ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This report is the outcome of the survey camp of GROUP 13 that was held by
the Civil Engineering Department of Kathford College of Engineering and
Management from 28th of Karthik to 8th of Mangshir for the III/I students.
Wit
h great pleasure we the members of group 13 want to take this opportunity to
express my heartfelt gratitude to all the people who helped in fulfilling the
accomplishment of this Survey Camp.
We are grateful Prof. Narayan Basnet sir, Prof. VishwaNath Khanal sir, for
sharing his truthful and illuminating views on a number of issues during the
Camp. We would like to thank the program coordinator and deputy head of
the Civil Engineering Department of Kathford Engineering College and
Management-Er. Nirajan Devkota, as well as other teachers for sparing
time and providing necessary information patiently and his cooperation
during the camp and in the preparation of report.
We would also like to thank the non-teaching staff of the college who helped
us a lot during our stay at the camp.
We are also thankful to the management of Mars Nepal Engineering Survey
Camp Pvt. Ltd who provided us with lodging, fooding and area to do the field
work for 10 days.
OUR CAMP INSTRUCTOR
 Prof. Narayan Basnet
 Prof. VishwaNath Khanal
 Er. Niranjan Devkota
 Er. Bibek Raj Shrestha
 Er. Sagun Basnet
 Er. Sachin Kumar Yadav
 Er. Sher Bahadur Gurung
 Er. Jeevan Gawacha
TOPOGRAPHIC SURVEY
Introduction
Topographic surveying is the process of determining the positions, both on
the plan and elevation, of the natural and artificial features of a locality for
the purpose of delineating them by the means of conventional signs upon a
topographic map. Topography defines the shape or configuration of the
earth's surface. The basic purpose of a topographic map is to indicate the
three dimensional relationships for the terrain of any given area of land.
Thus, on a topographical map, the relative positions of the points are
represented both horizontally and vertically. Hence, the fieldwork in a
topographical surveying consists of three parts.
 It establishes both horizontal and vertical control.
 It locates the contours.
 It also locates the details such as streams, lakes, houses, canals, roads,
trees etc.
Objectives
The main objective is to prepare the topographic map of the given area with
horizontal and vertical control with the required accuracy. Then with help of
the prepared topographical map of the area the positions and elevations of
any features can be located with the help of the conventional signs and
symbols in the topographical map.
Brief description of the area.
The area where the topographical surveying was performed, is situated in
Bungmati area of Lalitpur district on the right side of the under construction
fast track on its way to Kathmandu. The plot of land where the surveying was
done belonged to Mars Nepal Engineering Survey Camp Pvt. Ltd which was
around 100 ropanies. The major traverse covered the whole plot of the land
while the minor/link traverse was run through the area from where maximum
numbers of the details were visible and the details that couldn't be taken from
the major traverse station.
Norms (Technical specifications)
 Reconnaissance: The plot of land was viewed around before fixing the
major traverse stations. Then the required number of traverse stations
are fixed. In the selection of the traverse stations the leg ratio i.e. the
ratio of the length of the longest leg of the traverse and the length of the
shortest leg of the traverse was maintained to be 2:1 and the angle
formed by two traverse leg must be greater than 30º and must not be in
the range of 180º±20º.
 Two-way measurement of the traverse legs: The accuracy of two-
way measurement of the leg distance with the help of total station must
be greater or equals to 1:5000.
 Two set of angle measurement: The difference between the FL and
FR reading must be within 180º±2*L.C. and the difference between the
0º and 90º set of the angles must be at least 1º.
 Determination of RL of the traverse stations: Perform two peg test.
The balancing of foresight and back sight is required to remove the
collimation error. Fly levelling must be conducted where the difference
of distance between foresight and back sight must be smaller than or at
least equals to 1m and the permissible error of fly levelling must be
±24√K mm, where K is the loop distance in km.
 Balancing of the traverse: The angular misclosure is checked by
subtracting theoretical from observed sum of the interior of exterior
angles. The theoretical sum is measured by (2n±4)*90, where n is the
number of the sides of the traverse. Here, positive sign is used for
exterior angles and negative sign is used for interior angles. The
difference must be under the permissible limit of 30"√n, where n is the
number of the sides of the traverse.
 Plotting of the traverse stations using co-ordinate method: The
independent co-ordinates of each traverse stations is calculated using
Gale's table and the traverse stations are plotted in a grid sheet by using
appropriate scale.
 Detailing: Both hard and soft details of the plot are taken from major
and minor traverse stations that are in the plot by the use of total
 station. Then the contour lines are plotted using point of same
elevation.

Equipments Used
The equipments that were used during the topographic survey were:
 Total station
 Tripod stands
 Reflectors
 Clampers
 Staffs
 Ranging rods
 Tapes
 Levelling instruments
 Plumb bob
 Nails, pegs
 Prismatic compass
 Arrows
 Hammers
 Markers
Total station
A total station is an optical instrument that is used quite a lot in modern
surveying. This instrument is a combination of electronic theodolite, an EDM
and an external computer known as data collector.
With total station one may determine angle, distances from the instrument to
the points to be surveyed. With the aid of trigonometry and triangulation, the
angle and distances may be used to calculate the co-ordinates of the points
surveyed.
Some of the total stations have GPS interface that combines two technologies
to make use of the both GPS and traditional total station.
Measurement of the distance is accomplished with a modulated microwave or
infrared carrier signal generated by a small solid-state emitter within the
instrument's optical path and bounced off of the object to be measured. The
modulation pattern in the returning signal is read and interpreted by the
onboard computer in total station. The distance is determined by emitting and
receiving multiple frequencies, and determining the integer number of
wavelengths to the target for each frequency. Most of the total stations use a
Porro prism as the reflector for the EDM signal and can measure distances
out to a few kilometers, but some instruments are "reflector less" and can
measure distances to any object that is reasonably light in color, out to a few
hundred meters. Some modern total stations are 'robotic' allowing the
operator to control the instrument from a distance via remote control. This
eliminates the need of an assistant staff member to hold the reflector prism
over the point to be measured. The operator holds the reflector and controls
the total station from the observed point.
D= (T/2)*Velocity of light

Fig: Total Station and its components

EDM
Electronic Distance Measurement is one of the modern surveying equipment,
which is very accurate and for that reason it is very popular. As its name
suggests, it is used for measuring the horizontal distance between two places-
instrument station and target. Due to the ease of the use of the instrument, it
has been used in many places and has replaced the conventional measurement
methods like chaining and taping etc. The basic principle of EDM is that the
distance between the two points can be known once the time taken by light to
travel from the instrument to the prism and back is known. Then the
following relation which is already programmed in the memory of the
instrument along with other correction factors calculates the required
horizontal distance and is displayed in the LCD screen.
D= v*T/2 where, D= Distance, v= velocity of light, T= time period
Total station traversing is the process involved in the surveying of connecting
lines to create a closed frame-work of lines and it consists of two tasks viz.
two –way measurements of the traverse legs by EDM and measurement of
traverse angles by making use of total station for angular measurements.
Methodology
The methodology is based on the principles of surveying.
 Working from whole to part.
 Independent check
 Consistency of the work
 Accuracy maintained
Traversing
Traversing is a type of surveying in which a number of connected survey
lines form the framework. It is a method of control surveying. The survey
consists of the measurement of:
 Angles between successive lines or bearings of each line.
 The length of each line.
The directions and lengths of which are measured with the help of an angle
measuring instrument i.e. Total station and an EDM system respectively.
If the co-ordinates of the first station and the bearing of the first line are
known, the co-ordinates of all successive points can be computed as
follows:
XB= XA+ Lcos
YB=YA+ Lsin; where, L is the length of the traverse and  is the bearing of
the line.
(XA, YA) is the known co-ordinate.
There are two types of traverse. They are as follows:

Closed Traverse
A traverse is said to be closed traverse when a complete circuit is made or
when it begins and ends at points whose positions on the plan are known.
The angles can be closed geometrically and the position of closure can be
determined mathematically.

Fig: Closed Traverse

Open Traverse
If the traverse ends elsewhere other than at the starting point or at some other
point, then the traverse is termed as an open traverse. It consists of a series
 of lines expanding in the same direction. It is employed for surveying
narrow strips of lands.

Fig: Open Traverse

Major traverse
The whole site which was to be surveyed was enclosed by a number of inter-
connecting survey lines forming a closed circuit or a framework joining
successive major control points. This was the required major traverse. Work
on the major traverse must be precise. Two set readings for angles of the
stations are taken and the distance of the traverse legs are measured
forwardly and backwardly. In the survey camp in total 17 stations were
established including the two common points. The control points were named
CP1 and CP2 and the major traverse stations were named from M1 to M15
respectively. The leg ratio of the longest and shortest traverse legs were
maintained at 1:2. The precision ratio of the length of the traverse legs was ≥
1:5000.
Discrepancy and linear misclosure
Discrepancy can be defined as the difference between two non-standard
values. In order to measure the lengths of the sides of the traverse, two way
measurement with the use of total station was done. Precision ratio was the
calculated by dividing the mean length of the line by its discrepancy.
Mathematically,
Discrepancy= |forward length – backward length|
Precision ratio= 1/ (mean length/ discrepancy)
Measurement of traverse angles
The interior angles of the traverse were measured with the help of an angle
measuring instrument. For the measurement of the interior angle of the
traverse, the 0 was set in the preceding station and the succeeding station was
observed from the angle measuring instrument. In the major traverse two sets
i.e. 0 set and 90 set data reading was observed. The mean angel obtained
from those two sets as taken as the interior angle made by that traverse
station.
Sum and correction of the interior angles
Permissible angular error for the closed traverse= C√N
Where, N= no. of traverse legs
C= ____
For a closed traverse,
Sum of the interior angles=(2n-4)*90º
Closing error= theoretical sum of the interior angle – observed sum of
interior angles.
If there are angular errors then the errors are equally distributed.
Bearing computation of the traverse legs
The bearing of the line CP1-CP2 was provided. From there, the bearing of the
next line was computed with the help of the formula,
Bearing of successive line= FB of previous line+ angle made by the
traverse ±180º - 540º

Computation of the co-ordinates

After the computation of bearings and having the average lengths if all the
traverse legs, the positions or the co-ordinates of the major stations are
calculated.
Consecutive co-ordinates
The latitude of the survey line is defined as the co-ordinate length measured
parallel to an assumed meridian. It is also termed as northing.
The departure of the survey line is defined as the co-ordinate length
measured perpendicular to an assumed meridian. It is also termed as easting.
Independent co-ordinates
The latitude and departure of any line with respect to a common origin of co-
ordinates are called independent co-ordinates. The independent co-ordinates
are calculated after the traverse is completely balanced. They are obtained by
adding algebraically the latitudes and departures of the traverse legs between
that station and origin.
Closing error
In closed traverse when plotting according to the field measurements, if the
end point of the traverse does not coincide exactly with the starting point due
to the error in the field measurements of the length and angles, then it is
called closing error.
Mathematically,
Closing error (e) = √[(∆L)2 +(∆D)2]
And
Tan = (∆D)/ (∆L)

Balancing of the traverse

During the computation of the traverse, we need to balance the traverse
because of the different errors in the field measurement. There are different
methods of adjusting the traverse such as:
 Bowditch's method
 Transit method
 Graphical method
 Axis method

The basis of these methods is on the assumptions that the errors in linear
measurements are proportional to 'L' where L is the length of the traverse leg.
Here, the Bowditch's method was used to adjust the traverse because both
angle and linear measurements were taken in higher precision. If the angular
precision was higher than that of the linear measurement then transit
method/rule must be used.
In a closed traverse, the algebraic sum of the latitudes and departures must be
zero if linear as well as angular measurements of the traverse along with their
computations are correct. If not, the distance between the starting station and
point or position of the same station obtained by the calculation is known as
closing error.
 Bowditch's method
The method is used when both angular and linear measurements are taken
with higher precision.
Correction of latitude or departure of any side
= Total error in latitude or departure * length of the side/ perimeter of
traverse
CLat = ∑ Lat *L/ ∑L CDep = ∑ Deo *L/ ∑D
Where, CLat = Correction to latitude of any side
CDep = Correction to departure of any side
  Transit method
This method is most applicable when angular measurements are more precise
than linear measurements. According to this rule, the total error in latitude
and in departure of the sides. Correction of latitude or departure of any side
= Total error in latitude or departure * latitude/departure of theline
Arithmetic sum of latitude/departure

Levelling
Levelling is defined as the branch of surveying which deals in finding the
elevations of the given points with respect to a given or assumed datum. It
also deals with establishing the points at a given elevation with respect to a
given or an assumed datum. It provides vertical control for the traverse. The
elevations of the relevant points must be known so that complete topography
of the area can be explored.
Accurate determination of the elevations of different points along the certain
alignment is a necessary part. Hence, it’s a subject of prime importance to
engineers and the project as a whole.
Types of levelling
Two types of levelling are used in general practices, namely direct levelling
and indirect levelling.
 Direct levelling
It is a branch of levelling in which the vertical distances with respect to the
horizontal line may be used to determine the relative difference in elevation
between two adjacent points. A level provides horizontal line of sight i.e. a
line tangential to the level surface at a point where the instrument stands, the
difference in elevation of the two points is the vertical distance between the
two level lines. With a level setup at any place, the difference in the elevation
between any two points within proper lengths of sight is given by the
difference between the rod readings taken on these points. By a succession of
instrument stations and related readings, the difference in elevation between
widely separated points is thus obtained.
These mentioned below are some special methods of direct levelling:
 Simple levelling
It's a method of levelling which is used to determine the difference of
elevation between two points which are visible from a single point. This
method is applied when the distance between two points is not too long, in
this type of levelling, only the middle wire reading against the staff held is
observed and recorded.
 Differential levelling
It's the method of direct levelling the object of which is solely to determine
the difference of two points regardless of the horizontal positions of the
points with respect to each other. This type of levelling is also known as fly
levelling.
 Profile levelling
It’s the method of levelling the object of which is to determine the elevations
of the points at measured intervals along the given line in order to obtains the
profile of the surface along that line.
 Cross- sectioning
It’s the process of taking levels on each side of the main line at right angles to
that line, in order to determine a vertical cross-section of the surface of the
ground, or of the underlying strata, or of both,
 Reciprocal levelling
It’s the method of levelling in which the difference in the elevation between
two points id accurately determined by two sets of reciprocal observations
when it is not possible to set up the level between the two points.
Indirect levelling
Indirect levelling is the process of levelling in which the elevations of the
points are computed from the vertical angles and horizontal distances
measured in the field and the length of any side of the triangle can be
computed from proper trigonometric relations.

Adjustment of level
Temporary adjustment of level
The adjustment of the level to be done before each observation is known as
the temporary adjustment of the level. The temporary adjustment of the level
is done in following steps:
 Setting up the level
The operation of setting up includes the fixing the instrument on the stand
and leveling the instrument approximately.
 Levelling up
Accurate levelling is done with the help of foot screws and with reference to
the plate levels. The purpose of levelling is to make horizontal line of sight
truly horizontal.
 Removal of parallax
Parallax is a condition arising when the image formed by the objective is not
formed in the plane of cross hairs. Parallax is eliminated by focusing the
eyepiece for distant vision of the cross hairs and by focusing the objective to
bring the image of the object in the plane of cross hairs.
Permanent adjustment of level
Permanent adjustment of the level is the adjustment of level that is done
when the corresponding relationship between the parts of the instrument is
disturbed. Two-peg test is carried out to check the need of permanent
adjustment of the auto-level.
Booking and reducing of levels
There are two methods of booking and reducing of the elevation points from
the observed staff readings.
 HI method
 Rise and Fall method

HI Method
In this method, firstly the height of instrument is calculated by back sighting
to a known station i.e. adding BS to RL of TBM or previous known station
for each setting of instrument, the RL of the next station is then calculated by
subtracting FS to the HI. Id any IS are taken, then their RL is also calculated
by subtracting IS from HI. HI is calculated for every set up of instrument at a
new place.
Rise and fall method
It is the method which was mostly used in the survey camp for fly levelling
as well as transferring the RL from TBM to the entire major and minor
traverse stations. In the rise and fall method, the difference of level/elevation
between consecutive points id found by comparing the staff readings on the
two points for the same setting of instrument. The difference between their
staff readings indicate the rise or fall according to the staff reading.
Arithmetic check
The difference between the sum of back sights and the sum of fore sights
should be equal to the difference between the sum of rise and the sum of fall
and should be equal to the difference between the RL of last and the first
points. Thus,
∑BS -∑FS = ∑RISE -∑FALL = LAST RL- FIRST RL
This provides a complete check on the intermediate sights also.
Permissible error in levelling is given by the relation Error = ±24√k mm.
Where, k is the distance of the loop in kilometers.
Detailing
The process of allocating the object position on the map with the help of
vertical and horizontal measurements with sufficient accuracy as per job is
called detailing. Detailing can be done by using total station in either EDM or
co-ordinate mode.

Tachometry
Tachometry is a branch of angular surveying in which the horizontal and
vertical distances of points are obtained by optical means. Though it only has
accuracy about 1/300 to 1/500, it is faster and convenient than the
measurements by tape or chain. It is very suitable for steep or broken ground,
deep ravines, and stretches of water or swamp where taping is impossible and
unreliable.
The objective of the tachometric survey is to prepare contour maps or plans
with both horizontal and vertical controls. For the survey of high accuracy, it
provide a check on the distances measured by tape.

The formula for the horizontal distance is

H=100 x S x Cos2q

The formula for the vertical distance is

V = 100 x S x (Sin2q)/2
Where,
S = staff intercept; q = Vertical Angle

If the angle used is zenithal angle.

Then,
H=100xSxsin2q
V=100xSx(Sin2q)/2
Where,
q=zenithalangle

Contouring
A contour is an imaginary line of constant elevation on the ground surface. It
is the line in which the surface of the ground is intersected by the level
surface.

Contour interval and Horizontal Equivalent

The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called the
contour interval. The contour interval is kept constant for a contour plan or
the topographic map; otherwise the general appearance of the map will be
misleading. The horizontal distance between two points on two consecutive
contours is known as horizontal equivalent and it depends upon the steepness
of the ground. The choice of the proper contour interval depends upon the
following considerations:
• The nature of the ground
• The scale of the map
• The purpose and the extent of the survey
• Time and expense of field and the office work

Characteristics of Contours

The characteristic features of the contour which are used while plotting and
reading a contour map or the
topographic map are summed up as follows:
1. Two contour lines of different elevations cannot cross each other. They can
cross each other only in the case of overhanging cliff.
2. Two contour lines of different elevations cannot unite to form a single. If
they do, it is only in the case of vertical cliff.
3. Closely spaced contour lines represent a steep slope. Broadly spaced
contour lines represent a gentle slope. Equally spaced contour lines represent
a uniform slope. A series of straight, parallel and equally space contours
represent a plane surface.
4. A contour line cannot split into two or more contour lines.
5. A series of closed contour lines with higher value of contour i.e. with
contour having higher value of elevation inside represent a hill where as a
series of closed contour lines with lower value of contour inside represent a
pond or the depressed land.
6. A contour line must close upon itself, though not necessary within the
limits of the map.
7. Contour lines cross a watershed or the ridge line at right angles. They form
curves of U-shaped round it with the concave side of the curve towards the
higher ground.
8. Contour lines cross a valley line at right angles. They form sharp curves of
V- shaped across it with the convex side of the curve towards the higher
ground.
9. The same contour appears on the either side of a ridge or valley, for the
highest horizontal plane that intersects the ridge line must cut it on the both
the sides. The same is true of the lower horizontal plane that cuts a valley.

Methods of Locating Contours

The location of a point in topographic survey involves both horizontal as well
as vertical control. The methods of locating contours, therefore, depend upon
the instruments used.
a. The direct method
b. The indirect method
In the direct method, the contour to be plotted is actually traced on the
ground. Only those points are surveyed which needs to be plotted. After
having surveyed those points, they are plotted and the contours are drawn
through them. The method is slow and tedious and is used for the small areas
where great accuracy is required.
In the indirect method, some suitable guide points are selected and
surveyed; the guide points need not necessarily be on the contours. These
guide points, having been plotted, serve as basis for the interpolation of
contours. This is the method most commonly used in engineering surveys.

Interpolation of the Contour lines

Interpolation of the contour is the process of spacing the contours
proportionately between the plotted ground points established by indirect
methods. The method of interpolation is based on the assumption that the
slope of the ground between the two points, which are surveyed, is uniform.
There are different methods of interpolation of contours.

They are as follows:

i. Estimation
ii. Arithmetic calculations
iii. Graphical method
i. Estimation
This method is extremely rough and is used for small scale work only. The
position of the contour points between the guides points are located by
estimation.

ii. Arithmetic Calculations

The method, though accurate, is time consuming. The position of contour
points between the guides points are located by arithmetic calculation.
X=H×N /V
Where, X= Horizontal distance of the point to be located
H= Horizontal distance between two guide points
V= Vertical distance between two guide points
Y= Vertical distance between the point to be located and lower elevation
point

iii. Graphical Method

In the graphical method, the interpolation is done with the help of a tracing
paper.

The following steps were followed in tachometric survey:

 The instrument was set up over the station and centering/leveling was
done accurately.
 The vertical distance from the top of the station peg to the center of
axis of tachometer was measured.
 The instrument was oriented with reference to a fixed station whose
distance and bearing was predetermined.
 The staff was held vertically at the nearest available benchmark and it
was sighted by the tachometer to determine the reduced level of the
starting point.
 The staff was held at point of feature to be detailed.
Horizontal angle between the reference station and the object point was
measured.
 The vertical angle to the central horizontal wire was observed.
 The staff readings of the stadia hair were observed.
 Same procedures were repeated for all the stations.
Computations and Plotting
For the calculations as well as plotting, we applied the coordinate method
(latitude and departure method). In this method, two terms latitude and
departure are used for calculation. Latitude of a survey line may be defined as
its coordinate lengths measured parallel to an assumed meridian direction.
The latitude (L) of a line is positive when measured towards north, and
termed Northing and it is negative when measured towards south, and termed
Southing. The departure (D) of a line is positive when measured towards east,
and termed Easting and it is negative when measured towards west, and
termed Westing. The latitude and departures of each control station can be
calculated using the relation:
Latitude=lCosq
Departure=lSinq

Where,
l=distance of the traverse legs
q=Whole circle bearing
If a closed traverse is plotted according to the field measurements, the end of
the traverse will not coincide exactly with the starting point. Such and error is
known as closing error.

Mathematically,
Closing error (e) = √ {(SL)2 + (SD)2 } and
Direction, tan θ = S D/SL
The sign of SL and SD will thus define the quadrant in which the closing
error lies.
The relative error of closure = Error of Closure / Perimeter of the traverse
=e/p
= 1 / (p / e)
In a closed traverse, by geometry, the sum of the interior angles should be
equal to (2n-4) x 90˚ where n is the number of traverse sides. If the angles are
measured with the same degree of precision, the error in the sum of the
angles may be distributed equally among each angle of the traverse.
The Bowditch’s method or the compass rule is mostly used to balance a
traverse where linear and angular measurements are of equal precision. The
total error in latitude and in the departure is distributed in proportion to the
lengths of the sides.
Mathematically,

a) Correction in departure of a side of traverse

= (Total departure misclosure / traverse perimeter) x length of that side

b) Correction in latitude of a side of traverse

= (Total latitude misclosure / traverse perimeter) x length of that side
In order to measure the lengths of the sides of the traverse, two way taping
(forward and backward) was done. The difference in values obtained by
forward and backward taping is called discrepancy. In addition, the reciprocal
of the discrepancy divided by the mean of the two measurements is called
precision. Both the discrepancy and the precision for each traverse leg should
be within the given limits.
Mathematically,
Discrepancy = | Forward length - Backward length |
and,
Linear precision = 1 / (Mean length / Discrepancy)
Comments and Conclusion
The work of the survey camp was finished within the allotted period of 10
days. Surveying is a subject which is based on not only theory but a lot of
practical. Thus this camp helped us a lot in understanding the principles and
techniques of surveying. The camp also helped us to work in group. This
camp will help us in our future.

The reduced level of the all the control points were computed by fly-leveling.
Detailing was carried out by tachometric surveying using Total Station. All
computations were carried out within the permissible range though there
were field obstacles as well as instrumental errors.

ROAD ALIGNMENT

Introduction
Roads are specially prepared to provide ways between different places for the
use of the vehicles, people and the animals. Roads are used in countries like
Nepal, where there are less chances of airways and almost negligible chances
of the transportation system. Rural road alignment both the tasks – to run a
road between two points, i.e. to fix or chose appropriate Rural road alignment
between two points which are far apart and to carry out the survey for the
safe, economical and appropriate construction along the route. This specific
job is essential for an engineer combating with the mountainous topography
of Nepal.

Objectives
Road alignment survey was done to accomplish the following objectives:
• To set up a curve with given deflection angle and radius.
Norms (Technical Specifications)
1. Simple horizontal circular curves had to be set out where the road changed
its direction, determining and pegging three points on the curve- the
beginning of the curve, the middle of curve and the end of the curve along the
centerline of the road.
2. The radius of the curve had to be chosen such that it was convenient and
safe, i.e. not less than 15m.
3. Deflection angle had to be chosen more than 30 degree.
4. The amount of cutting and filling required for the road construction had to
be determined from the L-Section and the cross sections. However, the
volume of cutting had to be roughly equal to the volume of filling.
5. The gradient of the road had to be maintained below 12 %.
6.  If the external deflection angle at the I.P. of the road is less than 3°, curves
need not be fitted.

Equipment
The equipment used in the surveying during the preparation of the
topographic map are as follows:
1. Theodolite with stand
2. Ranging rods
3. Pegs
4. Arrows
5. Reflector
6. Tapes
7. Enamel paint and marker
Methodology

Measurement of Lengths and Deflection Angles

The distances between the IPs were measured with the help of tape by
ranging between IPs. One set of horizontal angle was measured for the
deflection angle. The face left reading was observed and the deflection angles
were calculated. As the traverse formed as open traverse, no angular
correction could be made. So as far as possible, both the linear measurements
as well as the angular measurements were observed carefully and precisely.

Horizontal Alignment
The center line of the road for fixing the direction of the proposed road in the
horizontal plane is known as horizontal alignment. For fixing horizontal
alignment, the bearing of the initial line connecting two initial IPs was
measured using compass. The interior angle was measured with the help of
Theodolite at each IP and the deflection angles were computed.
Deflection angle (Δ) = (360° or 180°) – Observed angle.

Curve Setting
Curves are generally used on rural road where it is necessary to change the
direction of the motion of the vehicle. A curve may be circular, parabolic or
spiral and is always tangential to the two straight directions commonly
known as tangents. Curves which are generally used on highways are as
follows:
1. Simple Circular Curve
2. Transition Curve
3. Vertical Curve
Simple Circular Curve
A simple circular curve is the one which consists of a single arc of a circle. It
is tangential to both of the straight lines namely tangents. During the road
survey, it is always kept in mind that the radius of the simple circular curve
should not be less than 12m. As far as possible, flat circular curves are
preferred to that of the sharp one. Flat curves are comfortable to the
passengers and there is less possibility of accident.
Before setting out the curve, its elements are essential to be computed. Some
essential elements of simple circular curve are as follows:
 Length of Tangent= RTan∆/2
Where, R= radius of simple circular curve & Δ = deflection angle
 Length of long chord = 2 RSin∆/2
 Apex distance = R (Sec∆/2-1)
 Mid ordinate = R(1- cos∆/2)
 Length of curve = πR∆/180
 Chainage of T1= Chainage of IP - RTan∆/2
 Chainage of T2= Chainage of T1 + πR∆/180

Setting Out of Simple Circular Curves

A simple circular curve can be set in the field by various linear and angular
methods which are listed as follows:
Linear method: Linear method is defined as the method of setting curve in
which only chain or tape is used, i.e. no angular instruments are used to set
the curve. This method is preferable where high accuracy is not required and
the length of the curve to be set is short.
Some common linear methods of setting of the simple circular curve are as
follows:
• By ordinates from the long chord
• By perpendicular offset from tangents
• By radial offset from tangents
• By offset from the chords produced
• By successive bisection of the curves

Angular method: Angular method is the one in which both angles and the
distances are used to set the curve in the field. Generally, tangential
deflection angle is observed with the help of Theodolite and the distance is
made to be measured by making use of tape provided. Some of the most
common angular methods of setting out of simple circular curve are as
follows:
• Rankine’s method of tangential angles
• Two Theodolite method
• Tachometric method

TRANSITION CURVES
A transition curve may be defined as a curve of varying radius of infinity at
tangent point to a design circular curve radius provided in between the
straight and circular path in order that the centrifugal force was gradual. This
is also known as easement curve. The objectives of providing transition curve
are given below:
 To gradually introduce the centrifugal force between the tangent point
and the beginning of the circular curve thereby avoiding sudden jerk on
the vehicle.
 To increase the comfort of passengers.
 To introduce designed super elevation at a desirable rate.
 To enable the driver to turn the steering gradually for his own comfort
and security.
  To introduce designed extra widening at a desirable rate.
 To enhance the aesthetic appearance of the road.
 To fit the road alignment in a given alignment.
To minimize the effects of centrifugal force, the speed of the vehicle should
be gradually reduced or a path should be negotiated with the gradual change
of trajectory so that the radius of curvature is gradually reduced from infinity
to R or to get the combined effect of both.

Vertical Curves
Vertical curves are introduced at changes of gradient to avoid impact and to
maintain good visibility. These are set out in a vertical plane to round off the
angle and to obtain a gradual change of gradient. The vertical curves may be
circular or parabolic but the later are commonly used.
For small gradient angles, the difference between a circular and a parabolic
curve is negligibly small. Vertical curves are called summit curves if they
have convexity upwards and valley curves if they have concavity upwards.
 

Longitudinal Section
The L-Section of the road is required to give the road engineer an idea about
the nature of the ground and the variation in the elevations of the different
points along the length of the road and also to determine the amount of
cutting and filling required at the road site for maintaining a gentle slope. In
order to obtain the data for L-Section, staff readings were taken at points at
15m intervals along the centerline of the road with the help of a level by the
method of fly leveling. Thus after performing the necessary calculations, the
level was transferred to all those points with respect to the R.L. of the given
B.M. Then finally the L-Section of the road was plotted on a graph paper on a
vertical scale of 1:100 and a horizontal scale of 1:1000. The staff readings at
BC, EC and apex were also taken. The RL of each point were calculated.

Cross Section
Cross sections at different points are drawn perpendicular to the longitudinal
section of the road on either side of its centerline in order to present the
lateral outline of the ground. Cross sections are also equally useful in
determining the amount of cut and fill required for the road construction.
Cross sections were taken at 15m intervals along the centerline of the road
and at points where there was a sharp change in the elevation. While doing
so, the horizontal distances of the different points from the centerline were
measured with the help of a tape and the vertical heights with a measuring
staff. The R.L. was transferred to all the points by performing the necessary
calculations and finally, the cross sections at different sections were plotted
on a graph paper on a scale of 1:100 - both vertical and horizontal.

Comments and Conclusion

Hence, road survey work was carried out successfully.

BRIDGE SITE SURVEY

Bridges are the structures that are constructed with the purpose of connecting
two places separated by deep valleys or gorges or rivers and streams. Bridges
are usually a part of road; making them shorter and hence economical. In
countries like Nepal, where the land is undulated and where there are plenty
of rivers, bridges are the most economic and efficient way to join two places.
It is a very convenient way. That is why the task of bridge site surveying has
been included in the curriculum of Bachelor's degree in Civil Engineering,
IOE.

This part of the Survey Camp dealt with the bridge site survey done at
Bungmati. It was done at a place where a small stream flowed. It was located
in the woods where two hill slopes formed a deep ravine. The duration of the
survey was 2 days.
Objectives
 To find the best location for a bridge over the river considering factors
like convenience, economic and geological stability
 To use triangulation method for the calculation of the bridge axis
length.

 To take sufficient data of the details including the spot heights, around
the bridge in order to prepare a topographical map of the area, cross
section of the river at certain intervals and longitudinal section of the
river.
 To determine the physical properties of the river like its discharge,
velocity of water, bed slope, etc.

  Equipment and accessories

1. Theodolite or total station
2. Staffs, reflector prism and pole
3. Ranging rods
4. Tapes
5. Plumb bob
6. Level
7. Compass
8. Hammer
9. Sickle
[Link] and pegs
[Link] level
 Methodology
The various methods performed during the bridge site survey were
triangulation, Leveling, tachometry, cross section, and L-section. The brief
descriptions of these methodologies are given below:

Site Selection
Tentative bridge sites are selected by reconnaissance and the more promising
ones are reconnoitered in detail. The selection of a bridge site is governed by
both tactical and technical considerations. Tactical requirements fix the
general area for the bridge site. Technical requirements fix the exact location
and may sometimes eliminate sites that have been tactically acceptable. For
permanent construction, technical considerations govern the bridge location.
There were various factors for the selection of bridge site such as geological
condition, economical aspect etc. Therefore, the site was chosen such that it
should be formed on very stable hill slope. The bridge should be located at
the straight path of river and at the same time, the river width should not be
narrow from the economical point of view. In our case, it was assumed that
the approximate alignment of bridge axis has already been established with
regard to geo-technical site investigation. For the purpose of the shortest span
the stations were set perpendicular to the river flows direction. The
riverbanks are not eroded and are suitable for bridge construction. The site
for the proposed bridge was selected at a location where a bend in the road
continued smoothly into the bridge. The location of the bridge was selected in
such a way that the heights of the roads joined by the proposed bridge were
almost the same. This prevented a lot of cutting and filling to maintain a
gentle gradient.
Topographic Survey
For the topographic survey of bridge site, triangulation was done. The main
purpose of the triangulation was to determine the length of the bridge axis.
The triangulation also serves the control points for detailing. First, the bridge
axis was set and horizontal control stations were fixed on either side.
Distances between stations on the same sides of river i.e. b`ase lines were
measured with tape precisely. Then the interconnecting triangles were formed
and angles were measured with a theodolite with two sets. The bridge axis
length or span was calculated by solving the triangles using the sine rule.
Thus, the horizontal control was set out.
For vertical control, the level was transferred from the arbitrary benchmark
and RL was transferred to the stations on the next bank by reciprocal leveling
while direct level transfer method was used for the same bank.

Longitudinal Section
The L-Section of the river is required to give an idea about the bed slope,
nature of the riverbed, and the variation in the elevations of the different
points along the length of the river. Keeping the instrument at the control
(traverse) stations on the river banks, the staff readings were taken at
different points along the center line of the river at an interval of about 25 m
up to a 100 meters upstream and 50 m downstream. The [Link] of the traverse
stations being known previously, the levels of the different points on the river
were calculated. Then the L-Section of the riverbed was plotted on a graph
paper on scale for vertical and horizontal.

Cross Section
Cross-section of a river at a particular point is the profile of the lateral sides
from the centerline of the river cut transverse to the L-Section at that point.
The cross section can be used to calculate the volume and discharge of water
at the particular section if the velocity at the cross section is known. Cross
sections were taken at an interval of about 25 m extending 100 m upstream
and 50 m downstream of the river. Staff readings of points along a line
perpendicular to the flow of river were taken from the stations points and the
elevations of the points were calculated using tachometric methods. With all
the calculations done and the required data in hand, the cross section was
plotted on a graph paper on required scale.

 Leveling
Level transfer was done in two steps - firstly to transfer the R.L. from the
given B.M. to any traverse station, and secondly to transfer the R.L. from that
traverse station to all other stations as well as all the detailed objects
(detailing). The R.L. was transferred by fly leveling from the B.M. to a
station using a level, forming a closed loop and making the necessary
adjustments. Then fly leveling was done in order to transfer the level from
that station to all the other stations of the traverse
The principal of differential leveling is when the instrument is kept
equidistant from the back and forward staff stations, the difference in
elevation of the two stations is equal to the difference of the staff readings. In
addition, it can be achieved by placing the machine midway of the staffs.
When it is not possible to set up the level midway between two points as in
the case of leveling across large water bodies, the reciprocal leveling is
employed to carry forward the level on the other side of the obstruction.
When it is necessary to carry leveling across a river, ravine or any obstacle
requiring a long sight between two points so situated that no place for the
level can be found from which the lengths of foresight and back sight will be
even approximately equal, reciprocal leveling is done. Reciprocal leveling
helps to eliminate errors such as error in instrument adjustment, combined
effect of earth's curvature and the refraction of the atmosphere and variations
in the average refraction.
ha= staff reading at station A

hb= staff reading at station B

When theodolite is kept near staff held at B

ha'= staff reading at station A

hb'= staff reading at station B

Then, the true difference in elevation between the two stations A and B is
given by

H=½ x [(ha - hb) + (ha'- hb')]

Detailing
Detailing of the entire bridge site was done by tachometric method, the
readings being taken with a theodolite stationed at the different traverse
stations. The detailing was done with respect to the skeleton formed by
triangulation. The vertices of triangles serve as a control point. With the help
of tachometer, the details were booked, up to 100m upstream and 50m
downstream. The important details not included in the cross-section data,
were taken. Trigonometric Leveling was also done to find out the RL of the
inaccessible points. Abney level was used to find out the slope of cliff. The
data and the calculations have been tabulated in a systematic way.

Computation and Plotting

The following tachometric formulas were used for the calculation of the
horizontal distance and R.L. of different points:
Horizontal distance of any point from the traverse station,
H = 100 x S x Cos2θ
Where, S = Staff intercept = Top - Bottom stadia reading
θ = Vertical Angle
The topographic map, the longitudinal section and the cross section were
plotted on the respective scales after the completion of calculations. Control
stations were plotted accurately in the grid paper. Then all hard details as
well as contours were plotted with reference to the control stations by the
method of angle and distances.

Comments and Conclusions

The bridge site survey was performed to gain idea for selecting the bridge
axis. Triangulation was performed to get the length of the proposed bridge.
For triangulation, we chose two stations in one bank and two stations on the
next bank. The distance between the two stations was calculated by taping.
Similarly, the cross-section and longitudinal section were performed. The X-
section was performed at the interval of [Link] longitudinal section was
about 100m upstream and 50m downstream. In addition, details were taken
from the respective stations. The details of existing structures like walls, cliff,
bridge, boulders etc were taken. The cross-section was taken at the banks of
river and at the middle of the river to get the profile of the flowing river. In
addition, we marked the high flood level and low flood level. Similarly, we
transferred the reduced levels of the stations from the known benchmark.