Faculty of Civil Engineering & Built Environment

ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING
BFC 32403

CHAPTER 2
Water Supply
 Topics on Water Supply
(9 hours lecture)
2.1 Introduction 2.9 Raw water intake
2.2 Water Sources 2.10 Grit Removal System
2.3 National Water Services 2.11 Screening
Commission Act 2006 2.12 Aeration
(Act 654)
2.13 Coagulation and
2.4 Malaysian Water Quality Flocculation
Index
2.14 Softening
2.5 Malaysia : National
Guidelines for Raw 2.15 Sedimentation Tank /
Drinking Water Quality Settling Tank / Clarifier
2.6 Water Demand 2.16 Filtration
2.7 Engineered Water System 2.17 Disinfection
2.8 Surface Water Treatment
 2.1 Introduction
• Malaysia was reported to receive rainfall:
o 2420mm for Peninsular Malaysia,
o 2630mm for Sabah and
o 3830mm for Sarawak.

• Malaysia‘s water status are diverse, increase and competing

needs. However the future forecast ( done by SMHB Eng.
Sdn Bhd) indicated that water supply demand cannot be
met in many locations due to
✓ uneven rainfall distribution, temporally or spatially
✓ degradation in the raw water supply catchments, because of Un-
control opening of forested areas (logging, roads, urbanizations)
resulting in massive sedimentation flow into rivers
✓ Pollution in rivers as it passes urban areas, reaches between raw
water source catchment/storages & downstream water supply intake
 2.1 Introduction
In Malaysia, the worst water crisis happen in year 2014
(February to August) for Negeri Sembilan and Selangor
residents. The main reasons for the water crisis were due:
o Meteorological background (lack of rainfall in
catchment areas)
o Treatment plant shutdown (due to ammonia
contamination)
o Political deadlock in negotiations (between
government and SYABAS).
 2.2 Water Sources
There are two water sources used regularly:

Groundwater Surface water

(shallow wells, deep wells) (rivers, lake, reservoir)

• constant composition • variable composition

• high mineral content • low mineral content
• low turbidity • high turbidity
• low color • colored
• low or no D.O. • D.O. present
• high hardness • low hardness
• high Fe, Mn • taste and odor
 2.3 National Water Services Commission
Act 2006 (Act 654)
• The National Water Services Act 2006 or the Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara
Act 2006 which came into effect on 1 February 2007 is enforced by the Ministry of
Energy, Water and Communication.
• This Act was enforced to establish a body known as the Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air
Negara (SPAN), or the National Water Services Commission to regulate and enforce the
provisions of the Water Services IndustryAct 2006 (Act 655) known as WSIA
• The Commission, which is fully functional since 1January 2008, is a central regulatory
agency to oversee adequate, clean and healthy water supply including the treated
water supply.
• The Commission shall have all the functions conferred on it under the water supply and
sewerage services laws and shall also have the following functions:
➢ to implement and enforce the water supply and sewerage services laws and to
recommend reforms to the water supply and sewerage services laws;
➢ to ensure the productivity of the water supply and sewerage services industry and
the monitoring of operators’ compliance with stipulated services standards,
contractual obligations and relevant laws and guidelines;
➢ to ensure national development goals pertaining to coverage, supply and access to
water supply services and sewerage services are achieved
2.3 National Water Services Commission
Act 2006 (Act 654)
• The Water Services Industry Act 2006 (WSIA) which came into force on 1 January 2008 is a
federal law and enacted to regulate water supply services and sewerage service industry.
• The WSIA is enacted for the following objectives:
➢ to ensure uniformity of law and policy to make a law for the proper control and
regulation of water supply services throughout Peninsular Malaysia and the Federal
Territories of Putrajaya and Labuan;
• Three main subsidiary legislation have been introduces in WSIA;
➢ Water Services Industry (Licensing) Regulations 2007
prescribes all matters relating to the issuance of individual licenses and registration of
class licenses granted under WSIA

➢ Water Services Industry (Permit) Rules2007

issues rules on all matters relating to the issuance of permits granted under WSIA.

➢ Water Services Industry (Licensing) (Exemption) Order 2007

exempts a person from individual or class licensing requirement, by order of the
Minister.
2.3 National Water Services Commission
Act 2006 (Act 654)
 2.3 National Water Services Commission
Act 2006 (Act 654)
Water usage: Domestic and Non Domestic

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2.4 Malaysian Water Quality Index
• The beneficial use of a SIDO =0 for x ≤ 8
freshwater is determined s =100 for x ≥ 92
based on the Water Quality
= -0.395 + 0.03 x² - 0.00020 for 8 < x < 92
Index (WQI) x³
• WQI = 0.22(SIDO) + SIBOD = 100.4 – 4.23 x for x ≤ 5
0.19(SIBOD) + 0.16(SICOD) + = 108 e -0.055x – 0.1 x for x > 5
0.15(SIAN) + 0.16(SISS) + SICOD = -1.33 x + 99.1 for x ≤ 20
0.12(SIpH) = 103 e -0.0157x – 0.04 x for x > 20
• The WQI serves as a basis for SIAN = 100.5 – 105 x for x ≤ 0.3
environmental assessment = 94 e -0.573x – 5 | x – 2 | for 0.3 < x < 4
of a watercourse in relation
=0 for x ≥ 4
to pollution categorization
SISS = 97.5 e -0.00676x + 0.05 x for x ≤ 100
and designated classes of
beneficial uses = 71 e -0.0016x – 0.015 x for 100 < x < 1000
=0 for x ≥ 1000
SIpH = 17.2 – 17.2 x+ 5.02 x² for x< 5.5
= -242 + 95.5 x – 6.67 x² for 5.5 ≤ x < 7
= - 181 + 82.4 x – 6.05 x² for 7 ≤ x < 8.75
= 536 – 77.0 x + 2.76 x² for x ≥ 8.75
2.4 Malaysian Water Quality Index
Parameter Classes
Unit
I IIA IIB III IV V
AN mg/L 0.1 0.3 0.3 0.9 2.7 >2.7
BOD mg/L 1 3 3 6 12 >12
COD mg/L 10 25 35 50 100 >100
DO mg/L 7 5-7 5-7 5-9 5-9 -
pH - 6.5-8.5 6-9 6-9 5-9 5-9 -
EC μS/cm 1000 1000 - - 6000 -
TSS mg/L 25 50 50 150 300 300
oC
Normal Normal
Temperature - - - -
+ 2 oC + 2 oC
Turbidity NTU 5 50 50 - - -
count/
Total Coliform 100 5000 5000 50000 50000 >50000
100ml
2.4 Malaysian Water Quality Index
Class Uses

Class I Conservation of natural environment. Index Range

Water Supply I – Practically no treatment
necessary. Index
Fishery I – Very sensitive aquatic species. Slightly
Clean Polluted
Polluted
Class IIA Water Supply II – Conventional treatment
required.
Fishery II - Sensitive aquatic species. WQI 81 – 100 60 – 80 0 – 59

Class IIB Recreational use with body contact.

Water quality data were used to determine the

Class III Water Supply III – Extensive treatment water quality status either in clean, slightly
required. polluted or polluted category and to classify the
Fishery III – Common, of economic value rivers in
and tolerant species; livestock drinking. Class I (WQI > 92.7),
Class II (WQI = 76.5 – 92.7),
Class IV Irrigation. Class III (WQI = 51.9 – 76.5),
Class IV (WQI = 31.0 – 51.9) or
Class V None of above.
Class V (WQI < 31.0) based on INWQS.
 Classification of River Water Quality in Malaysia 2017

In 2017, with total number of river = 477 rivers,

● 1 river as Class I ● 305 rivers as Class II
● 144 rivers were classified as Class III ● 26 rivers as Class IV
● 1 river as Class V
 Classification of River Water Quality in
Malaysia 2017
❖ 5 major type of water pollution sources:
o Manufacturing industries
o agricultural industries
o sewage treatment plant
o piggery and
o wet market

❖ 3 prime parameters with high impact to the water body:

o Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) - sewage and discharges from
agro- based and manufacturing industries.
o Suspended Solids (SS) - earthworks and land-clearing activities.
o Ammoniacal Nitrogen (AN/ NH₃-N) - sewage that included livestock
farming and domestic sewage.
2.5 Malaysia : National Guidelines
for Raw Drinking Water Quality
National Guidelines for Raw Drinking Water Quality (Revised December 2000)

Parameter Symbol Benchmark

Sulphate SO4 250 mg/l
Hardness CaCO3 500 mg/l
Nitrate NO3SO 10 mg/l
Coliform - Must not be detected in any 100 ml sample

Manganese Mn 0.1 mg/l

Chromium Cr 0.05 mg/l
Zinc Zn 3 mg/l
Arsenic As 0.01 mg/l
Selenium Se 1.mg/l
Chloride Cl 250 mg/l
Phenolics - 2.mg/l
TDS - 1000 mg/l
Iron Fe 0.3 mg/l
Copper Cu 1.0 mg/l
Lead Pb 0.01 mg/l
Cadmium Cd 0.003mg/l
Mercury Hg 0.001 mg
 TREATED WATER QUALITY STANDARD*

Parameters Unit Raw Water Treated

(average) Water
pH pH 5.8 -6.9 6.5 - 9

Iron mg/l < 1.0 < 0.3

Manganese mg/l < 0.2 < 0.1

Turbidity NTU 300 <5

Suspended Solid mg/l 100 -

DO ppm 4-7 8 -10

Color TCU 300 < 15

Aluminium mg/l < 0.1 < 0.2

Fluoride ppm < 1.5 0.5 – 0.7
Res. Chlorine ppm - 1.5 – 2.5
Ammonia ppm - < 1.5

* SAJ-Ranhill Sdn Bhd

 2.6 Water demand
a) Various types of water demands b) Per capita demand

• While designing the water supply scheme for • Since there are so many factors involved in
a town or city, it is necessary to determine water demand, it is not possible to accurately
the total quantity of water required for determine the actual demand.
various purposes by the city. • Certain empirical formula and rules of thumb
are employed in determining the water
• As a matter of fact, the first duty of an demand, which is very near to the actual
engineer is to determine the water demand demand.
of the town and then to find suitable water
sources from where the demand can be met. • If Q is the total quantity of water required by
various purposes by a town per year and P is
• Following are the various types of water population of town, then per capita demand
demand of a city or town: will be:
1. Domestic water demand • Per capita demand = __𝑄 ___ 𝑙𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑟/𝑑𝑎𝑦
2. Industrial water demand (𝑃 𝑥 365)

3. Institution and commercial water demand

4. Demand for public use
5. Fire demand
6. Losses and wastes
 Water usage: Domestic consumption

Malaysia is targeting
the water consumption
at 180 L/cap.day

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 2.6 Water demand
c) Factors affecting per capita demand d) Domestic water demand
1. Size of the city • Quantity of water required for drinking, bathing,
cooking, washing, and other daily routines
2. Climatic conditions
• Mainly depends upon habits, social status,
3. Types gentry and habits of people climatic conditions and customs of the people
4. Industrial and commercial activities • Under normal conditions, the domestic
5. Quality of water supplies consumption of water is about 135-150
L/day/capita (lcpd)
6. Pressure in the distribution system
• However, in developed countries, the figure may
7. Development of sewerage facilities reach 350 L/day/capita due to the use of air
coolers, air conditioners, maintenance of lawns,
8. System of supply
and automatic household appliances
9. Cost of water • The details of the domestic consumption are (
10. Local policy of metering and method of total 135 Lcpd):
charging (water tariff) - Drinking (5 lcpd) - Cooking (5 lcpd)
- Bathing (55 lcpd) - Laundry (20 lcpd)
• Refer National Water Services Commission (Suruhanjaya
Perkhidmatan Air Negara) for further details on policies and
- Utensil washing (10 lcpd)
water tariff for Malaysia. - House cleaning (10 lcpd)
- Toilet flushing (30 lcpd)
 2.6 Water demand
e) Industrial water demand e) Institutional and commercial water
demand
• Quantity of water required in industrial
sectors depends on the type of industries
• Universities, institutions, commercial
• The quantity of water demand for industrial buildings, and commercial centres including
purpose is approximately 20 -25% of the total office buildings, warehouses, stores, hotels,
water demand of a city shopping centres, health centres, schools,
• Per capita consumption for industrial needs of religious houses, cinema houses, railways,
a city is generally taken as 50 lcpd and bus stations comes under this category.

e) Fire demand
• Fire may take place due to faulty electric wires by short circuiting, fire catching materials,
explosions, bad intension of criminal people or any other unforeseen mishappenings.
• If fires are not properly controlled and extinguished in minimum possible time, they lead to
serious damage and may burn cities.
• All the big cities have full fire-fighting squads.
• As during the fire breakdown large quantity of water is required for throwing it over the fire to
extinguish it, therefore provision is made in the water work to supply sufficient quantity of water
or keep as reserve in the water mains for this purpose.
 2.6 Water demand
e) Fire demand
• In the cities, fire hydrants are provided on the water mains at 100 to 150 m apart for fire demand.
• The quantity of water required for firefighting is generally calculated by using different empirical
formula.
𝑄 = 3182 √𝑃
Where, Q – quantity of water required in liter/min , P – population of town or city in thousands
• Though the total demand of water for extinguishing fire is usually very small, the rate of
consumption is very high. It depends upon bulk, congestion and fire resistance buildings.
• Fire hydrants of 15 to 20 cm diameter are normally provided on all street corners, and at suitable
intermediate points. These are generally connected to water supply mains.
• For a fire of moderate, three streams each of 1100 L/min are required.
• Assuming an average total consumption of 150 L/day, thus the rate of flow required for the fire
demand, is very much higher than the total flowrate required for the purposes.
• However, the provision of fire demand is made only for 3 to 5 hours fire flow.
• The total quantity of water calculated on yearly basis is usually very small because fire breaks out
only few times in a year.
2.7 Engineered water system
 2.8 Surface Water Treatment
• Primary objectives are to
1. Remove suspended material (turbidity) and color
2. Eliminate pathogenic organisms
• Treatment technologies largely based on coagulation and flocculation
(--- compulsory)
 2.8 Surface Water Treatment
Treatment process:
• Rapid Mix (chemical pre treatment) - The purpose of the rapid mix tank is to
provide a complete mix, allowing the lime/alum to come in contact with the dissolved
minerals. Motor-driven paddles keep the mixture moving and prevent settling in the mix
tanks. Alum is a polymers, acts like a "glue,”
• Flocculation.- The particles attach to one another to form larger solids that will be
settled by gravity and removed during another stage of treatment. As slow proceeds
through each tank the force and speed of the mixing is gradually reduced, allowing the
particles to grow as large and heavy as possible.
• Settling - Next, the water flows to settling/sedimentation tanks, or clarifies, where floc
settle to the bottom as lime sludge/alum sludge. The retention time is two to three hours to
allow the flow settle by gravity. Part of this sludge is returned to the mixing tank to assist in
coagulation; the remainder is drawn off continuously to holding ponds or lagoons for final
disposal.
• Filtration –This step id particularly for the removal of the very fine particle which is not
settle by gravity.
• Chlorination - To ensure bacteriological safety of the water supply a calculated dose of
chlorine will be added. The chlorine disinfects the water and protects against microbial
contamination after the water leaves the treatment plant.
2.8 Surface Water Treatment

Loji Rawatan Air Semenyih, Selangor

 2.8 Surface Water Treatment
Example of complete processes for surface water treatment plant in
Malaysia
 2.8 Surface Water Treatment
Other treatment process to be considered:

❑ Pre chlorination - used for disinfection of the raw water only if it does not
result in formation of thrihalomethane.
❑ Pre sedimentation - To reduce silt and settleable organic matter prior to
chemical treatment
❑ Flouridation - Fluoride is added into water to prevent incident in dental caries.
❑ Post Chlorination - To form and remain the residual chlorine in the distribution
system.
❑ Activated Carbon - To remove odor and taste producing compound.
 2.8 Surface Water Treatment
The goal of municipal water treatment is to provide water that is both
palatable and potable

• Palatable • Potable
o aesthetically pleasing considers the o safe to drink
presence of chemicals that do not o not necessarily aesthetically pleasing
pose a threat to human health o potability affected by
o palatability affected by chloride, ❖ microbials (e.g. Giardia,
colour, corrosive iron, manganese, Cryptosporidium)
taste and odour, total dissolved ❖ organic chemicals (e.g., alachor,
solids, turbidity chlordane, cis-1,2-
dichloroethylene, disinfection by-
products)
❖ inorganic chemicals (e.g.,
cadmium, copper, lead, mercury)
❖ radionuclides
 2.9 Raw water intake
• Raw water intakes withdraw water from a river, lake, or reservoir over a
predetermined range of pool levels.
• Intake can be correctly positioned using a number of techniques including
suspending the inlet from a float, securing the inlet in a rigid structure
such as bucket or crib, or using rigid pipe work, or in freezing condition.

Rigid pipe work

Bucket or crib
 2.9 Raw water intake
Types of intake structures; floating intake , submerged intake, pier intake, tower intake,
exposed or tower intake and shore intake

Floating intake
Tower intake
 2.9 Raw water intake
• The following are the characteristics for intake site selection
a) Intake velocity
• High velocities – head loss, entrain suspended matter,

Intake Design Consideration

• Water quality
trap fish, and other aquatic animals.
• Water depth
• Velocity below 8 cm/s allows aquatic animal to
• Stream or current velocities escape, and minimize the suspended matter.
• Foundation stability
• Access
• Power availability b) Intake-port location- Water quality in each stratum may
vary. To achieve, multiple intake ports set at various levels
• Proximity to water
are generally provided
treatment plant
• Top intake – less than 2 m below normal level.
• Environmental impact
• Bottom intake – least 1 m above the bottom
• Hazard to navigate
 2.10 Grit Removal System
❖ Grit chamber are designed to remove grit, consisting of sand,
gravel, sanders or other heavy solid materials that have specific
gravities or setting velocities substantially greater than those of
organic particles in water.
❖Grit chamber located after bar screens and before primary
sedimentation.
❖Just like sedimentation tank, design mainly to remove heavier
particles or coarse inert and relatively dry suspended solids from
the water and protect moving mechanical equipment from
abrasion and accompanying abnormal water.
❖Two main types:
orectangular horizontal flow
o Aerated grit chamber – organic solids are kept in suspension
by rising aerated system provided at the bottom of the tank.
2.10 Grit Removal System
Velocity Controlled
2.10 Grit Removal System
Design criteria for horizontal flow (Rectangular or square)
(configuration type)
2.10 Grit Removal System
Calculation
2.10 Grit Removal System
 2.11 Screening
• It is a unit operation that removes suspended matter from water.
• Screens may be classified as coarse, fine, or micro strainer, depending on
the size of material removed

Coarse screen or trash rack

• To prevent large object from entering the fixed

conveyance system
• Consists of vertical flat bars, or, in some
cases, round pipes spaced with 5 to 8 cm
of clear opening.
• Installed outside of any sluice gate. rotary
• The velocity through the coarse screen is
generally less than 8 cm/s.
 2.11 Screening

Fine screen
• To remove smaller objects that may
damage pumps or other equipment.
• Screens consists of heavy wire mesh
with 0.5 cm square opening
• The typical design velocity through the
effective area is in the range of 0.4 to
0.8 m/s.
• There are two types: Traveling screens
and passive screen installation
 2.12 Aeration
• Aeration involves bringing air or other gases in contact with water.
• The purpose of aeration are
1. Reduce the concentrations of taste and odor causing substance by volatilization
2. To oxidize iron and manganese, rendering them insoluble.
3. To add dissolve oxygen in water to make it taste better
4. To remove compounds for better water treatment (H2S removal before chlorination
and CO2 removal before softening)

• Types of aerator
1. Cascade -Water is sent down gravitically, and oxygenated as it encounter the air
bubbles caused by turbulent flow
2. Diffused air -Water is enriched with oxygen as it encounter the air bubbles.

Cascade Tray
 2.12 Aeration
Cascade aerators also consist of circular
trays stacked one above the other, with a
central feed pipe. The spacing between
trays varies from 460 mm to 760 mm with
a total height of fall being calculated from
Gameson’s Formula which is:
r = 1+ 0.5 (a x b x h)
where

r = the ratio of the oxygen deficit just before the aerator to that
just after the aerator.
The “oxygen deficit” is the difference between the actual oxygen
content for the water at that temperature and pressure.
Aeration occurs in splash area.
The collection basin area is sized
a = level of water pollution according to the loading rate of
1.25 in slightly polluted water
49 m3/hour/m2.
1.0 in moderately polluted water
0.85 in sewage effluents
Generally the head required at a
b = types of weir cascade aerator range from 1 to 3
1.00 for a free fall weir m.
1.30 for a stepped weir

h = the total height of the fall in meters

 2.12 Aeration
Example

From the intake port, the DO content of a raw water is 4.5 mg/L whereas
at saturation point at average temperature of 26oC and pressure of 755
mm Hg, the DO is 8.2 mg/L. The water inflow is 390 m3/hour. Design a
cascade aerator. Assume the intake water is slightly polluted and the
stepped weir is proposed.

Solution
For treatment requirements, it is sufficient to raise the DO to 80% of that
at saturation condition.
i.e. 0.8 x 8.2 = 6.56 mg/L.

Calculate the the ratio of oxygen deficit, r

r = (8.2 – 4.5)/(8.2 – 6.56) = 2.256
 2.12 Aeration
Applying Gameson’s Formula for slightly polluted water and a stepped weir,
r = 1 + 0.5 (a x b x h)
= 1 + (1.25 x 1.30 x h)
Knowing r = 2.256
Therefore ,
2.256 = 1 + (1.25 x 1.30 x h)
h = 1.55 m

Taking the flow rate to be 49 m3/hour/m2,

Area of collection basin

= 390 / 49 = 7.95 m2

Hence, if D is the minimum diameter of collection basin,

 D2/4 = 7.95
D = 3.2 m
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Surface water contains organic and inorganic particles.

such as clay and colloids remain in are charged negatively

suspension without aggregating for long and stable in nature
periods of time. Therefore, particle cannot be (stable = existing in
removed by sedimentation. ionized form).

How to destabilise the particle/colloid to

make it able to settle down in sedimentation
tank?

ANSWER:
By adding the COAGULANT ( charged positively)!!!
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

JAR test is a laboratory works to illustrate the coagulation and flocculation concepts
associated to nature water. From this experiment the optimal pH, coagulant dose ,and
coagulant aid could be determined.

Therefore, coagulation and flocculation designed to remove

• Microorganisms and colloids that caused turbidity
• Toxic compounds that are absorbed to particles
• Inorganic materials
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Rapid mixing varieties

 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

• Coagulation is a process utilizes chemical

coagulant. The coagulant is mixed thoroughly • Flocculation is the process in which the
with the water (in rapid mix process). The destabilised particles are bound together
various species of the positively charged by hydrogen bonding of Van der Waal’s
particle (from coagulant) adsorb to the forces to form larger particle flocs
negatively charged colloids (color, clay, • High molecular weight polymers, called
turbidity) and negatively charged particles. coagulant aids, may be added during this
• Once the charge is neutralized, the small step to help bridge, bind, and strengthen
suspended particles are capable of sticking the floc, add weight, and increase settling
together. The slightly larger particles formed rate. Once the floc has reached it optimum
through this process and called microflocs, size and strength, the water is ready for the
are not visible to the naked eye. sedimentation process.
• The water surrounding the newly formed
microflocs should be clear. If it is not, all the
particles' charges have not been neutralized,
and coagulation has not been carried to
completion. More coagulant may need to be
added.
• Microfloc itself is not yet settleable, and then
flocculation process takes place.
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Effectiveness of
Coagulation
The crux of efficient coagulation is the
efficiency of MIXING the coagulant
with the raw water.

Coagulation happens in two

mechanisms;
•Adsorption/destabilization of the soluble
hydrolysis species on the colloid and
destabilization
-sample with high turbidity which needs
low dosage of coagulant (pH 5-7)
•Sweep coagulation where the colloid is
trapped in the hydroxide precipitate
- low turbidity, high dosage of coagulant
(pH 5.8-9)
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Mixing Time

•The time that a fluid remains in the reactor and affects the degree to which the
reaction goes to completion.

•In the ideal reactor,

t = V/Q
where ,
t = time ( in second)
V = volume ( m3)
Q = flow rate ( m3/s)

Adsorption/destabilization: t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 1 s < t < 10 s

note: real reactor do not behave as ideal reactor because of density difference due
to temperature or other causes.
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Mixing equipment is need in coagulation. Why?

Answer : To dispersion of the coagulant into the raw water.

Dispersion of the coagulant into water is called flash mixing or rapid mixing.
Rapid mixing aims to produce the high G.

Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is

adsorption/destabilization are;
• Diffusion mixing by pressured water jets
• In line mechanical mixing
• In line static mixing

Common alternatives for mixing when the mechanism of coagulation is sweep

coagulation are;
• Mechanical mixing in stirred tanks
• Diffusion by pipe grid
• Hydraulic mixing
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and 2) mixing time

Velocity gradient, G
• G , can be thought as the amount of shear taking place;

• For coagulation, G must be higher enough. When chemical be added, the

different G should e take into the consideration.
Adsorption/destabilization: 3000 s-1 < G < 5000 s-1 , t = 0.5 s
Sweep coagulation : 600 s-1 < G < 1000 s-1 , 1 s < t < 10 s

• Different chemicals require different velocity gradients

• Power of mixture imparted to water could be calculated;

Power = G2 V
where,
G = velocity gradient, s -1
V = volume in m3
 = dynamic viscosity of water, Pa.s
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Example
A rapid mixer is used for the dispersion of the coagulant to achieve the
adsorption/destabilization reaction. If the water ( temperature 170 C) flows at
300 MLD, determine the volume of coagulation tank. Calculate the power.
Given ; velocity gradient, G = 2000 s-1

Solution
For the adsorption/destabilization reaction, t should be fixed as 0.5 s.
Volume = Q t
= ( 300 x 106 L) ( 0.5 s x d x hr x min )
d 24 hr 60 min 60 s
= 1740 L x m3
1000L
= 1.74 m3
Refer to water properties, dynamic viscosity of water @170 C =1.081 x 10-3 Pa.s
Refer Table
Power = G2 V
= (2000) 2 (1.74) (1.081 x 10-3)
= 7524 Watt
Note: recalculate the power by assuming the temperature of water is 250 C. Give comment.
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Effectiveness of Flocculation
The crux of efficient flocculation is the efficiency of MIXING to bring the particles into
contact with one another so that they will collide, stick together and grow to a size
that will readily settle. The mixing aims to flocculate the coagulated water.

Efficiency of MIXING is depending on the 1) velocity gradient and 2)mixing time.

Velocity gradient, G

For flocculation, high enough to cause particles contact and keep the floc from
settling but low enough to prevent the floc from tearing apart.

Mixing Time

•For conventional treatment where settling follows flocculation, the flocculation

times ranges from 20 -40 minutes.
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
▪Flocculation is normally accomplished with
1) paddle flocculator

Coagulation Flocculation Sedimentation

2) baffled chamber
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Questions
1) In flocculation tank, flow-through velocity is normally to
2.5 - 75 mm/s. Explain what will be happen if the velocity
is less than 2.5 mm/s and more than 7.5 mm/s.

2) In designing a flocculation tank, which one of the

following parameters take more priority: horizontal /flow
through velocity or detention time?

3) Flocculation and settling tanks should be as close as

possible . Why?
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulant • Types of coagulant

• is the substance (chemical) that is - Alum: Al2(SO4)3.14H2O
added to the water to destabilize - Ferric chloride: FeCl3
particles and accomplish coagulation. - Ferric sulfate: FeSO4
• Properties of coagulant - Polyelectrolytes
✓ Non-toxic and relatively inexpensive
✓ Insoluble in neutral pH range - do not
want high concentrations of metals
left in treated water
✓ Cation: trivalent cation is lesser
dosage ( compared to Ca2+ and Na+)
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

• Why trivalent
cations considered
as good coagulant ?

ANSWER:

Cations such as Fe3+

and Al3+ has a higher
molecular weight, easy
to settle. Therefore, it
removes turbidity
effectively even a small
dose was used.
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Coagulant type Examples

Inorganic metallic Aluminium sulfate (Al2(SO4)3•14H2O, sodium aluminate,

coagulant aluminium chloride, ferric sulfate and ferric chloride

Prehydrolyzed Made from alum and iron salts and hydroxide under controlled
metal salts condition; polyaluminium chloride (PAC)

Organic polymers Cationic polymers, anionic polymers, and nonionic polymers

Natural plant-based Opuntia spp. And MoringaOleifera (used in many parts of the
materials world esp. developing country)
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Alum sludge=alum floc =dry sludge
How does alum works? (without water, H2O=Al(OH)3), settle in the
flocculation tank
In sufficient alkalinity in the water

1Al2(SO4)3•14H2O + 6HCO3- ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 +14H2O + 3SO42-

1 mole of alum added uses 6 moles of alkalinity and produces 6 moles of

CO2

The above reaction shifts the carbonate equilibrium and decreases the
pH
However, as long as sufficient alkalinity is present and CO2 (g) is allowed
to evolve, the pH is not drastically reduced and is generally not an
operational problem
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Example Calculate the amount of alum sludge produced and alkalinity (HCO₃⁻ ) consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used.
Solution

1) Chemical reaction

Al2(SO4)3.14H2O + 6HCO3- ↔ 2Al(OH)3(s) + 6CO2 + 8 H2O + 3SO42- + 14H2O

2) Molecular weight (MW)

MW alum = 594 g/mole

MW alkalinity = 61 g/mole
MW alum sludge = 78 g/mole

3) Solid removed when 1 mg/L alum was used, (Covert mg/L to mole/L)

1 mg/L = 1.684 x 10-6 mole/L

Unit conversion
(594 g/mole)(1000 mg/g) mg/L
mole/L
4) Known that 1 mole alum yield 2 mole of alum sludge, therefore

Solid removed = 2 (1.684 x 10-6 mole/L) (78 g/mole)

= 2.63 x 10-4 g/L = 0.26 mg/L

5) Alkalinity consumed when 1 mg/L alum was used,

Known that 1 mole alum yield 6 mole of alkalinity, therefore

Alkalinity to be consumed= 6 (1.684 x 10-6 mole/L) (61 g/mole) HCO3 –E xpressed in CaCO₃
= 6.16 x 10-4 g/ L = 0.62 mg/L HCO₃⁻ x EW CaCO3 / EW
= 0.62 mg/L HCO₃⁻ = 0.62 mg/L HCO₃⁻ x 50 g/eq /61 g/eq
= 0.51 mg/L HCO₃⁻ as CaCO₃
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

Example

Two sets of jar test were conducted on a raw water

containing 15 NTU and an HCO3- (alkalinity) concentration of
50 mg/L expressed as CaCO3. iUsing the given data find:

a. the optimal pH,

b. The optimal coagulant dose and
c. the theoretical amount of alkalinity that would be
consumed at the optimal dose
2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Jar Test 1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6

pH 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5

Alum dose 10 10 10 10 10 10
Settled
Turbidity 10.5 7 6.5 8 9 13
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
Jar Test 2
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1 2 3 4 5 6

pH 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0 6.0

Alum dose 5 7 10 12 15 20
Settled
Turbidity 15 10.5 6 5.5 7 13
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
 2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation
Answer
1. Construct the graph of turbidity remaining 2) Construct the graph
versus pH turbidity remaining vs alum dose
Turbidity vs pH
14
turbudity remaining (NTU)

12

10

0
5 6 7 8
pH

• The optimal pH was chosen as 6.25 while the optimal alum dose was about 12.5 mg/L
• 1 mole of alum consumes 6 mole of alkalinity (HCO3-).
• Therefore, you have to calculate moles of alum added per liter.

Al2(SO4)3•14H2O + 6HCO3-↔2Al(OH) 3• 3H2O(s) + 6CO2 +8H2O + 3SO42-

2.13 Coagulation and Flocculation

• Recalled: (Eq. 5-7 pg 223 text book)

mg/L = molarity x molecular wt x 103
= (moles/L) x (g/mole) x 103 mg/g)

12.5 mg/L alum, MW of alum= 594 g/mole

 mole/L = 12.5 x 10-3 g/L (alum)/594 g/mole
= 2.1 x 10-5 moles/L
Which will consume 6 (2.1 x 10-5 ) = 1.26 x 10-4 mole/L HCO3-
• MW HCO3- = 61, so
• (1.26 x 10-4 moles/L)(61 g/mole)(103 mg/g) = 7.7 mg/L HCO3- are
consume,
• mg/L as CaCO3 = 7.7 (50)/61 = 6.31 mg/L as CaCO3