Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 223–230

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Energy for Sustainable Development

Hydrokinetic turbine blades: Design and local construction techniques

for remote communities
Martin Anyi ⁎, Brian Kirke
Sustainable Energy Centre, University of South Australia, Mawson Lakes Boulevard, Mawson Lakes, South Australia, 5095, Australia

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: The design and construction of a hydrokinetic turbine intended for off-grid remote communities in Sarawak,
Received 7 March 2011 Malaysia, are demonstrated and explained in this paper. By estimating the power required by a single remote
Accepted 15 June 2011 home, knowing the average velocity of a nearby river, and making reasonable assumptions for the efficiency
Available online 31 July 2011
of the turbine, transmission and generator, the turbine diameter and hence blade length can be calculated
using standard formulae. Having determined the length of the blades the blade profiles (twist angles and
Keywords:
Hydrokinetic turbine
chord lengths) at ten selected sections along the blade can be calculated. The profile coordinates x, y are then
Remote communities plotted and printed in Excel or they can be exported to Solidworks CAD software. The printed profiles are
Solidworks traced on thin pieces of softwood and are cut and shaped manually using common tools to form section
Turbine blade design and construction templates. These templates are then arranged in order, given the right twist angles, glued and screwed to form
Sarawak Malaysia a whole blade template. This template is copied using a simple, easily constructed copy router in order to
Wooden blade copy jigs produce three identical wooden blades which will be used in a turbine system. Since the construction of
optimum blades has been simplified and demonstrated, turbine blades can be made in remote villages near to
where the turbine will be used and maintained. This gives village people a sense of ownership and reduces
cost, avoiding importation of ready-made systems where an unfavorable currency exchange rate has made
almost everything too expensive for underprivileged people in developing countries.
© 2011 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.

Introduction Turbine sizing

The objective of this paper is to describe how optimum Turbine sizing starts by first estimating the power required by a
hydrokinetic turbine blades can be designed and constructed. remote home. Alternating current (AC) in the range of 200 W is
Although the design procedure described here is quite similar to considered sufficient for a single remote home (Freere, 1991). Power
that of a wind turbine, the construction method and material are quite in this magnitude, using conventional 240 V, 50 Hz enables the use of
different, being suited to remote communities in developing coun- a mini refrigerator and adequate lighting (using energy saver light
tries, with particular reference to Sarawak, Malaysia, where a globes). The length or the radius of turbine blades can be calculated
hydrokinetic turbine constructed as described below will be tested, from Eq. (1).
following prototype development in Australia.
A hydrokinetic turbine design starts from sizing the turbine rotor. 1 3
P= ρAV Cp Cn ð1Þ
The blade profile which includes the twist angle and chord length is 2
determined using equations used in wind turbine design. Using
common tools, templates of blade profiles at various locations or Where
stations along the blade are cut from thin wood. The section templates
are used to construct another template which has an optimum blade P power (watt)
shape but lacks the structural strength required by an actual blade. ρ density of water (kg/m 3)
This template is then fixed onto a simple jig where three (for a three A cross sectional area (m 3)
bladed turbine) identical wooden blades can be constructed. V velocity of water current (m/s)
Cp coefficient of power or turbine efficiency
Cn drive train (generator, gearing etc.) efficiency

The water to wire efficiency (CpCn) is assumed equal to 21%, a

⁎ Corresponding author. Fax: + 61 88302 3380. typical value for a small turbine for electric generation reported in
E-mail address: anymy002@[Link] (M. Anyi). (Swenson, 1999), assuming that water current velocity is 1 m/s,

0973-0826/$ – see front matter © 2011 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2011.06.003
224 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 223–230

turbine efficiency is 35% and the drive train efficiency is 60%. The (shape and thickness) of a blade at particular sections along the blade.
radius and hence the length of the turbine blades can then be The chord length c can be worked out using Eq. (2) and the twist
calculated as below. angles β at any point along the blade can be found using Eq. (3). Since
both equations depend on ϕ (angle of relative water current to the
1 3 plane of rotation), Eq. (4) is required to solve the equations. The
P= ρAV Cp Cn
2 derivation and explanation of these equations can be found in Lysen
3
(1983; Manwell et al., 2002).
ð200Þ = 0:5 ð1000ÞA ð0:35Þ ð0:6Þ ð1Þ
ð8πrÞ = ðBCl Þ
ð200Þ c= ð2Þ
A= 1− cosϕ
ð0:5Þð1000Þð0:35Þð0:6Þð1Þ
  β = ϕ−α ð3Þ
2
πr = 1:90476
2 −1
ϕ= tan 1 = λr ð4Þ
2 1:90476 3
r =
π
Where
r = √0:60630 = 0:7786m
c chord length (mm)
Therefore the length of the blade required is equal to = 0.7786 m. r radius or distance of a section on the blade (mm)
For simplicity, a blade length of 0.8 m is used. B number of blades
Cl design lift coefficient
Blade design ϕ angle of relative water current velocity (deg.)
β twist angle (deg.)
Generally, an optimum turbine blade (wind or hydrokinetic) is α design angle of attack (deg.)
narrower at the tip and wider near the root. The blade is also thicker at λ design tip speed ratio (TSR).
the root, where greater flexural strength is required, and gradually
becomes thinner towards the tip where drag must be minimized. The Before Eq. (2) can be used, B, Cl and ϕ have to be determined. In
twist of the blade is significantly greater at the root compared to the this work, the number of blades used is three (B = 3). The reasons are
tip. Because of this complexity, constructing identical and optimum mainly for higher efficiency and smoother output torque compared to
blades manually is a difficult task. a two-bladed turbine. A smooth output torque is desirable for a stand-
The coordinates of airfoils are normally given as a function of chord alone electric generating system. This enables a stable electrical
length. For example the coordinates for the S822 used in this work is voltage and current to be supplied to customer loads, eliminating
given in the form of x/c, y/c. These coordinates represent the profile flicker (in light globes) and avoiding damage to sensitive appliances.

Fig. 1. S822 aerofoil lift and drag plots (David, 1999).

 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 223–230 225

Table 1
Excel spreadsheet for determining sections chord length and twist angle.

The lift coefficient can be obtained from wind tunnel test data for of the first set of coordinate in Table 2 are x/c =0.00012 mm,
the type of airfoil in use. In this work, the S822 airfoil is adopted and y/c =00.00132 mm. Multiplying these two set of numbers will produce
the basis for doing so is because it of its resistance to fouling (less the first set of coordinates x = 0.03348 mm, y =0.36828 mm. This
sensitive to dirt than the conventional NACA sections). See David procedure is repeated for all the values of x/c, y/c given in Table 2. The
(1998). Because of the dirty nature of rivers, the fouling resistance values of x and y obtained at this stage are coordinates for section r10
characteristic of the S822 profile is highly desirable in a hydrokinetic only. Coordinates for other sections have to be worked out in the same
turbine. However, there is no report of this aerofoil has been used in manner. Another Excel spreadsheet can be used to ease and to speed up
water so far. this process. When all coordinates at all sections are found, they can
Using test data in Fig. 1 (Michael and Bryan, 2004), Cl is obtained then be scatter plot and print to scale while in Excel environment. The
by drawing a tangent line on the Cl/Cd plot with the highest Reynolds printed plot can be use form section templates. The Excel scatter plot
number (Re = 500,000) as shown in Fig. 1(a). The value of Cl where for r2 and r10 obtained in this work is shown Figs. 2(a) and (b)
the line touches the Cl/Cd plot, which in this case is 0.8. Therefore consecutively.
Cl = 0.8 . α, a variable in Eq. (3) can then be found by plotting a
horizontal line from Cl value of 0.8 until it touches the Cl/α plot with
the highest Re as shown in Fig. 1 (b). Therefore the corresponding
value of α (which in this case is 5°) is the required angle of attack.
Table 2
Therefore α = 5°.
The coordinates of the S822 airfoil (Somers, 2005).
The relative angle of water current velocity ϕ can be worked out
using Eq. (4) but λ have to be determined first. Choosing the right TSR Upper surface Lower surface
is important in order to avoid the effect cavitations on turbine blades. X/c V/c X/c V/c
This engraving effect of air shock caused by collapsing air bubbles 0.00012 0.00132 1.00000 0.00000
when turbine blades turn at high speed in water must be avoided. This 0.00064 0.00336 0.99603 0.00018
is because the blades are perhaps the most delicate and sensitive part 0.00176 0.00603 0.98428 0.00031
of the turbine. Cavitations deform blade profile therefore reduce its 0.00861 0.01510 0.96523 − 0.00032
002029 0.02464 0.93957 .0.00215
efficiency. Furthermore replacing turbine blades on site is an
0.03661 0.03425 0.90813 − 0.00543
expensive, dangerous and difficult exercise which will result prolong 0.05742 0.04366 0.87185 − 0.01019
blackout. The common practice is to keep the tip speed equal or below 0.08254 0.05271 0.83169 − 0.01624
8 m/s (Bahaj et al., 2006; Thomas et al., 2008; Coiro et al., 2006; 0.11172 0.06122 0.78856 − 0.02310
Polaski, 2006). For this work, a TSR λ = 4 is chosen. In a 1 m/s water 0.14466 0.06904 0.74302 − 0.03012
0.18104 0.07607 0.69534 − 0.03695
current, the tip speed is only 4 m/s. During wet season, mid-course 0.22050 0.08218 0.64598 − 0.04352
Sarawak river may reach 1.5 m/s but the TSR is still within a save value 0.26262 0.08729 0.59560 − 0.04961
of 8 m/s. 0.30696 0.09133 0.54470 − 0.05484
Now that the values for B, Cl, ϕ, α and λ have been found, c and β 0.35305 0.09423 0.49354 − 0.05900
0.40035 0.09591 0.44252 − 0.06218
can be calculated for any value of r along the blade. For simplicity,
0.44835 0.09628 0.39222 − 0.06437
the whole blade length (which is 0.8 m) is divided into 10 equal 0.49650 0.09518 0.34317 − 0.06553
segments giving each section is separated by an 80 mm distant 0.54446 0.09236 0.29590 − 0.06560
(0.8/10 = 0.08 m or 80 mm). The sections are represented by r1 to 0.59211 0.08784 0.25087 − 0.06455
r10, where r1 is the section nearest to the root and r10 is at the tip of 0.63910 0.08191 0.20852 − 0.06236
0.68492 0.07470 0.16927 − 0.05902
the blade. An Excel spreadsheet shown in Table 1 was used to obtain 0.72923 0.06619 0.13345 -0.05456
the values of c and β. Notice that the value of c increases from the tip 0.77203 0.05665 0.10140 − 0.04903
towards the root. The twist angle is also larger near the root 0.81306 0.04674 0.07336 − 0.04253
compared to the tip. 0.85171 0.03708 0.04956 − 0.03517
0.88727 0.02810 0.03018 − 0.02713
After the value of c at every section has been found, the next step is
0.91903 0.02015 0.01536 − 0.01866
to multiply these values by the non-dimensional coordinates of the 0.94621 0.01336 0.00530 − 0.01010
S822 in Table 2 (Somers, 2005). Notice that the coordinates are given in 0.96834 0.00765 0.00126 − 0.00440
the form of x/c, y/c. Therefore to obtain the x and y coordinates, c values 0.98521 0.00326 0.00042 − 0.00244
in Table 1 are multiplied by the value of x/c, y/c the coordinates given. 0.99615 0.00074 0.00002 − 0.00057
1.00000 0.00000
For example, the value for cat r10 (see Table 1) is 0.279 m and the value
226 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 223–230

Fig. 2. (a) Profile plot at r2, (b) Profile plot at section r10 (tip).

The coordinates obtained for r1 to r10 can also be exported to CAD again at the root. The twist angles are clearly increasing toward the
(computer aided design) software for precise and to scale printing, root. This is a typical view of an optimum blade described in (Hau,
modeling and simulation. In this work, the coordinates are exported 2000).
to Solidworks software. For this purpose, a third coordinate z is While in Features mode (of Solidworks software), a 3D model of
required. For example the first coordinate for r10 become x = the whole blade can be produced using the Loft command. The
0.03348 mm, y = 0.36828 mm, Z = 0 or simply 0.03348, 0.36828, 0. resulting image is shown in Fig. 3(b). Depending on the radius of the
However, coordinates in Excel format are not recognized by Solid- turbine hub, the last two section profile sketch may be omitted as
works. Therefore all coordinates must be converted to a NotePad shown on Fig. 3(c). This final image can be used in further
format by simply copying the Excel table content and pasting them in development of a turbine system. For example, the image can be
a new NotePad document. Each section coordinate will have one assembled or integrated with other parts of the turbine to form a
NotePad document named r1 to r10. complete model in Solidworks. Computer codes suitable for CNC
While in the sketch mode of Solidworks software, the Arch machine can also be generated from the image in order to produce
function is used to import the previously converted section co- aluminum blades. However, this is not appropriate for remote village.
ordinates. Starting from r10, the software will automatically plot the
profile for this section on the computer screen. A new plane is inserted Wooden blades construction
8 cm in front of this first profile sketch, then the coordinates for r9 are
imported. Repeat this procedure until the last section r1is imported In order to be appropriate, wooden blades are preferred in this
into Solidworks and are automatically sketched. work. The main reason for doing so is because wood is readily
After all section profile has been sketched, their corresponding available in remote villages in Sarawak Malaysia. Furthermore
twist angles found in Table 1 are then added. For example, a twist propellers made from wood have been proven successful in small
angle of 7 °C is added to the profile sketch of r1 using the rotate and large aircraft in the past. At least one hydrokinetic turbine
command found in Move Entity menu. This procedure is repeated for company claims that wood has good properties for underwater
the rest of the sections. After all the profile sketches at all section application and is now developing wooden blades for their turbine
are given their appropriate twist, the entire sketch should look like (McKellep and Coleman, 2010). A particular type of hard wood called
Fig. 3(a). At this stage, the sketch shows the blade profile or contours “belian” is very well known to the remote people of Sarawak for its
at every section and their twists. The contours show that the blade is strength, resistance to wood bugs, super durability even when
thicker near the root and thinner towards the tip. The blade is also submerge in water. Locals use it for house pillars and the power
narrower at the tip and wider toward the root and become narrower utility companies use them for electric poles. This hard wood can last

Fig. 3. Blade drawing using Solidworks software.

 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 223–230 227

Fig. 4. (a) to (c) Sections template making, (d) to (f) Whole blade template making.

up to fifty years or more. Some say that it lasts longer underwater or template as shown in right image of Fig. 4(e). The screws were used to
underground. Therefore the author plans to use this wood as clamp the filler and the section templates while the glue was curing.
hydrokinetic turbine blades but for demonstration purposes, treated In order to allow the next template to be mounted on top, the screw
pine was used. heads were flushed (sunk) a little below the filler surface. The rest of
Instead of using a CNC machine, a blade template was made the templates and fillers were mounted in the same manner one on
manually using common wood working tools. The contours of every top of each other and left to dry for at least 24 h. Using one side of each
section were printed to scale using Solidworks software (scatter plot section template as guides, the filler wood which were slightly thicker
in Excel can also be printed in the same manner), the outlines were then the section template were grinded carefully using an angle
cut and traced on a piece of soft wood (pine was used) about 10 mm grinder fitted with a medium grit flap disc. The blade template was
shown in Fig. 4(a). The outlines on the wood were then cut carefully further shaped and smoothen using cyclic power sanders and sanded
using a coping saw (Fig. 4(b)) and smoothened using a suitable file manually using fine sand paper. The result is shown in Fig. 4f and this
(a metal file was used). Fig. 4(c) shows all profile template at all will be mounted on a copy jig so that three identical blades can be
sections arranged in order. Notice that the chord increases signifi- produce.
cantly from tip towards root but decrease slightly at the root.
In order to construct a solid blade template, correct size of “filler” Blade copy jigs
woods were used to fill the gaps between each profile template. The
woods used were 70 mm thick (should be 80 mm but the section In this work, two different copy jigs were constructed out of
profile templates are already 10 cm thick). There were cut slightly common components and materials. The performance both jigs are
longer than the chord length of the two section profiles in which a compared and some recommendation are recited (Table 3).
filler was intended to be. Starting from the tip, section template r10
was placed on one side of the filler wood, given a 7° twist and the final Circular saw jig
position was traced on the filler wood. On the opposite side of the Now that a template of an optimum hydrokinetic turbine blade
same wood, section template r9 with 10° twist angle is traced instead. had been made, the next task was to make three identical copy of this
The filler woods bearing the contours and twist angles of r10 on one template on three blade blanks. In order to do this, a copy jig shown in
side and r9 on the other was then cut using a band saw, about 3 mm to Fig. 5(a) was constructed. The jig was mainly constructed out of wood
5 mm away from the contour lines as shown in Fig. 4(d). This process so as to demonstrate an appropriate method of turbine blades making
was repeated for the rest of the sections. that can be used in remote villages. The root of the blade template and
After all the filler woods have been cut, they are further shaped the blade blank were clamped firmly onto a round base which is
and smoothened using a rasp. Then they were arranged in a correct secured onto bicycle crank shafts. Both tips were held by a couple of
order and in such a way that they were sandwich in between of their tail stock simply made from round metal rods which will rotate freely.
corresponding section templates as shown in Fig. 4(e). Two screw Notice that one end of the blank was made thicker by gluing extra
holes were prepared on each section template and filler wood. wood. This was done to accommodate large blade twist angle near to
Starting from the lower most usable section template (in this case r2), the root.
wood glue was applied sparingly on both sides. Its corresponding filler The upper and the lower shaft on which the template and the
was stacked on top and two long screws were driven down from the blade blank were held were connected to each other by a tight chain.
first filler, trough the first section template and to the base of the blade This allows both the template and the wood blank to turn in unison if
228 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 223–230

Table 3
Advantages and disadvantages of the saw and router based jig.

Type of copy jig Advantage Disadvantage

Circular saw based Cut much faster than the router jig hence requiring shorter roughing time, Uneven depth of cuts due to template flexing caused by the weight
Able to make deep cut easily in one past. of the circular saw.
Good for roughing work before machining using router copy jig. Difficult to control and quite demanding operation.
Dangerous because sow blade is expose and near to operator's body.
Take longer time when smoothing because saw blade is thin
and difficult to cut sideway along the blade.
Produces rough blades that need longer time to repair and smooth.
Produces Less precise blades copy.
Router based Easier to control and to operate. Cutting rate is much slower then circular saw therefore needs
Less dangerous because the router bit is short. Small and not as longer roughing time.
catchy as a circular saw. Shorter cutting bit therefore may have to repeat roughing process
No flexing of template therefore produces precise blades. several times before the required depth is achieved.
Machining much faster because the router bit diameter is quite large May not be suitable for copying large blades with steep twist angle.
compared to the thickness of the circular saw blade. Flipping the template and the blank must be done correctly.
Less time spent on shaping and smoothening because the cutting Changing of router bit must be done correctly.
accomplished using router is uniform (even though quite wavy). Sequence of process must be done correctly.
Very good for copying small and short turbine blades.

either one is turned. In fact the wooden frame that holds the template Blade copying using the circular saw jig
and the wood blank were mounted to a moving table made by simply Starting from the tip, the round wooden clamping base of the
attaching a set of small wheels on a sliding frame. Besides being able template was turned 360° (clockwise or anti clockwise) slowly and
to turn, the template and the blank can also be moved forward and steady using the left hand. The right hand must be on the saw handle to
backward. regulate the sudden drop off the saw when the stylus wheel rolls past
The shaping of a blade blank was done by mean of a common either the trailing or leading edge of the template. Controlling the drop is
circular saw which was attached to a piece of wood and was pivoted important because the weight of the saw will tend to bend the template
onto a stationary frame. A wooden wheel cut from a piece of wood resulting in unwanted deep cut on the blade to be blank. After one
having the same thickness and the same diameter with the circular complete round, the saw is lifted up using the right hand and advance
saw blade was held in place the same manner but mounted on top of toward the root by pulling the vertical frame (on where the shafts were
the circular saw. This wooden wheel acted as a stylus, controlling the mounted) using the left hand towards the right about 20 mm. The saw
depth of cuts made by the circular saw. The back ends of the pivoting was dropped and the template was rotated to make 360° incision on the
wood that held the stylus and the circular saw were connected by blade blank. This process was repeated until the root of both template
another piece of thin wood. This allowed both the template and the and blade blank as shown in Fig. 5(b). The bits on the blank were
blank to move up and down in unison and in the same degree when removed using a chisel and a hammer. Depending on wood used, the
either one was moved. bits may be removed easily by simply hammering on them sideway.

Fig. 5. Copy jig using a circular saw.

 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 223–230 229

After removing the bits, a second series of cut, about 5 mm apart is Blade copying using the router jig
carried out. After a third round, a rough copy of the template was Referring to Fig. 6(a), both the template and the blade blank were
obtained (see Fig. 5(c)). While still clamped on the jig, the new blade screwed to the router table and some references were marked on the
was smoothened using a wide chisel followed by an angle grinder table, on the template and the blade blank. These references were
fitted with a medium grit flap disc. A hand belt sander was used to used as a guide when flipping the template and the blank correctly
remove dims caused by the angle grinder. A cyclic sander with later. Notice that the blank was roughly cut (using a band saw) to the
medium grit was then used to further smooth the new blade and was outline of the template before mounting it on the table.
perfected by manually sanding it using a fine grit sand paper. The final Roughing is done by slicing the blank about 20 mm apart (depend
blade is shown in Fig. 5(d). Notice that there are some uneven or deep on type of wood) using the smallest router bit as shown in Fig. 6(b). At
cuts seen on the surface of the new blade. This was due to flexing of this stage, the router bit was set about 2.5 mm higher than the stylus.
the template cased by uncontrolled drop of the saw when the stylus This allowed the router to cut shallower than the real depth. The bits
wheel rolled past the edges of the blade template. However, these on the on sliced surface were carefully removed using a chisel or
deep cuts can be mended by filling them with wood filler before simply knock off using a hammer (Fig. 6(c)). The slicing process was
coating the blades with waterproofing resin or paint. repeated on each slice mark to make sure that the router bit had cut
deep enough as the stylus would allowed. The template and the blade
blank were flip correctly with the help of references previously
Router jig marked. The process of slicing and removing bits process ware carried
In order to explore and compare blades copying methods, another out in the same manner. At this stage, a rough blade resembling the
type of jig was made. Instead of using a circular saw, a mini router was blade template was produced. It was also thicker because the bit was
used. Unlike the circular saw jig, both the blade blank and the set a bit higher than the stylus. This roughing process (slicing and
template were held static on the router table as shown in Fig. 6(a). removing of bits) was carried out for two other blade blanks using the
The mini router cutter was made to move three axis; -right direction same bit setting.
(X-axis), front-back direction (Z-axis) and up and down direction After all the blanks have been roughened, the router bit was
(Y-axis). These motions were accomplished simply by using two changed to a wider one so that it cut faster. The bit was set at the same
straight shaft and two bushes from an old scanner and a smaller shaft height as the stylus and the diameter of the stylus was increase (by
and a cartridge holder from a printer. The router was mounted on a wrapping it with wire tape) so that it was the same as the diameter of
piece of wood which act as an arm and was further attached to the the new router bit. Having it set to the same height as the stylus
cartridge holder. The left, right, up and down motion was accom- means that the depth of cuts resembled the exact contour of the
plished by sliding the bush (under the cartridge holder) along a template. The machining process was accomplished using a ratchet
single shaft (the small shaft). In order to counter balance the weight strap which was wrapped around the carriage where the router was
of the router, a halve brick was attached at the further end of the arm. mounted as shown in Fig. 6(d). Starting from the tip, the stylus was
A long bolt was used as a stylus and it was mounted on the same arm move from left to right at a correct speed as to allow the router to cut
that holds the router. Therefore the stylus controls the depth of the properly. The router was lifted up and was advance toward the root by
router cut as it move along the curve surface of the blade template. one pull of the ratchet handle before the next cut was carried out. This

Fig. 6. Copy jig using a router.

230 M. Anyi, B. Kirke / Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 223–230

process was carried out until the rough blade had been machined will be used and maintained. This will reduce the total cost of a
from tip to root. The blade was flipped correctly and was machined turbine system significantly because by producing turbine compo-
from tip to root again. This machining process was carried out in the nents locally, the costly currency exchange and importation cost can
same manner for the other two remaining blades and the result is be avoided. Furthermore local construction creates job opportunity
shown in Fig. 6(e). Notice that the machining process produced wavy which could help remote people financially.
cuts. This was because the router bit cut at an angle due to the fact that
the up and down motion of the router was actually an arc (not
References
vertical) as a result of swinging the pivoted router arm around a single
shaft. Furthermore the router bit was quite large in diameter resulting Bahaj AS, Molland AF, Chaplin JR, Batten WMJ. Power and thrust measurements of
in an obvious step-like cut. However, this can be smoothened using a marine current turbines under various hydrodynamic flow conditions in a
cavitation tunnel and a towing tank. Elsevier: Renewable Energy; 2006.
wood rasp and a coarse grit sand paper. The blades were smoothened
Coiro DP, Maisto F, Scherillo F, Melone S, Grasso F. Horizontal axis tidal current turbine:
using a cyclic power sander fitted with a fine grit sand paper and the numerical and experimental investigations. Civitavecchia, Italy: Owemes; 2006.
resulting blades are shown in Fig. 6(f). David AS. Wind turbine technology. New York: The American Society of Engineers;
1998.
Freere P. Electronic load/excitation for a self-excited squirrel cage generator micro-
Circular saw verses router jig hydro. IEEE Fifth International Conference on Electrical Machines and Drives; Conf.
Publ. No. 34; 1991.
The advantages and disadvantages of a circular saw copy jig and a Hau E. Wind turbines: fundamentals, technologies, application. Berlin, Springer:
Economics; 2000.
router copy jig is being compared in Table 3. In order to take Lysen EH. Introduction to wind energy. CWD 82–12nd edition. ; 1983. The Netherlands.
advantage of the strength of both copy jigs, it is suggested here that Manwell JF, Macgowen JG, Rogers AL. Wind turbine energy explained: theory, design
the circular saw could be used to roughly construct blades quickly. The and application. England: John Wiley and Son Ltd; 2002.
McKellep D, Coleman V. Research on wooden tidal energy turbine blades. Ocean Energy
rough blade will then be machined by the router jig for speed and council, Inc. [Link] 2010. Accessed 11 February
precision. This is particularly helpful in mass production where time 2011.
and precision are critical. Cutting and feeding in both jigs can be Michael SS, Bryan DM. Wind tunnel tests of six airfoils for use on small wind turbines.
ASME 2004;126.
automated resulting in labor and keeping operators away from danger Polaski K. Research priorities on ocean energy. IEA-OES Newsletter 2006(Issue 6). http://
zone. [Link]/_fich/6/Newsletter_6_Apr2006.pdf. Accessed 3 May 2010.
Somers D.M. The S822 and S823 Airfoils. National Renewable Energy Laboratory, U.S.
Department of Energy , Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy, U.S.A,
Conclusion
2005.
Swenson WJ. The evaluation of an axial flow, lift type turbine for harnessing the kinetic
It has been demonstrated that the construction of an optimum energy in tidal flow. Darwin, Australia: Australian Universities Power Engineering
hydrokinetic turbine blade can be accomplished by using common Conference AUPEC; 1999.
Thomas K, Grabbe M, Yuen K, Leijon M. A low-speed generator for energy
tools, common materials and simple jigs. The simplified method of conversion from marine currents-experimental validation of simulations. Pro.
blades construction allows it to be made in remote villages near to it IMechE, Vol. 222. Part A: J. Power and Energy; 2008.