.._ -":
. ~~ ~

. ;:-
.r • •

energy available at output shaft for useful work is Ac~ air cycles consider the variou.s losses like ~.
calledB.P.
losses, beat losses, pumping losses and rubbing ~~on .:
B.P. = I.P.-F.P. losses over the fuel-air cycles.

Mechanicalefficiency, 11111 =~:.· Effect of various factors on analysis of fuel-~ cyclca

r
are: ..•
Indicated thermal efficiency,
(a) Comp~ion ratio : Efficiency of fuel air cycle$
LP. (kW)
. 111 =-.---=~;;..;.;."'---- increase with increase in compression ratio. ·
m, (kg Is) x C.V. (kJ I kg)
(b) Air-fuel ratio : Thermal efficiency of fu~l-air
Brake thermal efficiency, Tlb = B.P. .cycles with Jean mixtures tend to be close to i~
fficxc.v. cycles compared to rich mixtures, :
• Actual thennal efficiency
Relative eftiCiency, 'lr = Air standard efficiency (c) . Variation or specific heats

Specific fuel consumption (s. r. c)

= -IT x 3600 (kg I kWh)

Cp =a+bT .

Cv=a1 +bT
} In the range of

300 K to 1500 K

cp =a+bT+cr
1be closed cycle with air as working substance which
closely resembles with actual open cycle is called an
air standard cycle.
Cv=a, +bT+cr
} Above·1soo K
temperature
·.··'

Assumptiom made in ideal cycles are : Working (i) Reduces·maximum pressures and temperatures
medium is air which behaves like an ideal gas, charging attained during the cycle.
and discharging operations are omitted. processes are (ii) Actual work developed is less than ideal or
reversible and there are no unintended heat losses. theoretical work.
The efficiency of an engine using air as a working (d) Molecular change : Reduces actual pressures
medium, is known as air standard efficiency. compared to theoretical pressure.
T2
(a) Carnot efficiency= l-T (e) Dissociation : It reduces maximum pressures and
1
1 temperatures of cycle causing the loss of work and'
(b) 11oao = l - r<y - 1)
efficiency over the ideal cycle.
_!_ ( li!..=.l)
(c) 1ld;-i = 1 - y. r<1-1i ~p _ 1 Losses in actual cycles other than fuel-air cycles are
1
a• p - l (i) Time lo~es caused by the time interval .between
(d) Tldcul =l (riY IJ[(a - l)+y·a(p-1))
the completion of combustion process and the fuel
Actual (p-V) diagram differs from theoretical (p-V) supplied.
diagram due to suction is at less than p - and exhaust is
(ii) Heat l~es due to heat transfer between the
above p_, compression and expansion processes are
working substance and cylinder walls.
polytropic, processes of suction and exhaust are not

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1-65 Constructional Features & Wor1<ing of l.C. En' In~

(ill) .Exbamt blow down 1oaes · are caused due to .-z.~ust_ em:"'"
Optimum pOWtT OUtpUt, .low eMIU ...;ons ·wiih
early opening of exhaust valve.
high fuel efficiency.
. . . (iv) . PumpbJg loss is caused due · to the pressure
Challenges to be ·met In development of HCCI ·
differential required to carryout the suction
. engine are the. controi of combustion .at all operating
process· below atmospheric pressure and exhaust
process above atmospheric pressure. conditions. ·

(v) Rubbing friction ~ due to friction between Six stroke engines is an alternate to existing 4-~troke
piston and cylinder and friction losses in bearings engines by providing two additional valves as air
and other auxiliacy equipments of the engine. suction valve and air exhaust valve. Such an engine
improves power out and efficiency teduces emissions.
Vol0metric emclency, Tl., of the engine is defined a$
the ratio of actual mass of fresh charge/air admitted
into the cylinder at suction conditions to the mass of
0. 1 What do you understand by a heat engine ? What
fresh charge which can be admitted corresponding to its
are its type and their relative merits ? ·
stroke volume. Tl ., is affected due to following factors :
[Section 1.1)
(i) Tl ., reduces due to heating of fresh charge by hot Q. 2 Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of
walls. external combustion engines over intemal
(ii) 11 ., reduces due to presence of residual gases when combustion engines. [SectJon 1.1.1)

Pi < Pe· However, 11 ., increase when Pi > .Pe in 0. 3 State some applications of heat engines.
supercharged engines. [Section 1.1.2) ·

(iii) The valve overlap and resistance to flow inlet 0. 4 With the help of neat sketch of a four stroke S.I.
causes reduction in volumetric efficiency. engine •. explain the function of main parts of the
engine and label them. [Section 1.2)
(iv) Tl., suffers at low speeds and it improves with
increase in speed upto certain optimum speed. Q. 5 Define following tenns used in . l.C. engines
[Section 1.3) .
An LC. engine with its combustion chamber walls
(i) Dead centers
insulated using thermal barrier coating materials to
(ii) Clearance volume and stroke volume
Prevent heat losses are called low beat ~jection
(iii) Compression ratio
(LHR) engines. It increase power output and efficiency
with lower s.f.c. and reduces emissions using biodiesel. a. 6 Write a short note on classification of l.C. engines.
[Section 1.4)
Wankel engine is a rotacy engine. It uses a three lobe
Q. 7 Describe the working of a four stroke petrol engine.
rotor which is eccentrically driven in a casing. This [Sections 1.5, 1.5.1)
engine provides three power strokes in one revolution
Q. 8 Describe the operating principles of a four stroke
of crankshaft compared to one power stroke in two diesel engine, label various parts with their function.
revolutions of crankshaft of conventional engine. [Sections 1.5, 1.5.2]

A Homogeneous Charge Compres.9ion Ignition O. 9 Compare S.I. and C.I. engines on : [Section 1.6)

(DCCI) engine is a mix of both conventional S.I. and . (i) Fuel used
(Ii) Working cycle
CJ. engine technology using homogeneous mixture of
(iii) Method of fuel injection
fuel and air throughout the engine to make use the
(iv} Method of ignition.
advantages of both type of engines. Such engine have
O. 1 O Compare petrol and diesel engines. [Section 1.6] ·

·.·. ..
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1·66 Conotruotlonol Foaturoe & Workln

0. 11 Explaln .tho working of two otroko 8.1. onglno wllh
(II) Variation of opoclflo hoat. (SoctJon 1.20.2J
tho holp of noot skotch. (Section 1.7.1)
(Ill) Molocular chongo. (Section 1.20.3]
0.12 Draw o labolod diagram of two otroko C.I. onglno
Q.23 Explain tho phonomonon of dlesoclatlon With u,. .- ~
and oxplaln Ila working. (Section 1.7.2) '
holp of graphs ehoWlng Its offocte on ffiaxlrJiurn ·
0.13 How doos a two slroko cyclo dlftoro from a four tomporoturo ond prosouro. [Section 1.20.AJ
stroke engine cyclo ? (Socllon 1.8) Show by (p _ V) diagram of a constant volume cyc1
0.24 9
0.14 What do you undorotond by olr standard cyclos ? that tho offoct of dissociation Is similar to that
, ..
What aro tho assumptions modo In tho anolysls of variation In spocltlc heats.
[Section• 1.20.4and1.20.2)
air standard cycles ? (Socllona 1.1 oond 1.11)
0.25 Explain In brief, why actual cyclo deviate& from · .
0. 15 Explaln tho working of thooretlcol dlosol cyclo and
theoretical cycle. (Section 1.21] ·
derive an expression for Its thermal efficiency.
[Soctlon 1.14) Stale tho various losses I~ actual cycles other fhaii
0.26
0.16 Why dual air standard cycle Is consldored? Explain the fuel-air cycle losses. [Section 1.22]

Its working and derive an expression for Its air What do you understand by time losses as app/fed
0.27
standard efficiency. (Section 1.16]
to l.C. engine 1 Explain In detail.
Q.17 Explain the valve timing diagram for a 4-stroke [Section 1.22.1)
petrol engine and also explaln the derivations of an
o. 28 Write short notes on :
actual cycle from an Ideal cycle.
(I) Heat losses. (Section 1.22.2]
[Section 1.16 to 1.16.3]
(II) Exhaust blow down losses. [Section 1.22.3]
Q. 18 Explain the deviations of actual cycle from (Iii) Pumping losses. (Section 1.22AJ
theoretical cycle of a diesel engine. Also, explain Its (Iv) Rubbing friction losses [Section 1.22.5]
valve timing diagram. (Section 1.17]
0.29 Describe the working of Wankel rotary engine with
a. 19 Explain the port timing diagram of a 2-stroke petrol the help of neat sketches [Section 1.26)
engine and Its actual (p-v) diagram.
[Section 1.18] 0.30 Whal Is an LHR engine ? Why Interest ls being ·
taken to develop this type of engines now a days 7
0.20 What are the assumptions of fuel-air cycles ?
(Section 1.24]
[Section 1.19)
Q.31 Whal Is an HCCI engine and what are Its
0.21 What factors are considered In fuel-air cycles ?
advantages ? Explain the working of such an
[Section 1.19]
engine ? (Section 1.25]
o. 22 Write In brief the effect of following factors
considered In fuel-air cycles : Q. 32 Whal Is a six stroke engine and Its types ? Discuss

(I) Mixture of fuel and air. (Section 1.20.1] In brief. (Section 1.27]

aaa

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S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply System,

Ignition and Combustion)

~syllabus

Fuel Supply System : Spark Ignition Engine mixture requirements, Fuel-Air ratio, Simple carburettor
and auxiliary circuits (Excluding mathematical analysis of carburettors)

Injection System : Single-point and Multipoint injection, Gasoline Direct Injection.

, Ignition System : Battery Ignition System, Magneto Ignition System, Functions and Working of ignition
coil, spark plug, contact breaker point, Requirements and working of ignition advance mechanisms •
mechanical and vacuum, Electronic Ignition · Systems,Capacitor Discharge Ignition System,
Transistorized Coil Assisted Ignition System, Transistor Ignition system with contactless breaker.

Combustion : Combustion Phenomenon in SI Engines, Ignition delay, Flame propagation, Pressure-

Crank angle diagram, abnormal combustion, Auto ignition, Detonation and Knocking, Factors affecting
combustion and detonation, Types of combustion chambers.

2.1.1 Definition of Carburetlon

Definition of Carburettor, Fuel Feeding system

and Factors Affecting Carburetion

2.1.2 Definition of Carburettor

2.1 Introduction

The spark ignition or petrol engines ·use usually the

volatile fuels e.g. petrol, alcohol, benzol etc.
The mixture of fuel and air is prepared outside the
engine cylinder and partly evaporated mixture is supplied to
the engine.· The mixture prepared outside the cylinder is
2.1.3 Basic Fuel Feeding or Induction System
never homogeneous. Droplets of fuel continue to evaporate for S.I. Engines
even during the suction and exhaust strokes. Therefore the
process of formation of mixture is very important for spark The basic fuel feeding or induction system for S.I.
ignition engines for the engine to operate efficiently under engines is shown in Fig. 2.1.1. Its function is to supply
all operating conditions. We shall now discuss few . partly vaporized mixture of fuel and air to various
definitions and the induction system for S.I. ~ngines. cylind_ers of the engine.
'ff"
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~ 1.C. Engines (~U-Sem. V-Mech) 2-2

Fuel tllter
Fuel pump

Fuel
- ------
------- tank
------- Surrounding
air

Fig. 2.1.1 : Basic fuel feeding or inducdon syste~

It consists of supply of fuel from fuel tank and air from _. (I) speed
surroundings to carburettor in which the fuel is The time available for formation of mixture by the
partially evaporated. carburettor is greatly affected by the speed of the engine e.g.'
The partly evaporated fuel and air mixture from jf an engine nms at 4000 rpm, the time available for the
carburettor is carried through a pipe line, called intake process · of carburetion is in . the range of 0.0075 to
manifolds, to the engine cylinder. 0.01 seconds. In such a short period, the fuel is required to
be atomised, mixed with air. vaporized and to be inducted,
Partial evaporation of fuel also takes pJace in the
into the engine cylinder. Therefore. the design of a
intake rnanlfolds, at the inlet valve and remainder
carburettor becomes of atmost importance to accomplish the .
within the cylinder.
above processes in such _~ short period,_particularly, with
~~Affecting Carburellon regard to design of its venturi.

Factora Affecting · . . (ii) Temperature of inlet air

Carburetlon
The temperature of air plays an· important role in the
(0 Speed
vaporization process of fuel. Higher surrounding· air
(I) Temperature of Inlet air temperature increases the ' ·vaporization of · fuel and
(UI) Volatility of fuel homogeneity of mixture. However increased temperatures
reduce the volumetric efficiency, hence, the power output'.
(Iv) Design of Intake manHolds

.. . (ill) Volatility of fuel

Flg.C2.1 : Factors ~ecting carburetion
Complete vaporization could be achieved by using
Some of the important factors which affect the process highly volatile fuels, which are expensive to produce, or by
of carburetion are : using heat in intake manifolds to promote vaporization.
(i) Engine speed which directly affects the time available However, excessive vaporization of fuel decreases the
for preparation of mixture by the carburettor. volumetric efficiency (i.e. mass of mixture inducted into the

(ii) The temperature of incoming air.

cylinder per stroke) is decreased. This reduces the power
output of the engine.
(µi) The volatility of the fuel.

(iv) Design of intake manifolds.

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MU·Sem; V·Mech) . . .. .... .. - l - · •• •

· - S.I. En Ines (Fuel Su

.+ (Iv) Dtslgn of intake nuulitolds
proportions (A.F. ratio 11 tO 18 : l) as nearly as constant as
When the multicylinder . engines receive a an'aJI possible under unsteady conditions such as sudden throttle
. . p I y
vaporized mixture of fuel and air, each cylinder does not opening and closing, acceleration and deceleration, at
receive the same amount of fuel. Therefore, pro,PC?r design of various loads on the engine, starting, idling and initiate
intake manifolds becomes essential to ensure proper maximum power. The' carburettor must provide a different
distribution of fuel. proportion of fueJ and air for various conditions of running
'
Therefore, _w e conclude that proper selection of volatile of the engine.

fuel, design of carburettor and intake manifolds affects the The various requirements of S.I. engine are as under :
. carburetion process under various operating conditions of
Requirements of
the engine. $.I.engine

Syllabus ~o~lc : Spark Ignition Engine • Mixture

Requirements, Fuel-Air Ratio 1. Maximum Power

2. Maximum Economy of Fuel

2.2 Air-Fuel Ratio and Mixture
3. Starting, Idling and Low Load Running
Requirements_.__ ---·- -·-
4. Acceleration

A hydfocarbon fuel . mainly consists of carbon ~d

5. Part Load Running - Cruising Range
hydrogen as its constituents.
Fig. C2.2 : Requirements of S.I. engine
.Petrol fuel u~ed in S.I. engine is mainly octane (C8 His)
for which the chemically correct or stoichiometric Fig. .2.3.1 shows the air-fuel requirement at various .
throttle opening.
mixture of air-fuel ratio is 15.12:1 by nuw
approximately. This niixture gives most rapid . The curve (a - b - c - d) can be divided into three basic
ranges. Curve (a - b) represents the idle and no load
combustion of fuel , almost the greatest power and
I running, curve (b - c) the cruising range and the curve
reasonable economy of fuel.
(c - d) the high power range. Now we shall discuss the
Rich mixtures give more power in the ratio of 11 : 1 to various requirements as outlined above in details.
15 : 1 of air and fuel and weak or lean mixtures of
0.09
about . 16 to 18 10 d
,, : 1 gives better fuel economy. a 0.08
~
J;
12
j
Ric~ mixtures having A.F. ratio below 11 : 1 and lean j I!!
1-4 ChemicaDy cooecl 0.07
I!!
mixtures above 20: 1 canriot be burnt effectively. Ii
.aL
~
16

. 18
b

Cruising range
c
0.06
'
Ii
~

2.3 Mixture Requirements at Different

20 0.05
Loads and Speeds 0 10 20 30 -40 50 60 70
Ellec:tive throttle openng (%)
.+ (MU· Dec.15) Idle and no load rumlng range High power range

Fig. 2.3.1 : Effective throttle openhig ( % ) air~fuel ratio

requirements ·

2.3.1 Maximum Powe~

It is the function of carburettor to form a homogeneous The maximum power would be obtained if all the
mix~ of very fine liquid fuel particles and air in desired oxygen present in the cylinder is fully utilized.

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~ l.C•.En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech 2-4
S.I. Engines (Fuel Su S s, Ignition & Comb~ ... ;
. l(
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It is seen that air-fuel ratios in Oie range of 16.5 to ·.j

ln actual practice the mixture of fuel and vapour is
17.5 : 1 gives maximum economy of fuel i.e. it gives .
never homogeneous and it is further diluted by the
minimum specific fuel consumption as shown in
residual gases.
Efficiency
Fig. 2.3.3.

...
·,
r Full throttle
"

70

60 L--+---'---+--+-
19
11 13 15 17 16 18 20 .
10 12 1:4
Air-fuel ratio Air-fuel ratio
Fig. 2.3.2 : Effect of air-fuel ratio on power output and
efficiency at full throttle and constant speed Fig. 2.3.3 : Eft'ect of air-fuel ratio.on -specific fuel
consumption at various thro~le opeoin~
It is possible that some parts of the 0 2 present in the
cyJinder may not find fuel for burning due to non- 2.3.3 Starting, Idling and Low Load Running
hOJ!IOgeneity of mixture if the mi?'ture supplied is
The engine is said to idle when no external load is
chemically correct
applied on the engine and at this .condition
- . _, the throttle
.. It .wouJd reduce the power developed by the engine.
valve is almost closed.
Therefore a little rich mixture ·o f air-fuel ratio 12.5 to
13.5 : 1 (approximateJy) is necessary to ensure th~t all Under idling conditions the power developed by the
1
•· • ihe oxygen present is fully utilized and such a mixture engine is just sufficient to overcome the various. friction

wm give maximum combustion temperatures and losses of the engine.

· power as shown in Fig. 2.3.2. Low Joad running is usually taken in the range of zero
to 20% of the rated power of the engine.
2 •3 ·2 Maximum Economy of Fuel
At the time of starting and idling the e_ngine, the
working temi)eratures are . low. Therefore, the
carburettor · is not able to vaporize the fuel and the
mixture reaching .th~ cylinder is lean. This may Jead to
non-initiation of combusti~n in the cylinder.

To ensure minimum fuel vapour in the cylinder rich

mixtures are necessary to ~nitiate the c~mbustion.
For the maximum economy of fueJ consumption it is
Further, under the conditions· of idling and low load·
necessary that all the fuel present in the cylinder is
running the throttle valve is almost closed due to which
b~t complet,ely.
,I . ;
the pressures in the intake manifolds are much lower
To ensure the ·effective burning of fuel it is necessary
than atmospheric pressure while the pressure inside the
that a little excess air is required to be supplied to cylinder is approximately atmospheric pressure at the
ensure complete combustion of fuel since the mixture is
end of exhaust stroke.
not homogeneous.

. (
 1

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·· ·~ · r f:l1 Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech 2_5 &~
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Wfltll the inlet vlllve
opens during the suction stroke,
.t.aJI be back flow of residual gases into the
2.3.5 Part Load Running - Cruising Range I
~ ~· . · · · gof
· rnan1folds. Curve (be) of Fig. 2.3.J Jhow• the part load runmn
I
'ill(llke h piston moves outwards, the residual gases arc
WJlCP t C •
engine which ij in the range of 20 to 15% of rated I
...
.
dfl!WP 11
~turc
ton" with the fresh charg~. Therefore the actual
o .
inside the cylinder would contain large
power.
As the load on the engine is incrcaliCd beyond 20%
0f l j
11 recntuge of residual gnscs in the fresh charge I.e. the loud, the throttle vaJve is opened gradually with the I
• pe , d mixture is too diluted und it is nt low increase in load. fl reduces the inlet pressure and the
cyl111 er . . . . d al
perntures. Tlus diluted mixture ls not able to initiate problem of dilution of fresh charge by. the ress u
teJ'll • •
~per cornbusuon. gases ss also reduced.
...1 r to offset the dilution of fresh charge due to The air-fuel ratio increases and it ensures economical
Jn orvC
... residual gases and low temperatures, It L4i necessary running of the engine.
It is observed that air-fuel ratio of about 17 : l is kept
wsupply rich mixtures. during starting, Idling and'
Jolf 1oad running ·or engines. . in cruising range for a single cylinder engine. However.
t)sual air-fuel ratio requirements is about 11 to 12: 1 as comparatively slightly rich mixtures with air-fuel ratio
... _c,.nted by the curve (ab) in Fig. 2.3.1. of 16: 1 are necessary in case of multicylinder engines
rep•...,.. , .
because of problem of unequal distribution of fresh
.s.4 Acceleratlon charge to various cylinders.
2
Under nonnal running of engine the fuel that leaves the 2.4 Requirements of a Good Carburettor
carburettor is not completely vaporized and a part of
the liquid remains in the iritake manifolds as liquid film A carburettor bas been defined as a device which
beCause the liquid particles have larger inertia supplies the metered spray of fuel mixed with correct
compared to vaporized f ueJ. amount. of air for efficient combustion in cylinder at all
It does not create any problems under steady state operating conditions. The required operating conditions
running of engine since the fu~l of preyious stroke in have been dealt in section 23. In view of this, the
the' intake manifolds vaporizes and supplied to the requirements of a good carburettor are :
'engine iri the subsequent stroke. (a) To meter the liquid fuel so as to produce the required
_ When the engine is to be accelerated suddenly by air-fuel ratios at all operating conditions like during

opening the throttle valve, the liquid fuel lags behind in idling, low load running, cruising range and maximum

- the intake manifolds due to its large inertia. As a result · power range.

the mixture of fuel and air reaching the cylinder is lean (b) Energy to be supplied to change the fuel from liquid to
due to instant opening of throttle valve which is vapour state since the fuel in liquid form or drops will
· · contrary to the requirement of rich mixture during not burn efficiently in an engine.
acceleration. (c) Prepare the homogeneous mixture of fuel and air as far
- · In order to compensate this ill effect and to provide the as possible.
needed rich mixtures during acceleration, a suitable (d) Provide rich mixtures for ease of starting the engine.
mechanism called acceleration pump is provided in ·
(e) Provide the required rich mixture during acceleration.
the carburettors.

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. . :i ~ ~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-6
S.I. Engines (Fuel Suppl Sys, ignition &
~' ; .. ~ I
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The velocity of air past the venturi vapourizes the .
. " I I . · Syllabus.Topic : Simple carburettor petrol fuel partially which is then evaporated by the
'I o

. ' heat in the intake manifolds and the cylinder walls .

. i
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2.5 Simple Carburettor A petrol engine is quantity govern~ It means that the
I
. ' ' amount. of charge delivered is according to power
'
. .
. '
!
delivered by' the engine at a particular speed. This is "
)f ••'I

achieved by a throttle valve of butterfly type.

When the throttle valve opens, more air flows through
the venturi tube and more quantity of. fuel and air is
A simple carburettor is shown in Fig. 2.5.1. It consists delivered to the engine, therefore, engine develops
of a float in float chamber, venturi and the main fuel
more power.
jet.
Reverse is the action when the throttle valve closes.
Float chamber is open to atmosphere due to which the
pressure in float chamber is atmospheric. rr Nozzle llp, h
Fuel. is supplied to the float chamber through strainer The pressure at the throat under fully open throttle
from fu~l tank with the help of fuel pump.
condition lies between 4 to 6 mm of Hg bel~w atmospheric.
The jet tube consists of main nozzle to which fuel is In order to avoid overflow of the fuel from noZzle, the main
supplied from the float chamber through a main fuel
nozzle tip is kept slightly higher than the level of fuel in
jet '
float chamber. The difference of level of tip of main nozzle
The suction of the engine draws air through the choke
tube and passes through the venturi. Since the area of and fu~I levet.'in float chamber is called nozzle lip.
cross-section at the throat of venturi reduces, the If ~ · i~ :t~~ no.zzli ~·~~:. ~d (ap)~ .is the pressure drop due
· pressure at the main nozzle reduces and the velocity of to flow_of aii, th~n th·e pressure drop available for flow of
air increases. fuel will be, . :': .. : . · : ' · ..
F .\·~ :-~ : .. • ... . . . . ..... . : \ , · · : '

· · ... (ap)r = (ap)a -Pr· h ',g ...(2;5.1)

/
where, Pr is the density of fuel.

J I
~
J I A simple carburettor has the drawbacks outlined
below:
Fig. 2.5.1 : Simple carburettor
1. It provides the required air-fuel ratio only at one
Due to pressure differential caused at the main nozzle throttle position. At other throttle positions, the mixture.
and the pressure in the float chamber, the fuel from is either richer or leaner depending upon the throttle
n~ chamber is supplied to the main nozzle which valve is opened more or less.
mixes with the incoming air. '
2. It provides increasing richness of AfF mixture as the
speed of the engine increases. -
~ 1.C: Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) · . · · 2-7 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition & Combustion)

·-- The reason for above is . that as the throttle valve is

opened ~dually, the pressure at the venturi throat
It has been brought out earlier that the rich mixture is ·
required at the ti.me of startmg of the engine due to cold
deereases, which decreases ~ensity of air with increase conditions of the engine.
in its air velocity. \l{hereas, the quantity of fuel flow In order to achieve this, a butterfly valve called choke
remains constant. Therefore, AIF ratio 4ecreases with is .incorporated. before . the venturi as shown in
~c~ ins~ of engine. . Fig. 2.6.l.

. If the speed is too low, we get very lean mixtures which

3 .; ..
. . . roay"iiot be sufficient to ignite the mixture.

2.5.2 Application of Simple Carbure~or

Simple carburettor is only suitable for sniau stationary
engines to run at constant ·speed.

- Syllabus Topic : Auxlllary Circuits

2.6 Modifications of Simple Carburettor

Various operating requirements of an engine have been ~ ~.

dealt in section 2.3 while it has been observed that the
simple carburettor, discussed in section 2.5, l, cannot meet "
Tllrotlle wive

all the requirements. Therefore, it is necessary that the Fig. 2.6.1 : Idling system
simple carburettor needs to be modified to meet the
At the time of cold ·startixig of the engine the choke is
operational requirements of the engine, these modifications
almost closed.
are being discussed below :
It lowers the pressure at the venturi which is nearly
Modlflcatlona of equal to pressure in the intake manifolds. This large .
Slmple carburettor
pressure drop between the pressure in the float chamber
and at the venturi increases the mass flow rate of fuel.
1. Starting Choke
thereby ensuring that a very rich mixture is supplied to
2. Main Metering and Idling System the engine.

3. Acceleration 2.6.2 Main Metering and Idling System

4. Part Load Running-Economic Range + (MU · .M ay 17)

r-.,,..,,.-.,....-~,.._,.--,...,_,,,,....,.,,.....,...,,.,._,,_...,,_,....,,,.,.~.,....-.......-

{Metering Pin Method)

5. Quality Control by Back Suction

or Pressure Reduction Method

6 . Compensating Devices

Fig. C2.3 : Modifications of Simple Carburettor It has been stated that idling of the engine refers to no
load running of the engine and the engine requires a
/ rich mixture.
~tatting Choke
At no load, the throttle valve is almost closed and due
~ (MU· May 11)
to this the airflow through the venturi is greatly
Universit Question .. _ ·· .~ /w.,~·' ~ ~~:~.f;<.'; :~U/·;;,;;:~~~-).;:l~~:;
reduced. It means that the pressure drop at the venturi
~f- 'Ctibki in a'~~~tor i~·:u;eci'~~rr~91d11R9:~:& is very low and the main jet is not able to supply any
fuel.

sconned w ith C;)mS<:ono«

,.
__

~ -,
.· ~,,·

~ l.C. Engines (MU-5em. V-Mech) 2-8 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys,·lgnition & Combusti~{ .".
. Z:z4 ..
In order to supply rich mixture an idling cin:uit is This difficulty is overcome by introducing an .
introduced in the caxburettor as shown in Fig, 2.6.1. accelerating pump as shown in Fig. 2.6.2.
It could be seen that the idle port is just located below It consists of a piston-cylinder arrangement with a ball
the lhrottle valve.
valve in the cylinder and a spririg.
The low pressure existing in the intake manifolds past
The pist~n is forced downwardi . into cylinder
the lhrottle valve allows the fuel to be supplied from
simultaneously when the throttle valve IS opened. This
the float chamber through the idle jet thereby enriching
. forces the extra petrol fuel into the venturi and the
the mixture of fuel and air.
amount of fuel is controlled by metering orifice. This
The air-fuel mixture discharged into the air stream past
way it supplies rich mixture temporarily.
the throttle valve is controlled by the idling adjustment
screw. The piston is raised again due to the spring force when·,
the throttle valve is again partly closed.
One or more air bleeds are provided in the upper
passages as shown in Fig. 2.6.1. ·These air bleeds A ball valve is provided in the cylinder for leakage of
prevent the fuel to be supplied from the float chamber fuel from cylinder into the float chamber f the throttle
when the engllie is shut-off. valve is opened gradually. ·
When the throttle valve opens, the pressure differential
between the idling pQrt and the float chamber reduces.
2.6.4 Part Load Running-Economic Range .
1bis reduction in pressure is not sufficient to lift the (Metering Pin Method)
fuel to additional height upto the idle jet Therefore at
part load running the idle jet becomes ineffective. In the range of 20 to 75% load, a simple carburettor
supplies rich mixture when the engine speed increases
2.6.3 Acceleratfon recause with the opell..ing of throttle valve the pressure .
differential at venturi increases. This increased pressure
differential increases the fuel supply from main fuel jet ·
with the increased speed.
In order to run the engine under maximum economy a
metering pin in the main metering orifi~ is provided as
shown in Fig. 2.6.3.

The movement of the pin rod. in the metering orifice is

controlled by a control lever by changing the
coeffici~nt of discharge and area of flow of fuel into the
main jet

It controls the supply of fuel flow into the venruri

according to the load on the engine.

er Economizer system

Some system can also be used for supplying rich

Fig. 26.2 : Acceleration arrangement
mixture for loads 75% to 100% and allow rich mixture
It bas been stated that the simple carburettor is not able to be supplied to meet high loads.
to supply the required mixture momentarily due to For this reason it is also called as power enrichment or
inertia of liquid fuel particles when the engine is to be economiser system. Since it can provide rich mixture
accelerated by opening the throttle valve suddenly. without interfering with economical operation in the
part load running.

Scanned wit h Ci:unscoi1ner

 S.I. En ines (Fuel Sup I Sys, Ignition & Combustion)'
2-9
The- maximum and minimum pressures in the float
'fbe meter or 'pin rod ·simply provides a large orifice
chamber corresp0nd to fully opened and almost closed
_opening to the main jet as throttle value is opened
positions of the control valve. This variation in pressure
beyond a certain point
in the float chamber regulates the rate o~ flow of fuel
into the venturi.

2.6.6 Compensating Devices

~ (MU ~· Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 17)

Universit Questions
..
. ·,, ... · : . . .. :' ~

;_..9..:;;~
, ..
Describe any on~ type of c<>mpe~sa\itig device'usf!!d-
. - · ~
;·''<\~;in carbu;attor' .-· . . . . . . .. l•w•r
_ . . .
-. .
~~~i~J,:'"J . :. '._ _.: ' . . ·:.· . . ' . . . <. .
· <;:a;"'~':iExplaili. the function of any two witl1 !leat sketches : · _,
:-...·. . • .· • . . ! •• ,

~\~~,,~(i) : Air.bleed fet. .-. · · (ii) . Emulsion tu~. ·.-'.:

~~~:;_':'- (iii):-Condens~/ : ·'(iv) Econo~iser system.<'.<:
Fig. 2.6.3 : Part load running-metering pin method
~~;t:·. . ·. . ·. . ;' ..( .i_<'.·i
'Q.~~- \A'.ith" the . help:' of . 'a ,_sketch -: expla!~ .in:'s.h<?rt the .
1
M•!"
*~~·.~· .:) ~:::1·»"' . • '.'·:". .,. ·.. ·. . --~ ~ ., -:··. . ~ .....
~~'~i~~c-~ worklng .<' of .: carburettor / navlng .:, . following '
2.6.5 Quality Cont~ol by Back Suction or ·-·~~·' ·-,:· ~-:~·;::;:·,:':" . .<- _.,..,.. ::..... , f\:'~· • .-·.:.,.·... ~r-: ~~-. ., .... , _;.. ....~:.}'
~~:~~~-¥~rrangements (I) Compensating iet__ ., : · - .. .. ·_,;.
Pressure Reduction Method ~, '~~:-'-'';~;~i~~·}~~'>"~t~;fi~~~;,:·?· '--,~*n:~·;-t:~,~~;~\:-~it~:iU .. ,Witl
This method provides the required air-fuel ratios in the. A simple carburettor supplies rich mixture with
increase in speed. Whereas, a carburettor is required to
economic and power range.
supply nearly constant A/F ratio over wide range of speed
An orifice is provided which communicates the float and load for its economic operation. .
chamber with the venturi above the ·throat on the choke Air-fuel ratio can be maintained either by increasing
side of the carburettor. the supply of air or by supplying less fuel with increase in
An automatically operated control valve is provided speed.
which regulates the pressure in the float chamber as
shown in Fig. 2.6.4.

j Pf-ChOke~-Altom~ali--ccootrolled valve
These are:

Compensating Devices

(I) Compensating jet method

Float chamber
(II) Emulsion tube or air bleed method

(Ill) Auxiliary air valve method

(Iv) Auxiliary port method

(v) Metering pin method

(vi) Quality control by back suction or

pressure reduction method

Fig. 2.6.4 : Quality control-back suction method Fig. C2.4 : Compensating Devices.

scanned wilh CamScunne1

 -·
·· . " ~
'

..
:·. ·

~ t.C. E~ Ines
·~

MU-Sem. V-Mech 2·10

Metering pin method (Refer section 2.6.4) and Quality //(II) I~mulslon ~be or air bleed method ·
control by back suction or pressure reduction method (Refer _ Modem carbureuors use the air bleeding device to
section ~~~5 have already been discussed above). maintain the air fuel ratio at all speeds as show.!1 Jn . ';
/._ ' -
L..7 (I) Compensating jet method Fig. 2.6.7.

Fig. 2.6.5 shows the arrangement of a Jet tubo ·

compensating jet device. It's function is to make f f f

the mixture leaner.

Open IO 1tmoephn

I. well
_
CcmpenutlOn

---~,.J....,
__.......,
,Floll
')
25mm

._,..,.__ wen

Fig. 2.6.S : Compensating jet

1-----(Submerged
Main metering
Jet)
jet

It consists of an additional compensating jet

connected to compensation well which is open to Fig. 2.6.7: Air bleed method
atmosphere. It consists of a well with main metering jet at its
The fuel is supplied from float chamber through a
bottom.
restricted orifice. I
The well is fitted about 25 mm below the petrol
When the air flow increases the fuel level in
compensating well decreases. It results into level in float chamber, therefore, well is filled with
decrease of fuel supply through compensating jet petrol. For .this reason, the main jct is also called
while the main jet increases the fuel supply. as submerged jet.
Net result of both the jets is to maintain the The jet has holes on its sides. Therefore, it is in
constant A!F ratio.
communication with atmospheric air.
The effect of compensating device on air-fuel ratio
Initially, air is drawn through the holes into the
is shown in Fig. 2.6.6.
well and petrol is emulsified.
NF ratio
When the throttle valve is opened, the reduced
throat pressure causes the emulsified petrol and
mixes with incoming air and reduces the richness
of mixture.

As the speed increases, the holes in the central

tube are progressively uncovered, thus

.....__ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _., Speed of engine maintaining the NF ratio.

Fig. 2.6.6 : Effect of compensating jet on AIF ratio

.....-
~·. · · -

- d Jn tho puHHugo o
• ,.111.. ry nh• vnha "'"Ou;d A huttorlly vnlvo 111 lncorporutc uddltlor111I ulr Ill
.,. (110 pl nlr now. Uy opening thlH vlllvo,
... Fig. 2.0.8 11how11 tho prlmilplo of oh· hlcod ll)'tilom ndmlttod. nt tho
<llrfcrcnl111
1
10 1n11lnt11ln nh...1\101 rnllo whh !l~od. H nltm 1-cducc11 tho pro:mu'C tho 11111Hl'I now
1hm11t of vo111url, thoroby • rcduc~t0 con 11tunt NP
,,,fk.,.. t
Mlklurtl IO 1111\ltllll
1
ruto of fuol. ThuH It mulntn ns '
~ -nvotu.vww rntlo. · rtlonul to
Tho oponlng of buUcrl1y vulvo ls 11ropo
lll'H!Cd.
d In ulrcru R
'l'hm method IN "cncrnlly use I r air.
mi>e•i.~ut on o
curburcUorH for nltU11dc co

Typos of Corburottors
ond Automotlvo Corburottor-

2.7 Types of Carburettors

· d f ucl flow, tho
}'lg. 2.6.K : Auxiliary valve method De['H!nding upon tho dil'cctlon o f 111r un
carburettors nre clnssincd us :
As 1he throttle vnlvo is opened, lhe dccrenso in (I) Updraught cnrburcttors
pressure at the throul of tho venturi Clluscs lho (ii) Downdraught cnrburcttors
auxiliruy vnlve spring to push down tho nir vulvc. (iii) Side draught or horizontal carburettors.
This nllows tho udditional utmosphcric uir from Fig. 2.7.l(n) shows the updruught carburettor .in
surroundings to bleed pust the uir vnlve into the which the nir enters the carburettor ugninst the gruvity
main noi.z.le. It prevents the mixture from from bollom in the upward direction.
becoming over rich. The disadvantage of such a curburcttor is that it has to
lift the sprayed fuel droplets by air friction.
The opening of the uir valve is proportionate to
Since the fuel droplets have the tendency to separate
speed of the engine, therefore, the fairly a conslunt out from uir stream due · to high inertia, it becomes
NF ratio is maintained. necessary to design the jct tube and throat of relatively
smaller area in order to ·increase the air velocity to an
.. (Iv) Auxiliary port method extent it curries the fuel particles along even ut low
engine speeds, otherwise, the mixture reaching the
An auxiliary port system is shown in Fig. 2.6.9 engine will be lean.
which is similar to auxiliary air valve system.
~ ThrotUe valve
t aI f Jettube

\ I I I
Auxlllary air port \ \//

Butt8111y valve Ventur1

Fuel from main jet

(a) Updraught · (b) Down draught
III
Air
Fig. 2.7.1

Fig. 2.6.9 : Auxiliary air port method

 . . .. ,,
•I

~ I.e. En Inoa MU·Som. V·Moeh

cm111g11h~mmrn 111fows the fllllfK'I' 00\Y of 11tl~hlfl' t!VCll hi l11W (lftt(ltl()
. l~·10 -
lifK'<'d • 111111 111 11to 11111110 111110 Ilic '~ml1111rf1<1r 11

- trnl'ollnhl)' 11n:t'11,~ ll.1lv.

f!lg. 2.'/. lfr) 111tow11 1h4'l ~ldC' clrnuJ1hl e1trhur.,ll11r, r1
cot;slslMof 11 ho1l1011111I jcl wtic. !iud1 n c111hu1r1111r ho•
iho 111 1vun11111c whc1c u111la l1t11111c1 11pm:o Iii llmir<'cl 1111d
itlllo the rc51s11uir<1 to t11JW 111 mJucrd 1h1(' 10 cll111h1111lor1
of oner Ir.hr 1111ulr1l 1U111 l11 lho l11111ko pns~n!ic~.
(c) Side druughl
H~. 2.7.l : 'l)IK.'S or curbu~th.11'8 2.0 AutomobUo Corburottors

However, with 1'\!l:1tlvcly smaller c1'\lss-:-~1io11 of Jct So111c of 1hc lt111XJrl1111l typo of 111otkt11 cnrhurt·Uor*

tube, the curburcllor cnnnot supply the mix1urc 111 the used in nu10111obllcs nrc !

required rnpiJ mte ul high engine :;1>ecds. Typo• of Autornobllo

Carburoltor•
Due to this the updmught curhurcllors huve now
become nlmost obsolete. 1. Solox curl>ur'utror
Fig. 2.7. l(b) shows the down-dnmghl rarburcllor.
These ure usually installed nl u level higher than the 2. Corlur cml.Jurtitlor
intake manifolds.
3. S.U. cmburollor
In these carburettors tl1e now of mixture Is ussistc<l by
the gravity in its passage into intuko manifolds. This fo'lg. C2.5 : 'l'YIH.':> of Aulomobllc 01rhuttUorN

2.8.1 Solex Carburettor

... (MU• Mny 13)

Univers1t Question . . ..
~ };~°': ' 'l' • ·::· \ • .. • -
'.< ,• ..%· ~ .....~. ~ ~ ~ : ~ l,
i' '·~
'... .•· '

~O.~~' . fain·with·a neat sketch.the constructton·and workln of a Solox Catburottor.

The solex carburettor is one of the well known cm·burellor for cusy s111rting, good pcrfonn:mcc 11nd lls rcllubillly. It ls
used for various Indi:u1 Curs :md Jeeps.

It consists for various fuel and air circuits. These nro :

Fuel end air circuit•
of Solox Carburettor

(I) Normal running

(II) Cold starting and wanning

(lll) Idling and slow speed operation

(Iv) AcoolaraUon

Fig. C2.6 : Fuel und air circuits or Sole.'( Carburettor

The schematic diagram of a Solex carburettor is shown in Fig. 2.8. l. It is down dmught type c:irburcllor.

SCaoMed wl1h CamScanner

- - - --.--- .,.. ~
 ~ i.e. engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) S.I. Engines (Fuel Supp , Ignition & eombustion)
2-13
.,
Starter Jet (k)
Aoceleration pump \n)ector (s)
.----+.14--- Pilot jet (n)
Bl-starter· Venturi (c) Pict air bleed
I Fuel from fuel tank :
Air . ·\
orifice (o) t. AcceleratlOn
pt.mp

Pump)el(u)

Emu1Sion~:3E=f=~=:!llE::::::::::=::;:::f:~~~:;;:;:~~
tube (d) Maln)et(b)
AatdlscO) .

Throttle valve {h)

...
~Idling sctew (p)
Idle port (q)
Starting
passage(/)

Air-fuel mixture
. '
Fig. 2.8.1 : Solex ~burettor
.I

the passage which opens just below the throttle

.. (i) Normal running
valve at (l).
In normal running circuit, the fuel is provided by
Depending upon the position of the starter
the main jet (b) and the air by the choke tube or
lever (m) either bigger or small holes of flat disc
venturi (c).
come opposite the passage.
The fuel from the main jet enters into the air bleed
emulsion tube (d). For starting richer mixture is required. So in the
start positi?n bigger holes are the connecting
The correct balance of _air and fuel is automatically
holes.
ensured by air entering through air correction
jet (f). When the throttle valve is in closed position the

The metered emulsion of fuel and air is discharged engine suction is applied to starting passage (l).

through the orifice (g) drilled horizontally in the The air enters from the starting air jet (k.) and fuel
vertical pipe in the middle of venturi tube. ~m starter petrol jet G). This mixture is

. . (if) Cold starting and warming

sufficiently rich ~o start the engine.

After the engine has started, the starter lever is

The unique feature of this carburettor is to provide
bro~ght to the intermediate position, thus reducing
progressive starter.
the amount of petrol, till it reaches the nonnal
The starter valve is in the form of a flat disc (i)
running temperature. After this the starter lever is
with holes of different sizes. These holes connect
brought to the off position.
the starter petrol jet G) and starter air jet sides to

-~~~~\'<!..~-'--=,__ _____ - - -- - - - --
~ l.C. En Ines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2·14 S.I. En Ines (Fuel Su

. . (Ill) Idling and slo~..........

"I""'"" nano1ng -+ (Iv) AcceleratJon

In this circuit, the pilot jet (n) is taken from the Jn order to provide extra quantity of fuel duJin
8
main jct. acceleration, this carburettor is provided With
. a ··
diaphrag~ pump system. ·
At the idling, the throttle (h) is almost closed and
hence engine suction is applied at the pilot jct. When accelerator pedal is pressed for acceler....
...:on,
the pump lever (t) connected to it is also pressed.
Fuel is drawn there from and mixed with a small
Due to this movement, the fuel is compressed 8J1d
amount of air from pilot air bleed orifice (o). This
it flows through the pump jet (u) and acceleration
mixture is conveyed down the vertical passage and
pump. injector (s) to mixing chamber.
discharged into the . throttle body through the
idling screw (p). · When the force on lever is removed; the
diaphragm retains its original position due to
The idling screw pennits variation· of the·. slo~
running jet's delivery of petrol and allows the spring.

richness of the mixture. Due to this movement of diaphragm suction is

created, thus opening the pump . valve (e) and
admitting.the fresh fuel into the pump.

2.8.2 Carter Carburettor

A sketch of an American make Carter carburettor is shown in Fig. 2.8.2. It is a down-draught type carburettor.

·- Petrol fuel enters into th~ con~entional type of float chamber (1). The air enters from the top through the choke valve
0

(12) which is .kept fully opeo during the normal running of the engine.
. To accelerator pedal

Air

Idle or low speed jet (2)

Plunger (18)
To accelerator pedal
Nozzle Cm
Inlet ched<.
valve (14)

Secondary venturt (9)

Third main venturi (10)

Float chamber (1)

Metering rod jet

Afr fuel mixture to engine

Fig. 2.8.2 : Carter carburettor

Sconned with camscanner

 MU-Sem. V-Mech) .. 2-15
. l f the engine, it
carter carburettor has three venturies, the smallest During Idling or no load nmn ng o
. . d" · the throttle
venturi called primary venturi. (8) lies above the fuel requires a rich mixture. In idling con iuon, ·
level in the float chamber and the other two called valve is almost closed ~ shown in Fig. 2.8.2.
secondary (9) and third (10) main venturies lie below The engine suction is appli"ed to J'die port. . (6) ' due to
.
the fuel level as shown in Fig. 2.8.2. this the fuel is drawn through the idle jet (Z) and the arr
The suction in primary venturi. is adequate to drav/ through bypass (11) and a ii~h inixture is suppJied. .
petrol even at low speeds. During low speed ope~tion, the throttle valve is
fuel from float chamber _enters the venturi through the opened further.
nozzle (17) at an angle in upward direction·against the The main nozzle aiso starts supplying fuel. Therefore,
air stream securing an even flow of finally divided at low speeds the fuel is delivered both by the main
atomized fuel. venturi and through the·low speed port (7).
The fuel and air . ifil,xture descends through the Acceleration pump circuit is used to supply the
secondary venturi which is surrounded by a blanket of required mixture momentarily when the engine is to be
air stream, finally, it passes through the main venturi to accelerated by opening the throttle valve suddenly·
the engine cylinder. ' . (14)
Pump consists of a p1unger (18), mlet check valve .
Use .of multiple venturi ensures that the fuel reaching and outlet check valve (15). Plunger is coruiected to
th~ engine is in atomized form evei;i at very slow acceli rator pedal by ·throttle.control rod {13).
speeds causing the s~ooth running of the engine:
. '

When the engine is suddenly accelerated, the plunger

The fuel circuit consists of a metering rod (3) actuated moves down and forces the required extra ~el through
by a mechanism
. , connected to the main throttle. jet (I~) into the choke tube. . .
The metering rod has two or more steps of diameter. When the accelerator 'pedal is released, the plunger
. . . .
The difference in area of metering rod jet and metering JDOves up and draws the fuel from _float chamber into
rod controls the amount of fuel drawn into the engine. the pump through inlet check valve for the next
' . .
operation.
Corresponding to maximum throttle opening at
", • ' I '
maximum speed. the smallest section of the metering 2.8.3 S.U. Carburettor
rod is in the jet, therefore, the maximum quantity of
fuel flows to mix with the maximum amount of air Generally the carburettors are choke type e.g. Solex,
flow. Carter and Zenith carbilrettors. Whereas, the S.U.
The starting circuit consists of a butterfly valve called Carburettor completely differs from these since it is a
choke (12) in the air circuit. . ~onstant vacuum or depression type of carburettor
with automatically variable choke.
When the choke is almost closed, the pressure at the
Fig. 2.8.3 represents the sketch 'of a horizontal .type of
nozzle is nearly equal to suction pressure in the engine.
S.U. Carburettor.
This large pressure drop between float chamber and at
the nozzle increases the mass flow rate of ·fuel while I~ consists of a piston (I) which is always loaded by a
the air flow rate is minimum. It ensures the supply of helical spring, a piston rod (2), the piston r?<I guide (3)
rich mixture to the engine at the time of starting. and the float chamber (10) of a conventional
carburettor.
Once the engine is started, the spring controlled half of
the choke valve is sucked open to provide correct J'he lower end of the piston rod carries . a taper jet .
amount of air. needle (7) which is inserted into the main jet (9). The
. . flat portion above the piston is call~d suction disc (12).

SConned with CiJmScooner

 :: /:~-;]
·,_. :~~
S.I. Engines (Fuel Suppl sys, Ignition & Combu~~-~ '.:~!.':
m .1.c. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-16

Piston rod guide (3) . . ._..,.

.Pl~ton rod (2)
Suction chamber(4)
\ .
Piston (1j Suction disc (12)

' .
Alr-reclifier tiole (8) sudion air entnince (11 ) ...

Air pas5age (5).

Taper jet needle (7)
'• • 1 •

"' Float chamber (10)

.i .

·. ·FJg. 2.8.3 : s.u. carburettor . · · ·

. .. . ., . . . _ It allows more fuel to flow into the_mai~ stream due t~
The piston assembly mov~ up and down alongwith .. . d. Thus approximately the constant air-
taper needle by operating a lever from the dash board. . , mcreas~ !et ar~a. . d at different engine speed~. '
The mov~ment of · the piston · controls the air fuel ratio is mam~ne . , _ ·. : . .
. passages (5). Fuel Pumps for S. I. Engines
!· ...
I'· . The portion abov~ the suction disc is called the suction
"'
chamber (4) which connects the·air passage by means 2.9 Mechanical .i=uei ·Pump for SJ.
.: _o f suction air entrance (11). Engines
,/
The lower portion of the suction disc is connected by '. 1 ,

Fuel from tank .;

. an air rectifier hole (8) to tlie atmospheric air. The air
passage has a butterfly type throttle valve (6).
The movement of piston controls the air-fuel ratio. for
all the operating conditions of the engine. J .

The pressure in the suction chamber depends upon the

throttle opening while the pressure below the suction
disc: is atmospheric.
. The position of the piston depends upon its weight and
the vacuum existing (according to throttle opening) in
.
the I suction chamber, therefore, a variable cross-
sectional area of air passage is obtained depending
upon the piston position.
Fig. 2.9.1 : Mechanical fuel-pump
ThiS carburettor bas· ~nJy one jet ~d no separate
idling jet or accelerating pump is required. The function of a fuel pump is to draw the fuel fiom the
At the time of starting, the rich mixture is required. tank through pipe line and supply to the carburettor.
This can be achieved by pulling·the jet downwards with
The schematic diagram of a mechanical ~.el pump for
the help of lever attached to it which is operated from
spark ignition engines is shown in Fig. 2.9.1:
the dash board in the car.
As the throttle valve is opened, more air is allowed to The diaphragm ann of the fuel pump is usually driven
flow under more suction due to which the piston moves by the eccentric on the camshaft.
upwards and increases the effective jet area.

scanned with CamScanner

~·

r!if
B2..1.c. ines {MU-Sem. V-Mech)
.. & Combustion)
2-17 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition
1l»e pump consists of a flexible diaphragm which is · . · tum sttoke the
When the lever is disengaged on its re .
operated by a pull rod through a diaphragm lever. . . . hi h . eases the pressure m
diapbragm is pulled up w c mer
\\1bC1l the lever is engaged and pushed upwards it pulls the chamber. It closes the inlet valve and the fuel flows
doWD the diaphragm in its casing. It creates a Partial out through the outlet valve io the carburettor.
,racuuro in the upper chamber which results into the
Some S.I. engines use electrical fuel pump'.
fiow of fuel from the tank.

Electrical Fuel Pump

2.10
Sectional view of an electric fuel pump is shown in Fig. 2.10.1. Whe~ the breaker points come in co~tact~ the fuel from
tank via intake valve (1) is drawn into suction chamber due to the suction created by the movement of diap~gm upw.ards.
Now as the breaker points are separated, the diaphragm moves downwards under the spring force, thus it pushes the. fuel
ftOID pumping chamber to the carburettor through the delivery valve (2).

E-:- From ignition switch

Solenold winding

Spring
,A.r(nature

Fuel tD carburettor

Diaphragm
Fig. 2.10.1 : Electric fuel pump

Syllabus Topic : Gasoline Direct Injection 3. Distribution of mixture· is non-uniform to cylinders in

case of multi cylinder engines due to resistance to
2.11 Gasoline Injection in S.I Engines mixture flow in unequal length of intake manifolds.

(Drawbacks of Carburettor System) 4. Economy of fu~l is affected during idling and low load
running of the engine.
Modem tendency is to use gasoline injection in S.I 5. It limits the use of compression ratio, however, the C.R
engines inspite of development of efficient carburetors by fuel injection can be increased by 1 to 1.5.
which are cheap and reliable.
6. Possibility of back firing at low speeds particularly in
Reasons for use of gasoline injection system are due multi-cylinder engines.
to the following inherent drawbacks of the carburetors :
7. Exhaust emissions are high.
I. Low volumetric efficiency due to restrictions of
8. Problem of ice fonnation at low temperatures.
mixture flow across the carbure and other metering
elements in air passage.
A gasoline injection system eliminates most of the
abov~ drawbacks of a carburetor.
2. Non-supply of exact A.F ratio at 31! ~oads.
."
 ~I.e. Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) 2·18 S.I. En Ines (Fuel Su

. .
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th end of compression stroke. Whereas, the -. · . fi

In case of C.I engines the fuel is injected directly into the cylinder, be ore
e · "fi Jd .
. .. inlet ort or in the· intake mam o s m 1ow pressure
fuel m case of S.I engines is injected during suet.Jon stroke near the P . . .
. . . . f der in high pressure lfiJCCtiOn system CaJJC(f
IDJection system called indirect injection, IDI system or directly mto the cy m . . ,, .
direct injection (DI) system. · '·
Thus the fuel injection system can be classified as follows:
Gasoline Injection System
I
Multipoint
Gasoline Mllllifold
Port Fuel
injection direct · injection
Injection
injection System
in to (MPFI)
cylinder
(GDI) Continuous Timed I
Continuous Tuned
(P.Fl)
Port Throttle

'
'•.
.. injection injection

I '
I
voltage signals which is analysed and adjusts the air-fuel
2.12.1 Continuous Injection System ratio and injection timing.

' In this system, a rotary fuel pump under a pressure of 1

,.
to 1.5 bar injects the fuel through a nozzle continuously into
air supply.
The amount of fuel injected is governed by the air
throttle opening. The fuel supply increases with the increase
in lhrottle opening. No timing device is necessary in this
system. Various types of continuous injection system are:
(a) In case the fuel is injected near the inlet port, it is called
continuous port fuel injection (PFI) system. The
(a) Semi • direct injection
timing of injection is controlled by electronic unit
(Close to inlet valve)
(ECU), depending on the load and speed of the engine.
It is shown in Fig. 2.12.l(a).
(b) In continuous intake manifold injection systems, the
fuel is injected at pressure of 2 bar as shown in
Fig. 2.12.I(b).
(c) In gasoline direct injection (GDO system, the fuel
pump injects the gasoline directly into the cylinder as
shown in Fig. 2.12.l(c). The system uses an electronic
control unit (ECU) and a solenoid operated fuel injector
to meter the fuel. (c) Direct lnjectloa
(b) .IDC.ke mlllllold Injection
The ECU uses various sensors located on the engine
components. It receives inputs from sensor in the form of Fig. 2.12.1 : Injection methods in S.I engines
pt
i .
~ 1.c. En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech 2-19

various sensors used are : er Advantages of GDI system

s.naon uaed In ContJnuoua (i) Improves volumetric efficiency of the engine.
ln)ectlon Syatem
(ii) Improves atomisation and vapourisati~ of fuel and it .is
(I) Throttle poslUon sensor independent of reduce gap spacing speed
(iii) Ease of cold starting and low load running.
(iv) Specific fuel consumption is reduced i.e. it gives beUCr
vehicle mileage.
(v) Variation is A.F. ratio is reduced.
(iv} Engine exhaust Temperature aenaor (vi) Exhaust emrnions are reduced.
to measure 0 2 content In exhaust
(vii) Gives better performance on gradients.
(v) Manifold pressure sensor
er Disadvantages of GDI system
(i) High initial cost.
(ii) Higher maintenance cost
(iii) Injector choking is possible.
(viii) Humidity sensor This system is not employed now-a-days because of the
strict, restriction on exhaust emissions and its high foel
(Ix) Knock sensor . · consumption.

Syllabus Topic : MPFJ System (Single Polnt and

Ffg.CZ.7.: Sensors used in Co~tinuous Injection System
Muhlpolnt Injection System)
(i) Throttle position ~nsor located on throttle plate to
sense its movement. . 2.13 M.P.F.I. System for Modern
(ii) 1be engines coolant temperature se~r to sense the Automobile Engines
temperature of coolant. It helps to adjust fuel-air supply
~ (MU - Dec. 12, Dec. 13, May 17)
at the time of cold starting and idling.
tllJ11rE;ft1'Y''' '(;t11E•)!J...1~~. '·?~,~~ ;~·)/>:~X%~:~~;!#_.¢Y;'-;-r~ ;~~V'/;~:;v.·: <~-.:i ..~.
(iii) Air Oow sensor located at intake manifold to monitor ~_,,i,l'Y,/%-f'.f.:~W~·f,{>"(~kf•,
.8•-- / d/ , " "• f
_.J',?f ;-,; " /,,·/'"t' ••'"''" ~ 1•.
._•. ,.!</,• . ,,_ 4 ' .,
,Jv'"'Y. "f·
K .;;_;/'•

"'1¢e,VVrite'snoif note.on·=- MP.A tor $1 engines..~ -,:<::·'.'~;;.:~~

the air flow rate.
(iv) Engine ·exbauSt Temperature sensor to measure Oi
;'ft~i ·
..o... .
,i,. ·
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.~µ,~:~;~;;:~~1~~'.~f ::;:,~.~: 5• ".s··~''""~,. ~-'
n:MPA m bnef. .,.~·;,·.,.,,. ~ .. ,-- -'-'"'· .. ._
..

content in exhaust. M.P.F.I. means Multi Point Fuel Injection system is

(v) Manifold pressure sensor mounted on intake one in which each cylinder has a separate fuel injector to
supply/spray fuel into cylinder. Whereas, in a single point
manifolds and it helps to adjust flow of air-fuel miiture
fuel Injection (S.P.F.I.) system, only one centrally located
in to the engine. fuel injector is used to supply/spray fuel tO all cylinders.
(vi) Air inlet temperature sensor mounted on intake M.P.F.I. system is the ultra modem technology which
manifolds to sense the temperature of inlet air and is used in modem automobile engines. In the beginning, this
. . system was developed only for aeroplane engines, but now
helps to adjust air-fuel ratio. this system is widely used in light vehicles. This system is
(vii) Carmhaft position sensor mounted on camshaft which the combination of electrical, electronics, computer and
mechanical science. ·
senses the rotation of camshaft and adjusts the fuel
Daewoo Matiz is the first vehicle equipped with
injection timing. ~P.F.I. system in Indian automobile indmtry.
(viii) Humidity sensor located on intake manifolds to M.P.F.I. system uses pressure from an electric fuel
measure humidity of intake air. pump to spray fuel into engine intake manifold. It provides
correct A.F. ratio at all operating conditions of the engine.
(ix} Knock sensor mounted on cylinder head to detect The suction pressure of that engine is used to spray fuel into
. . .
detonation. engine in this system unlike carburettors in which engine
vacuum is used to feed the fuel.

--·---- - --- --- - - - - - - - - --

 .· ~
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~ l.C. En Ines (MU·Sem. V-Mech} 2-20 Si Engines (Fuel Su S S, lgnitiOn &

er M.P.F.I. system has folfowlng main

.·.'
components
,,
1. A computer call~ EJ~~onic· Cont~I unit (EClf):
Jt controls the ign.ition tiDllllg and quahty of fuel lo
. be
injec~.
I,,!" ' ' . A set of sensors to monitor ambient, COOiant illd
2
Intake
inanlfold
exhaust gas temperatures, exhaust 0 2 content, infakt
Intake . pressure, throttle positi~n, speed etc.
port
3. A solenoid injector .= The general layout of MP,p.J.
system is shown in Fig: 2.13.1.
In the fig. 2.13.l, a single injector is mounted on~
intake port of each cylinder. Fuel is sent under pressure by
the fUel pump from fuel tank. The fuel is distributed to C<lcb
of the injectors. Fuel injection is carried out simultaneously
in each injector once in every rotation. This is shown in
Fig. 2.13.l by variou~ stages ~.e. stages (1) to (4).
Intake Intake .
manifold

-
valve
s;;:::::;f:::;;:::::~::;;:::=:o~~ 2.14 Classification of M.P.F.I. System
.___J- Cyltlder heads
(b): Stqe2 The M.P.F.I. system is classified into two types :

Classification of
M.P.F.I. System
-AJr
i) D-M.P.F.I. system - ___...--"

1
ii) L-M.P.F.I. system

Fig. C2.8: Classification of .M .P.FJ. System

Intake Intake
valve manifold
2.14.1 D-M.P.F.I. System
Intake
port
..
This system is the manifold fuel injection system

In this system, the vacuum in the intake manifold is

I

I i first sensed.
I -Air
In addition, it senses the volume of air by its density.
I
'. ~
The block diagram of D-M.P.F.I. system is shown in
•,' ·
Fig. 2.14.l.

As air enters into the intake manifold, the pressure

Intake Intake
valve sensor detects the vacuum and sends information to the
manlfokl
ECU.
Cylinder heads The speed sensor also sends signal about RPM of the
(d): St.ge4 engine to the ECU.
Fig. 2.13.1 : General layout of M.P.F.I. system

\ 1

Se.:lnncd with C.:.mScarmcr

 . . 'ti' & eombustion
MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2·21 S.I. Engines (Fuel Su I S s, fgni on .

2.15 Advantages and Disadvantages of ·

M.P.F.I. System

~ Advantages
· . l.ed to each
1. More unifonn A.F mixture will be supp 1 •
10
cylinder, hence the difference in power developed.
intake each cylinder is minimum. Vibration from the engtn~
0
rnantfold equipped with this system is less, due to this life
engine components is improved. .
2. No need to crank the engine twi~ or thrice in case of
cold starting as happens in the carburettor system.
3. Provides immediate response in case of sudden
acceleration/deceleration.
4. Since the engine is controlled by ECU (Engine Control
Fig. 2.14.1: D-M.P.F.I. system Unit), more accurate amount of A.F mixture will be
supplied and as a result complete combustion will ~e
. . L·M.P.f.I. System place. This leads to effective utilization of fuel supplied
2 14 2 and hence low·emission level.
_ This system is a port fuel-injection system. 5. Power developed by the engine is better compared to
In this system the fu~l metering is regulated by the carburetion system.
engine speed and the amount of air that actually enters 6. Specific fuel consumption is· 1ow and mileage of the
vehicle improves.
the engine.
7. Provides better volumetric efficiency due to fewer
_ 1be block diagram of L-M.P.F.I. system is given in restrictions in the intake system.
Fig. 2.14.2.
rr Disadvantages
_ As air enters into the intake manifold, the air flow
. sensor measures the amount of air and sends the signal 1. System is costly.
to the ECU and the speed sensor sends the signal of 2. System· needs elaborate arrangement requiring large
RPM to ECU. number of components and sub-systems.

_ 1be ECU in turn sends the signal to ·the injector, in

order to regulate the amount of gasoline to be injected
into the manifold. Ignition Requirements and It's Function

. '
Air
2.16 Introduction to Ignition
Requirements of S.I. Engines
Intake.....,_......,.~
manifold rr Definition of angle of spark adyance

Gasoline

sensor
Fig. 2.14.2 : L-M.P.~.I. system

Sc.:mncd witli C::i ~ncr

 ·.:1
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..:
~ . 2-22 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supp S s, Ignition & Combt ..... _ ,·!,
W l.C. Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) ~"Oil

. ·1'

Io order to initiate a self sustaining flame front in the

combustion chamber, it is necessary that the spark must
~feet the burning of few molecules of the charge,
· change its chemical state and release chemical energy.
This .chemical energy released is further transferred to Based on the above discussion, the basic ignjtioq
the neighbouring molecules an~ their ignition is further requirements can be listed as follow~ ;

,···
. . initiated.
1. I t should have source of electrical energy.
' The burning of require~ molecules to produce a flame A method of producing high voltage from the source to
2.
front depends upon the gap between the electrodes of produce a spark across the electrod~s of the spark plug '

~
d yet limit the current flow to mcrease the life Of ' .
spark plug and the intensity of spark.
spark plug. The usual voltage requirements ·are between
Therefore, the basic requirement of the ignition system
8000
v to 20000 V depending upon the compression ,
j~ to supply the minimum necessary energy to the spark
ratio and operating conditions of the engine..
to initiate the combustion of fuel so that the flame is 3. . A system is necessary to supply high voltage to each
established in the combustion chamber under all spark plug at the correct timing in each cylinder of
operating conditions. multi cylinder engines. A distributor is used for this
pwpose. ·
It is observed that a spark to jump across an air gap
4. An adjustment of spark advance with variation of load
between two electrodes lmm apart, a voltage 3000 Vis
on the engine and its speed.
necessazy under atmospheric conditions.
s. The intensity of sparksupplied should be sufficient to
This voltage to produce a spark across the electrodes initiate combustion between the specified limits
depends upon the resistance offered to flow of current because too high intensity may bum the electrodes and
between the electrodes. Therefore, the voltage too Jow intensity may not ignite the mixture proJ:>erlY to

requirements for producing the spark depends upon the sustain a flame.

gap between the electrodes, the density of charge which 2~ 16.2 Types of Ignition Systems
further depends upon the compression ratio and the
Types of
suction conditions of fresh charge and the air-fueJ Ignition Systems
ratios.
(l) Battery-coil ignition system
It is observed that within the range of A.F. ratio o{ 12:1 -
(ii) Magneto ignition system
to 15:1 which are normally used in S.1' engines, a spark
energy of 10 kl is sufficient to start the combustion (lll)'Electronic Ignition system

process. Fig. C2.9 : Types of Ignition Systems

These systems will be dealt in details subsequently.

- - - - - -- - - - - - - -- ---- ----- --- l

----------------------------~
rfil .Engines . , ..' 'ti & eombti~tion) :
_ (MU~Sem. V-Mech) .
',
~1.c.
2-23:··. S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys, lgm on -
,-:
-
.

Syllabus Topic : Battery Ignition System - Function and Working Contact Breaker Point

Ignition CXlil Seoondlwy

...

Fig. 2.17.1: Battery-roil igrution system

Most of the S.L engines use the battery and coil ignition system of contact breaker type shown in Fig. 2.17.1.

The ~tial components of battery ignition system are : -+ (i) Battery

Components of The required electrical energy for functioning of the
battery Ignition
system is provided by a battery of 6 or 12 volts.
(i) Battery It acts as accumulator and it is charged by a dynamo
driven by the engine.
(ii) Ignition coil wi1h a ballast resistor
Due to electrochemical reaction, the battery is able to
convert chemical energy into electrical energy.
{ful Ignition switch
The battery must be mechanically strong to withstand
[rv) Conact breaker the strains to which it is constantly subjected.

(v) Condenser
Two types of batteries are used for S.I. engines,
namely, the lead acid batteries suitable for light
(Vil Distributor commercial vehicles and the alkaline batteries
suitable for heavy duty vehicles.
Fig. C2.10 : Components of battery ignition
 " ..,
"'·
......

, I nltlon & ~.~ -_

M I.e. En Ines MU·Som. V·Mech 2·24 S.I. En lnos Fuol Su

operated for long period• 111 low speeds or In CllAc Ilic '.
breaker remains Jn closed position. ,
The ballast rcslNtor is made of iron. It• clectrit{d .
resit;uincc incrca-.cs r11pidly after a certain temperature .
is reached.
Due to the addilion11f resistance in the primary circuit, it :
holds the primary current down to safe value. However,
Fig. 2.17.2: Cell connccilon tor J2 V baUery during tJie cold sUllting of the engine this resistor is by .
A lend acid battery consisrs of number of cells passed to aJJow more primary current to flow in the
connected in series. prirtUll}' circuit.

Ench cell produces a pressure of 2 volts when fully H.T. To dilltlbutor

coll
charged Fig. 2.J 7.2 shows how the six cells of a 12 Y To Ignition switch To contact breaker
battery are coupled together in series. For their series Contact brealter (C.B.)
SWltch ~re (S.W.J letmlnalto
connection, the positive of one cell is connected to terminal to contact braaker
lgnlUon swtlCh
negative of the next cell and so on.

-+ ·(U) Ignition coll with 11 ballast resistor

The ignition coil shown in Fig. 2.17.3 consists of soft

iron strips bound together by an insulating material
which acts as a central core.
The core has primary winding made of thick enamelled (a} JgnitJon coll with ballast resistor
. wire having JOO to 200 turns while the secondary
winding is formed by the relatively very thin insulated
wire having about 20000 turns. This entire unit is
. assembled in a sheet metal container and forms a neat
compact unit.

On the top of the coil assembly is a heavily insulated

terminal block which supports three terminals.
(b) Ballast resistor
Two smaller tenninal blocks marked S. W. (switch Fig. 2.17.3: Ignition coil with blast resistor
wire) and C.B. (cont.act breaker) are coupled to primary
winding. S. W. is Connected to ignition switch and the ~ (lii)lgnition switch
C.B. is connected to contact breaker, condenser and the Battery is connected to primary winding of ignition coil
cam as shown in Fig. 2.17.3. through an ignition switch and ballast resistor.
With the help of ignition switch the ignition system can
The secondary winding is connected tn H.T. (high
be turned on or off at will.
tension) central terminal to the central terminal of the
distributor. ~ (iv) Contact breaker

A ballast resistor is provided in series with primary Contact breaker is a mechanical device for making and
breaking the primary circuit of the ignition coil as
winding as shown in Fig. 2.17.3(b) to regulate the
shown in Fig. 2.17.4.
primary current. It helps in preventing the damage to
the sp~k coil from overheating in case the engine is
~­
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~ ,.. r:..gines (MU-Sem. V-Mech)
1.v·""'
2-25. s.1. Engines (Fuel ~u~i:>rv Sys; ignition·& ~mb~stic>~· ·
r · ~..,;na • . . I

[· r .. ;..s,.,.-·~ Qr ·
Working
.I' . The workiiig of the ~ysterii is ·~ follows :
r
: · · · · ·· ·· " · · ects
f ·. - The ignition swit.ch provided connects and disconn
Movable point
fro~ the batter}' so .tb;u"·~e. engine
0

FiXed point
the ignition system
. ' ~ '. , I '

c~ be._started or stopped at will. .

Whe~ the ignition switch is on, the contact breaker
pointS are closed. This all~WS the c~rrent to . fl~W 'fro11l
. . . ' . . . " . ·.'. . . ii
. . ~attery through primary winding of the ~gruu~n co
Fig. 2.17.4: Breaker point
' and· back' to battecy thro~gh 'earthiiig (fraIIle of. the
. . . ' . . .
·ec;nsisCS of a fixed metal point of hard metal,' usually engine).
Jt • • be . .
f tungsten. This pomt ars .against another metal
It dev~lops a magnetlc field across the primarY win~g ..
~int which is on .a spring loaded pivoted arm..
and lnduces ~ b~~k · e.m.f. which _oppo~s· the bat,terr
f.aCh con~t ~int has a circular. flat face of 3 mm current. The effe~t is to slowly build up the current in
, di~eter_ each. . . the ·primary winding and delays the .building up' of
When the contact breaker po~ts .~ closed, the electric .magnetic field.
' ciJlYCDt flows and when they are open, the circuit is
A voltag~ is always induced m". the s~ondary winding
broken and the flow of current stops. ·
<0 but the e.m.f. is too low to produce a spar~ at the spark, ,
... (v} eooden.ser plug.

It consists of ·sheets of metal foil separated by an When we· w~t a spark i~ the engine, the break~r point ·
inSuJating material (e.g. mica) placed face to face. . is operted by the c~- fitt~~-~~:distributfil :-~~ This
opens the p~ ~i;cuit.. ~d
, the~~agn~_tic..field
. in the
ane sheet of metal foil is · connected to condenser ...- ,•

primary coil collapses. .

. taminal. next to th~ metal case of the condenser and so
The resulting induced current still flows in the same
on alternatively.
direction as the· batteri . ~urrent and lt ch~g~s the
1be condenser terminal is connected to one side of I '

condenser.
contact breaker and the· casing to the other side of
The flow of current is reversed when the .battery
contact breaker and usually earth so that the condenser
voltage ~?mes less .· than the. voltage. across the
remains in parallel with the contact breaker.
condens_er plates. · . .
.. (vi) Dimibutor
The quick reversal of current in the primary winding .
- The distnoutor includes the contact breaker points and reverses the magnetic fi~ld .in the coil_causing a very .
the mechanism for automatically advancing or high voltage to be induced in the secondary winding
retarding the sparlc timing in accordance with the depending upori. the ratio of number of turns of the ·
engine speed for optimum power to be developed by , secondary to the primary winding. This induced voltage
the engine. is of the order of8 kV to 20 kV.
.·
a Function •'
When the contact breaker in the primary circuit is
/
/
/ opened, the distributor rotor connects with a contact to
' ..
- The function of the distributor is to distribute high the spark plug and this high induced voltage jumps
·tension current to the individual spark plugs as the rotor
across the air gap of the spark plug producing a spark.
presses it, the contact breaker opens, in the correct
. sequence (firing order) at the correct time.

Scanned with CamScanner

 • ..
·~.:"'i,
. . . ;t_.

• Ignition & Combu~ :

~ l.C. E~glnes (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-26
S.I. Engines (Fuel SuPel S

Syllabus Topic : .Magneto Ignition System :~

~ (vii) Condenser el!'ect Functions and Working ·

As the contact breaker points separate in the distributor,

the flow of current from the battery through the 2.18 Magneto Ignition System --.......:
primary w_inding of the coil is intenupted. ~ (MU - May 13, Dec. 1
, _ . , ...
, I •,,w~ l•~-' ' :< .,._·-v.-x;;••~,,_..,...
/' / • ,f

- ~~~.!~ ~r ·":,,....)~ .-t{./.~'<f'.hJ. ~, -: :.vltt-1..,.: ',;4(;

3)
Instantly th.e magnetic field begins to collapse and this "L§•ff[44tf.Ut:J
·Wi'n, .., ... - . --- ·~· ·#··,,i(/.·~J-:·:--. fr"·'f/ ~- tiP{~',\~~!:.~,._
/":~,.~-. :,..• .:,:.. •~11; ... ~:~... "1.., .. ,
collapse attempts to re-establish the flow of current. ·:·a,.~;~;,(1·w
·.(·ri
" te h,o..rt~ '~oti 0,;s·"Magneto·1gn1t1ori
:. \ ~.... •· ' v.t<,•'
'T
·-sYsf' •i<I'(>!- "/'l.,)o<"

~ the condenser is not provided, the current would be ~:.' :,.;r' f(~://; .~;.{f..: :.~./~--~~/'(:(:-:·~;:;~:/::~?,;:·ft;-,
~:,;: :;::i.\i;"_-,_::~w:1;th
,E;xpu;u .. ·>n·~~~t·~k~i6hJ~':tti-e~:Woikl,
\'''/( 'l'n.~iti
;.
ili](of'
re-established which would result into a heavy arc I
('/ - ·'{,f /.f'' ~' ,,! /~ •, v:< .t ,' "•
c •'' / •?/.,;(,;/l,/•./.,F, ;V1>;<.;"
~ d -;./'·f
'f •0. • .< I,,.. ;><: .. _;.
co~Y.~i"
c ,,. , ;
,/;
{;·~~
""-" "'·""' \'·-(:1 1 •• neto' ·•Qn ont- an .,
~itiory; ~ .. ::~9 ,,, ,,·;;v-~,. ..,,.,_,.,,t~ ;p;t:;/:;,:.v./;~:e<-'¥~ ~0~1~:
across the separating contact brerucer points and the -<'·'!~:;..;: ' es'·-f,~<,.ii;;;t:;,i.<0'
;g
,1,i· ·
CfVanta .. :X:v··d"dlsa
·"·-res an "'dvan· ta '"' • ~~ ,,,..,,•.",.'< • • ""
energy of the ignition coil will be consumed by the arc.
This may bum the contact breaker points. The magneto is a generator of an electric current

The condenser prevents the arcing across the contact The magneto is driven by the engine.

breaker points and prolongs its life. In this system. the magneto replaces. all the components
of coil ignition system except the spark plug.
r:r · Functions of condenser
A magneto may either give low tension or high tension.
(i) To minimise arcing and pitting of contact breaker
Usually, high t.ension magneto syst.ems are used in the
points. .
engines.
(ii) To intensify the spark.
A magneto when rotated at high speed by the engine is
2.17.1 Advantages and D.l sadvantages of capable of generating high voltages which is sufficient
Battery Coll Ignition System to overcome the resistance of air gap of spark plug and
therefore produces a spark.
r:r Advantages
A magneto consists of an armature built up of
1. It is cheap. laminated soft iron plat.es and wound with insul~ted
2. It provides better spark at low speeds. copper wire and a laminated soft iron pole pieces
3. Variation of ignition timing can be achieved easily attached to permanent magnets.
without affecting the spark intensity.
er Types of magneto system
4. Maintenance cost is negligible except for battery.

5. It is used in car and buses. Types of magneto system

~ Disadvantages
(a) Rotating magneto type
l. It is heavy due to battery and occupie~ more space.
(b) Rotating armature magneto type
2. Provides weaker spark as the speed of the engine
' '. . increases since the primary voltage decreases with (c) Polar magneto type
increase in speed.
Fig. C2.11 : Types of magneto system
I 3. The engine cannot be started if the battery is
'i
./ discharged. ~ (a) Rotating magneto type
I
4.
/
J
Maintenance cost of battery is high. In rotating magneto type, the armature is stationary
and the magnet revolves. The advantage o( this system
I is that it is not subjected to centrifugal forces.

Scanned w ith CoimSconner

 . &combustion) _.
rff1 S.I. En Ines (Fuel Supply 5 5 • 1 nltion

..
Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-27
lS12.i 1.c. .
.· · tatine annature magneto type (c) Polar magneto type
-t (I>~ flo . . th the annature and
tatinl armature magne~ type, the armature In the polar magneto ~ bo .
Ill ro . f 1 ieces rotate.
l
revo v~~~s~be~tw~ee~n~tb~e~po~les~o~th~e~ma~gn~et'.:_~~~~.L.~~ma~~n~e~to~ar~e~stati~·o~n~ary~an~d~tb~e~po~e!p::::=---~~--­
al components of the syste"'
EtS8ntl .
ti' · · gneto type.
.
. fig. 21
.
s.t shows the schematic diagram of a high tension magneto ignition system of rotaung ma .

-~

·' CBiTi
"::' E
Armature .

Rotating magnet
· · (001y 2 pole·~ .sh~)

Contact
breaker

I
Condenser '(\Ignition Primary ex>il
J_ ~ SWitch Secondary ex>il

-:- E -:- E -:;- E

Fig. 2.18.1 : Magneto ignition system

It has the following essential parts : In this system, as the magnet revolves a rapid change of
(i) An electrical generator with permanent field magnets magnetic flux in coil takes place.
and rotating armature which produces an alternating
current Magneto flux varies from a positive maximum to

(ii) An induction coil with primary and secondary windings

-negative max.inium and back again. This rapid·variation.
being wound on the armature. of magnetic field induces a current in the· primary
(iii) A contact breaker to interrupt the generator primary winding of the coil.
circuit and the condenser.
However this rate of change of flux is not rapid enough
(iv) A distributor to distribute high ·tension current to spark
plugs. to induce high voltage requked for sparking. Therefore
for rapid breakdown of magnetic flux, the breaker
"" Working points and the condenser are proyided into the circuit as
- The principle of working of this system is similar to in case of battery coil ignition system.
battery-coil ignition ·system explained earlier except When the current in the primary circuit reaches its peak
that the magnetic field in the primary and secondary value, the contact breaker points are opened by m~ans
windings is produced by a rotating permanent magnet of cam mounted on the magneto shaft. Now the circuit ·
in the armature. operates in the same way as the battery-coil ignition
systeDL
 .
- " ·~
-·:.-·,
' .. : .
.; ·,_·>·,~
~ I.e. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) · 2-28
. - . .

· S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition & Cornbtist1?.m.\ -' .

i •. • . : -_,-~ . ;.

er .Appllcatlon of magneto Ignition system Fig. 2.19.1 shows ~e variation of break~r cwre~t .Vs_'_··.
1· · It is
. used m
· racmg
· car and aeroplane engines since the speed of the engine for the battery ignition ' and · _.·
I

: . l magneto system provides a strong spark at high speeds. magneto ignition systems.
.. · I
~ i 2. It is preferred in two wheelers because of its low It can be seen from Fig. 2.19.1.' that the maximum
! weight and low maintenance. current at break occurs at about 1000 sparks per minute .
in case of 12 y battery ignition system.
I 2.18.1 Advantages of Magneto System
·I
I In case of magneto system, the current generated is low .
l I. Less maintenance
I at low starting speed and as the speed of the engine
I
l 2. Light in weight and occupies less space
'' increases the flow of current also increases. Due to this,
I
3. Provides high intensity spark at high speeds. there is always a difficulty in starting the engine With
. : r
' 4. System is reliable.
this systems.

2.18.2 Disadvantages of the High Tension At times. a separate battery is needed to obviate· the
Magneto System problem of starting. Since the magneto system is
I. Since wirings carry high voltage current, there is a suitable at high speeds, it is used in racing cars, aircraft
strong possibility of leakage which may cause misfiring engines etc. This system is though c~stly compared to
of engine. ignition coil sy;tem but it is highly reliable.
2. The system· requires extensive shielding to prevent
leakage of high voltage current.
·. ·;I
3. At low speeds it develops poor quality of spark at the
;
I
I
time of starting.
.I Because of the above disadvantages, there is an attempt
j I

ii! to develop low tension magneto system in which the

secondary winding is changed to limit tbe secondary voltage

,i to a value 350-400 V and the distributor is replaced by a ·2000 4000 6000

I
I brush contact. The high voltage is obtained with the help of Sparks per minute
I

I step up transformer. All these changes. have affect of

Fig. 2.19.1 : Breaker current Vs Speed
limiting the high voltage current in only a small portion of
· ignition system _wiring and avoids the possibility of engine . Because of the poor starting char3cteristics of the
misfire due to leakage. magneto system and due to the fact that voltage

Comparison of Battery Ignition System generated is affected by the changes in spark. timings,
and Magneto Ignition System invariably the battery ignition coil ·js preferred over ·
magneto system in case of automobiles.
2.19 · Comparison between Battery Coil
and Magneto Ignition Systems

+ (MU· Dec.17)
. MU-Som. V·Moch 2·2D
~ 1.c.En
1088
.
· 1900 t)Otwoon bnttery~ll lgntUon and Lowtr mt.lil1 limc between f aitures.
,,. cot11P8"
gnoto lgnltlOh--eyatem•
. J •. a( (icqueot

~~.COU
"" ..-·-
To ovcrromc .11.bovc dtffku Od
muJntcm1nce or brwct cootacU.
.
. ~~· c>f po-•ct"
· • . tiugcd eu:..
~

srr'.:. . :. ,,! ..·.u-cto . . ·. ·.~-

. .Jpltlon -.M.-&lltt~.lgnfJJ(m .
.: ' efficiency, ~lllr1ing dlfficuldet if b:dtay as dlie
. .· . ·. - .;
J-;fces
~ ' r. I' ,' solid Jta/.I' uc--
~ .... '
#
. thr modem m1tomohllu uu IM 1() 1QM>il18 ·
\
~~rovides high It provide ti low for 11:11/tlon .ay1ttm.
1. sity spark 111 low intcn11ity tipark ul low
inlCJl· . · Typn of aoUd stM.o
spCCl1~
. uml low 1ntens1ty i;pccds and high
· k ul high speed!! of interniity spark al high
dwlcea for Jgntuon aylt.Mn
spar .

[_.-
z. ---
tho engine.
It needs excessive
nutintcnancc of hallcry
system.
!ipecds.

It docs not n~ any

maintenance since the
battery is elimfoatcd.
(f)

(Ii)
Tra.n~l!.ed coJ i!Jr-1'.iOO ~ (TC1 ~)
Capacity D~ l~ u~JltTl (COt e_r-!em) '

i.-- .....----- . Fig. C2.12 : Types o( solid state devkes (or ignltloo
3, system 1s less reliable System is more system
compared to magneto reliable compared lo
system. battery coil system.
Syllabus Topic : TransJstorized coll Asalsted
~Cost of system is low.
i-- Ignition System
Cost of system is high.
4.
~
System is lighter in
5. System is heavier due to 2.20.2 Transistorised Coll Ignition (TCI)
battery weight. weight. For this reason
it is preferred for System
aero-engines.
..- TCI system has now almost replaced tbe conventional
6. Variation of ignition Variation of ignition
timing can be achieved timing battery ignition system for automobile applications.
cannot be
easily without affecting achieved easily This system has been found to offer decided advant:iges
the spark intensity. without affecting the
in handling the increasing voltage required for high
spark intensity.
~
performance of the engines, longer spark plug life.
1. It occupies more space. Occupies less space. reduced wear, maintenance of ignition system and high
- reliability.
Syllabus Topic : Electronic Ignition Systems
r;jf- Components and Working of TCI system
2.20 Electronic Ignition System Fig. 2.20. l shows the schematic diagram of TCl system
which retains the contact breaker point of the
+ (MU - May 12)
conventional design.
Universit Question
In this case the contact points are connected to the base
of transistor which is further, coruiected to the primary
windings of the ignition coil. Therefore, in this method
2.20.1 Limitations of Conventional Ignition the current flow in the primary circuit, through the
System
contact points is reduced to approximately 1/10th of the
- Pitting of contact breaker points leads to time errors original value o~ a conventional system.
and consequently the loss of power. It results into
frequent maintenance problems.
- Bouncing of the moving arm of CB points at high
speeds leading to weaker sparks. ·
- Lower spark voltage at high speeds.

Scanned w ith CamScanner

in: ,~, ,

I"·'\
J
" I , '

:-:1
I' 1 1

' i

~.I.e. En Ines MU·Sem. V·Mech

i .•

2-30 S.I. Engines (Fuel suppl S s, I nltion & CombiJ811~·L,

Soooodlly Winding
5 llabus Topic : contact TCI system With " -.
Y contactless Breaker · · . " ·

" Primary wi1dtng

2 1 TCI system with Contactless
2.20.•
~~y
twtldl
1 f
Ballast
raslllor Breaker .,'•
(R 1)
· ·.The advantag~s of using an electronic switch in Place ·
' I
t
I
Blltely
+
= Emil!«
(E)

Tranlll•lor
·ofmechanical contact breaker are: . . .
(i) There is no erosion and wear due to absence of any
. .

'
contacts.
(ii) Accurate ~p~k timing is available at all operating ,
CO!locto.-
(C) speeds.
(iii) It is maintenance free. . , ·
(iv) Build up time for the ig?ition coil. can be Varied by .
changing the dwell pen~ to suit the conditions.
Fig. 2.20.1: Transistor Coll Ignition (TCI) System Advantage is that we get ~gb ene~gy output from coil
at high speed without h~vmg any nsk of HT erosion at

______..,
In thi$ system, the emitter (E) of the transistor is low speeds. ·
connected to the ignition coil through ballast The layout of the contactless breaker system is shown
resistor (R 1) and the collector (C) to the battery. in Fig. 2.20.2.

When the C.B. points open, the base circuit is disrupted

and the current in the primary circuit decays causing
the nonnal induction operation.
However, the base circuit being much smaller as •' . .·.. ');~~

compared to the primary current, it reduces the ~~l~~jtJij

Ignition Distributor
magnitude of current flow in the C.B. points switch assembly'
.I considerably.
It improves the life of C.B. points. The current build up
is faster as the inductance of primary ?Oil is reduced.
Solid st.Ste central module
er Advantages of TCI system
Fig. 2.20.2 : Layout of TCI System With Cootactless
'1
1. Higher ignition voltage and a long duration of spark Breaker
2. Reduced wear of C.B. points. It has the distributor unit which is similar . to
conventional system except that it is provi~ with an
3. Consistency of spark voltage over the entire speed electronic switch called a pulse generator. This electronic
range switch replaces the contact breaker of TCI system
4. Increased dwell and less contact bounce. The pulse generator of solid state control module
generates an electrical pulse to signal when the spark is
c:r Disadvantages of TCI system required. Therefore, this control module makes and breaks
electronically the primary current for the ignition coil by
1. Sxstem requires the contact breaker points of the amplifying and processing the signals received from the
conventional system for timing the spark. However, the pulse generator.
wear of C .B. points is reduced due to low breaker In addition, the solid state control module senses the
currenL speed of the engine from the pulse frequency and
accordingly it varies the dwell time according to the speed
2. The maximum speed of engine is governed by the of the engine.
limitations of contact breaker mechanism. System can use various types of pulse generator like
inductive pulse generator developed by Bosch, Hall pulse
generator which works on the principle of hall effect etc.
 2-31 S.I. En Ines Fuel Su

-
·- . .. , ...
-~ ~ .

..

-=-Battery
+

~E
Fig. 2.20.3 : Capacity Discharge lgnitJon (CDI) System

- 1be condenser i~--~harged to this output voltage of the starting of engine.

converter throu~h the charging resistance._ 6. Secondary induced voltage is independent of engine -1
_ 1be resistance is so designed that it controls the· speed (refer Fig. 2.20.5), therefore probability of
required current in the silicon controlled rectifier (SCR) engine misfiring even with fouled spark plugs is
and it also increases the damping in the spark plug. eliritlnated.
3
1be condenser is discharged when the SCR triggering
........
device sends a pulse and produces a high voltage in the ci.
secondary which subsequently jumps across the air gap ! 2
between the electrodes of the spark plug producing a
I '
' spark. ~

0
2.20.4 Advantages of Electronlc System over 1 2 3 4 6
.. Conventional System Engine speed x 1000 rpm

The advantages of electronic ignition system over Fig. 2.20.4 : Comparison of current drawn between
eonventional battery coil ignition system are.: conventional and CDI systems
COi system
1. Avoids contact break points and their frequent
maintenance.
2. Gives better cold starting ~ince the syst~m draws high
current at low speed and low current at high speed, just
. the reverse of conventional system.
3. System provides constant- voltage to spark plug at all
· speeds.
4. .Improves the efficiency of the engine.
S. Current drawn from battery is less at low speeds and Engine spee_d x 1000 rpm
. increases with the increase in speed. of the engine as
·shown in Fig. 2.20.4. It improves the low speed Fig. 2.20.5: Comparison of secondary voltage induced
between conventional and CDI systems
efficiency of ignition system and allows easy cold

Scanned with CamScanner

 r-.

";k"\?J;:i;1.c;·;E~n~gl~ne~s~M~U=-S~e~m~.~V-=M~e=ch~);::=;::;;:::;::d
Syllabus Topic: Spark Plug l:'./
2~-3~2~x.~
\~\ -\=~. S ~ . I ~ .
e ; n ~ g ~ l n ~ e s ~ F ~ u e ~ l ~ S
6
~ u~:s~s·:':n:lt~lo~n~ & ~ C ~ o ~ m ~ b u ~ s ~ u ~
Fig': 2.21.l(n) shows the cross-section ofa spark plug.
,.

It consists of central porcelain insulator through Which ·

2.21 Spark Plugs an electrode pn5ses. ,.

~ (MU· May 1&) it has external contact at the top to wire from ign.ition
Universit Question ,
'f"
r .. " ; ;;~. ~ •, ,'' • ,• • •.· '
, ..'· coil.
' r.. ~··· .. .~) ~\' ·' . . . . . : ' ··.. ; . . ,, ·...
:.~;:~:~)Y.hat ~.r~:tha 'reqUlfem~ntS for spark plu'g·7·" There is metal screw which is fastened into the cylinder
·~)~"~ ~..--:::·... ~.
.. ~ .. .. ......· --~~·~; .:· { :-.. . ~.. '~ '
head. ~ .........
· Insulator and the metal screw arc gas tight sealed.

rA-o.---- Poroelaln "'" Definition of spark gap

.Insulator
:on ..the -. bf?ttom. ·of·~tal ;sc~ew ,:a.·:.inetai
w
~~--Central electrode
DEFlKITIOll
;to~ is~elded..IJ!h~ch:is. ~~nt a~ l~.s JUsi
,.belotf ~~· ~entral ~~~~r,~°1;,.;~:'f //'M:z~ ~(lP.
Gas tight seal called sp<:irk gap. · . .' " . .. · ,. . ,,.-· #:, '< .
The spark plugs are designed to ~ater for various
____________ls r1< requirements of the engine. to give good spark. The
I.!:::::== ~----------J pa gap significant parameters are :
Metal tongue (i) Two or four stroke engine
(a) Spark plug
(ii) Compression ratio
(iii) Cylinder head design and location of spark plug

(iv) Mixture density

(v) Speed of engine
(vi) Cooling arrangements
(vii) Octane value of fuel.

'?:9.. Function
Insulator (Ceramic)
Its function is to receive high voltage ignition current
from secondary coil of ignition system and. to supply
Sealing compound spark to combustion chamber of engine cylinder which
jumps across its electrodes.
Special
conductive Rust resistant
2.21.1 Types of Spark Plugs
seal sheD
Center Spark plugs are classified as :
Captive gasket
eleclrode
I. Hot spark plug 2. Cold spark plug
I
Readl
Internal seal
(Gasket)
The above classification is based on the operating

Location-
L Insulator nose
(Core nose)
temperature at the tip of electrodes.

r- ~::::====E--- Spark gap r:r Definition of cold plug

spacing
Ground electrode
DEW
FlNITI
JJ~" ;~;~~~(P!.#c :o/:~i(a ~$fo<;-r{ dnU" ilitcii:'C:~ilirdi
(b) t J
""'
~electrode ci:nJ··ms!!
. 'fl..·?.' • ,;,,,~·: ,y,,
· ;:'z""'tr~:',~·-"·1
·'1'~~"*n·~~·'4".''' ·.:~,,.;:r:,:
Cl. or. w~ ir,un(·c®ler.,. an<l.
·'t •'• / k"'f '"·},,"
,:.
Fig. 2.21.1 ~::. • '.').">";:} ,,-,,,~ t (.f..\"1 ;;t,; o,f. ' f,>''.~!-1'-.·-"((j rilY).'i'i '~-../. '(.
·J' is· · nown aircoldp. lug .f ':i"';'.::c·,.:,/.t:~~ .;«'9~: 1!if
·•'-<'\•
· · ·· · . r·t.·,.~(~·~.:;l"ft:>- ·f ~1~~~~J

$conned with Ca mScanner

 - · . . & Combustion
·~ t.C. En ines (MU-Sem..V-Mech . 2•33 S.I. En ines (Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition
. Id be. rovided such
p,

It requires that spark advance sbou

. . bo t 50.100 after .
that the peak pressures occur at a u . · .
. d "tb ·a mechanism
t·.' ' TDC.Most of the engines are fitte WI · -
- d'
which is the integral part of the is utn'b tor to regulate
.

The temperature .at the tip of electrode .depends :upon the optimum spark advance.
the magnitude of beat transferred which in- tum The two mechanisms used f~r this purpose ~e : :
depends upon the length of heat transfer, path and the
area exposed to combustion heat. . Claaslflcatlon of spark
advance mechanism
The bot and cold spark · plugs are shown in
Fig. 2.21.2(a) and Fig. 2.21.2(b). (i) Centrifugal spark advance mechanism

A bot ronning spark plug has much lower rate of heat (Ii) Vacuum spark advance mechanism
uansfer as compared to cold running spark plug.
Fig: Cl.13 : Cl~ification of spark advance i:nechanism
2.22.1 Centrifugal Spark Advance .M echanism

The speed advance is obtained by attaching the ~reaker

to weights as shown in Fig. 2.22.1.
I

As the engine speed increases, the movem~nt of

weights under centrifugal force advances the angular
(a) , (b)
position of the cam relative to the drive shaft.
Fig. 2.21.2 : Types of spark plugs
In this new position, the points open at an earlier time
A cold plug has short heat transfer path compared to
than before and therefore the spark is advanced.
bot plug as shown in Fig. 2.21.2(a). Thus a cold plug
will have short insulator tip compared to hot plug. It
avoids overheating of cold plug from combustio~ Fly weights
chamber.
~ Advantage of hot plug

Tue hot plug is used to avoid cold fouling when the

combustion temperatures are low during the idling and :cam
low load running of the engine.
~ Advantage of Cold plug

Cold p~ugs are suitable for high speed engines. lt

avoids pre-ignition in the engine.

Syllabus Topic: Spark Advance Mechanisms- Yoke

Requirements and Working, Mechanical and
Vacuum Type Mechanisms Fig. 2.22.1 : Centrifugal spark advance mechanism

2.22 Spark Advance Mechanism 2.22.2 Vacuum Spark Advance Mechanism

It bas already been discussed in section 2.17, that the Jn this mechanism, as shown in Fig. 2.22.2, the vacuum
spark advance (Refer Fig. 2.26.1) must be correctly advance is obtained by attaching the movable breaker
regulated automatically to ensure maximum power and plate to a diaphragm which is held . ill full retard
efficiency at varying loads and speeds. position by a s ring.

.~~-······---
scanM<I ....m c amsca!Y'lef
 "'"' =·•.rmm>"N"'Wlllllll
' ' ·· ' ..-r~,~~~·

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2-34 s.1. Engines (Fuel Sup Sys, Ignition & Comb "\,,l,~~~.
~ I.~
Firing Order and Effect of Ignition Advance .. ·• ,~:.
Movable breaker plate Performance of the Engine · . °!':!· . _
~ :',
2.23 Firing Order for 1.C. Engines : ~·:

er Definition of firing order of the engine ~"·

~
The main factor considered for deciding the order
Pipe llneto firing the engme· cyl"mders are the balancin or
Intake manlfoic:ls 'b . g Of
reciprocating parts to reduce v1 rations, engine cooling
Fig. 2.22.2: Vacuum spark advance mechanism and the development to back pressure.

The breaker plate is supported in bearings so that it can By balancing the rotary and reciprocating Parts, the
tum with respect to distributor housing. unbalanced forces and couples transniitted to be~,.;ft
-u1gs
The spring loaded side of the diaphragm is connected of the engine shaft are reduced. .Considering a four
cylinder in-line engine. If the firing order is kept in lin
through a vacuum line to the intake manifolds through . e
the carburettor. as .1. 2, 3, 4, .. .,the exhaust of cylinder 2 will overlap
with the exhaust of cylinder 1. It would need the size or
er· Working exhaust pipe bigger in size otherwise the back pressure
on engine cylinder will increase and reduce the net
The working of the ~ystem is as follows :
work output.
(i) In the idling position, there is no vacuum advance.
Thus the firing order of the engine is d~cided baSed on
(ii) As soon as the throttle valve opens, it swings past the
the above considerations. For a four cylinde~ engine the
opening of vacuum passage. The . intake manifold
firing order is usually kept as 1-3-4-2 or 1-2-4-3. The
vacuum can then draw air from the vacuum line and the
firing order 1-3-4-2 is more common in use.
air tight chamber in the vacuum advance mechanism.
Firing order for a six-cylinder in-line engine·used are:
This causes the di~phragm to move against the spring.
1-5-3-6-2-4, 1-5-4-6-2-3, 1-2-4-6-5-3 and 1-2-3-6-5-4.
The linkage to the breaker plate then rotates the breaker
The firing order 1-5-3-6-2-4 is commonly used.
plate. This movement carries the contact points around
so that the cam. as it rotates, closes and opens the 2.23.1 Effect of Ignition Advance on
points earlier in the cycle and .supplies spark at the Performance
spark plug earlier in the compression stroke. As the -+ (MU· May 15)
throttle valve opens wider, there will be less vacuum in
the intake manifold and less vacuum advance. At wide
open throttle, there will be no vacuum advance at all.
This will not be the case in the centrifugal advance
mechanism.
. Following are the effects of ignition advance on the
In most S.1. engines, advantage is taken of combination
performance of the engine.
of both the centrifugal and vacuum spark advance
1. Ignition advance must be such that the peak pressure
mechanisms.
occurs almost just after TDC (Refer section 2.29) to
obtain maximum power from the engine.

sennnOO with ComScann«

 ~ · En Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech 2·35 S.I. En Ines Fuel Su
0
~1-· •xwres .is quite
. rate specific fuel consumption · first decreases and The combustion problem of sueh JJlJ
Z• B . F'1g. 2.23.1.
tlJCD increases as shown m complex and intricate.
. h cam'ed out in case of
. 1'be angle 0 ~fore TDC at which bsfc is minimum is However, the researc es
combustion of homogeneous mixtures in spherical
called the optimum angle or advance. At this point the bomb by igniting the fuel by a spark at a point have
. tfJeJ'lllal efficiency of the engine is maximum.
shown that there is a development of a name defined
.
as gas rendered luminous by /'b 1· o' chemical
1 era ion ~
. · · ·( n and
energy, which starts from the pomt of JgDl JO
spreads continuously in outward direction.
H the flame travels from the point of ignition upto the
end of combustion chamber without any change in
-20• -1e· -12• -a· -4" o• . speed and shape, the combustion is said to be no.rmaL
(TDC)

Angle of spark advance '9' r:r Definition of auto-Ignition

3,
FJg.2.23.1

The angle of ignition advance must be used as

recommended by the manufactures. Increased spark
w
DUDaTIOll

advance increases the spark plug temperatures due to r:r Definition of self Ignition temperature
increased maximum pressure and temperatures. It may
result into pre-ignition and detonation in SJ. engines.
(Refer section 2.31).

The auto-ignition of fuel is affected by various factors

like density of charge (mixture of fuel and air); its
· Combustion Related Concepts and Brief on temperature and pressure, turbulence and the air-fuel
Mechanism of Combustion
ratio.

2.24 Combustion Related Concepts . and r:ir Definition of flame front

Definitions

- The internal combustion engines derive their energy in

the form of heat by combustion of homogeneous
mixture of fuel and air in the combustion chamber.
An enormous amount of research has been carried out,
r:ir Definition of Spatial velocity
both theoretical and experimental, regarding the
burning of this homogeneous mixture, but in actual
practice the mixture inside the cylinder is never
homogeneous.
- The reasons for such existent of heterogeneous
mixtures in the cylinder may be non-uniform It has two components viz. transformation velocity and
distribution of fuel and air in the combustion chamber gas velocity.
or due to ~e dilution of mixture by the left over Former is defined as the relative velocity of bum d
residual (burnt) gases in the clearance space of the gases with which the flame front moves from burned ~o
unburned gases and it is the velocity by which the
cylinder of its previous stroke or for other reasons.
unburned gases approach the burning zone.

Sconned with CamSconneJ

 _·.·. 5;1
. ·. ~;~;'!

' ..J/1
~ LC. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2·36 S.I. Engines {Fuel Supply Sys, Ignition.& .Comb~~~

According to this theo:, a self sus~g chetiticai.·;.

·process consists
.
of different . reactions
•
. in "'"' ..
'!!Ch .
intennediate products are ~ormed m one step and 1hesc
are destroyed in a succeeding step. · _-

The intennediate products formed .. are .Called c~ ·

The main constituents of most fuels are carbon (C) and
carriers which may be free atoms like (H or 0)• lllay
hydrogen (HJ and their burning involves the rapid
be free radicals like hyd~oxyl (OH) and aldehydcs
. oxidation of C to CO or C02 and of H 2 to H 20 . Usually
(CHO) or . organic compounds like formaidehyde .
the combustion processes talce place in gaseous phase. (HCHO). A chain action consists of three Phast.
The requirement for initiating a combustion process namely
'·
are the presence of a combustible mixture of air and
(i) Initiation phase ·
fuel, a means for initiating the combustion, the
· (ii) Propagation phase
fonnation of a flame and its propagation across the
combustion chamber. (ill) Termination phase.

During its initiation phase the chain carriers are folllled

2.25 A Brief on Mechanism of
as follows:
Combustion H 2 ~ 2H
~ (MU • Dec. 13) 02 ~ 20
Un1versit Question H20~0H:f-H
.a.:-
.' Above reactions may take place either due to molecular
collisions or thennal dissociation or excitation from an
The term mechanism of combustion refers to reaction
electric spark.
by which the fuel is transformed chemically to
During propagation phase the combustion of fuel takes
combustion products e.g. consider the combustion of
place with propagation of flame front and release of
octane (Cg Hui) in presence of air,
heat energy. Simultaneously, during the period the .
Cg H 18 + 12.5 0 2 + 12.5 x 3.76 N2
chain branching reaction take pJac~ e.g.
~ 8 C02 + 9 H 20 + 12.5 x3.76 N2
OH+H2 ~H2 0+H
There are various theories which have been proposed
H+02 ~OH+O .
for combustion of fuel.
O+H2 ~OH+H
According to one of the theory, if above reaction is to
take place in one step, it is neces.sary that molecule of It could be seen that one (OH) group is destroyed by ·
combining with H2 but two new chain carriers are
octane fuel to collide with 12.5. molecules of oxygen.
formed which may start their own chain reactions and
But, from theory of probability it has been shown that
the reaction process may accelerate at explosive
the probability of one molecule colliding with more
velocity.
than three molecules is negligible. Hence, ~y compl~x
reaction involving more molecules must occur as a During the termination phase the chain breaking
series or chain reaction. reactions take place by absorbing the chain earners e.g.
cold combustion chamber absorbs chain came'rs to
Another widely accepted theory of combustion is
form soot on combustion walls.
known as chain reaction theory.

&:1:1m1t'<.I w 1lf1 Ct1m&:11r111t1r

 ·1
I
i

. NI MU·Som. V·Moeh
92.,.1.c.E · .
'{'he
ftl'fimc:ntAl r~1ul1.J tu.vc ._hown lhat at low
elt:~· Ii lnhiat(.d with the help ot • ..-cry tugti i~ ~k
"' ~.rJtllrt aml rret-'-~lt.A the forn~i~'tfl or chain PfO\'ldcd by a s.pnt. plug fcW dc,81tt1 bd{.)fl; &he end of
~leis 1, \"Cl')' r.luw with nc1ttl&lblc chuan liranc:h1ng
«nnprc~.,lon Jltloke.
. lhe
rt.t'd~t. 'Oil• 1'JtMi: bum_~ the fe..- rnolcculc.'l of rn.i.itutc rn
.,..l"lliurcs nho\ll 400"C, the rutc of reaction I• \'kinhy of ,~t. pp alld initi*-• the ~
/\I tcn1,-
biJh ..,.,_uM'
,.,...,.. tho chnln hrn.nchlng rcac1ionJ1 bec<nn11; fifC>Ce-" by tr~,fcr of t~ w mokctJ!a in
si"°'IOCJ\t. neighbourllOOd.
1'1ll'ft,I (lo.,
_ we concludo tlml tho combuMlon rciactlon•"'
Once a flame l~ cre:a1td. 1he ar.!vulC(:mC:tLt "' W'- ~
de!"~ upon : into the unburned mix.rure will &paid upon the me of
lil Rote ('If fonnution of chain carriers. he-at transrcr bet\liccn the fhmc and surrounding
envelope of unburned .nllxrure, tanper:illUC ~
.. Rate of dcsuuction of chain carriers.
lU)
pressure.
'") Tcntpcn1ture, pressure and density of the
(Ill
c;tplosivc mixtures. Though the mechanism of fbme ~cm is
unknown but the presence of flame it.self is the
Another accepted theory of combustion is known as
evidence of chemical rcactioo between the fuel and nit.
bydroXYlatlon theory which is based on kinetic theory
of gases.
A-Spm'&
ll suggests that the initial combustion of a hydrocarbon " e- 1gri15ai 1ag
ec-Prtr~c1r .....
roolccule with oxygen results into formation of
alcohols which in tum reacts with more oxygen to form
an aldehyde.
These aldehydes may either breakdown in CO and H 2 ____....__.__.______..___ -.J!.:::::..----__...._.__~':.":----e

10 eo 50 ~ 30 20 10 10 20 30 4D 50 so ro
or may completely burn into C02 and H 20 in a chain Comprnsicn _ __.,._ _ _ ~

reaction. Fig. 2.26.1 : Combustion stages in S.l. Engines

Syllabus Topic : Combustion Phenomenon In
To study the combustion phenomenon of these engines
s.1. Engines - Ignition Delay, Flame Propagation,
Pressure - Crank Angle Diagram the experiments were carried out by Recardo using a
quartz cylinder and employing high speed photography.
2.26 '<;9Zn Stages in S.I. Engines
·°\/""" + (MU - May 12, May 15, May 17)
The results arc sho\\'D on pressure (p) and crank
angle (0) diagram in Fig. 2.26.1. In Fig. 2.26. l curve
Universit Questions '
" ABMN represents the motoring curve i.e. when the
Q, Explain ·~arious stages· of combustion In S.t engi~es
. . ' Uiliiii engine is not firing and ABCD represents the actual

a.- Explaln:ln detail the various stages of combustion in combustion curve.

S.I. engi.ne. , W Point A represents the point of ignition where the spark
.a. Draw and explain the stages of combu~tion In SI
is supplied by a spark plug.
engin~ and effect various E'ngine "para~eters
the of
on combustion. .. ' " ... , .' mm ~ Definition of angle of spark advance
- In case of spark ignition engines, the combustible
DmXITlOllw
r----i The crank angle before T .D.C. at the instant
mixture of fuel and air is supplied in a desired ratio ' spark is given is called· angL? of spark
I

with the help of carburettor and the combustion process -advance.

Scanned with CemSCanner

 . · ·~
. ..
., ' ~.
.. .·~· ~.:" l ~

~R\?~r~1~.c~.~En~g~in~es~(M~u~~Se~m~.~V-~M~ech~)---------~------2~-38~~·---~s~.1.~En~~~·n~es~·~(F~u:el~~~~·~'g~n-itio_n_&~~· .
17' Various stages of combustion which is transferred fro~ burned to rin~ c~ ..
the flame propagates across the combustion chanibcr at . .
Based on the experimental results th~ combustion in
S.I. engines takes place in three stages as follows : high speeds. (almost at constant speed) in thC range Of

(15-35) m/s.
Stages of combustion
It is difficult to distinguish between these two Phases Of
combustion i.e. the phase of ignition lag and 0~
1.Period of Ignition lag or preparation phase
propagation phase.
2.Flame propagation phase
However, the start of second phase is considered ""~
3.After burning or flame termination phase
an appreciable pressure rise can be seen on (p ·• O)
Fig. Cl.14 : Stages of combustion diagram at point B and the second phase ends when ~

. . 1. Period of ignition lag or preparation phase peak pressure is attained in the cylinder i.e. at point C.

The experimental results have shown that there is a The slope of curve BC represents the rate of Pl'CSs11rt

certain interval of time between the instant of spark is rise.

given at point A and the instant the first tiny flame It should be noted that the rate of heat transfer to
reappears at point B which corresponds to the point cylinder walls is low at the beginning of this Phase
where there is a noticeable rise in cylinder pressure due
since only the small part of the burning mixture comes
to combustion.
in contact with the cylinder walls.
This time interval corresponds to period AB and this
The rate of heat energy released during combustion
period is called ignition lag or ignition delay period.
depends on the intensity of turbulence and the air-fuel
The angle turned by the crank between the points A and
ratio.
Bis called ignition delay angle.
~ 3. After burning or flame termination plwe
Ignition lag represents the period of pre~ame reactions
in which the chain carriers are formed as explained in
Actually the combustion is not completed at point c
though it represents the completion of flame travel.
the chain reaction theory of combustion.
It is due to the fact the burning continues .due to left
The ignition lag depends upon the molecular structure
over fuel and the reassociation of dissociated gases
of fuel, temperature, pressure, density, air-fuel ratio and existing in the combustion chamber.
the proportion of residual gases in the mixture.
This combustion beyond point C c.ontinues during the
-+ 2. Flame propagation phase · expansion stroke and it is called as after bUrning
representing the third stage of combustion upto
Once the self sustaining flame appears at point B, the
pointD..
flame travels outwards and burns the fuel in layers.
The flame velocity decreases during this phase of
Initially the rate of burning of fuel and flame speeds are combustion.
low with small rate of pressure rise. The effects of engine variables on ignition lag and

However as the combustion proceeds, the pressure and flame propagation are being discussed below.

temperature keeps on rising with heat energy release

Seonned wi1h CamScanntK

 .r ·. · Ines MU-Sem. V-Mech ...

t
2-39 S.I. En Ines Fuel Su
~ 10. En
~ Topic : Factors Affective Combustion i.:.. fc energy
The increased temperature increases the ....,.,e 1
,...SY'"~t of engine Variables on Ignition Lag · the rate of
1.1. fu ..- and flame Propagation of molecules which tend to mcrca.')C .
i: collisions and also the mobility 'o f reaction.
)" .

t ,_...~ttect of Engine Variables on Therefore ignition Jag reduces with increa.c;ed

1
,,. · ~~tlo~n~La;_...:::9--.~~~~~~~~ · temperatures. The cffeet of pressure and temperature on
f
ignition lag is shown in Fig. 2.27.1.
. vunous engine variables which affect the ignition
'fbC . · .. . (II) Compression ratJo
BS follows :
Higher compression ratio increases the · pressure and
Isl arc Engine vartables
affecifng Ignition lag temperature of the working substance.

(i) Pressure and temperature Therefore, the effect of increased compression ratio is
similar to inc~ased pressure· and · temperature as
(ii) Compression ratio
discussed above i.e. increased ·~ompression ratio
(iii) Mixture strength decreases the ignition Jag.

(iv) Residual gases .. (lll)Mhture strength

(v) Nature of fuel

It is observed that the ignition Jag is minimum,for about
10% rich mixtures as shown in Fig. 2.27.2.
(vi) Speed
Stoichiometric mixture
I
(vii) Electrode gap
I
• Lean I Rich •
Fig. C2.15 : Engine nriables affecting ignition lag mixture I mixture

I
-t' (I) ~and temperature I
I
_ At high pressures the molecules are nearer and their I
rate of collisions increases. It helps in forming the I
chain carriers and reduces the ignition lag. I
I
o .......--..---.----4----T"----r-------
18 40 60 80 100 120 140
Mixture strength (% STOICH) - - -
t 15
Fig. 2.27.2 : Effect of mixture strength on ignition lag

. . (iv) Residual gases

The residual gases in the combustion chamber dilutes

the mixture charge, consequently increases the ignition
lag.

Therefore, higher the amount of residual gases in

4000 6000 8000 proportion to fresh charge, higher will be the period of
Temperature (K) - - - ignition lag.
Fig. 2.27.1 : Effect of p, T on ignition lag
 ~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-40
tion of electrode gap and ·cOm~~
. . (v) Nature of ruet flame as fu nc · ,· . ""II

ratio.
The ignition lag depends on the chemical nature of the the voltage required at the SI>ark pt. :.
.i..n
It is found uU&t • Ill& .
fuel. roduce spark is found to decrease \V" .
electrode to P · · 'lit
It is found that the fuels with higher self ignition
. fuel-air ratio and with decl'Casc ';
increase ID • IQ
. . tio and the load on the engine.
temperatures have comparatively higher period of compression ra
ignition lag.
2.28 Effect of E_ngine Variables on Flalbe
-+ (vi) Speed
Propagation ----.......
·
It has no effect in terms of time period but ·it shows in
terms of crank angle turned. Undcrstandi ng the effect of engine .variables on sn.....
r"'ll

of name prop agation has a large beanng on smoath ~

Therefore with higher speeds the ignition advance t'1on of the engine. These factors arc bci~
abnonnal opera "'8
should be increased.
discussed below :
-+ (\ii)Eltttrodc gap
Englno variables affecting
The air gap between the electrodes of n spark plug is Flamo Propagation
important from the point of establishment of nucleus of
(I) Compression ratio
flame.
lf the elcc-trode gap is too sm:i.ll, quenching of the finmc (Ii) Intake or suction pressure

nucleus may cx"'t'ur nnd the ran~e of working with rongc

(ill) Intake temperature
of air-fuel ratio is reduc:t-d.
(Iv) Air-fuel ratio
It is fwther affected by compression ratio, it is seen tbnt
the dC1:..~ !=-ap required reduC'CS with the incrc.:i.~ (v) Engine load
comprc:$Sioo ratios..
(vi) Turbulence
'-~
(vii) Engine speed

(viii) Engine size

Fig. C2.16: Engine variables alTecllng Flame Propagation

-+ (I) Comp~lon ratio

Higher compression ratios results in high density of the

f..0
mixture with higher pressures and temperatures.
These factors increase the number of collisions of
c~_.....~~-,.~~~.,...~~~T-~~---'-- molecules and the rate of heat transfer, therefore,
o o~ o'.s 0 .75 t .O
~ ga;i (trrn) hjgher compression ratios will increase the flame
speeds.
Flg,. 2.27.3 ! meet c.r dttt.rod.e gap on wr-fuel ratios
f-or a rompre~~ion ratio of 7 or higher a gap of -+ (II) Intake or suctJon pressure

0.625 mm. i.\ generally found ri.alisfactory. For It is similar to case of increased compression ratio,
Fig. 2.27.3 g ives the re.quired air-fud r.Jtio for swble
increase in intake pressure increases the flame speeds.

- ------· Sc:mned with camscanner

~
".
. . & Combustion)
2-41 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply S s, Ignition
. . . ·s the formation of
High velocity of incoDllDg cause all' ·. · . ·
small vortices and these are ~lieved to persist dunng
J{jgher the intake temperature, higher is die flame
compression and combustion processes.
speed· ·
These vortices i~crease th~ rate of heat transfer, ~ence,
-t (lv) Air-fuel rado
increases the flame speeds.
Chemically weak mixtures will give low temperatures ~Ac · are directly
It is found that the. flame s~ .
beCause of lesser chemical energy released. the g ine speed 15
proportional to engine speed. If en .
It reduces the rate of beat ~sfer and results into low doubled, the time required by the flame to traverse
· fiarne speeds. across the combustion chamber will be halved.
On the other band the rich. mixture will not have
. : uired by
Since the engine speed is doubled and tune req
_;..i,. le
sufficient oxygen to bum due to which carbon is burnt flame to travel is halved, it follows that the crwu.. ang
to co instead of C02 with less heat energy releases, (0 oc: N x Qrequired for the flame propagation will
again the flame speeds are low. nearly remain the same.
Therefore the correct or stoichiometric mixture will
-+ (viii) Engine sl.1.e
result into high flame speeds.
Generally the engines of similar design run attbe same
H~wever, due to dilution of fresh charge by the residual
piston speed. It follows that the smaller size engine will
gases, in practice, slightly rich mixtures are needed to
run at higher speed compared to larger engine, the
give high flame speeds.
proportion of .their engine. speeds being equal to
. . (v} Engine load proportion of their sizes.

With the increased loads on the engine, the cycle Since the pisto~ velocity is kept same for similar
pressure also increases, hence the flame speed engines, it would give the same intake air velocity,
increases. degree of turbulence and flwe speed irrespective of .
their sizes.
. . (vi) Turbulence
Consider tWo similar engines, one engine being double
The flame speeds are low in non-turbulent mixtures.
the size of other engine. The distance require.d to be
Due to turbulence the relative motion between the travelled by the flame in case of smaller engine would
burned and unburned charge increases and it intensifies be half that of the larger engines and the flame speed is
the rate of heat transfer between them. same for both the engines.
It results into higher flame speeds. It follows that the time required for flame travel for

The extent of turbulence present in the cylinder larger engine will be twice that of smaller engine.

depends upon the speed of the engine and the geometry Since the smaller engine woUld run at twice the speed
of the cylinder head and piston. of larger engine, the time of flame propagation in terms

. . (vii) Engine speed of crank angle turned would be same in both the
engines.
The piston speed is proportional to engine speed. Since
the inlet velocity of air is proportional to piston speed, Therefore we conclude that the crank angles turned by
it follows that the air velocity at inlet wiJI increase with the similar e_ngines for flame travel across the
increase in engine speed. combustion chamber will nearly be same irrespective
of their engine sizes.

Scanned with ComScanner

 ..
.· ,.
•,

I nlllon & Combu ... · ·

MU-Sem. V·Mach) 2-42 ' •tlori : .

m Syllabus Topic: Abnormal Combustion into high power output of tho engine whh high l'lllo or .

hcut losses.
2.29 Rate of Pressure Rise
Tho high rnto of prossuro rlso cnuses rough ru~ning or
tho engine duo to vlbrotlons nnd jerks produced on Iha
The rate of pressure dunng
. the combustion process hus
. a considerable m
· fluence
· on the peak pressures obtuined crankshaft.

and consequently it affects the power output nnd the However, In c1L~O tho mto of pressure rlso is very high,

smooth runmng
· of the engine. it muy croute the undosirublo situation of abnol'lttat
combustion called detonation.
The rate of pressure rise depends on the rate ut which
(Refer next sccdon 2.30).
the mass of mixture bums in the cylinder and the
ignition timing. Curves 11 and UT represent tho cusos of normnt nnd low
rates of combustion respectively.
Fig. 2.29. l shows the pressure-crank nngle diagram for
In these cuscs it ls necessnry to inllinte tho combustion
three different combuslion rotes.
enrlier in tho compression stroke since these cnscs
Curve-I represents the high rote of combustion s1nrting
require tonger limo for combustion of mixture
at point C with its peak pressure occurring closer to top
compurcd to the c11so of high rnto of combustion.
dead centre.
In these CIL">CS the power produced is reduced since lhc
Such pressures exert a l:irgc:r force.on the piston during
expnnsion work is reduced us it is evident from
its almost the entire expansion stroke, hence, results
Fig. 2.29.1.

Points A. B ond C
roprooont tho 8lart
Rllle ol pressure rise : of prossuro r1ao.
2S
1 - Hlgh l1lte
2 • Normal rate
3-Lownm

20

15 I
I
I
I
I
10 I
--T-'t--
C I \ ',,
: Motoring ' , ,
s I
I
c:urve ' ,......
II -----
. .
I
~.20~~~~B0~......;.;~-40l-......;.;;__TD~C~....;;...~4~0~~~00l-~__.:_J120
Compression 1 Expansion

Crank angle (Degrees)

Fig. 2.29. 1 : DitTett11l rates or combustJon

~nncd w ith C:imSc.,,..mcr

~-
- '

~IC Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-43 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply System, Ignition and Comb.)

-::-Concluslons . . 'tion of
the ~l~y period and it would assist bi auto-1gru . .
froJD the above· discussion,·it is evident.that high rates fuel.
of coJDbustion, though develops high outp~t, it may The p~s of auto-ignition may follow several paths.
eause the undesirable condition of detonatio~. In case the flame is propagated from the point of
_ In vie~ of .this, . the engines are so designed and ignition in outward direction ·at normal · velocity of
I

operated in such a manner that approximately one-half propagation of (10 - 35) mis.
of the total pressure rise takes place by the time piston In such a case, the combustion and expansion of each
reaches at TDC. layer of mixture occurs at a unifonn rate .and more or
_ It results into peak _pressures and temperatures reaching less in unison with unifonn pressure rise throughout the
very close to the beginning of expansion stroke, combustion chamber, though the pre~sure ri~ is rapid.
approximately 10° after TDC. It refers to normal combustion.

_ It ensures smoo_th ~g of the engine with a very - However, in some cases a part of the . fuel may
sOlall power loss due to high rates of heat transfer and auto-ignite with rapid release o.f energy which is_much
· expansion work. more than the nqrIDal combustion because of multiple
flame fronts. Such combustion is called abnormal
- Syllabus Topic : Auto Ignition, Detonation and
combustion.
Knocking In S.I. Engines
-2.30 Theory of Detonation .and Knock
- . This rapid release of energy may. cause two types of
vibrations as follows :
- (i) In case a large amount of mixture auto-ignites, it will
give rise to a very rapid rise in pressure through the
combustion chamber.
If the pressure equalization takes place as soon as the
pressure rise. occurs, the gases will give a direct blow
on the engine structure.
- Ears will detect a thudding sound from this impact
_ Experimental results have shown that the auto-ignition
and as a result give rise to free vibrations of engine
parts. It is called knock.
of the fuel does _not occur simultaneously as soon as it
reaches to its self ignition temperature or higher (ii) The localised pressure difference arising due to

temperatures. instantaneous explosion of a part of mixture will cause

high pressure waves to travel across the combustion
r:r Definition of delay period
chamber at sound· velocity if the equalisation of

m pressure in combustion chamber is not fast enough.

These pressure waves travelling across the chamber at
very high velocity will be reflected back and forth
several times by the cylinder walls (as echo in room).
These gas vibrations can force the walls of the chamber
to vibrate at the same frequency as gas. An audible
sound or ping may be evident. It is called detonation.
- It is difficult to separate these factors, however, higher
It is very difficult to separate knock and detonation.
the pressures and temperatures of the charge lesser is

scanned ....·n:h CamSeanne-r

 . i :·:~
.. · , .:·
' '; . .:

S.I. 8llCf ~:-

~31 Detonation In S.I. Engines ff the combustion process b normal the PfeSsure or ·..
tr.j .
gas will aJmost be equal to ~ pressure WhcQ ~
.+ (MU .Doc.13' May 16' Dec• 16) flrunc fronl is about to re3Ch ID this end gas. .
..
l!lil~llllri•lil~!IMI ' " ,.

1f the ignirion Jag or ignition delay of the unbusncd t1ld .

. Q.. •Deeabo tha
~ phonomonon (>f dotornitlon In Sf . ga.~ is consumed before ~ fl~ ~ont reaches it, 'be
enginoa With ttlO holp or P • o and p • pk>to. y · d part of the charge will auto-1grute bccawc it . ·
en . . ua.
,
l·J~!IEI much higher temperature r.h.an its M!ff ignj~
~ a.
.
. What Is detonation ? emm temperature.
0. DeScribo
the phenomonon or knocking In S.l. 11iis auto-ignition of end gas is completed in ~
-~es wi~ the help of p-0 ond P-V Plots. negligible time and causes a viole.nt press11re iUc due lo
' ..
'
••1'1-lill extremely high rate of liberation of chenticaJ cncr8>'
In an S.I. engine once the spark is supplied at the spark and almost at constant volume.

plug and a flame nucleus is fonned, the flame travels This rise in ·pressure of end gas is almost (3-4) tinq
across the combustion chamber in an orderly manner. the anticipated peak pressures with normal combustion.

1be pressure keeps on increasing continuously and This large pressure differential caused by the
unifonnly throughout the combustion chamber. auto-ignition of e~d gas results into severe Pf'CSsurt
~aves travelling across the combustion chamber at
lbe peak pressures are . nonnally attained when the
very fast speed.
flame reaches far side of the combustion chamber.
The pressure wave is reflected back and forth scvcn1
Let us focus our attention on last part of the charge
times by the cylinder walls and sets the engine pans
called end gas in the combustion chamber as shown in
vibrating, giving rise to a pinging or ringing sound and
Fig. 2.31.1.
the detonation is said to occur.
The flame originating at point A travels across the
We conclude that detonation will take place lo ~
combustion chamber upto point E. The end part of the
of S.I. engines if,
gas is represented by DED'. This end gas has
experienced rapid compression during the compression (a) End part of the charge reaches to its self ignition
stroke and later on by advancing flame front. Therefore temperature and its delay period is over.
the pressure, temperature and density of end part of the (b) The flame does not reach the end part of the
gas is high. charge.

p
8 p
\ \
\
\\
' '
\\ \
\

\ I I
I I I
I I I
@ I I I
I I I E End charge
A I I I
I I I
I I I
I I f
I I I
I /

v 8' C' TDC

(p - V) diagram (p - 9) diagram

Fig. 2.31.1 : Combustion with detonation in S.I. engine

Scanned w it h CamScanf'\er
 . . mb
~ l.C. en Ines (MU-Sem. V·Mech) 2-45 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply S stem, Ignition and Co ·

effect of Detonation In s.1. Engines its temperature to a great extent. It may alter th.e
electrical characteristics of spark plug and render It
tteets of Detonation In S.I. Engines useless.

+ (MU-Dec.13, Dec.15, May 16) . . 4. Noise and roughness

.~ ' ·~ '~·

ti4t.JUl•mt+,1([.]M : ': .: ... ::. .. ·. '" .: . g~

' , I ·;., I • • • ' •

i•' I' :: ·~ The vibrations in the cylinder cause .the engine

~ . ,,·, • .···· · .. " ' · .. • .,
1.b.:.; .·e,c~~!n th.a p~enomenon ·of a pre-lgnhi.on. Expl.al~,: parts to· vibrate and the engine runs rough because of.
; ::_~ -h~~ , pre-Ignition leads to detonation .
I .,' :: .,\, . ' ' , • ' .
and Vtee '. ~ :
. •
this vibratory motion.
; ;-: t"''. ·ve'fsil:. . . :· l11JMFI
. . 5. Power and efficiency
·0 ~,, ~:writ~ ·~. n~ie on e~te~ts .on det~natton: ' · ·1..14al0-I
•

.Q: "
I·~~ ' "'.... ( I • ,'

What are Its effects?

''·~ ' . ~·• I , ~
·
' \ • t' t J ( .~.
, . :. ·
"
·· ·
Due ~o high rate of heat transfer i.n case of detonating
engine the power output and its thennal efficiency
following are the harmful effects of detonation.:
.. decreases .
Effects of Detonation
In S.I. Engines ~ 6. Pre-Ignition

Due to high rate of heat transfer and increased

1. Mechanical failure
temperature .of hot gases, it may cause local heating at
2. local melting of piston and rings certain spots in the combustion chamber and especially
3. Ov~f't!eating of spark plug the spark plug may become red hot. In such a case it
will ~t as ignition source to ignite the mixture of fuel
4. Noise and roughness
and air before the supply of spark, thus causing
5. Power and efficiency
pre-ignition. This pre-ignition may lead to auto-ignition
6. Pre-ignition and detonation of the engine causing severe damage to
the engine before the pre-ignition is detected.
Fig. C2.17 : Effects of Detonation in S.I. Engines
Pre-ignition can be detected by shutting off the
.. 1. Mechanical failure
ignition. If the engine continues firing, it is possible that the
High rate of pressure rise and the severe vibrations of engine is subjected to pre-ignition.
engine parts may lead to their mechanical failure like
erosion of piston crown, pitti~g of cylinder head and 2.32.1 Surface Ignition
valves etc.
Surface ignition relates to the combustion detonation in
.. 2. Local melting of piston and rings S .~. engines caused by factors other than the spark. Hot

surfaces are formed on the spark plug electrode, hot

Because of ~pid release of heat energy in a very short
interval of time, the heat transfer rates increase and carbon particles deposited on the surface of combustio~

give rise to high .temperature gases compared to normal chamber or hot exhaust valve head etc.

combustion. These high temperature gases may cause These hot spots/surfaces may initiate combustion
local melting of piston and rings. without a spark.

.. 3.. Overheating of spark plug , Surface ignition may occur before pre-ignition or after
the normal ignition. It is not necessary that the ~urface
Due t~ vfolent gas vibrations, the hot gases flow
repeatedly in and out of spark plug cavity and increase ignition will cause detonation.

,- -- - - - -- ·-- ·--·
~. l.C. En lnoo MU·Soi'n. V·Moch 2·46 8.f. En Inoa Fuol su S tem, I ltlon and~. · ·.

Pollowlns uro the cffectK of Hurfuce Ignition : Syllabus Topic : Factor• Affecting Detonauon
Effoota of aurfac.
Ignition
2•33 Effect of Engine Variables on.
'
Detonation In S.I. Engines
(n) Run·on nurfnco lonlllon ---~~~~==-=:.;.:;;...~:.--------......

fl has been seen that the deionation in S.I. engine let$

(b) Aun uwuy nurfoco Ignition
in lf the end part of the gaA auto-ignites before the flaznc
(o) Wiid ping front reaches it. The tendency IO detonation will be r~
if the fuel hall Jong ignition Jag, high S.J.T. and high tlaznc
(d) Rumblo
11
pcc<ls or reduced time for flame travel. Therefore the <>nsct
l•'lg. C2. I8 : EITcclli of Hurfucc Ignition of detonation is very dependent on the properties of fuel.

-+ (n) Run-on 1111rface lanltlon Hen~, those engine variables which tend to incr~
the ignition lag and increase the flame speeds would tend to
It relu1e11 to engine which kcep11 on firing even if the reduce the detonation tendency.
Ignition aystcm Is shut-off.
The faclOrs are :
-+ (h) nun awny 1mrfucc lgnltJon Effect of Engine Variables on
Detonation In 5.1. Engines

It relates to continuous firing by the engine because of

1.lntake temperature
the very high hot surfuce temperature. This may cause
2.lntake pressure
server detonation, melting of piston/piston rings or
even the engine may catch fire when the intake valve is 3.Compresslon ratio
open. 4.lgnltlon advance
. . (c) Wiid ping
5.Coolant temperature

Wild ping relates to occasional and sudden knocking of 6.Englne load

the engine. It may be caused due to ignition by some
7.Englne speed
fragments of glowing deposiLc; which breaks away from
surface of tJ1c combustion chambe;. This occac;ional 8.Air-fuel ratio

wild ping will stop a..c; soon this break away fragmenLc; 9.Engine size
of hot particle leaves the engine alongwith exhaust
1O.Combustion chamber design
gases.
11.Location of spar1< plug
-+ (d) Rumble
12.Type of fuel
Engine ls said to rumble if the abnormal pressure rise
Fig. C2.19 : Effect of Engine Variables on DctonatJon in
due to 1mrfoce ignition causes detonation, low noise and
S.I. Engines
vibrations of the engine. It may be caused due to
. . 1. Intake temperature
ignition at sever.ti hot spoL'> formed on the surface of
combustion chamber before or after the normal spark. Increm;cd intake temperature reduces the delay period,
therefore, increases the detonation tendency. However,
it should be noted that the increased temperatures also

Scu r 11~ with Ct11 r6c11111~

fg[ 1.c.·Engines MU-Sem. ~-Mech) 2-47 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supp S stem, Ignition and CorTib.)
.. increases the flame speed, ·thereby, reducing the speeds while the effect on the delay period is
detonation tendency;
negligible.
:sut. the effect of increase temperature h
as more Due to this the increased speed of the engine reduces
ronounced effect on delay period comp"-..1
P . ...~to flame
the detonation tendency. '.
speedS due to which the detonation tenden is
increased with increase.in intake temperature. cy . . 8. ·Air-fuel ratio

It has been mentioned earlier that about 10% rich

mixtures have the minimum delay period and the flame
· intake pressure increases the density
. Increased . of
speeds are high.
charge and reduces the delay period but ·
· mcreases the
f]a01e speed. The overall effect . is to increase the But, it is obser\.ed that the effect of slightly rich
detonation tendency. mixtures on delay period is more do~ant compared
to flame speeds due to which the detonation tendency
.+ 3, Compression ratio
increases.
Increased compression ratio increases both th
. e pressure . . 9. Engine size
and temperature and reduces the delay period, hence,
the tendency to detonation increases. Similar engines of various sizes have the delay_period
. nearly the same. However, in case of larger sized
.+ 4. Ignition advance engines the flame has to travel longer distance of
Advancing the spark timing incre~s the peak combustion space compared to smaller sized engines.
pressures of the cycle and thus reduces the delay period Therefore, the larger engines have more tendency to
of end part o_f the gas in the combustion chamber, detonate compared to smaller engines.
hence, te_ndency to detonate increases.
+ 10. Combustion chamber design
.+ ·S. Coolant temperature
In general, more the Compact .combustion chambers,
Raising the coolant temperature will increase the shorter will be flame travel and combustion .time,
cylinder wall temperature and reduce the heat transfer hence, it will give better anti-knock characteristics.
rate between gas and cylinder walls. Also, if the combustion chamber design is such that it
- Increased temperature of the gases would reduce the promotes turbulence then the flame speed will increase
delay period and increase the detonation tendency. which would reduce the te~dency to detonate.
For above reasons the combustion chamber are
. . 6. Engine load
designed nearer to spherical shape to redu~ the
Higher loads on the engine increases the heating of the distance of fl~e travel and shaped in such a way to
engine and reduces the delay period. Therefore the promote turbulence
increased loads increases the detonation tendency of
. . 11. Location of spark plug
the engine.
It is for this reason the spark igni~on engines are never In case the spark plug is located centrally in the
overloaded. combustion chamber, it reduces the length of flame
travel, hence, reduces the tendency to detonate. The
. . 7. Engine speed
flame travel can also be reduced by using two or more
Increase in engine speed increases the turbulence in the
spark plugs.
combustion chamber thereby increa5ing the flame
 ~ l.C. En Ines MU·Sem. V-Mech) 2-48 S.I. Engines (Fuel Supply System, Ignition and Comb.).
-+ • • Methods of control of Delo.nation an(t
12. Type or fuel 2 33 1
Knocking In S.I. Engines
The fuels with lower self ignition temperature or with
its greater preflame reactions will have more tendency
The detonation in s:1..engines can bC controiled by

to detonate. following methods :

Fuels of paraffin series have maximum tendency to 1. .By tet!!ding the spark timing.

detonate and of aromatic series have minimum By increasing turbulence by way of increasing the
2.
tendency to detonate. speed of the engine.

The naphthalene series fuels come in between the two. By m8.king mixture of fuel - air supply too rich or too
3.
wever it will reduce the power output and
Table 2.33. l gives the general summary of engine ean. Ho
1 ,
efficiency of the engine.
~ariables affecting the. detonation in S.I. engines. .
Table 2.33.1 : Effect or engine variables on detonation in By reducing the pressure· in the intake marufold.s by
4.
S.I. engines throttling.

5. By increasing octane rating by fuel by ad~g the .

dopes.
6. · Use of water injection in the cylinder whlch will reduce

-
the flame temperatures and increase the delay period. .

1. Intake reduces increases increases

Syllabus Topic : Types of Combustion Chambers
temperature for S.I. Engines .
2. Intake reduces increases increases
pressure 2.34 Objectives of C~mbustion Chamber
3. Compression reduces increases increases Design for S.I. Engines
ratio

4. Advancing reduces negligible increases + (MU· Dec. 14, Dec. 15, Dec.17)

ignition
advance
5. Coolant . reduces slightly increases
temperature increases
6. Engine load reduces increases increases

7. Engine speed negligible increases decreases

8. Air-fuel ratio increases reduces reduces
beyond 10%
Jean
mixtures
A combustion chamber needs to be designed to meet
9. Engines.iie nil time increases
factor the general objectives of developing hlgh power output and
hlgh high thermal efficiency with smooth running of engine and
10. Turbulence negligible increases reduces minimum octane number requirement of fuel with least
emissions. In order to achieve these objectives, following
11 . Distance of negligible increases increases
.. flame travel factors are to be kept in mind while designing the·
combustion chambers of S.I. engines.

scanned with cnmsconner

-·-
~1.c.E
2.35 DHforon1 Typd of Combu•tlo~,.
1tn1th of f1arM lratrl from tho • J)Att plug th ti-.::
1. :~~ l"1lnt ~houl~ be hpl ml11lmu111 to avullS
Jr(tlllltlon piol1lern.
Chamber• for SJ. EngJM• tn -· -
< lfTJAJJ.fU.ill (f~l);kLIS
• ,. 1\•c:S tho pl"oblcm of l<X'ution t>f •f)llfk )'IUJ cirM.I J!cw hllf KJfl.¥M lypri of SJ , ((
10 0
JI of C<ltnh\uli\lll cJuunbct. U~u111Jy lllO ~patl, Jlllltlll med 1uc l1th1HcUe&~'"~'j liG~ :
~1\11~-.-:iitcd 111 thc centnal locntlon 01· In ~m.c r'l\C\ durtl
art k ptug 11 arc uM-d . Also, tho ~lu•pc uf' l'ombu•tlon
~r-1' "'"fli sjl(IUIJ bo 111t for M po&1dhle •11IK"rlc11I to
ctilllt\V•·
rt<fik.'C the length of flume trnvc:I.

·hic''O high 1'1.e00 or nam~ pro5u1pUon an

., 'f1.1 "' . •
... uatc amount uf turbulence nlso en~ures mhrc
_ , i....i
llU'·I
ll(llOOS('n<'ous nu:r.turo' ' away tt.e layer of
by scourmg

5tag n"'' 0
~nt 1.11L.<; clinging to the chamber walls. However
. '
....csivc turbulence should be avoided since it
~~~ .
increases the heal transfer losses to cylmdcr walls and 2.35.1 T·Head CombuatJon Chamber
affccts the thermal efficiency of the engine.
. ,..l~, h '™'.-n iu
. . l.
should have small surface to volume rJ.tio to ll1is rype of rombIDUOO C1w.u 1~
3 11 . . . 0~...ntrte
· minimise heat losses. A hemispherical shape provides Fig. 2.35.1 . It w.u u~ by ford in 1900 bul 1f U
minimum surface to volume ratio. today.
It should provide large area to the inlet and exhaust
4.
valves with ample clearance around the valve head. It
(i) It needs rwo c;im shafts to Of)C'tUlt' e:ich vtJ.,·c
reduces the pressure drop across the valves, therefore,
improves the volumetric efficiency. Use of sleeve separately.
valves are said to have low tendency to detonate tus more tendency to
(ii) Long flrunc tra\'cl, thcll:forc. it
compared lo poppet valves due to absence of any high detonate. Compression ratios wen" limited to 5 : I.
temperature area.
(iii) Has high surfac.c:-\•olume nuio.
s. Exhaust valves should not be located near the end gas
location of combustion chamber to reduce the
possibility of detonation since these valves are hottest
spot in the combustion chamber.
6. The combustion chambers should be so designed that it
can burn largest mass of the charge as soon as the
ignition occurs with progressive reduction in the mass
of charge burned towards the end of combustion. Intake

7. Exhaust valve head is the hottest region of combustion

chamber. It should be cooled by water jacket or by Cyli'lder

other means to reduce the possibility of detonation.

8. Octane number requirement of fuel increases with bore
at the same piston speed when other factor remaining Fig. 2.35.l: T-head cornbu<itlon chambers
the same. Combustion time and cylinder inner surface
temperature also increase with bore. For this reason the 2.35.2 L-Head or Side Valve Combustion
S.I. engine cylinder diameters nre usually limited to Chamber
lOOmm.
Original fom1 of L·head combustion chambc~ used
9. Thickness of cylinder walls should be unifonn to avoid
upto 1930 is shown in Fig. 2.35.2. The top surface o f the
non-unifonn expansion.
combustion chamber is in the fonn of a nut slnh. It~ intake

ni.......__.

Scom.00 with CornScDn ner

 '.::.: . J

~I.e. Engines (MU-Sam. V-Mech) 2-50

S.I. Engines (Fuel Suppl System, Ignition Bild ~ / ::

The Recardo com~ustion . chamber ovcn:Otncii ·lbe:~

valve and exhaust valve are kept side by side with spark
disadvantages expenenced m the ~head COfllb~ .. .
plug location above 'the valves. Length of the combustion .
chamber covers the entire piston and val~e assembly. chamber.

Combustion Recardo combustion chamber provides a lurbulctit

head. ,.

_....._......- Spark plug

Combustion
chamber

Extiaust

Fig. 2.35.2 : L-bead combustion chamber

rr Advantages of L-head combustion chamber

(i) Easy to cast. Fig. 2.35.3 : Recardo turbulent combustion cluunber

.(ii) Easy to cany out maintenance. r:r The salient featur~s of this combustion
(ill) Easy to lubricate the valve mechanism. chamber
I.

(iv) Cylinder head can easily be removed, therefore,·

1. Combustion chamber provides high turbulence.
._decar~nizing can be carried out without disturbing the
' Because at top dead centre position only a thin layer of
val~e gear mechanism. - .
charge exists between the piston crown and combustion
r:r Disadvantages of L-head combustion chamber
chamber, due to this the whoie charge is pushed back in
(i). There is a loss of velocity of intake air since it bas to the combustion chamber during the compression
take two right angle turns before reaching the 'cylinder. stroke, therefore, it provides additional turbulence.
It results into poor turbulence.
2. Combustion chamber ensures a more homogeneous
(ii) Distance to be travelled by flame is more and it is super mixture of fuel and air by scouring away the layer of
imposed by poor turbulence, therefore, tendency to stagnant gas clinging to the chamber walls.
detonation is more. Compression ratio is limited to
4: 1. 3. The piston comes in dosed contact with the
combustion chamber head in .this design, it reduces the
(iii) Mixing of air-fuel is unsatisfactory.
effective length of flame travel. Hence, tendency to
(iv) It has low power and low thermal efficiency.
detonation is reduced.
2.35.3 Recardo Turbulent Combustion 4. Because of contact of piston with chamber the mass of
Chamber end gas is negligible. Therefore impact of detonation
will be negligible even if detonation occurs.
The design of combustion chamber .as suggested by·
Recardo in the year 1919 is shown in Fig. 2.35.3. 5. The detonation tendency is further reduced since the
However, modifications have been carded out in the end gas is a thin layer and it is cooled by comparatively
design given at Jater stages. cooler cylinder head.
''

Scanned with C;iomScanoef

~..::~·; ~·:·.:·.: l _ __., •: · ; •
• .'
. ~- . .- '

,. , ·- :
.. -.. '· ~: . " .,
·"' ....
~ --".' ' :·
·..
.·:__ . .. ·' .;:

<'~~i.c~·JE~n~l~ne:s~(:M~U~-Se=m~.~v~-M~ech~~~·-·---.-~2~-~s1~~·~s~.t~.E~n~ln:e:_s~(F~u:e~ts~u!Ep~pt~s~~st;:.em~,l~n1:~0~.~~8:"~.d•C~o:.m:b::.'. .
. 6,.· ··Sp.id<
• ·~
is C~ntrally IOcatec1, in the «>tnbustkin
~~.;.mbcr.·: the le.ngth. of flame trave.l is reduced. It results ·.
plug The c~e at the eiid of compressicin so-o~e is pushed
· · · squish which
into the combustion spac~. known as . ·
.into rcltliced tendency to detonate. , - . provides additional turbulence. ' ...

n.: Modem S.I. Engine Combustion . the valves ·.are provided

. . .· a .smg
.m . le row
2"" ' Since . in the
· .chambers .
head, it reduces the size of the valv.es.

Because of this the disadvantage. o f thi s design is that it .

After the period of 1950 the combustion chambers used
. o f the engine with.
reduces the breathing capacity
. are either over head valve, also called as I-head,
increased pumping losses.
eombustion chambers or the F-head combustion
cbaJDbers. ·Overhead combustion chambers were first . difficulty,
To overcome this . t he m odem. engine design

introduced in Ambassador Car in the year 1959. .

use relatively larger piston d 1amete rs compared to
stroke length.
The overhead and F-combustion chamber designs are
based on principles of Recardo combustion chamber
with certain mOOifications.
~park plug

" The advantages of overhead valve combustion ·- -+-- Combustion

chambers on L-head combustion chambers are space
as follows

1. Use of large valves or valve lifts and reduced passage

ways provides better breathing of the engine, it
increases volumetric efficiency of the engine with
reduced pumping losses.

2. It gives less tendency to detonate due to reduced flame ,, .. ..,

_

travel ,.:. ';•

~
,.,_
-,

3. Less force on head bolts and reduced possibility of

Fig. 2.36.1 : Bath tub combustion chamber
leakage.
'5. Advantage
4. Exhaust ''al'-e is incorporated in the combustion
It is simple and easy to cast.
chamber hCad instead of cylinder block. Therefore, heat
failures limited to be.ad only.
2.36.2 Rover Head Combustion Chamber
S. Uses low surfacc-,·oJume ratio, it reduces the heat
Fig. 2.36.2 shows the Roverhead combustion chamber.
losses and increases power output and efficiency.
This design possess all requirements of a good
Few of the imponant combustion chambers of combustion chamber.
O\'Cfbcad Val\•c type and F-head type are described below.
The shape of combustion chamber approximates the
2.36.1 Bath Tub Combustion Chamber hemispherical shape giving lesser surface to volume
ratio, hence, better power output and efficiency.
- This type of combustion chamber is shown in
Fig. 2.36.1. Both valves are mounted on the head with Spark plug is located at the centre which reduces the
length of flame travel.
spark plug on one side of the combustion chamber.

scanned with CamScannef'

 · ~ l.C. Engines (MU·Sem. V-Mech) 2·54 S.I. En Ines (Fuel Sup tern, I nltlon and~) .,
·'

r:r Methods used for determination of volatlllty of A curve is plotted between the percentage Voltlibt \
fuels of fuel evaporated and the temperatures as sho ·
. fi 'ii\ '
'
,,1• Following methods are used for determining the
in fig. 2.37.2. This curve 1s re ClTCd as i Asn.t
, '• I
dlstJllatJon cun'e.
t i··. I volatility of a fuel.
' '·

- ··. ! • I. ASTM (American Society for Testing Materials) 1. Heavya1

2. Light dlaliltia ™-
distillation test. 3. Kerosene ''"""I
4. Noo.~tlla
2. Reid vapour test. S. Volatie~
6. Aviation O&Sclfile
' ' ' p
' 1. ASTM distillation test i
~
The apparatus used for ASTM distillation test is !
." i · shown in Fig. 2.37.1. It consists of a burner, 100 j
I,';' I
'•< • cc flask, thermometer, a condenser and a 100 cc
• 1 , i
i• graduated cylinder.
.,
; l • Heat is applied to 100 cc of fuel in the flask 00 20 40 60 80 100
under test. The vapour formed in the flask are percent evaporated
condensed. Fig. 2.37.2 : ASTM distillation curve

·~:
i;:'
;
..
:

'
I

' 1
2. · Reid vapour test
:· .
Volatility of gasoline can also be related in terms
of Reid vapour pressure since the vapour prcSSUre
of gasoline increases with temperature and it is
also dependent on its composition.
The Reid vapour pressure apparatus is shown in
Fig. 2.37.3.

Pressln gauge

Fig. 2.37.I : ASTM distillation test

The temperature of first drop of condensate in the

cylinder is recorded as the initial boiling point.
Since the gasoline is a mixture of various Air chamber
hydrocarbons of different boiling temperatures
and due to heating the boiling temperature
continuously rises, the evaporation of the fuel
'I ' t• ·• •
takes place.
: ·: :'i
The vapour temperatures are recorded for every 10
.:.::·: j;.'..
Gasoline chamber
cc of condensate in the graduated cylinder. At the
:
: ' I

' ( ',
end when the last drop is condensed, the end
point temperature and the mass of the residue in
! '

f'r;, the flask is recorded. Fig. 2:37:J : Reid vapour pressll.re apparatus
! 'I
~ ' f
". I
. '.5 . ~ .
:(.' /!··!
, ~L :._I!
 . •,· ~ ~ ... ...
. , _· ~ - .
. ..

. . . . 2~55
· As per the standards laid down during·' th . · .
· . · · • e test the 1.
Starting and warm up ·
chillCd oil ·equal to 0.25 times the volume of air
. chamber is kept in the gasoline chamber immersed In a S.I. engi~e, a rich mixm're of air-fuel ratio of .·
in a water bath of 38°C. 12 to 13: l is considered tO be suiuilile for easy
A Bourdon pressure gauge is connected at the starting of the engine.
.. . top,
the readmg on 1t represents the sum f · However, a certain amount of fuel must vapourise .
o vapour
pressure of the fuel and rise in pressure of air and · at low temperatures (slightly lower than
water vapour in the air chamber due t h · t' surrounding temperature) for initiation of
. . o ea mg of
air. '
combustion and easy starting. '
The increased vapour pressure of the air chamber The temperatures corresponding to 10% ASTM
can be calculated and subtracted from th curve has been accepted as an indication of
e gauge
pressure reading to give true Reid vapour starting ability of the fuel.
pressure
of gasoline fuel at 38°C.
As the engine warms up after starting, the
The Reid vapour pressure test indicates the temperature of the engine will gradually increase
tendency of fuel to vapour lock and its value upto its operating temperatures. Duration of this
should not exceed by a gauge pressure equal to warm up period is related to 50% volatility of the
0.475 bar in summer conditions. fuel on ASTM curve.

3. Equilibrium air distillation (EAD) test Lower the boiling temperatures, lower will be
the warm up period for flexible operation of the
The ASTM distillation curve cannot be directly
engine.
co-related with the performance of fuel in the
engine because the fuel is evaporated in pres~nce 2. Engine acceleration and normal operation of
of air in actual engines in the intake manifolds, the engine
whereas, in the ASTM distiliation test the fuel is
In order to obtain good acceleration and normal
evaporated in the presence of its own vapour.
operation of the engine, the fuel evaporation rates
Therefo~, an EAD test apparatus is used to should be high to produce better . mixing and
simulate the engine conditions and the air distribution of the. fuel in the engine cylinder.
distillation curves for the gasoline are obtained
It is found that acceleration is better when boiling
~hich are used in practice to forecast t~e engine temperature is lower at 50% evaporation rate and
performance.
normal operation range is governed by 50 to 70%
evaporation rates.
2.37.3 Effect of Volatility of Fuels on
Engine Performance 3. Crankcase dilution

The performance and fuel economy of spark ignition Liquid fuel droplets in the mixture of fuel and air
engines is vastly affected by the volatility of the fuel. will dilute the engine lubricating oil and reduces
In fact, the volatility of the fuel will influence the its viscosity.
design of engine, in particular, the design and shape of
It tends to increase the engine friction and
the intake manifolds.
deteriorates the quality of lubrication due to
The effect of volatility of the fuel as represented by
weakening of . the oil film between the mating
ASTM distillation curve shown in Fig. 2.37 .2 can now . parts.
be related to various problems of S.I. engines as
follows.

Scanned with Cam&::anner

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~ l.C. Engines (MU-Sem. V-Mech) 2-56 S.I. Engines (Fuel supply System, Ignition and~: .

To reduce the problem of .c rankcase dilution, it is It results into poor operation of the enghle . ·: .
. . ._ .and
necessary that the ASTM curve at 80 to 95% poor fuel economy. .

evaporation rates should exhibit low temperature The gum content 'in a fuel should not exceed ~ ·
range. Using crankcase ventilation can minimize than 5 mg per litre of gasoline.
this problem.
8. sulphur content
4. Vapour lock High sulphur content 'i n the fuel is undesirable

- · An engine is said to be vapour locked when the because it forms hydrogen sulphide, s.ulphuric acid

interruption in the liquid flow occurs due to its and other compounds in presence ·of water Vllnr.u
""t"' r.

vapourisation.

Depending upon the amount of vapourisation, it

These formed compounds may corrode fuel line
.
muffler and other metal parts of the engine.
' '
will reduce the amount of fuel flow into cylinder Since sulphur bas low ignition temi>erature, the
(vapour occupies more volume than liquid). This presence of sulphur · in the gasoline tends to
reduction causes the loss of power or the complete increase the tendency for detonation.
stoppage of the engine. The sulphur content in gasoline is not allowed
To avoid vapour lock. the percentage of volume to exceed 0.25 % by mas.s.
evaporated at low temperatures should be small,
For requirement·of motor gasoline, IS :' 2796-19if
which is contrary to fuel requirements .for case of
must be referred.
starting, wann up and normal operation of
engines. 2.38 Rating of S.I. Engine Fuels - Octane
Based on the experience it is estimated that the · tJdfuber ·
vapour lock may start if the ratio of volume of
vapour released from the gasoline to the volume of
liquid remaining in the fuel exceeds the ratio 25.

5. Evaporation loss

The loss of vapour from venting holes of storage tank

depends on the volatility of fuel at surrounding
temperatures.

6. Antiknock properties

The properties of the fuel should be such that it resists Fuels differ widely in their ability t~ ~sist ~e knocking
• •• ¥-

the tendency · of detonation in S.I. engines. The ' and detonation _in S.I. engines. It is expressed in terms
antiknock property of the fuel depends on its self of octane number.
ignition temperature, molecular structure and the
Fuel rating specifications require the standard engines
chemical composition.
operating under prescribed standard conditions. 0

7. Gum and Varnish deposits

The rating of a particular fuel is compared on the
The deposits of gasoline with high gum content standard engine with that of a standard reference fuel '
due to unsaturated hydrocarbons in the gasoline which is usually the combination oLis070Ctane (2,2,4
will cause piston ring plugging, sticking of valves,
- ,,-· .
trirnethyl pentanefand n-hepatane (Cr H 16) by volume.
clogging of carburettor jets etc. , , ..----- '

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. ~ 1.c. Engines (MU-S~m. V-Mech)

. . . - ,. ' · ' .
2~57 S.t Engines (Fuel Supply System, Ignition and C~nib;f'. .
. j\rbitrarilY the iso-octane is aSsigned a ~ting of 100 KL;.~-~-P- of test fuel · ~..( 2.38.1)
. octane .number since this fuel has. minimum biock.i~--
: . .PN = KL·1.m.e.p, of iso-octime
- ' . g
.tendency and ~e ~~h~pl:llne is_assigned a rating or" zero In ~rtain cases the knock rating of fuel . ~an be
octane beCause of its high tend~ncy to knock. ' improved by .adding tetra ethyl iead ~L) and _w hen

((1ie percenta~e volume of iso:o_c~ _in ·_t~ mixturtt of. added to iso-octane it shows improved , anti-~OCk

iso-octane ~ '!-h_eptwu; r~present~ the_ octane characteristics.

number rating,ofa fuel. ,/ . . . -- - If 'x' ml of TEL is added to a U.S. gallon ~f iso-octane,_·
,,_..:..--- - -
- -- --- -
If a fuel is assigned a knock rating of 80, it means the the octane number (ON > 100) . is expressed as

fuel bas ·the same tendency · to knock under stand