Texas

Heithaus • Arms
ABOUT THE COVER
Honeybees (Apis mellifera) provide valuable ecosystem services, including crop pollination and
honey production. Researchers use a variety of tools to track honeybees, from simple numbered
tags to RFID (radio frequency identification) tags.

Photo Credits
Cover, title page: honeycomb ©Brian Hagiwara/Foodpix/Getty Images; bees ©Old Dog
Photography/Flickr/Getty Images; tree ©Douglas Waters/The Image Bank/Getty Images.
Cover: rain forest ©altrendo nature/Getty Images; turtles ©Flickr/Getty Images; greenhouse
©Nigel Cattlin/Photo Researchers, Inc.; arctic ©Arctic-Images/The Image Bank/Getty Images;
storm chaser ©Ryan McGinnis/Flickr Select/Getty Images.

Text Credits
Lippincott Williams & Wilkins: Adaptation of “Figure 4: Environmental portion of disease in the
major world regions” (retitled “Poor Health by World Region”) by Kirk R. Smith from “How Much
Global Ill Health Is Attributable to Environmental Factors?” by Kirk R. Smith, Carlos F. Corvalán,
and Tord Kjellström from Epidemiology, vol. 10, no. 5, September 1999, pp. 573–584. Copyright
©1999 by Epidemiology Resources Inc.
United Nations Population Fund (UNPFA): From “Women and the Environment” from The
State of the World Population 2001, edited by Alex Marshall. Copyright ©2001 by UNPFA.

Copyright © 2013 by Houghton Mifflin Harcourt Publishing Company

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AUTHORS

Michael R. Heithaus, Ph.D.

Executive Director, School of Environment, Arts, and Society
Associate Professor, Department of Biological Sciences
Florida International University
North Miami, Florida

Mike Heithaus received his Ph.D. in including the ecological role of large-bodied
Biological Sciences from Simon Fraser predators and herbivores in marine
University. He is now the Executive Director ecosystems. He uses his work to help
of Florida International University’s School develop plans for marine conservation. In
of Environment, Arts, and Society, which addition to his research, Dr. Heithaus has
brings together the natural and social worked to bring science and nature to the
sciences and humanities to develop public through documentary films on the
solutions to today’s environmental Discovery Channel and the National
challenges. His research, conducted mainly Geographic Channel, as well as special
in Western Australia and south Florida, video projects for the classroom.
focuses on predator-prey interactions,

Karen Arms, Ph.D., J.D.

Karen Arms received her Ph.D. in molecular and introductory biology at South College in
biology from Oxford University and a doctor Savannah, Georgia. In addition to Holt
of law from Cornell University. She was an Environmental Science, Dr. Arms is the author
assistant professor of biology at Cornell of several college-level biology textbooks.
University, where she taught introductory Her interest in and concern for the
biology and courses in science and society. environment led her to form an ecotourism
She also taught marine biology at the organization that introduces people to the
University of Georgia Marine Biology Station ecosystems of the southeastern coast.

Authors iii
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Contributing Writer Janice L. Branson Linda Gaul, Ph.D.
Assistant Professor Epidemiologist
E. Raymond Heithaus School of Agriculture Texas Department of Health
Philip and Sheila Jordan Professor of Tennessee Technological University Austin, Texas
Environmental Science & Biology Cookeville, Tennessee
Kenyon College Matthew R. Gilligan, Ph.D.
Gambier, Ohio Gary Campbell, Ph.D. Professor and Program Coordinator,
Professor of Mineral Economics Marine Sciences
Safety Reviewer School of Business and Economics Department of Natural Sciences and
Michigan Technological University Mathematics
Jack Gerlovich, Ph.D. Houghton, Michigan Savannah State University
Associate Professor Savannah, Georgia
School of Education Laura Chenault, D.V.M.
Drake University Bulverde, Texas Deborah Jean Gochfeld, Ph.D.
Des Moines, Iowa Senior Scientist
Marian R. Chertow, Ph.D. National Center for Natural Products
Assistant Professor of Industrial Research
Academic Reviewers Environmental Management University of Mississippi
Jess F. Adkins, Ph.D. Yale School of Forestry and University, Mississippi
Assistant Professor of Geochemistry and Environmental Studies
Global Environmental Science Yale University John Goodge, Ph.D.
New Haven, Connecticut Associate Professor of Geology
Division of Geological and Planetary
Sciences Southern Methodist University
Susan L. Cutter, Ph.D. Dallas, Texas
California Institute of Technology Carolina Distinguished Professor
Pasadena, California Department of Geography Mary L. Haasch, Ph.D.
Foster K. Amey, Ph.D. University of South Carolina NRC Senior Scientist
Associate Professor of Sociology Columbia, South Carolina U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
Department of Sociology and Duluth, Minnesota
Susan B. Dickey, R.N., Ph.D.
Anthropology Associate Professor David Haig, Ph.D.
Middle Tennessee State University Pediatric Nursing Associate Professor of Biology
Murfreesboro, Tennessee Temple University Department of Organismic and
Mead Allison, Ph.D. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania Evolutionary Biology
Associate Professor Harvard University
Dale Elifrits, Ph.D. Cambridge, Massachusetts
Department of Geology and Earth Professor
Sciences Department of Physics and Geology Vicki Hansen, Ph.D.
Tulane University Northern Kentucky University Professor of Geological Sciences
New Orleans, Louisiana Highland Heights, Kentucky Department of Geology
David M. Armstrong, Ph.D. Southern Methodist University
Turgay Ertekin, Ph.D. Dallas, Texas
Professor George E. Trimble Chair in Earth and Mineral
Environmental, Population, and Sciences Rosalind Harris, Ph.D.
Organismic Biology Professor, Rural Agriculture
Professor of Petroleum and Natural Gas
University of Colorado
Engineering Department of Sociology
Boulder, Colorado
Department of Energy and Geo- University of Kentucky
Paul D. Asimow, Ph.D. Environmental Engineering Lexington, Kentucky
Associate Professor of Geology and Pennsylvania State University
University Park, Pennsylvania Richard Hey, Ph.D.
Geochemistry
Professor of Geophysics
Division of Geological and Planetary Ronald A. Feldman, Ph.D. School of Ocean and Earth Sciences
Sciences
Ruth Harris Ottman Centennial Professor for Technology
California Institute of Technology
the Advancement of Social Work Education University of Hawaii
Pasadena, California
Director, Center for the Study of Social Work Honolulu, Hawaii
Nolan B. Aughenbaugh, Ph.D. Practice
Professor Columbia University
Department of Geology and New York, New York
Geological Engineering
University of Mississippi
University, Mississippi

iv Acknowledgments
James C. Hower, Ph.D. Eva Oberdörster, Ph.D. Miles Silman, Ph.D.
Editor-in-Chief Lecturer Associate Professor of Biology
International Journal of Coal Geology Department of Biological Sciences Department of Biology
Senior Scientist Southern Methodist University Wake Forest University
Center for Applied Energy Research Dallas, Texas Winston-Salem, North Carolina
University of Kentucky
Lexington, Kentucky
Hilary Olson, Ph.D. Marc Slattery, Ph.D.
Research Scientist Division Director, NIUST Ocean
Steven A. Jennings, Ph.D. Institute of Geophysics Biotechnology Center and Repository
Associate Professor of Geography The University of Texas Department of Pharmacognosy
Department of Geography and Austin, Texas University of Mississippi
Environmental Studies University, Mississippi
University of Colorado
Ken Peace, C.C.E.
Colorado Springs, Colorado Geology Supervisor Spencer Steinberg, Ph.D.
Ark Land Company Associate Professor, Environmental Organic
Elizabeth W. Kleppinger, Ph.D. St. Louis, Missouri Chemistry
Adjunct Professor Chemistry Department
Department of Chemistry Per F. Peterson, Ph.D. University of Nevada
Eastern Kentucky University Professor and Chair Las Vegas, Nevada
Richmond, Kentucky Department of Nuclear Engineering
University of California Richard Storey, Ph.D.
Joel Leventhal, Ph.D. Berkeley, California Dean of the Faculty and Professor of Biology
Emeritus Scientist Colorado College
U.S. Geological Survey and Diversified David Pimentel, Ph.D. Colorado Springs, Colorado
Geochemistry Professor and Agricultural Ecologist
Lakewood, Colorado Department of Entomology, Ramesh Teegavarapu, Ph.D., P.E.
Systematics and Ecology Assistant Professor (Adjunct)
Alex Mills, Ph.D. Cornell University Department of Civil Engineering
University of Toronto Ithaca, New York Assistant Director
Toronto, Ontario, Canada Kentucky Water Resources Research
Mary M. Poulton, Ph.D.
Institute
Joann Mossa, Ph.D. Department Head and Associate Professor
University of Kentucky
Associate Professor of Geological Engineering Lexington, Kentucky
Department of Geography Department of Mining and Geological
University of Florida Engineering Martin VanDyke, Ph.D.
Gainesville, Florida University of Arizona Professor of Chemistry, Emeritus
Tucson, Arizona Front Range Community College
Gary Mueller, Ph.D.
Westminster, Colorado
Associate Professor of Nuclear Engineering Barron Rector, Ph.D.
Department of Engineering Associate Professor and Extension Range Judith Weis, Ph.D.
University of Missouri Specialist Professor of Biology
Rolla, Missouri Texas Agricultural Extension Service Department of Biological Sciences
Texas A&M University Rutgers University
Barbara Murck, Ph.D. College Station, Texas Newark, New Jersey
Director, Environmental Programs
University of Toronto Steven Richard Reese, Ph.D. Elizabeth Wenk, Ph.D.
Mississauga, Ontario, Canada Director, Radiation Center Instructor Adjunct Faculty
Department of Nuclear Engineering Department of Science
Emily Niemeyer, Ph.D. and Radiation Health Physics Cerro Coso Community College
Assistant Professor of Chemistry Oregon State University Bishop, California
Department of Chemistry Corvallis, Oregon
Southwestern University Mary Wicksten, Ph.D.
Georgetown, Texas Dork Sahagian, Ph.D. Professor of Biology
Research Professor, Stratigraphy and Basin Department of Biology
Bryan Norton, Ph.D. Analysis, Geodynamics Texas A&M University
Professor Global Analysis, Interpretation, and College Station, Texas
School of Public Policy Modeling Program
Georgia Institute of Technology University of New Hampshire
Atlanta, Georgia Durham, New Hampshire

Acknowledgments v
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS, continued
Teacher Reviewers Katherine Cummings Clifford Lerner
Science Teacher Biology Teacher
Robert Akeson Currituck County Keene High School
Science Teacher Currituck, North Carolina Keene, New Hampshire
Boston Latin School
Boston, Massachusetts Alonda Droege Stewart Lipsky
Science Teacher Science Teacher
Dan Aude Evergreen High School Seward Park High School
Magnet Programs Coordinator Seattle, Washington New York, New York
Montgomery Public Schools
Montgomery, Alabama Richard Filson Mike Lubich
Science Teacher Science Teacher
Lowell Bailey Edison High School Mapletown High School
Science Teacher Stockton, California Greensboro, Pennsylvania
Bedford North Lawrence High School
Bedford, Indiana Randa Flinn Thomas Manerchia
Science Teacher Environmental Science Teacher, Retired
Robert Baronak Northeast High School Archmere Academy
Biology Teacher Fort Lauderdale, Florida Claymont, Delaware
Donegal High School
Mount Joy, Pennsylvania Jane Frailey Tammie Niffenegger
Science Coordinator Science Chair and Science Teacher
Michele Benn Hononegah High School Port Washington High School
Science Teacher Hononegah, Illinois Waldo, Wisconsin
Beaver Falls High School
Beaver Falls, Pennsylvania Art Goldsmith Gabriele DeBear Paye
Biology and Earth Sciences Teacher Science and Environmental Technology
David Blinn Hallandale High School Lead Teacher
Secondary Sciences Teacher Hallandale, Florida West Roxbury High School
Wrenshall High School West Roxbury, Massachusetts
Wrenshall, Minnesota Sharon Harris
Science Teacher Denice Sandefur
Bart Bookman Mother of Mercy High School Fire Ecology and Science Teacher
Science Teacher Cincinnati, Ohio Nucla High School
Stevenson High School Nucla, Colorado
Bronx, New York Carolyn Hayes
Honors Biology and Environmental Jennifer M. Fritz
Daniel Bugenhagen Science Teacher Science Teacher
Science Teacher Center Grove High School North Springs High School
Yutan Community School Greenwood, Indiana Atlanta, Georgia
Yutan, Nebraska
Stacey Jeffress Dyanne Semerjibashian, Ph.D.
Robert Chandler Environmental Science Teacher Science Teacher
Science Teacher El Dorado High School Pflugerville High School
Soddy-Daisy High School El Dorado, Arkansas Pflugerville, Texas
Soddy-Daisy, Tennessee
Donald R. Kanner Bert Sherwood
Johanna Chase, C.H.E.S. Physics Instructor Science/Health Specialist
Health Educator Lane Technical High School Socorro Independent School District
California State University Chicago, Illinois El Paso, Texas
Dominguez Hills, California
Edward Keller Dan Trockman
Cindy Copolo, Ph.D. Science Teacher Science Teacher
Science Specialist Morgantown High School Hopkins High School
Summit Solutions Morgantown, West Virginia Minnetonka, Minnesota
Bahama, North Carolina
Kathy LaRoe Jim Watson
Linda Culp Science Teacher Science Teacher
Science Teacher St. Paul School District Dalton High School
Thorndale High School St. Paul, Nebraska Dalton, Georgia
Thorndale, Texas

vi Acknowledgments
H o l t M c D o u g a l
ENTAL SCIENCE
ENVIRONM

Yes, it’s educational.

No, it’s not boring.

Student Online Environmental Science Textbook

One Stop You’ll have access to all program resources Explore the world around
With this convenient at HMDScience.com. In addition to your you with pages of colorful
DVD, you can carry your textbook, you’ll find enhanced analysis photos, helpful illustrations,
textbook in your tools, including the Smart Grapher. Get exciting Case Studies, and
pocket, along with your hands on Virtual Investigations, hands-on activities using
printable copies of all Concept Maps, FoldNote animations, everyday materials. Learn
labs and worksheets. and a variety of lab activities. how environmental science
concepts are connected to
your everyday life.

online Environmental Science vii

HMDScience.com
 Look for
online
ENVIRONMENTAL
SCIENCE

link s t h ro u g h o u t
the book!

ONline Labs
HMDScience.com

Find labs that support the

concepts presented in the
chapter and supplement
the labs in your textbook.

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Gain lab experiences

that go beyond the
classroom.

viii
 HMDScience.com

Ecozine
HMDScience.com

Stay current with

environmental science–
related news from around
the world. Get the latest
updates on all chapter
features and share your
opinions with other
students across the
globe!
Ecozine photos ©Lisa Brennan

ix
 Look for
Labs O n l i n e
m
H M D S c ie n ce .co

QuickLab Inquiry Lab

Complete this easy activity in less Develop and perform your own
than one class period. procedure, often using a real-life
example.
Field Activity
Observe and apply a subject in a
real-world setting. Probeware Lab
Integrate data-collection technology
STEM Lab to generate more information and
perform deeper analyses.
Utilize technology and engineering
through hands-on projects.
Other lab types include
Exploration Lab • Data Analysis
• Environmental Engineering
Explore a situation or phenomenon
to improve your understanding. • Observation
• Simulation

x
 CONTENTS
in brief

unit 1 INTRODUCTION TO ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE

CHAPTER 1 Science and the Environment 4
CHAPTER 2 Tools of Environmental Science 30
chapter 3 The Dynamic Earth 58
(bc) ©Yann Layma/Stone/Getty Images; (t) ©blickwinkel/Alamy; (bc) ©Luis Veiga/Image Bank/Getty Images; (tc) ©Prisma/Superstock; (b) ©NHPA/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tc) ©Juniors Bildarchiv/Alamy Images

unit 2 ECOLOGY
CHAPTER 4 The Organization of Life 92
CHAPTER 5 How Ecosystems Work 116
CHAPTER 6 Biomes 142
CHAPTER 7 Aquatic Ecosystems 172

unit 3 POPULATIONS
CHAPTER 8 Understanding Populations 196
CHAPTER 9 The Human Population 218
CHAPTER 10 Biodiversity 240

unit 4 WATER, AIR, AND LAND

CHAPTER 11 Water 268
CHAPTER 12 Air 302
CHAPTER 13 Atmosphere and Climate Change 326
CHAPTER 14 Land 354
CHAPTER 15 Food and Agriculture 378

unit 5 MINERAL AND ENERGY RESOURCES

CHAPTER 16 Mining and Mineral Resources 410
CHAPTER 17 Nonrenewable Energy 434
CHAPTER 18 Renewable Energy 456
CHAPTER 19 Waste 480

unit 6 OUR HEALTH AND OUR FUTURE

CHAPTER 20 The Environment and Human Health 510
CHAPTER 21 Economics, Policy, and the Future 532

Contents in Brief xi
 CONTENTS

Unit 1 Introduction to Environmental Science

Chapter 1 Science and the Environment 4

1 Understanding Our Environment 5
Case Study Dam Removal on the Penobscot River 12
2 The Environment and Society 16
Making a Difference Predators of Africa 22
Chapter Summary and Review 24
Chapter Lab Field Activity
What’s in an Ecosystem? 28

Chapter 2 TOOLS OF ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 30

1 Scientific Methods 31
2 Statistics and Models 38
3 Making Informed Decisions 45
Case Study Saving the Everglades:
Making Informed Decisions 46
Maps in Action A Topographic Map of Keene,
New Hampshire 50

(t) ©Michael Melford/Getty Images; (c) ©Charlotte Main/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Earth Imaging/Stone/Getty Images
Society and the
Environment Bats and Bridges 51
Chapter Summary and Review 52
Chapter Lab Data Analysis
Risk Assessment 56

Chapter 3 The Dynamic Earth 58

1 The Geosphere 59
2 The Atmosphere 67
3 The Hydrosphere and Biosphere 73
Case Study Storm Surge, Tsunamis, and Coastal Wetlands 74
Maps in Action Earthquake Hazard Map of the
Contiguous United States 82
Society and the
Environment Ocean Currents 83
Chapter Summary and Review 84
Chapter Lab Simulation
Beaches 88

Earth Science Connection — This content correlates to common Earth Science standards.

xii Contents
 Unit 2 Ecology

Chapter 4 The Organization of Life 92

1 Ecosystems: Everything Is Connected 93
2 Evolution 97
Case Study Darwin’s Finches 98
3 The Diversity of Living Things 102
Making a Difference Butterfly Ecologist 108
Chapter Summary and Review 110
Chapter Lab Behavior Analysis
How Do Brine Shrimp Select a Habitat? 114

Chapter 5 how ecosystems work 116

1 Energy Flow in Ecosystems 117
Case Study DDT in an Aquatic Food Chain 120
2 The Cycling of Matter 124
3 How Ecosystems Change 129
Case Study Communities Maintained by Fire 130
Maps in Action Tracking Bats and Insects in Texas 134
Society and the
Environment Changing Seas 135
Chapter Summary and Review 136
Chapter Lab Data Analysis
Factors That Influence Ecosystems 140
(cr) ©A. Cosmos Blank/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tr) ©Photodisc/Getty Images

Contents xiii
 Chapter 6 biomes 142
1 What Is a Biome? 143
2 Forest Biomes 146
Case Study Deforestation, Climate, and Floods 150
3 Grassland, Desert, and Tundra Biomes 155
Making a
Difference A Little Piece of Cajun Prairie 164
Chapter Summary and Review 166
Chapter Lab Field Activity
Identify Your Local Biome 170

Chapter 7 Aquatic Ecosystems 172

1 Freshwater Ecosystems 173

(cl) ©Marty Snyderman/Corbis; (tl) ©Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bc) ©Scimat/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (br) ©M. I. Walker/Photo Researchers, Inc.
2 Marine Ecosystems 179
Case Study Restoration of the Chesapeake Bay 180
Maps in Action Wetlands in the United States, 1780s vs. 1980s 186
Society and the
Environment Hurricane Katrina and New Orleans 187
Chapter Summary and Review 188
Chapter Lab Observation
Eutrophication: Too Much of a Good Thing? 192

Earth Science Connection — This content correlates to common Earth Science standards.

xiv Contents
 Unit 3 Populations

Chapter 8 Understanding Populations 196

1 How Populations Change in Size 197
2 How Species Interact with Each Other 203
Case Study Predator-Prey Adaptations 206
Society and the
Environment Conserving Top Predators 210
Chapter Summary and Review 212
Chapter Lab Observation
Calculating Generation Rate 216

Chapter 9 The Human Population 218

1 Studying Human Populations 219
2 Changing Population Trends 225
Case Study Thailand’s Population Challenges 228
Maps in Action Fertility Rates and Female Literacy in Africa 232
Society and the
Environment Lost Populations: What Happened? 233
Chapter Summary and Review 234
(t) ©Still Pictures/Peter Arnold, Inc.; (c) ©Syndicated Features Limited/The Image Works; (b) ©Photoshot USA/Canada

Chapter Lab Data Analysis

How Will Our Population Grow? 238

Chapter 10 Biodiversity 240

1 What Is Biodiversity? 241
2 Biodiversity at Risk 245
Case Study A Genetic Gold Rush in the Rain Forests 248
3 The Future of Biodiversity 252
Making a Difference Dr. E. O. Wilson: Champion of Biodiversity 258
Chapter Summary and Review 260
Chapter Lab Field Activity
Differences in Diversity 264

Contents xv
 Unit 4 Water, air, and land

Chapter 11 Water 268

1 Water Resources 269
Case Study The Ogallala Aquifer: An Underground Treasure 272
2 Water Use and Management 276
3 Water Pollution 284
Points of View The Three Gorges Dam 294
Chapter Summary and Review 296
Chapter Lab Simulation
Groundwater Filters 300

Chapter 12 Air 302

1 What Causes Air Pollution? 303
2 Air, Noise, and Light Pollution 309
Case Study The Health Effects of Ground-Level Ozone 310
3 Acid Precipitation 314
Maps in Action Light Sources 318
Society and the
Environment Killer Smog 319
Chapter Summary and Review 320
Chapter Lab Simulation
The Acid Test 324

Chapter 13 Atmosphere and Climate Change

(t) ©Ralph A. Clevenger/Corbis; (b) ©NASA; (c) ©Deborah Davis/Getty Images

326
1 Climate 327
Case Study Ice Cores: Reconstructing Past Climates 330
2 The Ozone Shield 335
3 Climate Change 339
Making a
Difference Climate Scientist 346
Chapter Summary and Review 348
Chapter Lab Environmental Engineering
Build a Model of Global Air Movement 352

Earth Science Connection — This content correlates to common Earth Science standards.

xvi Contents
 Chapter 14 land 354
1 How We Use Land 355
2 Urban Land Use 358
3 Land Management and Conservation 363
Case Study Conservation Planning 366
Making a
Difference Restoring the Range 370
Chapter Summary and Review 372
Chapter Lab Modeling
Creating a Land-Use Model 376

Chapter 15 Food and Agriculture 378

1 Feeding the World 379
2 Crops and Soil 384
3 Animals and Agriculture 395
Case Study Menhaden: The Fish Behind the Farm 396
Points of View Genetically Modified Foods 400
Chapter Summary and Review 402
Chapter Lab Simulation
(cr) ©David R. Frazier Photolibrary, Inc./Alamy; (tr) ©Jim Wark/Airphoto; (b) ©Edwin Remsberg/Alamy Images

Managing the Moisture in Garden Soil 406

Contents xvii
 Unit 5 Mineral and energy resources

Chapter 16 Mining and Mineral Resources 410

1 Minerals and Mineral Resources 411
2 Mineral Exploration and Mining 415
Case Study Hydraulic Mining in the California Goldfields 418
3 Mining Regulations and Mine Reclamation 421
Maps in Action Mineral Production in the United States 426
Society and the
Environment Gold from Ghana 427
Chapter Summary and Review 428
Chapter Lab Observation
Extraction of Copper from Its Ore 432

Chapter 17 Nonrenewable Energy 434

1 Energy Resources and Fossil Fuels 435
Case Study The "Gas" Rush—Deep Hydraulic Fracturing 440
2 Nuclear Energy 444
Points of View Pipelines and Oil Sands 448
Chapter Summary and Review 454
Chapter Lab Data Analysis
Your Household Energy Consumption 454

(tl) ©Dale O'Dell/Alamy Images; (cl) ©Accent Alaska.com/Alamy Images; (b) ©Corbis

Earth Science Connection — This content correlates to common Earth Science standards.

xviii Contents
 Chapter 18 Renewable Energy 456
1 Renewable Energy Today 457
Case Study A Super-Efficient Home 458
2 Developing Energy Technologies 466
Maps in Action Wind Power in the United States 472
Society and the
Environment Solar Living 473
Chapter Summary and Review 474
Chapter Lab Modeling
Blowing in the Wind 478

Chapter 19 Waste 480

1 Solid Waste 481
2 Reducing Solid Waste 488
Case Study Paper or Plastic? 490
3 Hazardous Waste 493
Case Study Green Chemistry 496
Points of View How Should Nuclear Waste Be Stored? 500
Chapter Summary and Review 502
(tr) ©Rafael Macia/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (cr) ©Photoshot USA/Canada; (b) ©Michelle Bridwell/Frontera Fotos

Chapter Lab Data Analysis

Out of Sight—Out of Mind 506

Contents xix
 Unit 6 our health and our future

Chapter 20 The Environment and Human Health 510

1 Pollution and Human Health 511
Case Study Chemicals That Disrupt Hormones 516
2 Biological Hazards 519
Maps in Action Lyme Disease Risk 524
Society and the
Environment Water Challenges 525
Chapter Summary and Review 526
Chapter Lab Data Analysis
Lead Poisoning and Mental Ability 530

Chapter 21 Economics, Policy, and the Future 532

1 Economics and International Cooperation 533
Case Study Saving Species in the Open Ocean 536
2 Environmental Policies in the United States 539
3 The Importance of the Individual 544
Making a Difference Get Involved with the Environment 548
Chapter Summary and Review 550
Chapter Lab Research
Be an Environmental Scientist 554

Student Resources
Appendix A Lab Safety R2
Appendix B Field Studies R6
Appendix C Note-Taking and Study Skills R12 (c) ©Alex Webb/Magnum Photos; (t) ©Michel Gounot/Godong/Corbis
Appendix D Math Skills Refresher R18
Appendix E Chemistry Refresher R24
Appendix F Mineral Uses R28
Appendix G Economics Concepts R30
Appendix H SI Conversions R32
Appendix I Environmental Careers R33
Appendix J Ecoskills R45
Appendix K Maps R56

English and Spanish Glossary R72

Index R92
Earth Science Connection — This content correlates to common Earth Science standards.

xx Contents
 labs

Chapter Labs QUICKLABS

Classifying Resources 14
ExplorationLabs Hypothesizing and Predicting 32
The Heat Is On! 70
What’s in an Ecosystem? 28 Deep Ocean Currents 78
Beaches 88 Pollen and Flower Diversity 105
Factors That Influence Ecosystems 140 Make Every Breath Count 125
Identify Your Local Biome 170 Plant Adaptations 158
Eutrophication: Too Much of a Good Thing? 192 Estuaries 180
Calculating Generation Rate 216 Population Growth 198
How Will Our Population Grow? 238 Estimating Population Growth 231
Differences in Diversity 264 Habitat Degradation 254
Groundwater Filters 300 Measuring Dissolved Oxygen 288
The Acid Test 324 Effects of Acid Precipitation 316
Build a Model of Global Air Movement 352 Investigating Prevailing Winds 330
Creating a Land-Use Model 376 Measuring Soil Depth and Compaction 365
Managing the Moisture in Garden Soil 406 Preventing Soil Erosion 386
Extraction of Copper from Its Ore 432 Surface Coal Mining 420
Your Household Energy Consumption 454 Conserving Energy 438
Out of Sight—Out of Mind 506 Hydrolysis 468
Be an Environmental Scientist 554 Here Today—Gone Tomorrow? 491
Simulating an Epidemic 520
Making a Decision 546
InquiryLabs

Risk Assessment 56
How Do Brine Shrimp Select a Habitat? 114
Blowing in the Wind 478
Lead Poisoning and Mental Ability 530
(l) ©Gerhard Gscheidle; (c) ©Ted Kinsman/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Contents xxi
 features

Making a Difference

Predators of Africa 22
Butterfly Ecologist 108
A Little Piece of Cajun Prairie 164
Dr. E. O. Wilson: Champion of Biodiversity 258
Climate Scientist 346
Restoring the Range 370
Get Involved with the Environment 548

Maps in Action

A Topographic Map of Keene, New Hampshire 50

Earthquake Hazard Map of the Contiguous United States 82
Tracking Bats and Insects in Texas 134
Wetlands in the United States, 1780s vs. 1980s 186
Fertility Rates and Female Literacy in Africa 232
Light Sources 318
Areas of predicted Lyme
disease transmission Mineral Production in the United States 426
Wind Power in the United States 472
Lyme Disease Risk 524

Points of View

(t) ©Lincoln Brower; (b) ©Vincent Laforet, POOL/AP Images; (c) ©Flemming Søgaard Jensen/Flickr/Getty Images
The Three Gorges Dam 294
Genetically Modified Foods 400
Pipelines and Oil Sands 448
How Should Nuclear Waste Be Stored? 500

Society and the Environment

Bats and Bridges 51

Ocean Currents 83
Changing Seas 135
Hurricane Katrina and New Orleans 187
Conserving Top Predators 210
Lost Populations: What Happened? 233
Killer Smog 319
Gold from Ghana 427
Solar Living 473
Water Challenges 525

xxii Contents
 CASESTUDIES

Dam Removal on the Penobscot River 12 Menhaden: The Fish Behind the Farm 396
A series of dams in Maine provided hydropower benefits but A small, inedible fish that most people have never heard of
also obstructed the paths of migratory fish. helps marine ecosystems by removing nitrogen pollutants.

Saving the Everglades: Making Informed Decisions 46 Hydraulic Mining in the California Goldfields 418
The destruction of Florida’s Everglades has jeopardized the The first environmental ruling in the United States halted mining
state’s tourism industry, farming, and economic future. methods that polluted rivers, damaged fields, and poisoned
marine animals.
Storm Surge, Tsunamis, and Coastal Wetlands 74
Maintaining and restoring wetland plants can help protect The “Gas Rush”—Deep Hydraulic Fracturing 440
coastal areas from natural disasters. Fluid pressure applied underground breaks rocks and frees
trapped oil or gas, but chemicals in the fluid can contaminate
Darwin’s Finches 98 the environment.
Scientific studies of unique species on the remote Galápagos
Islands found that evolutionary change can happen over a A Super-Efficient Home 458
surprisingly short period of time. Architects are developing tiny homes that can generate their
own heat and electricity—and even provide their own water
DDT in an Aquatic Food Chain 120 through a rainwater-collection system.
A U.S. government ban on the pesticide DDT has helped aquatic
food chains start to recover from its effects. Paper or Plastic? 490
Environmentally conscious shoppers debate whether it is better
Communities Maintained by Fire 130 to carry groceries home in plastic, paper, or cloth bags.
In a fire-adapted ecosystem, regular wildfires remove
old-growth trees and stimulate seeds to germinate. Green Chemistry 496
The U.S. Green Chemistry Institute strives to develop
Deforestation, Climate, and Floods 150 biodegradable products that use renewable raw materials and
Clearing trees in a large area can cause serious flooding and as little energy as possible.
even changes in climate.
Chemicals That Disrupt Hormones 516
Restoration of the Chesapeake Bay 180 Some pollutants can prevent natural hormones from functioning
The Chesapeake Bay Program was formed to restore the bay’s normally, causing reproductive problems, tumors, and sexual
ecosystems, which have been threatened by pollution. abnormalities.
Predator-Prey Adaptations 206 Saving Species in the Open Ocean 536
Adaptations, including changes in behavior and physical Regional Fisheries Management Organizations manage
features, help predators catch prey and help prey avoid migratory fish populations and try to prevent overharvesting of
predators. marine species.
Thailand’s Population Changes 228
Thailand has slowed its population growth in an effort to
conserve limited resources and improve the quality of life.

A Genetic Gold Rush in the Rain Forests 248

Tropical rain forests are home to many plants with medicinal
properties that are valued by the biotechnology industry.
(t) ©Joseph Collins/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Jodi Cobb/Getty Images

The Ogallala Aquifer: An Underground Treasure 272

Farmers and other Great Plains residents are working to
conserve a vast underground aquifer that is showing signs of
depletion.

The Health Effects of Ground-Level Ozone 310

Increased levels of ozone at Earth's surface can have damaging
effects on people’s lungs.

Ice Cores: Reconstructing Past Climates 330

Scientists can reconstruct Earth’s climate history by examining
cores drilled out of ice sheets thousands of meters thick.

Conservation Planning 366

Conservation planners set aside as much as 80 percent of
undeveloped land to be used as shared green space.

Contents xxiii
 Safety
symbols

The following safety symbols will appear in this text when

you are asked to perform a procedure requiring extra CHEMICAL SAFETY
precautions. Once you have familiarized yourself with these
• Always use caution when working with chemicals.
safety symbols, turn to Appendix A for safety guidelines to
use in all your laboratory work in environmental science. • Always wear appropriate protective equipment.
Always wear eye goggles, gloves, and a lab apron or
lab coat when you are working with any chemical or
EYE PROTECTION chemical solution.
• Wear safety goggles when working around chemicals, • Never mix chemicals unless your instructor directs
acids, bases, flames, or heating devices. Contents you to do so.
under pressure may become projectiles and cause • Never taste, touch, or smell chemicals unless your
serious injury. instructor directs you to do so.
• Never look directly at the sun through any optical • Add an acid or base to water; never add water to an
device or use direct sunlight to illuminate a acid or base.
microscope.
• Never return an unused chemical to its original
• Avoid wearing contact lenses in the lab. container.
• If any substance gets into your eyes, notify your • Never transfer substances by sucking on a pipet or
instructor immediately and flush your eyes with straw; use a suction bulb.
running water for at least 15 minutes.
• Follow instructions for proper disposal.

CLOTHING PROTECTION
ANIMAL SAFETY
• Secure loose clothing and remove dangling jewelry.
Do not wear open-toed shoes or sandals in the lab. • Always obtain permission before bringing any
animal to school.
• Wear an apron or lab coat to protect your clothing
• Handle animals carefully and respectfully.
when you are working with chemicals.
• Wash your hands thoroughly after handling any
• If a spill gets on your clothing, rinse it off
animal.
immediately with water for at least 5 minutes while
notifying your instructor.
PLANT SAFETY
CAUSTIC SUBSTANCES • Wear disposable polyethylene gloves when handling
any wild plant.
• If a chemical gets on your skin, on your clothing, or
in your eyes, rinse the area immediately and alert • Do not eat any part of a plant or plant seed used in
your instructor. the lab.

• If a chemical is spilled on the floor or lab bench, alert • Wash hands thoroughly after handling any part of a
plant.
your instructor but do not clean it up yourself unless
your instructor directs you to do so. • When outdoors, do not pick any wild plants unless
your instructor directs you to do so.

xxiv Safety Symbols

 ELECTRICAL SAFETY FIRE SAFETY
• Do not place electrical cords in walking areas or • Know the location of laboratory fire extinguishers
let cords hang over a table edge in a way that could and fire-safety blankets.
cause equipment to fall if the cord is accidentally • Know your school’s fire-evacuation routes.
pulled.
• Do not use equipment that has frayed electrical
cords or loose plugs. GAS SAFETY
• Be sure that equipment is in the “off” position before • Do not inhale any gas or vapor unless your instructor
you plug it in. directs you to do so. Do not breathe pure gases.
• Never use an electrical appliance around water or • Handle materials prone to emit vapors or gases in a
with wet hands or clothing. well-ventilated area. This work should be done in an
approved chemical fume hood.
• Be sure to turn off and unplug electrical equipment
when you are finished using it.
GLASSWARE SAFETY
HEATING SAFETY • Check the condition of glassware before and after
using it. Inform your teacher of any broken, chipped,
• Avoid wearing hair spray or hair gel on lab days.
or cracked glassware, because it should not be used.
• Whenever possible, use an electric hot plate instead
• Do not pick up broken glass with your bare hands.
of an open flame as a heat source.
Place broken glass in a specially designated disposal
• When heating materials in a test tube, always angle container.
the test tube away from yourself and others.
• Glass containers used for heating should be made of
heat-resistant glass. WASTE DISPOSAL
• Clean and decontaminate all work surfaces and
personal protective equipment as directed by your
SHARP OBJECTS instructor.
• Use knives and other sharp instruments with • Dispose of all broken glass, contaminated sharp
extreme care. objects, and other contaminated materials
• Never cut objects while holding them in your hands. (biological and chemical) in special containers as
Place objects on a suitable work surface for cutting. directed by your instructor.
• Never use a double-edged razor in the lab.
HYGIENIC CARE/CLEAN HANDS
HAND SAFETY • Keep your hands away from your face and mouth.
• To avoid burns, wear heat-resistant gloves whenever • Always wash your hands thoroughly when you have
instructed to do so. finished with an experiment.
• Always wear protective gloves when working with
an open flame, chemicals, solutions, or wild or
unknown plants.
• If you do not know whether an object is hot, do not
touch it.
• Use tongs when heating test tubes. Never hold a test
tube in your hand to heat the test tube.

Safety Symbols xxv

 Ecozine
HMDScience.com

Go online for more information about

these feature articles in the unit:

Chapter 1: making a difference

Predators of Africa

Chapter 2: Society and the

environment Bats and
Bridges
©blickwinkel/Alamy

Chapter 3: Society and the

environment Ocean Currents

2
 T
Introduction to Unit 1
E
Environmental Chapter 1
a
Science
Science and the

H
Environment

Chapter 2
Tools of Environmental
Science

Chapter 3
The Dynamic Earth
(t) ©Michael Melford/Getty Images; (b) ©Earth Imaging/Stone/Getty Images; (c) ©Charlotte Main/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Once hatched, these perch will

continuously pump water through
the mouth and over the gill arches to
breathe, which makes them vulnerable
to pollutants in their environment.
Scientists monitor fish and amphibian
species to determine the effects of
pollution on the world’s ecosystems.

3
Chapter 1
Section 1
Understanding Our Environment
Science and the
Environment
Section 2
The Environment and Society

Why It Matters
A biologist uses an aerial
tramway to survey the rain
forest canopy in Costa Rica.
Many plants found in the
canopy ecosystem seem better
adapted for life in the desert
than in the rain forest. Why?

CASESTUDY
Learn more about the delicate
balance in an ecosystem and
the ways humans can both
harm and help an ecosystem in
the case study Dam Removal
on the Penobscot River on
pages 12–13.

Online
Melford/Getty Images

ENVironmental Science
HMDScience.com

Go online to access additional

Image Credits:

resources, including labs,

©Michael

worksheets, multimedia, and

resources in Spanish.

4
 Section 1
Understanding Our Objectives

Environment
Define environmental science,
and compare environmental
science with ecology.

List the five major fields

When someone mentions the term environment, some people think of a beautiful
scene, such as a stream flowing through a wilderness area or a rain forest canopy
of study that contribute to
alive with blooming flowers and howling monkeys. You might not think of your environmental science.
backyard or neighborhood as part of the environment. In fact, the environment is
everything around us. It includes the natural world as well as things produced by
Describe the major
humans. But the environment is also more than what you can see—it is a complex environmental effects of hunter-
web of relationships that connects us with the world we live in. gatherers, the agricultural
revolution, and the Industrial
Revolution.
What Is Environmental Science?
Distinguish between renewable
There is a growing need to understand the environment as a whole,
and nonrenewable resources.
including both its biological and physical features. A wide variety of
people contribute to this understanding of the environment, including Classify environmental
high school students. In the 1990s, students from Keene High School problems into three major
in Figure 1.1 studied dwarf wedge mussels in the Ashuelot River of New categories.
Hampshire. The mussels, which were once abundant in the river, were
in danger of disappearing, and the students wanted to know why. The
students tested water samples from different parts of the river, conducted
experiments, and asked questions.
Key Terms
environmental science
The students’ efforts were highly praised and widely ­recognized.
ecology
More importantly, their work contributed to an ongoing community
effort that still works toward the preservation of the endangered dwarf
agriculture
wedge mussel. The students’ work is just one example of a field called natural resource
environmental science, the study of the environment that includes the pollution
physical, biological, and social sciences. biodiversity

Figure 1.1

Student Scientists  These students are counting the dwarf wedge mussels in part of the Ashuelot River.

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 5

 Figure 1.2

Environmental Scientists 
Scientists from a variety of fields use
different methods to study how humans
Connect to HISTORY
interact with and impact the environment.

Connect to HISTORY The Goals of Environmental Science

Rachel Carson Environmental scientists have found that the environment is influenced
Alarmed by the increasing levels of by people and that people are influenced by the environment. A major
pesticides and other chemicals in the goal of many environmental scientists is to understand and solve envi-
environment, biologist Rachel Carson ronmental problems. To address this goal, environmental scientists study
published Silent Spring in 1962. two main types of interactions between humans and the environment.
Carson imagined a spring morning One area of study focuses on how we use natural resources, such as water
that was silent because the birds and and plants. The other area of study focuses on how our actions alter our
frogs were dead after being poisoned environment. Environmental scientists must gather and analyze informa-
by pesticides. Carson’s carefully tion from many different disciplines. Even though environmental scien-
researched book was enthusiastically tists want to solve environmental problems, they are not the same as en-
received by the public and was read vironmentalists. Scientists study the environment to accurately describe
by many other scientists, as well environmental systems and determine how they work. Scientists also can
as policy makers and politicians. use data and mathematical models to predict how systems might change
However, many people in the chemical under different scenarios. It is up to the public, special interest groups,
industry saw Silent Spring as a threat and politicians to make decisions about how to manage the environment.
to their pesticide sales and launched Environmentalism is a social movement that seeks to protect the environ-
a $250,000 campaign to discredit ment and, because we all depend on the environment, people.
Carson. Carson’s research prevailed,
although she died in 1964—unaware
that the book she had written was Many Fields of Study
instrumental in the birth of the modern Environmental science is an interdisciplinary science, which means it
environmental movement. involves many fields of study. Ecology is the study of how living things
interact with each other and with their nonliving environment. Chemistry
helps us understand how organic matter is transformed and the nature of
pollutants. Geology helps us model how water and air move around the
globe. Botany and zoology provide information needed to preserve species.
Paleontology, the study of fossils, helps us understand how Earth’s climate
has changed in the past. Using such information about the past can help us
predict how future climate changes could affect life on Earth. Often, teams
of environmental scientists work together to understand and solve environ-
mental problems.
Studying the environment also involves studying human populations.
Environmental scientists may use the social sciences, which include eco-
nomics, law, politics, and geography. Social sciences can help us answer
questions such as How does human migration from rural to urban areas
©Matt Meadows

Check for Understanding affect the local environment? Or how can economic incentives change
Compare  How is ecology related to people’s decisions to protect the environment? Figure 1.3 lists some of the
environmental science? major fields of study that contribute to the study of environmental science.

6 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Figure 1.3
Major Fields of Study That Contribute to Environmental Science
Biology is the study of living Zoology is the study of animals.
organi­sms. Botany is the study of plants.
Microbiology is the study of microorganisms.
Ecology is the study of how organisms interact with their environment and each other.

Earth science is the study Geology is the study of Earth’s surface, interior processes, and history.
of Earth’s nonliving systems Paleontology is the study of fossils and ancient life.
and the planet as a whole. Climatology is the study of Earth’s atmosphere and climate.
Hydrology is the study of Earth’s water resources.

Physics is the study Engineering is the science by which matter and energy are made useful to humans in structures,
of matter and energy. machines, and products.

Chemistry is the study Biochemistry is the study of the chemistry of living things.
of chemicals and their Geochemistry, a branch of geology, is the study of the chemistry of materials such as rocks, soil,
interactions. and water.

Social sciences are the Geography is the study of the relationship between human populations and Earth’s features.
study of human populations. Anthropology is the study of the interactions of the biological, cultural, geographical,
and historical aspects of humankind.
Sociology is the study of human population dynamics and statistics.
©Douglas Faulkner/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 7

 Figure 1.4

Environmental Science and Public Life

Scientists at a conference discuss climate change. Students study the movements of box turtles.

Scientists as Citizens, Citizens as Scientists

Governments, businesses, and communities recognize that studying our
environment is vital to maintaining a healthy and productive society.
Thus, environmental scientists are often asked to share their research
with the world. Figure 1.4 shows scientists meeting to discuss climate
change at a United Nations conference.
Often, the observations of nonscientists are the first step toward
addressing an environmental problem. For example, middle-school

(b) ©North Wind Picture Archives; (tr) Courtesy of Gardner Watkins; (tl) ©Xu Jinquan/Xinhua Press/Corbis
Figure 1.5
students first noticed the appearance of deformed frogs in Minnesota
Change  Three hundred years ago, lakes. Similarly, the students at Dublin Scioto High School in Ohio,
Manhattan was a very different place. shown in Figure 1.4, have studied the habitat of endangered box turtles. A
This painting shows an area where Native habitat is a place where an organism usually lives. The students wanted
Americans hunted and fished.
to find out how the turtles live and what factors affect their nesting and
hibernation sites in their habitat. The students tracked and mapped the
turtles’ movements, measured atmospheric conditions, and analyzed
soil samples. These efforts are important because the box turtle habitat is
threatened. The students have presented their findings to city planners,
in an effort to protect the most sensitive turtle habitats.

Our Environment Through Time

Wherever humans have hunted, grown food, or settled, they have changed
the environment. For example, the land where New York City now stands
was once an area where Native Americans hunted game and gathered
food, as shown in Figure 1.5. The environmental change that has occurred
on Manhattan Island over the past 300 years is immense, yet this period of
time is just a “blink” in human history.

8 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Hunter-Gatherers ECOFACT
For most of human history, people were hunter-gatherers, or people who The Fall of Troy
obtain food by collecting plants and by hunting wild animals or scaveng- Environmental problems are nothing
ing their remains. Early hunter-gatherer groups were small, and they new. Nearly 3,000 years ago, the
migrated from place to place as different types of food became available at Greek poet Homer wrote about the
different times of the year. Even today there are hunter-gatherer societies ancient seaport of Troy, which was
in the Amazon rain forests of South America and in New Guinea, as shown located beneath a wooded hillside.
in Figure 1.6. The Trojans cut down all the trees on
Hunter-gatherers affected their environment in many ways. For the surrounding hills. Without trees
example, some Native American tribes hunted bison that live in grass- to hold the soil in place, rain washed
lands. The tribes set fires to burn the prairies and prevent the growth the soil into the harbor. So much
of trees. This kept the prairies as open grassland where the tribes could silt accumulated in the harbor that
hunt bison. large ships could not enter and Troy’s
economy collapsed. Today, the ruins of
In North America, rapid climate changes and overhunting by hunter- Troy are several miles from the sea.
gatherers may have contributed to the disappearance of some species of
large mammals. These species include giant sloths, giant bison, mast-
odons, cave bears, and saber-toothed cats. Large piles of bones have been
found where meat was possibly stored during the winter. In Australia and Check for Understanding
New Zealand, hunter-gatherers caused the extinction of many large spe- Identify  Name two ways that hunter-
cies of mammals and birds. gatherers affected their environment.

Figure 1.6

Hunter-Gatherers  This modern hunter-gatherer group lives in New Guinea, a tropical island off the north coast of Australia.
©David Gillison

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 9

 The Agricultural Revolution
  FieldStudy Eventually many hunter-gatherer groups began to collect the seeds of
Go to Appendix B to find the field study the plants they gathered and to domesticate some of the animals in their
Measure Up. environment. Agriculture is the practice of growing, breeding, and caring
for plants and animals that are used for food, clothing, housing, transpor-
tation, and other purposes. The practice of agriculture started in many
different parts of the world over 10,000 years ago. This change had such
a dramatic impact on human societies and their environment that it is
often called the neolithic agricultural revolution.
The agricultural revolution allowed human populations to grow at an
unprecedented rate. An area of land can support up to 100 times as many
people by farming as it can by hunting and gathering. As populations
grew, they began to concentrate in smaller areas. These changes placed
increased pressure on local environments.
The agricultural revolution also changed the food we eat. The plants
we grow and eat today are descended from wild plants. During harvest
season, farmers collected seeds from plants that exhibited the qualities
they desired. The seeds of plants with large kernels or sweet and nutri-
tious flesh were planted and harvested again. Over the course of many
generations, the domesticated plants became very different from their
wild ancestors. For example, the grass shown in Figure 1.7 may be related
to the grass from which corn was bred.
As grasslands, forests, and wetlands were replaced with farmland,
habitats were destroyed. Slash-and-burn agriculture, shown in Figure 1.7,
is one of the earliest ways by which land was converted to farmland.
Replacing forest with farmland on a large scale caused soil loss, floods,
and water shortages. In addition, much of this converted land was farmed
poorly and is no longer fertile. The loss of fertile farmland had far-reach-
ing effects. For example, the early civilizations of the Tigris-Euphrates
River basin collapsed, in part, because the overworked soil became infer-
tile through salt contamination.

Figure 1.7

The Agricultural Revolution

(bl) ©A. Murray/University of Florida; (br) ©Still Pictures

This grass, called Eastern gama grass, is thought to be a relative For thousands of years humans have burned forests to create fields for
of the modern corn plant. Native Americans may have selectively agriculture. In this photo, a rain forest in Thailand is being cleared for farming.
bred a grass like this to produce corn.

10 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Figure 1.8

Industrial Revolution  During much of the Industrial Revolution, few limits were Quality of Life  The invention of computers
placed on the air pollution caused by burning fossil fuels. Locomotives such as these has improved the ways that people work, learn,
were powered by burning coal. communicate, and entertain themselves.

The Industrial Revolution

For about 2.5 million years the tools of human societies were
powered mainly by humans or animals. This pattern changed
in the middle of the 1700s with the Industrial Revolution, which
involved a shift from energy sources, such as animal muscle and
running water, to fossil fuels, such as coal and oil. The increased
use of fossil fuels and machines, such as the steam engines
shown in Figure 1.8, changed society and greatly increased the
efficiency of agriculture, industry, and transportation.
During the Industrial Revolution, the large-scale production of goods
(tl) ©Lambert/Archive Photos/PictureQuest/Getty Images; (tr) ©Color Blind Images/Blend Images/Getty Images

in factories became less expensive than the local production of goods.

Machinery reduced the amount of land and human labor needed for
farming. As fewer people grew their own food, populations in urban areas
steadily grew. Fossil fuels and motorized vehicles allowed food and other
goods to be transported cheaply across great distances.

Improving Quality of Life

The Industrial Revolution introduced many positive changes. Inventions
such as the light bulb greatly improved our quality of life. Agricultural
productivity increased, and sanitation, nutrition, and medical care vastly
improved. Technologies such as the telephone and the portable com-
puter, shown in Figure 1.8, enabled people to work and communicate
more easily from any location. Yet with all of these advances, the Indus-
trial Revolution introduced many new environmental problems.
In the 1900s, modern societies began to use artificial substances
in place of raw animal and plant products. Plastics and many other
artificial ma­terials have made life easier. However, we now understand
some of the environmental problems they present. Much of environ- Check for Understanding
mental science is concerned with the problems associated with the Identify  Identify three ways that the
Industrial Revolution. Industrial Revolution changed society.

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 11

 Figure 1.9 Spaceship Earth
Earth, shown from space in Figure 1.9, has been compared to a ship travel-
Space  This photograph was taken in
ing through space, unable to dispose of waste or take on new supplies as
1968 by the crew of Apollo 8. Photographs
such as this helped people realize the
it travels. Earth is essentially a closed system—the only thing that enters
uniqueness of the planet we share. Earth’s atmosphere in large amounts is energy from the sun, and the only
thing that leaves in large amounts is heat. A closed system has potential
problems. Some resources are limited, and as the population grows, the
resources will be used. In a closed system there is also the chance that we
will produce wastes more quickly than we can dispose of them.
Although Earth can be thought of as a complete system, envi­
ronmental problems can occur on different scales: local, regional, or
global. For example, your community may be discussing where to build
a new landfill, or local developers may be arguing with environmental-
ists about the importance of a rare bird or insect. On a regional level, the
drinking water in your area may be affected by a polluted river hundreds
of miles away. Other environmental problems are global. For example,
carbon dioxide released in one part of the world can contribute to climate
change around the globe.

CASESTUDY

Dam Removal on the Penobscot River

Dams on rivers help to produce much-needed electricity fisheries have been lost and the Penobscot population
without continuously burning fossil fuels. These benefits, of salmon was listed under the Endangered Species Act
however, are accompanied by some environmental, in 2009. Scientists determined that the primary cause of
economic, and social costs. The large geographic areas of decline is obstruction of fishes’ migratory paths by dams.
watersheds (the land area that drains into a river) and the Dams reduce the environmental benefits of a free-
diverse mix of interest groups present challenges to making running river in many ways. These benefits include food,
fair and sustainable decisions about hydropower. How can recreation, cultural enrichment, and clean water. Varying
the right balance be achieved? depths and currents that come with natural flow create
diverse habitats that promote diverse wildlife. Periods of
The Penobscot River, Maine fast flow remove silt from gravel beds, which is necessary
The watershed of the Penobscot River is the largest in for many aquatic insects. These insects are food for fish.
Maine, and the major streams extend over 8,800 km (about Many species of fish need sand or gravel to reproduce.
5,500 miles). Historically, the Penobscot was home to Normal river flow helps rivers recover from pollution, and
abundant fish and other wildlife. For example, more than coastal ocean ecosystems are productive because rivers
100,000 salmon per year migrated for reproduction from deliver nutrients from land to ocean. These benefits of
the ocean to this watershed. Salmon and ten other species natural river flow have been revealed by the work of many
of migratory fish enriched the watershed and provided food environmental scientists.
and cultural value for the Wabanaki people, who occupied
the area continuously for more than 9,000 years. The Penobscot River Restoration Trust
European settlement of the area brought construction To reconcile the benefits and costs of dams, the Penobscot
of many dams to provide power for mills and eventually to River Restoration Project brought together a wide variety of
©NASA

produce electricity. In the past few decades all commercial groups to develop a plan that is now being implemented.

12 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Population Growth: A Local Pressure Figure 1.10
One reason many environmental problems are so pressing today is that World Population  The size of the
the agricultural revolution and the Industrial Revolution allowed the human population in 2010 was nearly
human population to grow much faster than it had ever grown before. The 14 times larger than it was in 1600.
development of modern medicine and sanitation also helped increase the
human population. As shown in Figure 1.10, the human population almost WorldÊPopulation:Ê
quadrupled during the 20th century. Producing enough food for such 1600Ð2010
7.5
a large population has environmental consequences. Many of the envi-

Population (in billions)

6.5
ronmental problems that affect us today, such as habitat destruction and
5.5
pesticide pollution, are the result of feeding the world in the 20th century.
4.5
Other problems, like climate change, are the result of filling the demand
3.5
for goods and transportation of so many people.
2.5
There are many different predictions of population growth for the 1.5
future. But most scientists think that the human population will almost 0.5
double in the 21st century before it will begin to stabilize. We can expect 1600 1700 1800 1900 2000
that the pressure on the environment will continue to increase as the hu- Year
Source:ÊU.S.ÊCensusÊBureau,Ê
man population and its need for food and resources grow. InternationalÊDatabase

The Penobscot River, Maine

today to millions of fish! This will revitalize

the Penobscot Indian Nation’s culture and
traditions and will promote sustainable
economic development of communities within
the watershed.
The story of the Penobscot River is an
example of how environmental science
and public action work together to solve
environmental problems. Good science
These groups include a hydropower company, the revealed the causes for decline, needs for ecological
Penobscot Indian Nation (a part of the Wabanaki people),
Critical Thinking
restoration, and the engineering solutions to implement
seven conservation groups, and government agencies at large-scale projects. Science will continue to be applied
the state and federal levels. As part of the plan, hydropower to evaluate the recovery of wildlife, and many groups with
levels will be maintained, but two dams closest to the different interests working together will ensure the long-term
mouth of the river will be removed, construction of a bypass health of the river and local communities.
for migratory fish will occur at a third dam, and passages
will be built for fish at four more dams. These actions Critical Thinking
©Edwin Remsberg/Alamy Images

will be monitored by Maine and Federal agencies. Most 1. Analyzing Processes  Why was the Penobscot
importantly, the Penobscot River Restoration Trust was River Restoration Trust formed?
formed to promote continued collaboration and oversight
2. Analyzing Relationships  Describe how
for all the participating groups. Increased access to proper
environmental science helped the Trust decide
habitat and improved water quality should allow populations that some dams should be removed.
of many migratory fishes to grow from no more than 2,000

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 13

QUICKLAB What Are Our Main Environmental Problems?
Classifying Resources You may feel as though the world has an unlimited variety of environ-
QUICKLAB
Procedure mental problems. But many environmental problems fall into three
1. You and a partner will be given a categories: resource depletion, pollution, or loss of biodiversity.
small container of objects by your
teacher.
2. Working separately, you should Resource Depletion
each create a data table with Any natural material that is used by humans is called a natural resource.
the headings, “Renewable” and Natural resources can be classified as renewable or nonrenewable, as
“Nonrenewable.”
shown in Figure 1.11. A renewable resource is a resource that can be replaced
3. Without speaking, each of you
relatively quickly by natural processes. Fresh water, air, soil, trees, and crops
should look at the objects and
are all resources that can be renewed. Energy from the sun is also a renew-
decide in which of the two
able resource. A nonrenewable resource is a resource that forms at a much
categories they belong .
slower rate than the rate that it is consumed. The most common nonre-
4. When you are both finished,
compare your choices. Discuss
newable resources are minerals and fossil fuels. Once a nonrenewable
any differences, explaining why resource is used up, it may take millions of years to replenish it.
you placed objects in a particular Resources are said to be depleted when a large fraction of the resource
category. has been used up. Figure 1.11 shows a mine where copper, a nonrenew-
5. Participate in a class discussion able resource, is removed from the Earth’s crust. Some renewable re-
about what resources the sources can also be depleted. For example, if trees are harvested faster
objects represent and why they than they can grow naturally in an area, deforestation will result.
are considered renewable or
nonrenewable.
Pollution
Analysis
With the Industrial Revolution, societies began producing wastes faster
1. Why are resources like air and
water considered to be at risk,
than the wastes could be disposed of. The wastes accumulate and cause
even though they are considered pollution. Pollution is an undesired change in air, water, or soil that ad-
renewable? versely affects the health, survival, or activities of humans or other organ-
2. Select one resource and hypothesize isms. Air pollution levels in Mexico City, as shown in Figure 1.12, are danger-
what side effects might occur if ously high, mostly because of car exhaust and industrial pollutants.
that resource is depleted. Biode­gradable pollutants can be broken down by natural processes.
These pollutants include things such as human sewage and food wastes.

Figure 1.11

Resources  More than

12 million tons of copper have
Renewable and
been mined from the Bingham
Nonrenewable Resources
mine in Utah. Once all of the
copper that can be profitably Renewable Nonrenewable
extracted is used up, the copper
energy from metals such as
©Gene Ahrens/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot

in this mine will be depleted.

the sun iron, aluminum, and
water copper
nonmetallic ma­terials
wood
such as salt, sand,
soil and clay
air fossil fuels

14 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Biodegradable pollutants are a problem when they accumulate faster Figure 1.12
than they can be broken down. Nonbiodegradable pollutants, such as
mercury, lead, and some types of plastic, cannot be broken down by Air Pollution  The problem of air
pollution in Mexico City is compounded
natural processes. Because such pollutants do not break down easily,
because the city is located in a valley that
they can build to dangerous levels in the environment.
traps air pollutants.
Because carbon dioxide is generally not harmful to people’s health—
we breathe it out when we exhale—people often don’t think of it as a
pollutant. But the huge amounts of CO2 being released from the burning
of fossil fuels are increasing the amount in the atmosphere and chang-
ing the climate. Because of this undesirable effect, it may be considered
pollution in some forms. Because climate change is a global problem that
affects many other environmental problems, many scientists believe that
it is the most pressing environmental issue.

Loss of Biodiversity
The term biodiversity refers to the number and variety of species that live
in an area. Earth has been home to hundreds of millions of species. Only
a fraction of those species are alive today. Extinction is a natural process,
(cr) ©Nature Source/Photo Researchers, Inc; (tr) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

and several large-scale extinctions, or mass extinctions, have occurred

through Earth’s history. Scientists believe that the pace of extinctions Figure 1.13
occurring today matches that of mass extinctions in the past. Why should
Loss of Biodiversity  The Tasmanian
we be concerned about the modern extinction of individual species?
tiger, native to Australia and the island of
The organisms that share the world with us can be considered natural Tasmania, was declared extinct in 1986.
resources. We depend on other organisms for food, for the oxygen we
breathe, and for many other things. A species that is extinct is gone for-
ever, so a species can be considered a nonrenewable resource. Scientists
think that if current rates of extinction continue, it may cause problems
for human populations in the future because the loss of too many species
may cause significant disruption in ecosystems. If this happens, many
of the services ecosystems provide to people may be lost. Many people
also argue that all species have potential economic, ecological, scientific,
aesthetic, and recrea­tional value, so it is important to preserve them.

Section 1  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe  the two main types of interactions 5. Making Comparisons  What is the difference
that environmental scientists study. Give an between environmental science and ecology?
example of each.
6. Making Inferences  Fossil fuels are said to be
2. Describe  the major environmental effects of nonrenewable resources, yet they are produced
the agricultural revolution and the Industrial by the Earth over millions of years. By what time
Revolution. frame are they considered nonrenewable? Write
a paragraph that explains your answer.
3. Explain  how environmental problems can be
local, regional, or global. Give one example of
each.
4. Explain  why environmental science is an
interdisciplinary science.

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 15

 Section 2
Objectives
The Environment
and Society
Describe “The Tragedy of the
Commons.”

Explain the law of supply and

demand.
When we think about environmental problems and how to solve them, we have
List three differences between
to consider human societies, how they act, and why they do what they do. One
developed and developing way to think about society and the environment is to consider how a society uses
countries. common resources. A neighborhood park, for example, is a common resource
that people share. On a larger scale, the open ocean is not owned by any nation,
Explain what sustainability is, yet people from many countries use the ocean as a common resource for fishing
and describe why it is a goal of and for transporting goods. How do societies decide to share common resources?
environmental science. In 1968, ecologist Garrett Hardin published an essay titled “The Tragedy of the
Commons,” which addressed this question.

Key Terms “The Tragedy of the Commons”

law of supply and demand In his essay, Hardin argued that the main difficulty in solving environ-
ecological footprint mental problems is the conflict between the short-term interests of
sustainability individuals and the long-term welfare of society. To illustrate his point,
Hardin used the example of the commons, as shown in Figure 2.1. Com-
mons were areas of land that belonged to a whole village. Anyone could
graze cows or sheep on the commons. It was in the best short-term inter-
est of an individual to put as many animals as possible on the commons.
Individuals thought, If I don’t use this resource, someone else will.
However, if too many animals grazed on the commons, the animals
destroyed the grass. Then everyone suffered because no one could raise
animals on the commons. Commons were eventually replaced by closed
fields owned by individuals. Owners were careful not to put too many
animals on their land, because overgrazing meant that fewer animals
could be raised the next year. The point of Hardin’s essay is that some-
one or some group has to take responsibility for maintaining a resource.
If no one takes that responsibility, the resource can be overused and
become depleted.
Figure 2.1

“The Tragedy of the Commons” 

Hardin observed that when land was held in
common (left), individuals tended to graze
as many animals as possible. Over­grazing
led to the destruction of the land resources.
When commons were replaced by enclosed
fields owned by individuals (right), people
tended to graze only the number of animals
that the land could support.

16 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Earth’s natural resources are our modern commons. Hardin thought that Figure 2.2
people would continue to deplete natural resources by acting in their own
self-interest to the point of society’s collapse. In history there are examples Supply and Demand  As demand
has increased for copper, supply has not
of this occurring, and the Tragedy of the Commons is still occurring for
been able to keep up. This has led to an
many resources. But humans live in groups and depend on one another.
increase in the price of copper.
Societies can solve an environmental problem by planning, organizing,
considering the scientific evidence, and proposing a solution. The solution U.S. Copper Supply
may override the interests of some individuals in the short term, but it will 1990–2010

Available copper (millions of tons)

6 6,000
improve the environment for everyone in the long term. Environmental

Cost per ton (1998 dollars)

science can provide information on how different plans will affect the 5 5,000
environment. Society must decide what outcome is desirable.
4 4,000

Economics and the Environment 3 3,000

Economic forces influence how we use resources. Many of the topics you
2 2,000
will explore later in this book are affected by economic considerations.
1 1,000
Supply and Demand 1990 2000 2010
Year
One basic rule of economics is the law of supply and demand, which states
that the greater the demand for a limited supply of something, the more Source: U.S. Geological Survey

that product is worth. One example of this rule is shown in Figure 2.2,
which illustrates the relationship between the supply of copper and its Check for Understanding
price. In recent years, demand for copper has grown beyond the amount Illustrate  Use an example to illustrate
that can be supplied in the U.S. This increase in demand and reduction in the law of supply and demand.
supply is reflected in the increased price. Many environmental solutions
have to take the relationship between supply and demand into account.

Costs and Benefits

The cost of environmental solutions can be high. To determine how much
to spend to control air pollution, a community may perform a cost-benefit
analysis. A cost-benefit analysis balances the cost of the action against the
benefit expected from it. The results of a cost-benefit analysis often depend
EV_CNLESE904016_784A
on who is doing the analysis. To an industry, cost of pollution control may
final
outweigh the benefits, but to a nearby community, the benefits may be 2-28-12
worth a high price. The cost of environmental regulations is often passed LKell
on to the consumer or taxpayer. The consumer can then choose to either
pay for the more expensive product that meets environmental regulations
or find a cheaper product without the same environmental safeguards.

Risk Assessment
One cost of any action is the risk of an undesirable outcome. Cost-benefit
analysis involves risk assessment, which is one tool that helps us create
cost-effective ways to protect our health and environment. To develop an
effective solution to an environmental problem, the public must perceive
the risk accurately. This does not always happen. In one study, people
were asked to assess the risk from various technologies. The public gener-
ally ranked nuclear power as the riskiest technology on the list, whereas
experts ranked it 20th—less risky than riding a bicycle.

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 17

ECOFACT Developed and Developing Countries
Minerals of South Africa  The The decisions and actions of all people in the world affect our environ-
resources a country has are a result ment. But the unequal distribution of wealth and resources around the
of geologic processes. South Africa, world influences the environmental problems that a society faces and
for example, has some of the most the choices it can make. The United Nations classifies countries as either
productive mineral deposits in the developed or de­veloping. Developed countries have higher average
world. In fact, the country is nearly
incomes, slower population growth, diverse industrial economies, and
self-sufficient in the mineral resources
stronger social support systems. They include the United States, Canada,
that are important to modern industry.
Japan, and the countries of Western Europe. Developing countries have
South Africa is the world’s largest
lower average incomes, simple and agriculture-based economies, and
producer of gold, platinum, and
rapid population growth. Developed and developing countries have
chromium.
different consumption patterns that affect the environment in different
ways. In addition, different developing countries are on different paths.
Some are experiencing little change in living conditions, while others, like
Brazil, China, and India, have emerged as major international economic
powers with environmental impacts and challenges similar to those in
developed countries.

Population and Consumption

Most environmental problems can be traced back to two root causes. First,
the human population in some areas is growing too quickly for the local
environment to support it. Second, people are using, wasting, or polluting
many natural resources faster than they can be replaced or cleaned up.
Figure 2.3

Consumption Trends

(bl) ©Purepix/Alamy Images; (br) ©Photodisc/Getty Images

A food market in India is shown to the left. The food market above
is in the United States. How do these two food markets show
differing consumption trends in India and the United States?

18 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 figure 2.4
Indicators of Development for the U.S., Japan, Mexico, and Indonesia
Measurement U.S. Japan Mexico Indonesia

Health life expectancy in years 78.5 82 76 71

Population per year 0.7% –0.1% 1.2% 1.0%
growth
Wealth gross domestic product per person $47,200 $34,000 $13,900 $4,200
Living space people per square kilometer 32 339 59 125
Energy use per person per year (millions of Btu) 330 172 67 25
Pollution carbon dioxide from fossil fuels per person per year (tons) 17.3 9.5 4.4 1.8
Waste garbage produced per person per year (kg) 720 400 300 43

Local Population Pressures

When the population in an area grows rapidly, there may not be enough
natural resources for everyone in the area to live a healthy, productive life.
Often, as people struggle for survival in severely overpopulated regions,
forests are stripped bare, topsoil is exhausted, and animals are driven to
extinction. Malnutrition, starvation, and disease can be constant threats.
Even though there are millions of people starving in developing countries,
populations tend to grow most rapidly in these countries. Food produc- Figure 2.5
tion, education, and job creation cannot keep pace with population
Ecological Footprints  An ecological
growth, so each person gets fewer resources as time goes by.
footprint is a calculation of the amount
of land and resources needed to support
Consumption Trends one person from a particular country.
The ecological footprint of a person in a
For many people in the wealthier part of the world, life is better than ever
developed country is, on average, four
before. Many environmental problems are being addressed. In addition,
times as large as the footprint of a person
the population has stabilized or is growing slowly. But to support this qual-
in a developing country.
ity of life, developed countries are using much more of Earth’s resources
than developing countries are. Developed nations use about 75 percent of 35

the world’s resources, even though they make up only about 20 percent of
the world’s population. This rate of consumption creates more waste and 30
pollution per person than in developing countries, as shown in Figure 2.4.
25
Ecological footprint (acres)

Ecological Footprints 20
One way to express the differences in consumption between nations is
as an ecological footprint, as shown in Figure 2.5. An ecological footprint 15
shows the productive area of Earth needed to support one person in a
particular country. It estimates the land used for crops, grazing, forest 10
products, and housing. It also estimates the ocean area used to harvest
seafood and the forest area needed to absorb the air pollution caused by
5
fossil fuels. Another footprint is the carbon footprint, or how much car-
bon dioxide is released into the atmosphere to support a person’s lifestyle
0
including goods used and emissions from powering vehicles and houses. India Mexico U.S. Britain

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 19

 Environmental Science in Context
Connect to ASTRONOMY As you have learned, environmental problems are complex. Simple solu-
tions are rare, and they sometimes cause more damage than the original
problem. To complicate matters, the environment has also become a bat-
tleground for larger issues that affect human societies. For example, how
does society balance the rights of individuals and property owners with
the needs of society as a whole? Or, when economic or political refugees
emigrate—legally or illegally—what can be done about the devastation
they may cause to the local environment? How do human rights relate to
the environment?

Critical Thinking and the Environment

People on any side of an environmental issue may feel passionately
about their cause, and can consequently distort information and mis-
lead people about the issues. Research done by environmental scientists
is often used to make political points or is misrepresented to support
Connect to ASTRONOMY controversial viewpoints. In addition to the scientific data, the economic
Another Earth? dimensions of an environmental issue can be oversimplified. Even more
If the environment on Earth changed complication is introduced by the media, which often sensationalizes
drastically, would we have anywhere environmental issues. So, as you make your own decisions about the en-
to go? There are no other planets in vironment, it is essential that you use your critical-thinking skills.
our solar system with an adequate
Learning to think critically about what you see in news­papers, on
range of temperatures, a breathable
television, and on the Internet will help you make informed decisions.
atmosphere, or the resources needed
As you explore environmental science further, you should remember a
to sustain humans with our present
few things. First, be prepared to listen to many viewpoints. People have
technology. There may be other
planets like Earth in the universe, but
many different reasons for the opinions they form. Try to understand
the closest planets we know of are in what those reasons are before reacting to their ideas. If you want your
other solar systems that are light-years ideas to be heard, it is important that you listen to the opinions of others,
away. as shown in Figure 2.6. Also, identify your own bias. How does it affect the
way you interpret the issue?

Figure 2.6

Community Involvement  Anyone

can express an opinion on environmental
issues at state and local public hearings.
©Jim West/Alamy Images

20 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Second, investigate the source of the information you Figure 2.7
encounter. Remember that environmental science is not
just somebody’s opinion. It is information that has been Citizens in Action  These high school students are taking
collected carefully, often by many scientists, and checked action to improve their environment. They are cleaning up
trash that is clogging an urban creek.
for accuracy by other scientists that did not collect or ana-
lyze the data. Science is designed to objectively test ideas,
not just collect data that support a preconceived bias.

A Sustainable World
Despite the differing points of view on the environment,
most people support the goal of achieving sustainability.
Sustainability is the condition in which human needs are
met in such a way that a human population can survive
indefinitely at a standard of living similar to the current
one. A sustainable world is not an unchanging world; tech-
nology advances and human civilizations continue to be
productive. But at the present time we live in a world that
is far from sustainable. The combination of a large popula-
tion, the current standard of living in developed countries,
and how we produce energy is using resources faster than Check for Understanding
they can be replaced. Explain  What is a sustainable world?
The problems described in this chapter are not insurmountable.
Achieving a sustainable world requires everyone’s participation. If
individual citizens, industries, and governments cooperate, we can move
toward sustainability. For example, the Penobscot River is cleaner and
healthier now than it was years ago. As another example, bald eagles were
once on the brink of extinction. But now they are now making a comeback
because of the efforts to preserve their habitat and to reduce pollution
©Frank Pedrick/The Image Works

from the pesticide DDT.

Nevertheless, our environmental problems are significant and require
careful attention and action. The 21st century will be a crucial time in
human history. We must find solutions that allow people on all parts of
our planet to live in a clean, healthy environment and have the resources
they need for a good life.

Section 2  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe  three differences between developing 4. Applying Ideas  The law of supply and demand
and developed nations using the examples is a simplification of economic patterns. What
in Figure 2.4. Would you classify Mexico as a other factors might affect the cost of copper?
developing nation? Explain your answer.
5. Evaluating Ideas  Write a description of “The
2. Explain  why critical thinking is an important Tragedy of the Commons.” Do you think that
skill in environmental science. Hardin’s essay is an accurate description of the
relationship between individuals, society, and
3. Explain  the law of supply and demand,
the environment?
and give an example of how it relates to the
environment.

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 21

Making a Difference

Predators
Hyenas and lions are two of the most recognized predators on the planet.
Every year, millions of people go on safari in Africa to see these predators.
Millions more see them in documentaries on TV. Most people love lions, but

of Africa
hyenas have a bad reputation.
Since the early 1970s, Dr. Laurence Frank has been studying the predators
of Africa in Kenya. By studying the behavior, interactions, and physiology
of hyenas, he and other scientists have shown that hyenas don’t deserve
their reputation. It turns out that hyenas are excellent hunters. Rather than
being scavengers and stealing kills from lions, hyenas get almost all of their
food by catching their own prey. Also, hyenas are highly social, cooperate
with one another, and live in clans where females are the leaders. As top
predators, both lions and hyenas are important in Africa. They help keep prey
populations in check, including keeping large herbivores from overgrazing
plants. But both lions and hyenas are in trouble. Seeing lions and hyenas
disappearing from the places he worked caused Dr. Frank to focus his
research on finding ways to protect these important predators. He is now the
Director of the Living with Lions Project—a group of scientists and Masai
warriors working in nonprotected areas of Kenya to protect lions. Not only is
it important to protect predators to ensure healthy ecosystems, but “a world
without lions would be a very sad place,” Dr. Frank has said.

Trouble in Africa
Because it is easy to see lions and hyenas in parks and on TV, most people
think that they are thriving in Africa. Unfortunately, these predators are
disappearing across the continent. Lion numbers in Africa have fallen
A Lion Guardian takes measurements and quickly—from around 200,000 in the 1990s to less than 30,000 in 2011.
attaches a tracking collar to a lion.
Lions are no longer found in many rangeland areas that had lions in the
early 1990s. Dr. Frank thinks that unless something is done quickly, lions
may disappear from Kenya in 10 to 20 years!
There are several reasons that lions and other predators
are in trouble. First, their habitat is being destroyed. Predators
need to be able to roam huge areas to find enough prey, but

(t) ©Seamus Maclennan; (bg) ©Pal Teravagimov Photography/Flickr/Getty Images

much of their natural habitat is being destroyed or is being used
for agriculture or raising livestock. In many places, livestock
overgraze the plants and there is not enough food to support
populations of prey for lions.
Although predators are doing well in some parks and
nature reserves, most of these are not big enough to ensure
their survival. The small populations of lions that live in these
protected areas could easily be wiped out by disease. Also, to
find enough prey, predators may have to leave the parks. When
predators enter commercial ranches or community grazing
lands, they come into conflict with people by killing livestock
such as cattle, sheep, and goats.

22 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Go online for the latest environmental science
news and updates on all EcoZine articles.

Both commercial ranchers and

Dr. Laurence Frank has studied the predators of Africa for decades, and he is now
traditional herders (the Masai) use the working to save them through programs such as the Living with Lions Project.
same methods to protect livestock.
During the day, the Masai watch
over livestock and move them to
areas where they can eat and drink.
At night, they move the livestock to
an enclosure made of thorn bushes
(boma). The boma is meant to protect
cattle from predators and from
theft. Some lions, however, will hunt
livestock at night by trying to scare
them out of the boma.
When a lion kills livestock, the
Masai may hunt it down and kill it. Or
the Masai may poison the carcass.
This will kill the lion when it comes
back to finish its meal the next night.
But this method also kills entire prides
of lions, as well as hyenas, vultures,
and other animals that eat the carcass. Another example of working with local communities to
Dr. Frank and many other people are trying to find out how save predators is Dr. Frank’s Laikipia Predator Project. The
to solve the problems that are causing lions to disappear. Project involves commercial ranchers, like Claus Mortensen at
Mugie Ranch, and Masai communities working together with
It Takes More Than a Village scientists. They are using GPS collars on lions to study how
Protecting predators isn’t easy and it isn’t all about science. lions use the landscape. They need to know how lions respond
Important factors include understanding how far predators to movements of livestock, wildlife, and humans. They have
range, how and why they kill livestock, and how people who found new ways to build bomas that better protect livestock.
have conflicts with lions can be encouraged to help save them. Also, they have found ways to work together so the money
To do this, the Living with Lions Project is finding ways that tourists spend when they come to see lions and other wildlife
the Masai and commercial ranchers can benefit financially benefits the ranchers and the Masai.
from keeping lions around. They are also working to reduce Lions and other predators in Africa are still in trouble. But
the number of livestock killed by lions and to educate people the work of many people, including Dr. Frank, Dr. Hazzah, the
about the importance of predators and the troubles predators MasaiWhat
warriors,Do
Stephanie Dolrenry, and Claus Mortensen, is
You Think?
are facing. building a blueprint for protecting them. With more hard work
One member of the Living with Lions Project is Dr. Leela and dedicated people, scientists and community members hope
Hazzah. Dr. Hazzah is the founder of the Lion Guardians. Her these predators will someday thrive again all across Africa.
idea was to try to convince Masai warriors, who were renowned
lion killers, to become lion protectors. Now, Masai warriors have
found that lions can be a benefit because they bring tourism.
With the help of graduate student and conservation biologist
Stephanie Dolrenry, the Lion Guardians have identified every
What Do You Think?
lion in 3500 km2 and have stopped all lion killing by the Masai. Why is it important that Dr. Frank and Dr. Hazzah
(t) ©Dr. Michael Heithaus

As a result, the population is recovering. work with the Masai and commercial ranchers? If
you had money to help protect lions, how would
you spend it?

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 23

Chapter 1  Summary

Section 1   nderstanding Our

U Objectives Key Terms
Environment
• Environmental science is an interdisciplinary study environmental
of the environment. A goal of many environmental science
scientists is to understand and solve environmental ecology
problems. One important foundation of environmental agriculture
science is the science of ecology. natural resource
• Environmental change has occurred throughout Earth’s pollution
history. biodiversity
• Hunter-gatherer societies cleared grassland by setting
fires and contributed to the extinction of some large
mammals.
• The agricultural revolution caused human population
growth, habitat loss, soil erosion, and the domestication
of plants and animals.
• The Industrial Revolution caused rapid human popula-
tion growth and the increased use of fossil fuels. Most
modern environmental problems began during the
Industrial Revolution.
• The major environmental problems we face today
include resource depletion, pollution, and loss of biodi-
versity.

Section 2  The Environment and Objectives Key Terms

Society
• “The Tragedy of the Commons” was an influential essay law of supply
that described the relationship between the short-term and demand
interests of the individual and the long-term interests ecological foot-
of society. print
• The law of supply and demand states that when the sustainability
demand for a product increases while the supply
remains fixed, the cost of the product will increase. (bl) ©Purepix/Alamy Images; (tl) Courtesy of Gardner Watkins
• Environmental problems in developed countries tend
to be related to consumption. In developing nations,
the major environmental problems are related to
population growth.
• Sustainability is the condition in which human needs
are met in such a way that a human population can
survive indefinitely at a standard of living similar to the
current one.

24 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

Chapter 1  Review
Reviewing Key Terms 12. Which of the following does not describe an effect
of the Industrial Revolution?
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence.
a. Fossil fuels became important energy sources.
1. agriculture
b. The amount of land and labor needed to
2. natural resource produce food increased.
3. pollution c. Artificial substances replaced some animal and
4. ecological footprint plant products.
5. sustainability d. Machines replaced human muscle and animal
power.
Use the correct key term to complete each of the
following sentences. 13. Pollutants that are not broken down by natural
6. The _________ Revolution was characterized by a processes are
shift from human and animal power to fossil fuels. a. nonrenewable.
7. Resources that can theoretically last forever are b. nondegradable.
called __________ resources.
c. biodegradable.
8. __________ is a term that describes the
d. Both (a) and (c)
number and variety of species that live in an area.
9. Concept Map  Use the following terms to 14. All of the following are renewable resources except
create a concept map: geology, biology, ecology,
a. energy from the sun.
environmental science, chemistry, geography, and
social sciences. b. minerals.
c. crops.
Reviewing Main Ideas d. fresh water.

10. An important effect that hunter-gatherer societies 15. In his essay, “The Tragedy of the Commons,” one
may have had on the environment was factor that Garrett Hardin failed to consider was
a. soil erosion. a. the destruction of natural resources.
b. extinction. b. human self-interest.
c. air pollution. c. the social nature of humans.
d. All of the above d. None of the above

11. An important effect of the agricultural 16. The term used to describe the productive area
revolution was of Earth needed to support the lifestyle of one
a. soil erosion. person in a particular country is called
b. habitat destruction. a. supply and demand.
c. plant and animal domestication. b. the ecological footprint.
d. All of the above c. the consumption crisis.
d. sustainability.

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 25

Chapter Review

Short Answer Critical Thinking

17. Give an example of how environmental science 26. Analyzing Ideas  Are humans part of the
might involve geology and chemistry. environment? Explain your answer.
18. Can biodegradable pollutants cause 27. Drawing Conclusions  Why do you think
environmental problems? Explain your answer. that fossil fuels were not widely used until the
19. In what ways are today’s environmental resources Industrial Revolution? Write a paragraph that
like the commons described in the essay “The describes your thoughts.
Tragedy of the Commons”? 28. Evaluating Assumptions  Once the sun
20. How could environmental concerns conflict with exhausts its fuel and burns itself out, it cannot
your desire to improve your standard of living? be replaced. So why is the sun considered a
renewable resource?
21. If you were evaluating the claims made on a Web
site that discusses environmental issues, what 29. Evaluating Assumptions  Read the description
types of information would you look for? of the Industrial Revolution. Were all the effects of
the Industrial Revolution negative? Explain your
22. Can species be considered natural resources? answer.
Explain your answer.
30. Demographics  Obtain the 1985 and 2000
census reports for your town or city. Look for
Interpreting Graphics changes in demographic characteristics, such
as population size, income, and age. Make a bar
The graphs below show the difference in energy graph that compares some of the characteristics
consumption and population size in developed you chose. How does your city or town compare
and developing countries. Use the graphs to answer with national trends? What might be some of the
questions 23–25. environmental implications of these trends?
Commercial Energy Population Size 31. Make a Diagram  Many resources can be traced
Consumption 6 to energy from the sun. For example, plants living
in swamps millions of years ago used energy from
5 the sun to grow. Over time, some of these plants
Population (in billions)

Developing 4 became coal deposits. When we burn coal today,

countries we are using energy that radiated from the sun
32% Developing
3 countries millions of years ago. Choose a resource, and
Developed
create a diagram that traces the resource back to
2
countries energy from the sun.
68% 1
Developed countries
0
1900 1950 2000
Year

23. Describe the differences in the energy

consumption and population growth of
developed and developing countries.
24. Do you think that the percentage of commercial
energy consumed by developing countries will
increase or decrease? Explain your answer.
25. Why is information on energy consumption
represented in a pie graph, while population size
is shown in a line graph?

26 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Chapter Review

Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
Use the table below to answer questions 32–34.
38. The dams on the Penobscot River will be
U.S. Japan Indonesia modified to help restore the populations of
migratory fish. Describe the three solutions
People per square 32 339 125
that will be implemented to allow for the
kilometer
migration of fish.
Garbage produced 720 kg 400 kg 43 kg 39. When the population of migratory fish
per person per year decreased because of dams on the Penobscot
River, what other populations might have been
32. Analyzing Data  Make a bar graph that compares affected? As the numbers of migratory fish
the garbage produced per person per year in each recover, how will those same populations be
country. STUDYSKILL
affected?
33. Making Calculations  Calculate how much
garbage is produced each year per square Why It Matters
kilometer of each country listed in the table.
40. Often, researching
34. Evaluating Data  Use the information in the
and effectively
table to evaluate the validity of the following
statement: In countries where population density Whyaddressing
It Matters
environmental
is high, more garbage is produced per person.
concerns requires
cooperation from
multiple groups,
Making Connections such as corporations,
35. Communicating Main Ideas  Briefly describe local residents,
the relationship between humans and the scientists, and
environment through history. governments. Why
is it important to
36. Writing Persuasively  Write a persuasive essay seek agreement
explaining the importance of science in a debate among groups with
about an environmental issue. potentially different
37. Outlining Topics  Write a one-page outline that goals and interests?
describes population and consumption in the
developing and developed world.

STUDYSKILL
Root Words  As you study, it may be helpful to learn the
meaning of important root words. You can find these roots
in most dictionaries. For example, hydro- means “water.”
Once you learn the meaning of this root, you can learn
the meanings of words such as hydrothermal, hydrologist,
hydropower, and hydrophobic.
©Michael Melford/Getty Images

Chapter 1:    Science and the Environment 27

 ExplorationLab
Field Activity
What’s in an
Objectives
Survey an area of land and
Ecosystem?
determine the land’s physical
features and the types of How well do you know the environment around your home or school?
organisms that live there. You may walk through it every day without noticing most of the living
Identify possible
things it contains or thinking about how they survive. Ecologists, on the
relationships between the other hand, observe organisms and seek to understand how they interact.
organisms that live in the In this lab, you will play the role of an ecologist by closely observing part
area of land you surveyed. of your environment.

Materials
hand lens Procedure
markers or felt-tip pens of 1. Use a tape measure or meter stick to measure a 10 m × 10 m site
several different colors to study. Place one stake at each corner of the site. Loop the string
notebook around each stake, and run the string from one stake to the next to
pen or pencil
form boundaries for the site.
stakes, (4) 2. Survey the site, and then prepare a site map of the physical features of
string, about 50 m the area in your science journal or field notes. For example, show the
tape measure or meter stick location of streams, sidewalks, trails, or large rocks, and indicate the
direction of any noticeable slope.
optional materials: field
guides to insects or plants 3. Create a set of symbols to represent the organisms at your site. For
example, you might use green triangles to represent trees, blue circles to
represent insects, or brown squares to represent animal burrows or nests.
At the bottom or side of the site map, make a key for your symbols.

4. Draw your symbols on the map to show the location and relative
abundance of each type of organism. If there is not enough space
on your map to indicate the specific kinds of plants and animals you
observed, record them in your notebook.

5. In your field notes, record any observations of organisms in their

environment. For example, note insects feeding on plants or seeking
shelter under rocks. Also describe the physical characteristics of your
study area. Some characteristics you might consider including are:
a. Sunlight Exposure  How much of the area is exposed to sunlight?
b. Soil  Is the soil mostly sand, silt, clay, or organic matter?
c. Rain  When was the last rain recorded for this area? How much
rain was received?
d. Maintenance  Is the area maintained? If so, interview the person
who maintains it and find out how often the site is watered, fertil-
ized, treated with pesticides, and mowed.
e. Water Drainage  Is the area well drained, or does it have pools of
water?
f. Vegetation Cover  How much of the soil is covered with vegeta-
Marking a Site  Use stakes and string to mark tion? How much of the soil is exposed?
a site that you will observe in detail.

28 Unit 1:   Introduction to Environmental Science

 6. After completing these observations, identify a 2 m × 2 m area that
you would like to study in more detail. Stake out this area, and wrap
the string around the stakes.

7. Use your hand lens to inspect the area. Be careful not to disturb the soil
or the organisms. Then record the types of insects and plants you see.

8. Collect a small sample of soil, and observe it with your hand lens.
Record a description of the soil and any organisms that live in it.

Analysis
Organizing Data  Use your site map,
your classmates’ site maps, and your
notes to answer the following questions.
Write your answers in your science
journal.

1. Identifying Organisms  Use field

guides provided by your teacher
to identify the organisms you saw.
Include both the common and
the scientific name for each. Was
there more of one particular type
of organism in your area?

2. Analyzing Data  Describe the

2 m × 2 m site you studied. Is this
site characteristic of the larger site?

Site Maps  Your site map should be as detailed

Conclusions as possible, and it should include a legend.

3. Interpreting Conclusions  What are the differences between the

areas that your classmates studied? Do different plants and animals
live in different areas?

4. Making Predictions  As the seasons change, the types of organisms

that live in the area you studied may also change. Predict how your
area might change in a different season or if a fire or flood occurred.

Extension
5. Asking Questions  Based on what you have learned, think of a
question that explores how the components of the area you observed
interact with each other. For example, you might want to consider
the influence of humans on the site; study a particular predator/prey
relationship; or explore the effects of physical features, such as water
or sunlight, on the growth or behavior of organisms. Write a descrip-
tion of how you would investigate this topic.

Chapter 1:   Science and the Environment 29

Chapter 2
Section 1
Scientific Methods
Tools of
Environmental
Section 2
Statistics and Models
Section 3
Making Informed Decisions

Why It Matters
Scientists use a variety
of techniques to study
environmental science topics.
In this photo, researchers
Science
are monitoring the breeding
behaviors of king penguins.
How might the observations
made by scientists in the field
impact decision-making that
affects the environment?

CASESTUDY
Learn about how scientific
observations can help solve
complex environmental
problems in the case study
Saving the Everglades: Making
Informed Decisions on pages
46-47.

Main/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Online
Environmental Science
HMDScience.com

Go online to access additional

Image Credits:

resources, including labs,

©Charlotte

worksheets, multimedia, and

resources in Spanish.

30
 Section 1
Scientific Methods Objectives

List and describe the steps of

the experimental method.
The word science comes from the Latin verb scire, meaning “to know.” Indeed,
science is full of amazing facts and ideas about how nature works. But science is Describe why a good hypothesis
not just something you know; it is also something you do. This chapter explores is not simply a guess.
how science is done and examines the tools scientists use.
Describe the two essential parts
of a good experiment.
The Experimental Method Describe how scientists study
You have probably heard the phrase, “Today scientists dis­covered…” How subjects in which experiments
do scientists make these discoveries? Scientists make most of their dis- are not possible.
coveries using the experimental method. This method consists of a series
of steps that scientists worldwide use to identify and answer questions. Explain the importance of
The first step is observing. curiosity and imagination in
science.

Observing
Science usually begins with observation. Someone notices, or observes, Key Terms
something and begins to ask questions. An observation is a piece of infor- observation
mation we gather using our senses—our sight, hearing, smell, and touch. hypothesis
To extend their senses, scientists often use tools such as rulers, micro- prediction
scopes, and even satellites. For example, a ruler provides our eyes with a experiment
standard way to compare the lengths of different objects. The scientists variable
in Figure 1.1 are observing the body length of a tranquilized wolf with the
experimental group
help of a tape measure. Observations can take many forms, including
descriptions, drawings, photographs, and measurements. control group
data
Students at Keene High School in New Hampshire observed that
correlation
dwarf wedge mussels were disappearing from the Ashuelot River, which
is located near their school. The students also observed that the river is
polluted. These observations prompted the students to take the next step
in the experimental method—forming hypotheses.

Figure 1.1

Making Measurements  These scientists

are measuring the body length of a tranquilized
wolf for a scientific study.
©Jeff & Alexa Henry

Chapter 2:  Tools of Environmental Science 31

QUICKLAB

QUICKLAB Hypothesizing and Predicting

Hypothesizing and Predicting Observations give us answers to questions, but observations almost
Procedure always lead to more questions. To answer a specific question, a scientist
1. Place a plastic or metal tray on a may form a hypothesis. A hypothesis (hie PAHTH uh sis) is a testable
table, with a thin book underneath idea or explanation that leads to a scientific investigation. A hypothesis
one end of the tray. is more than a guess. A good hypothesis follows from what you already
2. Place 50 mL each of potting know and can be tested.
soil, sand, and schoolyard dirt in
The Keene High School students observed two trends: that the
separate piles at the high end of
number of dwarf wedge mussels on the Ashuelot River was declining
the tray.
over time and that the number of dwarf wedge mussels decreased at
3. Write a hypothesis that explains
sites downstream from the first study site. These trends are illustrated in
which of the three soils will wash
Figure 1.2. Students tested the water in three places and found that the
away most easily when it rains.
4. Use a toothpick to poke several
farther downstream they went, the more phosphate the water had. Phos-
small holes in the bottom of a phates are chemicals in many fertilizers.
paper cup. Armed with their observations, the students might make the following
5. Pour water into the cup, and hypothesis: phosphate fertilizer from a lawn is washing into the river and
slowly sprinkle water over the killing dwarf wedge mussels. To test their hypothesis, the students make
three piles of soil. a prediction, a logical statement about what will happen if the hypothesis
Analysis
is supported. The students might make the following prediction: mussels
1. What happened to the different will die when exposed to high levels of phosphate in their water.
soils? Explain why. It is important that the students’ hypothesis—high levels of
2. Revise your hypothesis, if phosphate are killing the mussels—can be incorrect. If students
necessary, based on your successfully raised mussels in water that has high phosphate levels,
experiment. their hypothesis would not be supported. Every time a hypothesis is not
supported, the number of possible explanations for an observation is
reduced. By eliminating possible explanations, a scientist can zero in on
the best explanation with more confidence.

Figure 1.2

Diagramming Trends  The diagram below shows the trends observed by the students
at Keene High School. Site 1 is upstream. Site 3 is downstream.

1998

Site 1 Students found many

mussels in 1998 but fewer in 2000.

2000 Site 2 Students found few mussels Site 3 Students found no

in 1998 and fewer in 2000. mussels in 1998 or 2000.

32 Unit 1:  Introduction to Environmental Science

 Experimenting
The questions that arise from observations often cannot be answered by
making more observations. In this situation, scientists usually perform
one or more experiments. An experiment is a pro­cedure designed to test a
HMDScience.com
hypothesis under controlled conditions.
Experiments should be designed to pinpoint cause-and-effect rela­ The Scientific Process
tionships. For this reason, good experiments have two essential char-
acteristics: a single variable is tested, and a control is used. The variable
(VER ee uh buhl) is the factor of interest, which, in our example, would be
the level of phosphate in the water. To test for one variable, scientists usu-
ally study two groups or situations at a time. The variable being studied
is the only difference between the groups. The group that receives the
experimental treatment is called the experimental group. In our example,
the experimental group would be those mussels that receive phosphate in
their water. The group that does not receive the experimental treatment is
called the control group. In our example, the control group would be those
Courtesy of Cliff Lerner

mussels that do not have phosphate added to their water. If the mussels Check for Understanding
in the control group thrive while most of those in the experimental group Compare  What is the difference
die, the experiment’s results support the hypothesis that phosphates from between an experimental group and a
fertilizer are killing the mussels. control group?

The Experimental Method

in Action at Keene High
School
Keene High School students ­collected mussels
(nonendangered relatives of the dwarf wedge ­mussel) and
placed equal numbers of them in two types of aquariums.
They ensured that the conditions in the aquariums were
identical—same water temperature, food, hours of light,
and so on. The students added a measured amount of
­phosphate to the aquarium of the experimental group.
They added nothing to the aquarium of the control group.
Keene High School students conducted
A key to the success of an experiment is changing an ­experiment to study the effect of
only one variable and having a control group. What phosphate levels on the growth rates of
would happen if the aquarium in which most of the mussels freshwater mussels.
died had phosphate in the water and was also warmer?
The students would not know if the phosphate or the higher Critical Thinking
temperature killed the mussels.
1. Applying Ideas  Why did the students ensure
Another key to experimenting in science is replication,
that the conditions in both aquariums were
or recreating the experimental conditions to make sure the identical?
results are consistent. In this case, using ten aquariums—five
2. Evaluating Hypotheses  How would you
control and five experimental—would help ensure that the
change the hypothesis if mussels died in
results are not simply due to chance.
both aquariums?

Chapter 2:  Tools of Environmental Science 33

 Figure 1.3 Organizing and Analyzing Data
Scientific Tools  This scientist is Keeping careful and accurate records is extremely important in science.
analyzing his data with the help of a A scientist cannot rely on experimental results that are based on sloppy
computer and specialized equipment. observations or incomplete records. The information that a scientist gath-
ers during an experiment, which is often in numeric form, is called data.
Organizing data into tables and graphic illustrations helps scientists
analyze the data and explain the data clearly to others. The scientist in
Figure 1.3 is analyzing data on pesticides in food. Graphs are often used by
scientists to display relationships or trends in the data. Graphs are espe-
cially useful for illustrating conclusions drawn from an experiment.
One common type of graph is called a bar graph. Bar graphs are useful
for comparing the data for several things in one graph. Figure 1.4 shows the
same data in both table and graph form. Look at the data for Site 3 in the
bar graph. The data show that the concentration of phosphates is higher at
Site 3 than at Sites 1 and 2, and the concentration of nitrates is lower than at
Sites 1 and 2.

Drawing Conclusions
Scientists determine the results of their experiment by analyzing their
data and comparing the outcome of their experiment with their predic-
tion. Ideally, this comparison provides scientists with an obvious conclu-
sion. But often the conclusion is not obvious. For example, in the mussel
experiment, what if three mussels died in the control tank and five died
Figure 1.4 in the experimental tank? The students could not be certain that
phosphate is killing the mussels. Scientists often use mathemati-
Organizing Data  The graph and the table above cal tools, or statistics, to help them determine whether such dif-
it compare the concentrations of phosphates and ferences are meaningful or are just a coincidence. Scientists also
nitrates in the Ashuelot River in 2000. Site 1 is repeat their experiments.
upstream of Sites 2 and 3.

Pollutant Concentrations Repeating Experiments

(mg/L) Although the results from a single experiment may seem conclu-
Site Nitrates Phosphates sive, scientists look for a large amount of supporting evidence
before they consider a hypothesis to be supported. The more
1 0.3 0.02 often an experiment can be repeated with the same results, in
2 0.3 0.06 different places and by different people, the more sure scientists
become about the reliability of their results and conclusions.
3 0.1 0.07

Communicating Results
0.3 Nitrates
Milligrams per liter of water

Phosphates Scientists publish their results to share what they have learned
with other scientists. When scientists think their results are im-
0.2 portant, they usually publish their findings as a scientific article
©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

in a peer-reviewed journal. This means other scientists have con-

0.1
fidence in the quality of their work. A scientific article includes
the question the scientist explored, reasons why the question
is important, background information, a precise description of
0
Site 1 Site 2 Site 3
how the work was done, the data that were collected, and the
scientist’s interpretation of the data.

34 Unit 1:  Introduction to Environmental Science

 The Correlation Method
Whenever possible, scientists study questions by using experiments. But
many questions cannot be studied experimentally. The question “What
Connect to GEOLOGY
was Earth’s climate like 60 million years ago?” cannot be studied by Coral Correlation
performing an experiment because the scientists are 60 million years too Some geologists use an interesting
late. “Does smoking cause lung cancer in humans?” cannot be studied correlation to study records of past
experimentally because doing experiments that might injure people climates. Certain species of coral put
would be unethical. down layers of skeleton every year and
can live for 300 years. Coral skeletons
When using experiments to answer questions is impossible or unethi-
contain the elements strontium, Sr, and
cal, scientists test predictions by examining correlations, or associations
calcium, Ca. In some corals, the ratio
between two or more events. For example, scientists know that the rela-
of these elements in a layer of skeleton
tive width of a ring on a tree trunk is a good indicator of the amount of
correlates with local sea surface
rainfall the tree received in a given year. Trees produce wide rings in rainy temperature at the time that the layer
years and narrow rings in dry years. Scientists have used this knowledge forms. The correlation between the Sr
to investigate why the first European settlers at Roanoke Island, Virginia to Ca ratio and the sea temperature
(often called the Lost Colony) disappeared and why most of the first set- provides scientists with one record of
tlers at Jamestown, Virginia, died. As shown in Figure 1.5, the rings of older how Earth’s climate has changed over
trees on the Virginia coast indicate that the Lost Colony and the James- the centuries.
town Colony were founded during two of the worst droughts the coast
had experienced in centuries. The scientists concluded that the settlers
may have starved because the drought made it hard to grow food.
Although correlation studies are useful, correlations do not
necessarily prove cause-and-effect relationships between two variables.
For example, the correlation between increasing phosphate levels and a
declining mussel population on the Ashuelot River
does not prove that phosphates harm mussels. Sci-
entists become more sure about their conclusions
if they find the same correlation in different places
and as they eliminate other possible explanations.

Figure 1.5

Lost Colony Jamestown

4 Drought Drought
1587–1589 1606 –1612 Wet
conditions
Drought severity index

Correlation Studies  This cross section

of a bald cypress from southeastern Virginia
0 (above) shows a record of rainfall beginning
in 1531. The graph translates the relative tree
ring width into what is called a drought index,
Courtesy of U of AK Tree-Ring Lab

Dry conditions which lets scientists compare rainfall between

–4
different years.

1560 1600 1640 1680

Year
Source: Science.

Chapter 2:  Tools of Environmental Science 35

Connect to BIOLOGY Scientific Habits of Mind
Discovering Penicillin Scientists actually approach questions in many different ways. But scien-
Alexander Fleming discovered tists tend to share several key habits of mind, or ways of approaching and
penicillin by accident. Someone thinking about things.
left a window open near his dishes
of bacteria, and the dishes were
infected with spores of fungi. Instead Curiosity
of throwing the dishes away, Fleming Scientists are endlessly curious. Jane Goodall, pictured in Figure 1.6, is an
looked at them closely and saw that inspiring example. She studied a chimpanzee troop in Africa for years.
the bacteria had died on the side She observed the troop so closely that she came to know the personality
of a dish where a colony of green
and behavior of each member of the troop and greatly contributed to our
Penicillium mold had started to grow.
knowledge of that species.
If he had not been a careful observer,
penicillin might not have been
discovered. You may find Penicillium The Habit of Skepticism
yourself on moldy bread.
Scientists also tend to be skeptical, which means that they don’t believe
everything they are told. For example, up until the late 19th century,
many people thought that some organisms arose spontaneously from
non-living material. A series of scientists, including Francesco Redi in
1668, John Needham in 1745, and Louis Pasteur in 1859, conducted
experiments that refuted the possibility of spontaneous generation. Sci-
entists are also skeptical of their own work. They try to think of alternate
explanations for their results before publishing them.

Figure 1.6
Openness to New Ideas
Curiosity  Jane Goodall is famous for her close observations of
chimpanzees—observations fueled in part by her endless curiosity.
As the example above shows, skepticism
can go hand in hand with being open to
new ideas. Good scientists keep an open
mind about how the world works.

Intellectual Honesty
A scientist may be certain that a hypothesis
is correct before it has been fully tested.
But when an experiment is repeated, the
results may differ from those obtained the
first time. A good scientist will consider the
possibility that the new results may be ac-
curate, even if this means that the hypoth-
esis might be wrong.
©K & K Ammann/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot

36 Unit 1:  Introduction to Environmental Science

 Figure 1.7 Scale
0 50 100 yards
Creative Problem-Solving  John Snow t.
Oxford S
(below) created his famous spot map (right), 0 50 100

D ea
meters

nS
which let him see a pattern that no one had Pump sites

t.
Wa
noticed before. St.

Pola
Deaths from cholera
ugh

rdo
ro
rlbo

nd

u r St
Ma

St.
Gt.

.
St.
ad
Bro

Kin
gS
St.

t.
uit
nd
Co

.
Wa

r St
rw

we
Sa

ick

e
vill

Br
St.
eR
ow
illy
cad
Pic

Imagination and Creativity

Good scientists are not only open to
new ideas but able to conceive of new ideas themselves. The ability to
see patterns where others do not, or to imagine things that others cannot,
allows a good scientist to expand the boundaries of what we know.
An example of an imaginative and creative scientist is John Snow,
shown in Figure 1.7. Snow was a physician in London during a cholera
epidemic in 1854. Cholera, a potentially fatal disease, is caused by a
bacterium found in water that is polluted with human waste. Few people
had indoor plumbing in 1854. Most people got their water from public
pumps; each pump had its own well. To find the polluted water source,
Snow made a map showing the homes of everyone who died of cholera.
The map also showed the public water pumps. In this example of a cor-
©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

relation study, he found that more deaths occurred around a pump in

Broad Street than around other pumps in the area. London authorities
ended the cholera epidemic by shutting off the Broad Street pump. Using
observation, imagination, and creativity, Snow solved an environmental
problem and saved lives.

Section 1  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe  the steps of the experimental method. 5. Analyzing Methods  Read the description
of experi­ments. Describe the two essential
2. Name  three scientific habits of mind and
parts of a good experiment, and explain their
explain their importance.
importance.
3. Explain  why a hypothesis is not just a guess.
6. Analyzing Relationships  How can a scientist
4. Explain  how scientists try to answer questions
Image Credits:

be both skeptical and open to new ideas at

that cannot be tested with experiments. the same time? Write a one-page story that
describes such a situation.

Chapter 2:  Tools of Environmental Science 37

 Section 2
Objectives

Explain how scientists use

Statistics and Models
statistics.
Environmental science provides a lot of data that need to be organized and
Explain why the size of a interpreted before they are useful. Statistics is the collection and classification of
statistical sample is important. data that are in the form of numbers. People commonly use the term statistics to
describe numbers, such as the batting record of a baseball player. Sportswriters
Describe three types of models also use the methods of statistics to translate a player’s batting record over many
commonly used by scientists. games into a batting average, which allows people to easily compare the batting
records of different players.
Explain the relationship
between probability and risk.

Explain the importance of

How Scientists Use Statistics
conceptual and mathematical Scientists are also interested in comparing things, but scientists use sta-
models. tistics for a wide range of purposes. Scientists rely on and use statistics to
summarize, characterize, analyze, and compare data. Statistics is actually
a branch of mathematics that provides scientists with important tools for
Key Terms analyzing and understanding their data.
statistics Consider the experiment in which students studied mussels to see if
mean the mussels were harmed by fertilizer in their water. Students collected
distribution data on mussel length and phosphate levels during this experiment.
probability Some mussels in the control group grew more than some mussels in the
sample experimental group, yet some grew less. How could the students turn this
data into meaningful numbers?
risk
model
conceptual model Statistics Works with Populations
mathematical model Scientists use statistics to describe statistical populations. A statistical
population is a group of similar things that a scientist is interested in learn-
ing about. For example, the dwarf wedge mussels shown in Figure 2.1 are
part of the population of all dwarf wedge mussels on the Ashuelot River.

Figure 2.1

Statistical Population  Students

found these dwarf wedge mussel shells in
a muskrat den. These mussels are part of
the statistical population of all dwarf wedge
mussels on the Ashuelot River.
Courtesy of Cliff Lerner

38 Unit 1:  Introduction to Environmental Science

 What Is the Average?
Although statistical populations are composed of similar individuals,
these individuals often have different characteristics. For example, in the
population of students in your classroom, each student has a different
height, weight, and so on.
The Keene High School students measured the lengths of dwarf wedge
mussels in a population, as shown in Figure 2.1. They added the lengths of
the mussels and then divided that value by the total number of mussels.
This gave the average length of the mussels, which in statistical terms is
called the mean. The mean is the number obtained by adding the data for
a characteristic and dividing this sum by the number of individuals. The
mean provides a single measure for a given characteristic of a population.
Scientists can compare different populations by comparing their means.
The mean length of the mussels in Figure 2.2 is about 30 mm.

The Distribution
The bar graph in Figure 2.2 shows the lengths of dwarf wedge mussels in
a population. The pattern that the bars create when viewed as a whole
is called the distribution. A distribution is the relative arrangement of
the members of a statistical population. In Figure 2.2, the lengths of the
individuals are arranged between 15 and 50 mm.
The overall shape of the bars, which rise to form a hump in the middle
of the graph, is also part of the distribution. The line connecting the tops of
the bars in Figure 2.2 forms the shape of a bell. The graphs of many char- Check for Understanding
acteristics of populations, such as the heights of people, form bell-shaped Summarize  How was the mean length
curves. A bell-shaped curve indicates a normal distribution. In a normal of the dwarf wedge mussel population
distribution, the data are grouped symmetrically around the mean. calculated?

Figure 2.2

Size Distribution  This bar Size Distribution of Dwarf Wedge Mussels

graph shows the distribution of 25

lengths in a population of dwarf

wedge mussels.
20
critical thinking
Analyze Data   Which shell
Number of mussels

length was most common 15

in this population of dwarf
wedge mussels? Which shell
size was least common? 10

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60
Length (mm)

Chapter 2:  Tools of Environmental Science 39

Connect to MATH What Is the Probability?
Probability The chance that something will happen is called probability. For
Probability is often determined by example, if you toss a penny, what is the probability that it will come up
observing ratios or patterns. For heads? Most people would say “half and half,” and they would be right.
example, imagine that you count 200 The chance of a tossed penny coming up heads is ​ __12 ​, which can also be
pine trees in a forest and notice that 40 expressed as 0.5 or 50%. In fact, probability is usually expressed as a num-
of those trees have pine cones. What is ber between 0 and 1 and written as a decimal rather than as a fraction.
the probability that the next pine tree Suppose the penny comes up heads 7 out of 10 times. Does this result
you come across will have pine cones? prove that the probability of a penny coming up heads is 0.7? No, it does
not. So what is the problem?
The problem is that the sample size—the number of objects or events
sampled—is too small to yield an accurate result. In statistics, a sample is
a group of individuals or events selected to represent the population. If
you toss a penny 10 times, your sample size is 10. If you continue tossing
1,000 times, you are almost certain to get about 50% heads and 50% tails.
In this example, the sample is the number of coin tosses you make, while
the population is the total number of coin tosses possible. Scientists try to
make sure that the samples they take are large enough to give an accurate
estimate for the whole population.

Statistics in Everyday Life

You have probably heard, “There is a 50 percent chance of rain today.”
Figure 2.3 shows an example of a natural event that we often associate
with probability—a thunderstorm. You encounter statistics often and use
them more than you may think. People are constantly trying to determine
the chance of something happening. A guess or gut instinct is probably
just an unconscious sense of probability.

Figure 2.3
Understanding the News
Probability  Most people are familiar with statistics regarding the weather,
The news contains statistics every day, even if
such as the chance, or probability, that a thunderstorm will occur.
they are not obvious. For example, a reporter
may say, “A study shows that forest fires in-
creased air pollution in the city last year.” We
could ask many statistical questions about this
news item. We might first ask what the average
amount of air pollution in the city is. We could
gather data on air pollution levels over the past
20 years and graph these data. Then we could
calculate the mean, and ask ourselves how dif-
ferent last year’s data are from the average. We
might graph the data and look at the distribu-
©Kent Wood/Photo Researchers, Inc.

tion. Do this year’s pollution levels seem un-

usually high compared to levels in other years?
Recognizing and paying attention to statistics
will make you a better consumer of information,
including information about the environment.

40 Unit 1:  Introduction to Environmental Science

 Figure 2.4

Oil Pollution  The Deepwater Horizon

spill was the largest oil spill in U.S.
history. Big oil spills are a relatively minor
source of oil pollution. Big spills, however, Connect to LAW
can have a devastating impact where
they occur. The graph shows oil sources
that pollute the ocean. Runoff from land
51.4%
critical thinking Routine ship
Interpret Data  What are the top three maintenance
sources of oil that pollute the ocean? 19.4%

Big spills
5.2%
Natural seeps Air pollution
8.8% 13.0%
Offshore drilling
2.2%

Thinking About Risk Connect to LAW

In scientific terms, risk is the probability of an unwanted outcome. For ex- Oil Tankers
ample, if you have no clue about the correct answer on a multiple choice The Oil Pollution Act of 1990 was a
test with four options, you have a 3 in 4 chance of guessing the wrong an- response to a huge oil spill from an
swer. The risk of guessing incorrectly is __
​ 34  ​, or 75 percent. Figure 2.4 shows oil tanker, the Exxon Valdez, in Alaska
a well-publicized environmental problem—an oil spill. As you can see in in 1989. The controversial bill had
the circle graph, the risk of pollution from large oil spills is much smaller been debated for 14 years; it passed
than the risk of oil pollution from everyday sources. swiftly in the aftermath of the disaster.
Individuals intuitively evaluate risk every day and make decisions Under the law, all oil tankers operating
about what to do or what not to do. For example, deciding whether to in United States waters must be
cross the street against a red light might get you to school on time, but protected with double hulls by 2015.
could have unwanted outcomes, too. General considerations in weighing
individual risk include the probability that an event will occur (such as
a speeding car entering the intersection), the severity of the outcome if
such an event does occur, and whether the exposure to risk is involuntary.
People tend to perceive voluntary risk as less likely. Most individual risk
analysis includes subjective factors and best guesses about the chances of
an event occurring.
Scientists often must calculate risk to large communities of people in
order to inform policy decisions in government. These estimates involve
data on the history of events, projections for future occurrences, and
scientific evidence for adverse outcomes. The challenge for governments
©Julie Dermansky/Corbis

is that evaluating adverse outcomes usually involves many citizens. The

risk of getting cancer from exposure to a pollutant might just be one in a
thousand for each exposed individual, but if a million people are ex-
posed, then 1,000 individuals and their families must deal with the effects
of the resulting disease.

Chapter 2:  Tools of Environmental Science 41

 Figure 2.5 Models
Physical Model  This plastic You are probably already familiar with models. Museums have models of
model of a DNA molecule is an ships, dinosaurs, and atoms. Architects build models of buildings. Even
example of a physical model. crash-test dummies are models. Models are representations of objects
or systems. Although people usually think of models as things they can
touch, scientists use several different types of models to help them learn
about our environment.

Physical Models
All of the models mentioned above are physical models. Physical models
are three-dimensional models you can touch. Their most important
feature is that they closely resemble the object or system they represent,
although they may be larger or smaller.
One of the most famous physical models was used to discover the
structure of DNA. The two scientists who built the structural model of
DNA knew information about the size, shape, and bonding qualities of
the subunits of DNA. With this knowledge, the scientists created model
pieces that resembled the subunits and the bonds between them. These
pieces helped them figure out the possible structures of DNA. Discover-
ing the structure of DNA furthered other research that helped scientists
understand how DNA replicates in a living cell. Figure 2.5 shows a modern
model of a DNA molecule. The most useful models teach scientists some-
thing new and help to further other discoveries.

Graphical Models
287
Maps and charts are the most common examples of graphical 87 85
models.
Showing someone a road map is easier than telling him or her how to get
somewhere. An example of a graphical model is the map of the Denver,
Colorado, area shown in Figure 2.6. Scientists use graphical models to
Lory
show things such as the positions of the stars, S.P. the amount of forest cover
Gould
in a given area, and thePass depth
Cameron
Alpine of water in a river or along Windsor
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N. Colo. Greeley
NATL. FOR.
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WHITE RIVER Gilman Parker
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42 Unit 1:  Introduction to Environmental Science Como
Pass Canyon S.P.
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Alma Deckers 25
NATL. FOR.
 Conceptual Models
A conceptual model is a verbal or graphical explanation of how a system
works or is organized. A flow-chart diagram is an example of a type of   FieldStudy
conceptual model. A flow-chart uses boxes linked by arrows to illustrate Go to Appendix B to find the field study
what a system contains and how those contents are organized. Organizing Data
Consider this example. Suppose that a scientist wants to know how
mercury, a poisonous metal, moves through the environment to reach
people after the mercury is released from burning coal. The scientist
would use an understanding of mercury in the environment to build a
conceptual model, as shown in Figure 2.7. Scientists often create such
diagrams to help them understand how a system works—what compo-
nents the system contains, how they are arranged, and how they affect
one another.
Conceptual models are not always diagrams. They can also be verbal
descriptions or even drawings of how something works or is put together.
For example, the model of an atom as a large ball circled by smaller balls
is a conceptual model of the structure of an atom. As this example shows, Check for Understanding
an actual model can be more than one type. An atomic model made of Explain  How does building a conceptual
plastic balls is both a conceptual model and a physical model. model help scientists in their work?

Conceptual Model of Mercury Contamination

Figure 2.7
Conceptual Model  This Mercury released from burning coal
conceptual model shows how
mercury released from burning
coal could end up reaching people,
where it could cause poisoning.
Air

Soil Water

Crops Fish

People

Health effects from mercury poisoning

Chapter 2:  Tools of Environmental Science 43

 Figure 2.8

Satellite Image  This is a satellite image

of the San Francisco Bay Area. Scientists use
mathematical models to understand the terrain
from the way objects on the surface reflect
light. In this image, healthy vegetation is red.

Mathematical Models
A mathematical model is one or more equations that represents the way
a system or process works. You can represent many common situations
using math models. Mathematical models are especially useful in cases
with many variables, such as the many things that affect the weather.
Because mathematical models use numbers and equations, people
may think the models are always right. But weather models, for example,
sometimes predict rain on dry days. In fact, people are the ones who
interpret data and write the equations.
If the data or the equations are wrong, the model will not be realistic
and so will provide incorrect information. Like all models, mathematical
models are only as good as the data that went into building them.
Scientists use the power of computers to model many complex factors.
For example, information on location and many wavelengths of reflected
light can be used to create amazing images. Look at the image of the San
Francisco Bay Area in Figure 2.8. This is a “false color” digital satellite im-
age. The satellite measures energy reflected from the Earth’s surface. Sci-
entists use mathematical models to relate the amount of energy reflected

©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

from objects to the objects’ physical condition.
One important tool of environmental science that combines both
mathematical and graphical models is Geographic Information Systems
(GIS). GIS is a mapping tool that can help scientists understand relation-
ships between many variables and how they affect organisms and people.

Section 2  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Explain  why sample size is important in 4. Analyzing Relationships  Explain the
determining probability. relationship between probability and risk.
2. Explain  what “the mean number of weeds in 5. Applying Ideas  Write a paragraph that uses
three plots of land” means. examples to show how scientists use statistics.
3. Describe  three types of models used by 6. Evaluating Ideas  Why are conceptual and
scientists. math­ematical models especially powerful?

44 Unit 1:  Introduction to Environmental Science

 Section 3
Making Informed Objectives

Decisions
Describe three values that
people consider when
making decisions about the
environment.

Scientific research is an essential first step to solve environmental problems. Describe the four steps in a
However, many other factors must also be considered. How will the proposed simple environmental decision-
solution affect people’s lives? How much will it cost? Is the solution ethical? making model.
Questions like these require an examination of values, which are principles or
standards we consider important. What values should influence decisions that Compare the short-term and
affect the environment? Figure 3.1 lists some values that often affect environmental long-term consequences of
decisions. You might think of others as well. two decisions regarding a
hypothetical environmental

An Environmental Decision-Making Model issue.

Forming an opinion about an environmental issue is often difficult and

may seem overwhelming. It helps to have a systematic way of analyzing Key Terms
the issues and deciding what is important. One way to guide yourself value
through this process is to use a decision-making model. A decision-­ decision-making model
making model is a conceptual model that provides a systematic process
for making decisions.
Figure 3.2 shows one possible decision-making model. The first step of
the model is to gather information. In addition to watching news reports
and reading about environmental issues, you should listen to well-
informed people on all sides of an issue. Then consider which values
apply to the issue. Explore the consequences of each option. Finally,
evaluate all of the information to make a decision.

Figure 3.1 Figure 3.2

Values That Affect Environmental Decision-Making Model
Decision Making This diagram shows a simple decision-
Value Definition making model.

Aesthetic what is beautiful or pleasing Gather information

Economic the gain or loss of money or jobs

Educational the accumulation and sharing of knowledge

Environmental the protection of natural resources Consider values

Ethical/moral what is right or wrong

Health the maintenance of human health

Explore
consequences
Recreational human leisure activities

Scientific understanding of the natural world

Social/cultural the maintenance of human communities and their values and

Make a decision
traditions

Chapter 2:    Tools of Environmental Science 45

 Figure 3.3 A Hypothetical Situation
Proposed Nature Preserve Consider the following hypothetical example. In the town of Pleasanton,
This map shows the proposed nature in Valley County, biologists from the local college have been studying the
preserve, which would be home to golden-cheeked warbler, shown in Figure 3.3. The warblers have already
warblers like the one pictured (right). disappeared from most areas around the state, and the warbler popula-
tion is declining in Valley County. The biologists warn county officials
that if the officials do not take action, the state fish and wildlife service
may list the bird as an endangered species.
Pleasanton is growing rapidly, and
much of the new development is occur-
ring o
­ utside the city limits. This develop-
ment is destroying warbler habitat. Valley
County already has strict environmental
controls on building, but these controls
do not prevent the clearing of land.

CASESTUDY

Saving the Everglades:

Making Informed
Decisions
The Florida Everglades is an enormous, shallow freshwater marsh. The
water in the Everglades slowly flows from Lake Okeechobee to Florida
Bay. Much of the marsh is filled with sawgrass and other water-loving
plants. Along the coasts there are estuaries with mangrove forests. The
Everglades is home to many species of wildlife, such as fish, panthers,
alligators, and wading birds.
(b) ©F. Bettex - lookandprint.com/Alamy Images; (c) ©G. Lasley/VIREO
In the 1880s, marshlands were considered wastelands. So developers
began to drain the Everglades and replace marsh with houses and
sugarcane fields. Between 1940 and 1971, the Army Corps of Engineers
built dikes, canals, and pumping stations that drained even more water.
The Corps also straightened the Kissimmee River, which runs into Lake
Okeechobee.
Scientists have shown that what remains of the Everglades is in
trouble. Not enough freshwater is moving south through the marshes
and into the estuaries and Florida Bay. Fertilizer from farms is polluting
the water, and wading-bird colonies are much smaller than before. These The roseate spoonbill is a colorful
effects have economic impacts. Because much of the Everglades’ water resident of the Everglades.
has been diverted into the Atlantic Ocean, the towns of southeast Florida
are running out of fresh water and marine life in Florida Bay has declined.

46 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Several groups join together to propose that the county buy several ECOFACT
hundred acres of land where the birds are known to breed and save that
land as a nature preserve. The groups also propose limiting development The Everglades
on land surrounding the preserve. The group obtains enough signatures There are 67 threatened or
on a petition to put the issue to a vote, and the public begins to discuss endangered plant and animal species
in the Florida Everglades, according to
the proposal.
the U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service.
Some people who own property within the proposed preserve oppose
the plan. These property owners have an econo­mic interest in this discus-
sion. They believe that they will lose money if they are forced to sell their
land to the county instead of developing it.
Other landowners support the plan. They fear that without the pre-
serve the warbler may be placed on the state’s endangered species list.
If the bird is listed as endangered, the state will impose a plan to protect
the bird that will require even stricter limits on land development. People
who have land near the proposed preserve think their land will become
more valuable. Many residents of Pleasanton look forward to hiking and
camping in the proposed preserve. Other residents do not like the idea of
more government regulations on how private property can be used.

The Everglades can be thought of

as a shallow, slow-moving river
that empties into Florida Bay.

In the 1990s, a commission reported that the Everglades restoration is ongoing and requires continual
destruction of the Everglades had jeopardized the state’s research. Scientists continue to study how water flows
tourism industry, farming, and the economic future of south through the Everglades, how the changing flows from
Florida. The solution was obvious: undo the water-diversion restoration will affect plants and animals, and what levels of
dikes and dams and restore water to the Everglades.
Critical Thinking
nutrients from fertilizer are safe for the ecosystem. With this
Groups that had been fighting over the Everglades and other information, the plan can continually be improved.
for decades met to work on a plan. After five years,
environmentalists, politicians, farmers, tourism advocates,
Critical Thinking
©Matt Bradley/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot

and developers agreed on the $7.8 billion Everglades

Restoration Plan, which was signed into law in 2000.
1. Analyzing Processes  Explain why it was so
No group was fully satisfied with the plan, but all agreed
difficult for people to agree on how to restore the
that they were better off with it than without it. As a result of Everglades.
the plan, 7 miles of the Kissimmee River has been restored
2. Analyzing Relationships  If your county
to its original path. Native plants are absorbing some of the
decided to build a landfill, do you think the
pollution that has killed an estimated $200 million worth of
decision-making process would resemble the
wildlife. Everglades example?

Chapter 2:    Tools of Environmental Science 47

 Figure 3.4 How to Use the Decision-Making Model
Warbler Population The hypothetical situation in Pleasanton can be used to illustrate how to
The population of golden-cheeked use the decision-making model. Michael Price is a voter in Valley County
warblers in the Pleasanton area has who will vote on whether the county should create a nature preserve to
declined in recent years. protect the golden-cheeked warbler. The steps Michael took to make his
Warbler Population decision about the proposal are outlined below.
in the Pleasanton Area
50
Gather Information
Number of breeding pairs

40
Michael studied the warbler issue thoroughly by watching local news
30 ­reports, reading the newspaper, learning more about golden-cheeked
warblers from various Web sites, and attending forums where the i­ ssues
20 were discussed. An example of scientific information that Michael
­considered includes the graph of warbler population decline in
10
Figure 3.4. Several of the arguments on both sides made sense to him.

0
2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012
Year Consider Values
Michael made a table similar to Figure 3.5 to clarify his thoughts. The
v­ alues listed are environmental, economic, and recreational. Someone
else might have thought other values were more important to consider.

Figure 3.5
Should Valley County Set Aside a Nature Preserve?
Environmental Economic Recreational

Positive • Habitat destruction in • Landowners whose property was bought by • Parts of the preserve are
short-term the nature preserve area the county receive a payment for their land. made available immediately
consequences is slowed or stopped. • Property outside the preserve area can be for hiking and picnicking.
developed with fewer restrictions.
Negative • Environmental controls • Property owners inside the preserve area • Michael could not think of
short-term are made less strict do not make as much money as if they had any negative short-term
consequences in parts of the county developed their land. consequences.
outside the preserve • Taxpayers must pay higher taxes to buy
area. preserve land.
Positive • The population of • Property near the preserve increases in • Large areas of the preserve
long-term warblers increases, value because it is near a natural area. are available for hiking and
consequences and the bird does not • Businesses move to Valley County because picnicking.
become endangered. of its beauty and recreational opportunities, • Landowners near the
• Other species of which results in job growth. preserve may develop
organisms are also • The warbler is not listed as endangered, campgrounds with bike
protected. which avoids stricter controls on land use. trails, swimming, and fishing
• An entire habitat is available on land adjacent to
preserved. the preserve.

Negative • Other habitat outside • Taxpayers must continue to pay for • State officials might restrict
long-term the preserve may maintaining the preserve. some recreational activities
consequences be damaged by • Taxpayers lose the tax revenue that this land on private land within the
overdevelopment. would have provided if it was developed. preserve.

48 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Explore Consequences Figure 3.6
Michael decided that in the short term the positive and nega-
Nature Preserve
tive ­consequences listed in his table were almost equally Land set aside for a nature preserve can benefit
balanced. He saw that some people would suffer financially people as well as wildlife.
from the plan, but others would benefit. Taxpayers would
have to pay for the preserve, but all the residents would have
access to land that was previously off-limits because it was
privately owned. Some parts of the county would have more
protection from development, and some would have less.
The long-term consequences of the plan helped Michael
make his decision. He realized that environmental values
were an important factor. The idea of a bird becoming extinct
distressed him. Also, protecting warbler habitat now would
cost less than doing it later under a state-imposed plan.
Michael considered that there were long-term benefits to
add to the analysis as well. He had read that property values
were rising more rapidly in counties with land for recreation.
He found that people would pay more to live in counties that
have open spaces. Michael had found that Valley County had
very little preserved land. He thought that creating the pre-
serve would bring the county long-term economic benefits.
He also highly valued the aesthetic and recreational benefits
a preserve would offer, such as the running trail in Figure 3.6.

Make A Decision
Michael chose to vote for the nature preserve. Other people
who looked at the same table of pros and cons might have
voted differently. If you lived in Valley County, how would
you have voted?
As you learn about issues affecting the environment, both
©Thomas Northcut/Getty Images

in this course and in the future, use this decision-making

model as a starting point to making your decisions. Make
sure to consider your values, weigh pros and cons, and keep
in mind both the short-term and long-term consequences of
your decision.

Section 3  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Explain  the importance of each of the four 4. Making Decisions  Pick one of the situations
steps in a simple decision-making model. you described in question 3. Make a decision-
making table that shows the positive and negative
2. List  and define three possible values to
consequences of either of two possible decisions.
consider when making environmental decisions.
5. Analyzing Information  Suggest how to make
3. Describe  in a short paragraph examples of two
the decision-making model presented here
situations in which environmental values come
more powerful.
into conflict with other values.

Chapter 2:    Tools of Environmental Science 49

Maps in Action

A Topographic Map of Keene,

New Hampshire
Keene, New Hampshire Topography

USGS, 1986.

Map Skills
Topographic maps use contour lines to indicate areas that share a common elevation. Where the lines are close
together, the terrain is steep. Where the lines are far apart, the landscape is flat. In this map, the Ashuelot River
flows downhill from Site 1 to Site 3. Use the map to answer the questions below.

1. Using a Key  Use the scale to calculate the distance 4. Analyzing Data  Trace the sections of the Ashuelot
between Sites 1 and 2 and between Sites 2 and 3. River between each site to determine the length of
stream between each site.
2. Understanding Topography  Are the hills to the east
and west of the town of Keene more likely to drain into 5. Interpreting Landforms  A flood plain is an area
the river around Site 3 or Site 2? Explain your answer. that floods when a river overflows its banks. Interpret
the contour lines to locate the flood plain.
3. Identifying Trends  Which site is more likely to be
polluted? Explain your answer.

50 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Society and the Environment ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Go online for the latest environmental science
news and updates on all EcoZine articles.

Bats and Bridges

A large colony of Mexican free-tailed bats lives under the
Mexican free-tailed bats leave their roost under the
Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin, Texas. These bats eat Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin, Texas, to hunt for insects.
millions of insects a night, so they are welcome neighbors.
Communities around the country and around the world have
learned of the bats and have asked Austin for help in building
bat-friendly bridges. But all that the people of Austin knew
was that the bats appeared after the Congress Avenue Bridge
was rebuilt in the 1980s. What attracted the bats? The people
of Austin had to do a little research.

A Crevice Will Do
In the wild, bats spend the day sleeping in groups in caves
or in crevices under the flaking bark of old trees. They come
back to the same place every day to roost. Deep crevices in
tree bark are rare now that many of our old forests have been
cut down, and many bats are in danger of extinction.
In the 1990s, the Texas Depart­ment of Transportation and
Bat Conservation International, a nonprofit organization based
in Austin, set out to discover what made a bridge attractive
to bats. They collected data on 600 bridges, including some
that had bat colonies and some that did not. They answered
the following questions: Where was the bridge located? What
was it made of? How was it constructed? Was it over water or
land? What was the temperature under the bridge? How was
the land around the bridge used?
houses are known as Texas Bat-Abodes, and they can make
any bridge friendly to bats.
Some Bridges are Better Bat Conservation International is collecting data on bats
Statistical analysis of the data revealed a number of and bridges everywhere. Different bat species may have
differences between bridges occupied by bats and bridges different preferences. A Texas Bat-Abode might not attract
unoccupied by bats. Which differences were important to the bats What DoinYou
to a bridge Think?
Minnesota or Maine. If we can figure out
bats and which were not? The researchers returned to the what features attract bats to bridges, we can incorporate
Congress Avenue Bridge in Austin to find out. Crevices under these features into new bridges and make more bridges into
the bridge appeared to be crucial, and the crevices had to be bat-friendly abodes.
the right size. Free-tailed bats appeared to prefer crevices 1
to 3 cm wide and about 30 cm deep in hidden corners of the
bridge, and they preferred bridges made of concrete, not steel. What Do You Think?
©Karen Marks/Bat Conservation International

The scientists looked again at their data on bridges. They Many bridges in the United States could provide
discovered that 62 percent of bridges in central and southern roosting places for bats. Do you think communities
should try to establish colonies of bats under local
Texas that had appropriate crevices were occu­pied by bats.
bridges? How should communities make this
Now, the Texas Depart­ment of Transportation is adding bat decision, and what information would they need to
houses to existing bridges that do not have crevices. These make this decision wisely?

Chapter 2:    Tools of Environmental Science 51

Chapter 2  Summary

Section 1  Scientific Methods Objectives Key Terms

• Science is a process by which we learn about the world observation

around us. Science progresses mainly by the experi- hypothesis
mental method. prediction
• The experimental method involves making observa- experiment
tions, forming a hypothesis, performing an experiment, variable
interpreting data, and communicating results.
experimental
• In cases in which experiments are impossible, scien- group
tists look for correlations between different phenomena. control group
• Good scientists are curious, creative, honest, skeptical, data
and open to new ideas. correlation

Section 2  Statistics and Models Objectives Key Terms

• Scientists use statistics to classify, organize, and statistics

interpret data. mean
• Measures such as means and probabilities are used to distribution
describe populations and events. probability
• Statistics is a powerful tool for evaluating ­information sample
about the environment. risk
• Scientists use models, including physical, graphical, model
conceptual, and ­mathematical models, to understand conceptual
the systems they study. model
mathematical
model

(t) ©Jeff & Alexa Henry; (c) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Thomas Northcut/Getty Images
Section 3  Making Informed Decisions Objectives Key Terms

• Making environmental decisions involves gather- value

ing ­information, considering values, and exploring decision-making
­consequences. model
• Decisions about the environment should be made
thoughtfully. Using a decision-making model will
­provide you with a systematic process for making
­knowledgeable decisions.
• Making a table that lists positive and negative
short-term and long-term consequences will help
you recognize and weigh your values about an
environmental decision.

52 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

Chapter 2  Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14.  Models used by scientists include
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence. a. conceptual models.
1. experiment b. variable models.
2. correlation c. physical models.
3. model d. Both (a) and (c)
4. distribution 15. Reading scientific reports is an example of
5. values a. assessing risk.
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings b. considering values.
of the terms differ. c. gathering information.
6. hypothesis and prediction d. exploring consequences.
7. risk and probability
16. A conceptual model represents a way of thinking
8. distribution and population
about
9. sample and population
a. relationships.
10. Concept Map  Use the following terms to
b. variables.
create a concept map: control group, experiment,
experimental group, prediction, data, observations, c. data.
conclusions, and hypothesis. d. positions.

17. In an experiment, the experimental treatment

Reviewing Main Ideas differs from the control treatment only in the
_______ being studied.
11. Scientists form _______ hypotheses to
answer questions. a. experiment
a. accurate b. variable
b. short c. hypothesis
c. mathematical d. data
d. testable 18. To fully understand a complex environmental
issue, you may need to consider
12. Risk is the _______ of a negative outcome.
a. economics.
a. sample
b. values.
b. statistic
c. scientific information.
c. probability
d. All of the above
d. event
19. Scientists _______ experiments to make sure the
13. If the results of your experiment do not support results are meaningful.
your hypothesis, you should
a. perform
a. publish your results anyway.
b. repeat
b. consider the results abnormal and continue
working. c. conclude
c. find a way to rationalize your results. d. communicate
d. try another method.

Chapter 2:    Tools of Environmental Science 53

Chapter Review

Short Answer Critical Thinking

20. Explain the statement, “A good scientist is one 28. Draw Conclusions  What does a scientist
who asks the right questions.” mean by the statement, “There is an 80 percent
21. Explain the role of a control group in a scientific probability that a tornado will hit this area within
experiment. the next 10 years?”
22. How are statistics helpful for evaluating 29. Infer  How does a map of Denver, Colorado allow
information about the environment? you to navigate around the city?
23. Explain why environmental scientists use 30. Evaluate Are complicated models always more
mathematical models. accurate? Write a paragraph that uses examples to
explain your answer.
24. How does making a table help you evaluate
the values and concerns you have when making 31. Interpret Explain what the following statement
a decision? proves: “We sampled pet owners and found that
three out of five surveyed own dogs and two out of
five surveyed own cats.”
Interpreting Graphics 32. Language Arts  The word serendipity, which
The graph below shows the change in size of a means “luck in finding something accidentally,”
shoreline alligator population over time. Use the graph came from a Persian fairy tale called The Three
to answer questions 25–27. Princes of Serendip. In the story, each of the
princes discovers something by accident.
25. Analyzing Data What happened to the density of Research and write a short report on a
alligators between 1986 and 1988? serendipitous discovery about the environment.
26. Interpreting Data What happened to the trend 33. Make a Poster  Choose an environmental issue
in the concentration of alligators between 1994 in your area. You can choose a real-life problem
and 1998? that you have heard about on the news, such as
27. Calculate  How many times greater was the improving the sewage system or building a new
alligator population in 1986 than it was in 2000? landfill, or you can choose a project that you think
should be considered. Research the issue at your
school or local library. Prepare a poster listing
20 the groups of people likely to be involved in the
decision and the factors that may be taken into
consideration, including economic, social, and
Alligators per kilometer of shoreline

16 environmental factors.

12

0
1985 1990 1995 2000
Year

54 Unit 1    Introduction to Environmental Science

 STUDYSKILL Chapter Review

Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
The table below shows the results of an experiment
that tested the hypothesis that butterflies are attracted 38. How do scientific activities help to inform
to some substances but not to others. Twenty-four decision makers in the Everglades?
Why It Matters
trays containing four substances were placed in 39. What is the ecological value of the Everglades?
random order on a sandbank to see if butterflies
landed on the trays. The number of butterflies that Why It Matters
landed on each type of tray and stayed for more than
40. Explain the
five minutes during a two-hour period was recorded
importance of
in the table. Use the data in the table below to answer
observation to
questions 34–35.
environmental
science.
Butterfly Feeding Preferences
Sugar Nitrogen Salt
Water
solution solution solution

Number of
butterflies 5 87 7 403
attracted

STUDYSKILL
34. Interpret Do the results in the table show that
butterflies are attracted to salt solution but not Imagining Examples  To understand how key terms
any other substance? Why or why not? What other apply to actual examples, work with a partner and take turns
data would you like to see to help you evaluate the describing an environmental problem and explaining how the
results of this experiment? key terms relate to the problem.
35. Evaluate Are there any controls shown in this
table? Explain your answer.

Making Connections
36. Explain Why is the experimental method an
important scientific tool?
37. Write Persuasively  Write a letter to the editor of
your local paper outlining your opinion on a local
environmental issue.
©Charlotte Main/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Chapter 2:    Tools of Environmental Science 55

 InquiryLab
Data Analysis
Risk Assessment
Objectives
In this lab, you will design a method of assessing the risk from exposure to
Ask questions about
contaminants from a Superfund hazardous waste site.
possible harm to people
or the environment from
proximity to a Superfund site.
Background
Design a method of The news abounds with stories about oil spills in the ocean, toxic air
assessing the risk to people
pollution from chemical plants, and hazardous waste leaks—it seems
and the environment from a
Superfund site.
like we are constantly at risk from some type of ecological disaster. But
are we really at that much risk? What exactly is risk and how can we tell if
Identify the factors that something will affect us?
determine if there is a risk of
Risk is the possibility of suffering harm from some sort of hazard.
harm to the environment or
human health.
The harm might take the form of an injury, disease, economic loss, or
damage to the environment in which we live. In order to determine if
Communicate the possible something has the possibility to cause harm, scientists often perform
risks from the Superfund site.
a risk assessment. Risk (R) is usually expressed as the probability of
exposure (E) to the substance or activity multiplied by the probability of
Materials
computer with Internet
harm (H) occurring due to that exposure. Or, stated mathematically, risk
access is calculated as R = E x H.
reference books and In 1980, the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation
periodicals and Liability Act, or CERCLA, established an environmental program to
allow the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) to clean up abandoned
hazardous waste sites in the United States. The long and often complex
clean-up process involves identification of the sites, assessment to place
them on the National Priorities List (NPL), and the establishment of
appropriate plans to remediate them. Any responsible parties must be
identified and penalties for damages enforced. Both state and community
involvement is desired to ensure long-term protection from harm.
This clean-up process was initially funded by
a “polluters tax.” This tax penalized polluters
who could be identified and used the money
to clean up sites where the responsible
parties could not be found, could not pay,
or refused to pay. However, the tax expired
in 1995 and as of 2011, has never been
reauthorized by Congress. Approximately
1300 contaminated sites remain on the EPA
Superfund list, with 347 cleaned up, and 62
new sites proposed for addition to the list.
©Susan Leavines/Photo Researchers/Getty Images

Safety Caution
If a local Superfund site is selected, do NOT
visit the site under any circumstances.

Superfund Sites  This Superfund site is located in Louisiana.

56 Unit 1:   Introduction to Environmental Science

 Procedure
1. Using the Internet, select a Superfund site and
identify the types of contaminants found in
that location.

2. Research details about each contaminant. Ma-

terial Safety Data Sheets (MSDS) for chemicals
may provide useful information. Some sites
may have already been treated. In that case,
either select another site or base your research
on the details of the site prior to remediation.

3. Design a method to assess the risks of harm to

people or to the environment from proximity
to the Superfund site.

4. Develop a plan to communicate your findings

to the class using visual aids on poster board
or presentation software that can be projected Procedure Step 1  You can find a list of Superfund sites by searching the Web site
from a computer. of the Environmental Protection Agency.

Analysis
1. Analyzing Data  In your evaluation, did you consider short-term or
long-term consequences to be more important? Why?

2. Analyzing Results  Which potential consequences had the greatest

value according to your ranking? Why?

Conclusions
3. Evaluating Data  Did the values assigned for each type of risk make a
difference in the decision reached on how to remediate the problem?
Explain your answer.

Extension
4. Evaluating Results  Based on the research and discussions in which
you have been involved, do you feel the “polluters tax” on oil and
chemical companies should be reestablished to provide the funding
to clean up the remaining Superfund sites? Explain your answer.
©Marili Forastieri/Getty Images

Chapter 2:   Tools of Environmental Science 57

Chapter 3
Section 1
The Geosphere
The Dynamic
Earth
Section 2
The Atmosphere
Section 3
The Hydrosphere and Biosphere

Why It Matters
Data from NASA satellites
enables scientists to determine
such things as ecosystem
health and air quality and to
increase our knowledge of
human impact on the planet.
In what ways might satellite
observations directly affect your
life?

CASESTUDY
Learn about the important
services provided by coastal
wetlands in the case study The
Storm Surge, Tsunamis, and
Coastal Wetlands on page 74.

©Earth Imaging/Stone/Getty Images

Online
ENVironmental Science
HMDScience.com

Go online to access additional

resources, including labs,
worksheets, multimedia, and
resources in Spanish.

58
 Section 1
The Geosphere Objectives

Describe the composition and

structure of Earth.
Violent eruptions blow the tops off volcanoes, and molten rock from Earth’s interior
flows across the surface of the planet. Hurricanes batter beaches and change Describe Earth’s tectonic plates.
coastlines. Earthquakes shake the ground and topple buildings and freeway
overpasses. All of these are the result of the dynamic state of planet Earth. What Explain the main cause of
are the underlying conditions that cause our planet to change constantly? earthquakes and their effects.

Identify the relationship

Earth as a System between volcanic eruptions and
climate change.
Earth consists of rock, air, water, and living things that all interact with
each other. Scientists divide this system into four parts. As shown in Describe how wind and water
Figure 1.1, the four parts are the geosphere (rock), the atmosphere (air), alter Earth’s surface.
the hydrosphere (water), and the biosphere (living things).
The solid part of Earth that consists of all rock, as well as the soils
and loose rocks on Earth’s surface, makes up the geosphere. Most of
Key Terms
the geosphere is located in Earth’s interior. At the equator, the average
geosphere
distance through the center of Earth to the other side is 12,756 km. The
atmosphere is the mixture of gases, nearly all of which are found in the hydro­sphere
first 30 km above Earth’s surface. The hydro­sphere makes up all of the crust
water on or near Earth’s surface. Much of this water is in the oceans. mantle
Water is also found in the atmosphere, on land, and in the soil. The core
biosphere is made up of parts of the geosphere, the atmosphere, and the lithosphere
hydro­sphere. The biosphere is the part of Earth where life exists. It is a asthenosphere
thin layer of living organisms found at Earth’s surface and extending from tectonic plate
about 9 km above the surface down to the bottom of the ocean.
chemical weathering
erosion
Figure 1.1

Earth As a System Earth is an integrated system that consists of the geosphere, the
atmosphere, the hydrosphere, and the biosphere (inset).

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 59

 Discovering Earth’s Interior
Studying the Earth beneath our feet is not easy. The deepest well that has
been drilled into Earth’s interior is only about 12 km deep. An alternative
method must be used to study the interior of Earth. Scientists can use
seismic waves to learn about Earth’s interior. These waves travel through
Earth’s interior during an earthquake. If you have ever tapped a melon to
see if it is ripe, you know that the state of the melon’s interior affects the
sound you detect. Similarly, a seismic wave is altered by the nature of the
material through which it travels. As shown in Figure 1.2, seismologists
measure changes in the speed and direction of seismic waves that pen-
etrate the interior of the planet. By doing this, seismologists have learned
that Earth is made up of dif­ferent layers and have inferred from the data
what substances make up each layer.

The Composition of the Earth

Scientists divide Earth into three layers—the crust, the mantle, and the
core—based on their composition. These layers are composed of progres-
sively denser materials toward the center of the Earth. Figure 1.3 shows a
cross section of Earth. Earth’s thin crust is composed almost entirely of
light elements. The crust makes up less than 1 percent of Earth’s mass.
The crust is Earth’s thinnest layer. It averages about 5 km in thickness
beneath the oceans and is 30 km to 35 km thick beneath the continents.

Figure 1.2

Seismic Waves Seismologists have measured changes in the speed and

direction of seismic waves that travel through Earth’s interior. Through this
process, they have learned that Earth is made up of different layers.

60 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

Figure 1.3

Earth’s Layers  Scientists divide Earth into different layers based on composition and
physical properties.

The mantle, which is the layer beneath the crust, makes up 68 percent
of the mass of Earth. The mantle is approximately 2,900 km thick and is
made of rocks of medium density. Earth’s innermost layer is the core. The
core, which has a radius of approximately 3,400 km, is composed of the
elements having the greatest density.

The Structure of the Earth

If we consider the physical properties of each layer, instead of their
chemistry, Earth can be divided into five layers. Earth’s outer layer is the
lithosphere. It is a cool, rigid layer, 15 km to 300 km thick, that includes the
crust and uppermost part of the mantle. It is divided into huge pieces called
tectonic plates. The asthenosphere is the layer beneath the lithosphere. The
astheno­sphere is a pliable, solid layer of the mantle made of rock that flows
very slowly and allows tectonic plates to move on top of it. Beneath the
asthenosphere is the mesosphere, the lower part of the mantle.
Earth’s outer core is a dense liquid layer. The inner core, at the center of Check for Understanding
the Earth, is dense and solid, made up mostly of the metals iron and nickel. Identify  Which of Earth’s physical layers
The temperature of the inner core is estimated to be between 4,000°C to is liquid?
5,400°C. It is solid because it is under enormous pressure. Earth’s outer and
inner core together make up about one-third of Earth’s mass.

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 61

 Figure 1.4

The Lithosphere Earth’s lithosphere is divided into pieces called tectonic plates.
The tectonic plates are moving in different directions and at different speeds.

Eurasian plate
North American
plate

Indian
plate
Pacific plate African
plate

Nazca South American

plate plate Australian
plate

Antarctic
plate

Plate Tectonics
The lithosphere is divided into pieces called tectonic plates that glide
mg7vs_ear000014aa
HMDScience.com across the underlying asthenosphere in much the same way a chunk of
8th pass
08/18/05
Tectonic Plate Boundaries ice drifts across a pond. The continents are located on the tectonic plates
cmurphy
and slowly, over eons, move around with them. The major plates include
the Pacific, North American, South American, African, Eurasian, and
Antarctic plates. Figure 1.4 illustrates the major tectonic plates.

Plate Boundaries
Much of the geologic activity at the surface of Earth takes place at the
boundaries between tectonic plates. Plates may move away from one
another, collide with one another, or slip past one another. Enormous
forces are generated at tectonic plate boundaries, where the crust is
pulled apart, is squeezed together, or is slipping. The forces produced at
the boundaries of tectonic plates can cause violent changes.

Plate Tectonics and Mountain Building

When tectonic plates collide, the crust becomes thicker, is pushed up,
buckles and folds, and eventually forms a mountain range. As shown in
Figure 1.5, the Himalaya Mountains in south-central Asia began to form
when the Eurasian tectonic plate and the Indian tectonic plate began to
push into each other about 50 million years ago.

62 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Earthquakes Figure 1.5

A fault is a break in Earth’s crust along which blocks of the crust slide rela- Plate Collisions The Himalaya
tive to one another. When rocks that are under stress suddenly slip along Mountains are still growing today
a fault, a series of vibrations is set off. These vibrations of Earth’s crust because the tectonic plates
caused by slippage along a fault are known as earthquakes. Earthquakes containing Asia and the tectonic plate
are occurring all the time, but many are so small that we cannot feel containing India continue to collide.
them. Other earthquakes are enormous movements of the Earth’s crust
that cause widespread damage.
The Richter scale is used by scientists to quantify the amount of en-
ergy released by an earthquake. The measure of the energy released by
an earthquake is called magnitude. The smallest magnitude that can be
felt is approximately 2.0, and the largest magnitude that has ever been
recorded is 9.5. Each increase of magnitude by one whole number indi-
cates the release of about 30 times more energy than the whole number
below it. For example, an earthquake of magnitude 6.0 releases 30 times
the energy of an earthquake of magnitude 5.0. Earthquakes that cause
widespread damage have magnitudes of 7.0 and greater.

Where Do Earthquakes Occur?

Areas of the world where earthquakes occur are shown on the map in
Figure 1.6. The majority of earthquakes take place at or near tectonic plate
boundaries. Over the past 15 million to 20 million years, many earth-
quakes have occurred along the San Andreas fault, which runs almost Check for Understanding
the entire length of California. The San Andreas fault is where parts of the Explain What
  is meant by the magnitude
North American plate and the Pacific plate are slipping past one another. of an earthquake?

Figure 1.6

Earthquake Zones The largest and most active earthquake zones lie along tectonic
plate boundaries.
©Jock Montgomery/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshotot

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 63

Connect to BIOLOGY Earthquake Hazard
Can Animals Predict Despite much study, scientists cannot predict when earthquakes will take
Earthquakes? place. However, information about where they are most likely to occur
Can animals that live close to the site can help people prepare for them. An area’s earthquake-hazard level
of an earthquake detect changes in is determined by past and present seismic activity. The Maps in Action
their physical environment prior to an activity located at the end of this chapter shows earthquake-hazard levels
earthquake? Documentation of unusual for the contiguous United States.
animal behavior prior to earthquakes Earthquakes are not restricted to high-risk areas. In 1886, an
can be found as far back as 373 BCE.
earthquake shook Charleston, South Carolina, which is considered to
Examples of this odd behavior include
be in a medium-risk area. Because the soil beneath the city is sandy,
zoo animals refusing to enter shelters
this earthquake caused extensive damage. During shaking from a strong
at night, snakes and small mammals
earthquake, sand can act like a liquid and causes buildings to sink.
abandoning their burrows, and wild
Earthquake-resistant buildings are slightly flexible so that they can sway
birds leaving their usual habitats.
These behaviors reportedly happened
with the ground motion. This flexibility can greatly reduce damages.
within a few days, hours, or minutes of
earthquakes.
Volcanoes
A volcano is a mountain built when magma—melted rock—rises from
Earth’s interior to its surface. Once the magma reaches the surface,
it is known as lava. Volcanoes are often located near tectonic plate
boundaries where plates are either colliding or separating from one
another. Volcanoes may occur on land or under the sea, where they may
eventually break the ocean surface as islands. As Figure 1.7 shows, the
majority of the world’s active volcanoes on land are located along tectonic
plate boundaries that surround the Pacific Ocean.
Figure 1.7

The Ring of Fire  Tectonic plate

boundaries are places where volcanoes
usually form. The Ring of Fire contains
nearly 75 percent of the world’s active
volcanoes that are on land. A large number
of people live on or near the Ring of Fire.

critical thinking
Explain  Many of the islands in the
central Pacific Ocean are of volcanic
origin. Explain how they formed.
PACIFIC OCEAN

Ring of Fire
Plate boundary
Volcano

64 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Figure 1.8

Mount St. Helens On May 18, 1980, Mount St. Helens in Washington State erupted.
Sixty-three people lost their lives, and 596 km2 of forest were destroyed in an eruption
that blew away the top 410 m of the volcano.

Local Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

A volcano erupts when the pressure of the magma inside becomes so
great that it blows open the solid surface of the volcano. Some volcanoes
have lava flowing out of them all the time, so the pressure never builds
up. Volcanic eruptions can be devastating to local economies and can
cause great human loss. Clouds of hot ash, dust, and gases can flow
down the slope of a volcano at speeds of up to 160 km/h and sear every-
thing in their path. During an eruption, volcanic ash can mix with water
and produce a mudflow. In addition, ash that falls to the ground can
cause buildings to collapse under its weight, bury crops, and damage the
engines of vehicles. Volcanic ash may also cause breathing difficulties.

Global Effects of Volcanic Eruptions

Major volcanic eruptions, such as the eruption of Mount St. Helens shown
in Figure 1.8, can change Earth’s climate for several years. In large eruptions,
clouds of volcanic ash and sulfur-rich gases may reach the upper atmo-
sphere. As the ash and gases spread across the planet, they can reduce the
amount of sunlight that reaches Earth’s surface. This reduction in sunlight
can cause a drop in the average global surface temperature. In the 1991
©Gary Braasch/Corbis

eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines, the amount of sunlight that

reached Earth’s surface was estimated to have decreased by 2 to 4 percent.
As a result, the average global temperature dropped by several tenths of a
degree Celsius over a period of several years.

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 65

 Weathering and Erosion
Forces at the boundaries of tectonic plates bring rock to the surface of
the Earth. At the Earth’s surface, rocks are altered by other forces. The
Earth’s surface is continually battered by wind and scoured by running
water, moving rocks around and changing their appearance. Chemical
weathering wears down rocks, making them smoother as time passes, and
erosion transports the materials elsewhere. The older a mountain range
Figure 1.9 is, the longer the forces of weathering and erosion
have acted on it. This knowledge helped geologists
Forces of Erosion Over long periods of time, erosion can learn that the rounded Appalachian Moun­tains in the
produce spectacular landforms on Earth’s surface. eastern United States are older than the jagged Rocky
Mountains in the west.

Water Erosion
Erosion by both rivers and oceans can produce dra-
matic changes on Earth’s surface. Waves from ocean
storms can erode coastlines to give rise to a variety
of spectacular landforms. Over time, rivers can carve
deep gorges into the landscape, as shown in Figure 1.9.

Wind Erosion
Like moving water, wind can also change the land-
scape of our planet. In places where plants grow, their
roots hold soil in place. But in places where there
are few plants, wind can blow soil away very quickly.
Beaches and deserts, which have loose, sandy soil,

©Dennis Flaherty/Photo Researchers, Inc.

are examples of places where few plants grow. Soft
rocks, such as sandstone, erode more easily than hard
rocks, such as granite, do. In parts of the world, spec-
tacular rock formations are sometimes seen where
pinnacles of hard rock stand alone because the softer
rock around them has been eroded by wind and/or
water.

Section 1  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Name  and describe the physical and 5. Analyzing Processes  How might the surface
compositional layers into which Earth is divided. of the Earth be different if it were not divided
2. Explain  the main cause of earthquakes and into tectonic plates?
their effects. 6. Compare and Contrast  Read about the
3. Describe  the effects a large-scale volcanic effects of erosion on mountains on this page.
eruption can have on the global climate. From what you have read, describe the physical
Image Credits:

features you would associate with a young

4. Describe  how wind and water alter Earth’s mountain range and an old mountain range.
surface.

66 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Section 2
The Atmosphere Objectives

Describe the composition of

Earth’s atmosphere.
Earth is surrounded by a mixture of gases known as the atmosphere. Nitrogen,
oxygen, carbon dioxide, and other gases are all parts of this mixture. Earth’s Describe the layers of Earth’s
atmosphere changes constantly as these gases are added and removed. For atmosphere.
example, animals remove oxygen from the atmosphere when they breathe in and
add carbon dioxide when they breathe out. Plants take in carbon dioxide and Explain three mechanisms
add oxygen to the atmosphere when they produce food. Gases can be added to of heat transfer in Earth’s
and removed from the atmosphere in ways other than through living organisms. atmosphere.
A volcanic eruption adds gases. A vehicle both adds and removes gases.
The atmosphere also insulates Earth’s surface. This insulation slows the rate at Explain the greenhouse effect.
which the Earth’s surface loses heat. The ­atmosphere keeps Earth at temperatures
at which living things can survive.
Key Terms
atmosphere
Composition of the Atmosphere troposphere
Figure 2.1 shows the percentages of gases that make up Earth’s atmosphere. stratosphere
Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the Earth’s atmosphere. It enters the ozone
atmosphere when volcanoes erupt and when dead plants and animals de- radiation
cay. Oxygen, the second most abundant gas in Earth’s atmosphere, is pri- conduction
marily produced by plants and algae. Other gases, including argon, carbon convection
dioxide, methane, and water vapor, make up the rest of the atmosphere.
greenhouse effect
In addition to gases, the atmosphere contains many types of tiny,
solid particles, or atmospheric dust. Atmospheric dust is mainly soil
but includes salt, ash from fires, volcanic ash, particulate matter from
combustion, skin, hair, bits of clothing, pollen, bacteria and viruses, and
microscopic particles and liquid droplets called aerosols.

Air Pressure Figure 2.1

The atmosphere is pulled to-
Physical and Chemical Composition of the Atmosphere
ward Earth’s surface by gravity.
  Scientists on board a research plane from the National Oceanic and Atmospheric
As a result of the pull of gravity, Admini­stration (NOAA) are making measurements of temperature, humidity, barometric
the atmosphere is denser near pressure, and wind speed.
Earth’s surface. Most of the
Nitrogen and oxygen make up 99 percent of the composition of the atmosphere.
mass of Earth’s atmospheric
gases is located within 30 km of
our planet’s surface. Because
©NOAA/Department of Commerce/NOAA Central Library U

gravity pulls the molecules of Nitrogen 78%

air downwards, the amount of
air decreases at higher alti-
tudes. The air also becomes Oxygen
less dense as elevation in- 21%
creases, so breathing at higher
elevations is more difficult.

Other 1%

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 67

 Layers of the Atmosphere
The atmosphere is divided into four layers based on temperature changes
that occur at different distances above the Earth’s surface. Figure 2.2
shows the four layers of Earth’s atmosphere.

The Troposphere
The atmospheric layer nearest Earth’s surface is the troposphere. The
troposphere extends to about 18 km above Earth’s surface. Almost all of
the weather occurs in this layer. The troposphere is Earth’s densest atmo-
spheric layer. Temperature decreases as altitude increases in the tropo-
sphere, as shown in Figure 2.2.

Pressure (Pa)
0 2.0 3 104 6.0 3 104 1.0 3 105
Figure 2.2

Atmospheric Layers The layers of

600
the atmosphere differ in temperature
and pressure.
500

Thermosphere
100

90

80
Temperature
Altitude (km)

70
Mesosphere
60

50

40
Ozone layer
30 Stratosphere

20
Pressure

10
Troposphere
0
–80 –70 –60 –50 –40 –30 –20 –10 0 10 20
Temperature (˚C)

68 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Figure 2.4 Figure 2.5

The Tropopause  This sunrise scene that was taken from space captures the tropopause, Auroras The aurora borealis, or
the transitional zone that separates the troposphere (yellow layer) from the stratosphere (white Northern Lights, can be seen in the
layer). The tropopause is the illuminated brown layer. skies around Earth’s North Pole.

ECOFACT

The Stratosphere
Above the troposphere is the stratosphere. The stratosphere, separated
from the troposphere by the tropopause, shown in Figure 2.4, extends from
about 18 km to an altitude of about 50 km. Temperatures rise as altitude
increases because ozone in the stratosphere absorbs the sun’s ultraviolet
(UV) energy and warms the air. Ozone, O3, is a molecule made up of three
oxygen atoms. Almost all the ozone in the atmosphere is concentrated in
the ozone layer in the stratosphere. Ozone reduces the amount of harm-
ful UV radiation that reaches Earth.

The Mesosphere
The layer above the stratosphere is the mesosphere. This layer extends ECOFACT
to an altitude of about 80 km. The mesosphere is the coldest layer of
the atmosphere. Its temperatures have been measured as low as -93°C. The Mesosphere
In geology, the term mesosphere,
which means “middle sphere,”
The Thermosphere refers to the 2,550 km thick physical
Farthest from Earth’s surface is the thermosphere. In the thermosphere, layer of the Earth that lies below the
nitrogen and oxygen absorb solar radiation, resulting in temperatures asthenosphere. The mesosphere is
also the name of the atmospheric
above 2,000°C. Despite these high temperatures, the thermosphere would
layer that extends from 50 to 80 km
not feel hot to us. Air particles that strike one another transfer heat. The
above Earth’s surface.
air in the thermosphere is so thin that air particles rarely collide, so little
(tl) ©NASA; (tr) SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

heat is transferred.
Nitrogen and oxygen atoms in the lower region of the thermosphere
(about 80 km to 550 km above Earth’s surface) absorb harmful solar
radiation, such as X rays and gamma rays. This absorption causes atoms
to become electrically charged. Electri­cally charged atoms are called ions. Check for Understanding
The lower thermosphere is called the ionosphere. Sometimes ions radiate Infer  How does ozone in the
energy as light. This light often glows in spectacular colors in the night stratosphere affect life on the Earth’s
skies near the Earth’s North and South Poles, as shown in Figure 2.5. surface?

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 69

QUICKLAB

Energy in the Atmosphere

As shown in Figure 2.6, energy from the sun is transferred in Earth’s
QUICKLAB atmosphere by three mechanisms: radiation, convection, and conduction.
The Heat is On! Radiation is the transfer of energy across space and in the atmosphere.
Procedure When you stand before a fire or a bed of coals, the warmth you feel has
1. Select 6 places in your classroom reached you by radiation. Conduction is the transfer of energy in the
to measure the air temperature. form of heat from a warmer object to a colder object when the objects
2. Choose a spot near the ceiling, are placed in direct physical contact. Convection is the transfer of energy
one near the floor, one near a because variations in temperature move the matter making up air. For
dark-colored surface, one near a example, if you live in a colder climate, the heating vents in your home
light-colored surface, and two other are probably on or near the floor, so that the house will warm as the air
places, spaced around the room. rises upwards.
3. Write a hypothesis explaining why
temperatures might vary from
place to place within the room. Warming of the Atmosphere
4. Construct a data table to record Solar energy reaches Earth as electromagnetic radiation, which includes
your measurements. visible light, infrared radiation, and ultraviolet light. Our planet only re-
5. Measure the temperatures (in °C) ceives about two-billionths of this energy. However, this seemingly small
in all six areas. amount of radiation contains a tremendous amount of energy. As shown in
Analysis Figure 2.6, about half of the solar energy that enters the atmosphere passes
1. How is energy being transferred through and reaches Earth’s surface. The rest is absorbed or reflected in the
within the room? If more than one atmosphere by clouds, gases, and dust, or it is reflected by Earth’s surface.
mechanism is a factor, explain. On a sunny day, rocks may become too hot to touch. If Earth’s surface
2. Explain the reasons behind any continually absorbed energy, it would get hotter and hotter. This does not
differences you saw. happen, because the oceans and the land radiate some of the energy they
have absorbed back into the atmosphere.

Figure 2.6

Thermal Radiation  Three important mechanisms

responsible for transferring energy in the atmosphere are
radiation, conduction, and convection.

70
 You may have noticed that dark-colored objects become much hotter
in the sun than light-colored objects. Dark-colored objects absorb more ECOFACT
solar radiation than light-colored objects, so dark-colored objects have Lost Weekend
more energy to release as heat. Because of the dark color of street and Doesn’t it always seems to rain on the
parking lot services, the temperature in cities is higher than the tempera- weekends? If you live on the East Coast,
ture in the surrounding countryside. that might actually be true. Researchers
recently found that the mid-Atlantic
states have a 30 to 40 percent greater
The Movement of Energy in the Atmosphere chance of rain on the weekends than
Air that is constantly moving upward, downward, or sideways causes other states. Why? Automobile exhaust
Earth’s weather. In the troposphere, currents of less dense air, warmed by that accumulates in the atmosphere
the Earth’s surface, rise into the atmosphere, and currents of denser cold over the course of the work week has
air sink toward the ground. As a current of air rises into the atmosphere, caused weather patterns in this area
it begins to cool and condense. The air current sinks instead of continu- to shift. By Friday, the levels of exhaust
ing to rise. So, the air current moves back toward Earth’s surface until it particles are high enough to trigger rain.
is warmed, becomes less dense, and begins to rise again. This continual
process, called a convection current, moves the air in a circular pattern. A
convection current can be seen in Figure 2.6. Check for Understanding
Explain  Why does cool air sink and
warm air rise in the atmosphere?
Solar Energy that Reaches Earth
20% absorbed by
ozone, clouds, and
5% reflected by atmospheric gases
the Earth’s surface

25% scattered
50% absorbed by and reflected by
the Earth’s surface clouds and air

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 71

 Figure 2.7

The Greenhouse Effect  The gases in

the atmosphere act like a layer of glass. Both
allow solar energy to pass through. But glass
and some of the gases in the atmosphere
absorb energy and stop the heat from
escaping into space.

critical thinking
Explain  What is the relationship
between the greenhouse effect and
global climate change?

The Greenhouse Effect

The gases in Earth’s atmosphere act like the glass in the car shown in
Figure 2.7. Sunlight that penetrates Earth’s atmosphere warms the surface
and lower atmosphere of the Earth. This process, in which greenhouse
gases absorb and reradiate infrared radiation near the Earth, is known as
the greenhouse effect. Without the greenhouse effect, the Earth would be
too cold for life to exist.
The gases in our atmosphere that trap heat are called greenhouse
gases. None of these have a high concentration in Earth’s atmosphere.
The most abundant greenhouse gases are water vapor, carbon dioxide,
  FieldStudy methane, and nitrous oxide. The amounts of these gases vary consider-
Go to Appendix B to find the field study ably as a result of natural and industrial processes. Many scientists associ-
Detecting CO2 ate the addition of these gases from industry with global climate change.

Section 2  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe  the composition of Earth’s atmosphere. 5. Analyzing Processes  Write a paragraph that
explains why Earth’s atmosphere becomes less
2. Describe  a characteristic of each layer of the
dense with increasing altitude above Earth.
atmosphere.
6. Analyzing Processes  How does human
3. Identify  the three mechanisms of energy
activity change some greenhouse-gas levels?
transfer in Earth’s atmosphere.
4. Describe  the role of greenhouse gases in Earth’s
atmosphere.

72 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Section 3
The Hydrosphere and Objectives

Biosphere
Name the three major
processes in the water cycle.

Describe the properties of

ocean water.
Life on Earth is restricted to a very narrow layer around Earth’s surface. In this layer,
Describe the two types of ocean
called the biosphere, everything that organisms need to survive can be found. One
of the requirements of all living things is liquid water.
currents.

Explain how the ocean

The Hydrosphere and Water Cycle regulates Earth’s temperature.

The hydrosphere includes all of the water on or near Earth’s surface, such Discuss the factors that confine
as the water in the oceans, lakes, rivers, wetlands, polar icecaps, soil, rock life to the biosphere.
layers beneath Earth’s surface, and clouds. Explain the difference between
The continuous movement of water into the air, onto land, and then back open and closed systems.
to water sources is known as the water cycle, which is shown in Figure 3.1.
Evaporation is the process by which liquid water is heated by the sun and
then rises into the atmosphere as water vapor. Water continually evaporates Key Terms
from Earth’s oceans, lakes, streams, and soil, but the majority of the water water cycle
evaporates from the oceans. In the process of condensation, water vapor evaporation
forms water droplets on dust particles. These water ­droplets form clouds, in condensation
which the droplets collide, stick together, and create larger, heavier droplets.
precipitation
These larger droplets fall from clouds as rain in a process called precipitation.
salinity
Precipitation may also take the form of snow, sleet, or hail.
fresh water
biosphere
Figure 3.1

The Water Cycle The major processes of the water cycle include evaporation,
 condensation, and precipitation.

condensation
evaporation

precipitation
©Peter Wey/Fotolia

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 73

Connect to GEOLOGY Earth’s Oceans
Submarine Volcanoes We talk about the Atlantic Ocean, the Pacific Ocean, the Arctic Ocean, the
Geolo­gists estimate that approximately Southern Ocean, and the Indian Ocean. However, if you look at Figure 3.2,
80 percent of the volcanic activity on you see that these oceans are all joined. This single, large, interconnected
Earth takes place on the ocean floor. body of water is called the world ocean. Its waters cover a little over 70
Most of this activity occurs as magma percent of the Earth’s surface. As we will see, the world ocean plays many
slowly flows onto the ocean floor
important roles in regulating our planet’s environment.
where tectonic plates pull away from
each other. But enormous undersea The largest ocean on Earth is the Pacific Ocean. It covers a surface
volcanoes are also common. Off the area of approximately 155,557,000 km2 and has an average depth of
coast of Hawaii, a submarine volcano 4,280 m. The deepest point on the ocean floor is in the Pacific Ocean. This
called the Loihi Seamount rises 5,185 point is called the Challenger Deep and is located east of the ­Philippine
m from the ocean floor. Loihi is just Islands at the bottom of the Mariana Trench and is deeper than Mount
915 m below the ocean’s surface, and Everest is tall.
in several thousand years, this volcano The second-largest ocean on Earth is the Atlantic Ocean. It covers a
may become the next Hawaiian Island. surface area of 76,630,000 km2, which is about half the area of the Pacific
Ocean. Like the Pacific Ocean, the Atlantic Ocean can be divided into a
north half and a south half based on the directions of surface current flow
north and south of the equator.

CASESTUDY

Storm Surge,
Tsunamis, and
Coastal Wetlands
Coastal wetlands include mangrove forests and salt Saltmarsh cordgrass, shown in a salt marsh at the New
marshes. These ecosystems filter the water, are a home for
River Inlet, North Carolina, helps to anchor shorelines.
many species, prevent erosion, and provide recreational
and commercial opportunities for people. Coastal wetlands hurricanes or a tsunami may not travel as far. It also may
are worth billions of dollars to the economy every year, but not be as powerful. Another way that wetlands provide
in many areas of the world they have been removed for protection from disasters is by building up sediment and
human development. holding it together. By creating more land and stable
In the last several years major natural disasters have shorelines, the wetlands will reduce damage from waves
shown how vulnerable coastal areas can be. Hurricane even more.
©Norm Thomas/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Katrina along the Gulf of Mexico and tsunamis in Japan Multiple studies have found that the loss of human lives
and southeast Asia killed thousands of people and resulted and livestock as well as the economic damage inflicted on
in billions of dollars of damage. In these areas, many an area by hurricanes are less when they are protected
coastal wetlands had been removed. Could mangrove by coastal wetlands. We know less about how wetlands
forests or coastal marshes have reduced the damage? protect coastal communities from tsunamis, but one study
The plants of coastal wetlands can reduce the height found that having coastal trees reduced the loss of human
of waves, so the surge of water moving inland from life by 5%.

74 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 The Indian Ocean covers a surface area of Figure 3.2
73,762,000 km2 and is the third-largest ocean
on Earth. It has an average depth of 3,890 m. World Ocean The Pacific, Atlantic, Indian, Southern, and Arctic Oceans are
interconnected into a single body of water, the world ocean, which covers 70
In 2000, the waters that completely sur- percent of Earth’s surface.
round the continent of Antarctica were desig-
nated as the Southern Ocean. Although it has
no land mass to separate it from the others, it
can be distinguished by the rapid movement
of its waters around Antarctica, known as the
Antarctic Circumpolar Current. It encom-
passes an area of approximately 20,327,000
km2.
The smallest ocean is the Arctic Ocean,
which covers 14,560,000 km2. The Arctic
Ocean is unique because much of its surface is
SOUTHERN
­covered by floating ice. This ice, which is called OCEAN
pack ice, forms when either waves or wind
drive together frozen seawater, known as sea
ice, into a large mass.

Over 80% of New Orleans was

submerged by floodwater when
Hurricane Katrina struck in
August, 2005.

Not all types of coastal wetland will provide the same Many communities have decided that protecting
amount of protection. For example, dense mangrove forests remaining coastal wetlands is not enough. They are working
are better than those with fewer trees. Also, it is important Critical
to restore Thinking
degraded wetlands or create new wetlands
that wetlands are relatively large. The tsunami in the Indian where they have been destroyed. Scientists are working
Ocean in 2004 and the oil from the Deepwater Horizon spill to find out the best ways to restore wetlands to provide
in 2010 killed large areas of wetlands, but only in a strip many benefits including increasing tourism, increasing fish
along the coast. The mangrove forests and marshes further populations, and protecting coastal communities.
inland mostly survived and allowed the wetlands to remain
largely intact.
Critical Thinking
©Vincent Laforet, POOL/AP Images

Even though coastal wetlands are a benefit during

natural disasters, they are not a substitute for other Explain  A local city commission is trying to
methods of protection, like early warning systems. Because decide what should be done with a large vacant
wetlands provide many benefits other than reducing the area along the coast. Provide an argument why it
impacts of natural disasters, it is important to preserve might be a good idea to create a coastal wetland.
them.

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 75

Figure 3.3
Ocean Water
Dissolved Solids This pie graph shows the percentages by
The difference between ocean water and fresh water
weight of dissolved solids found in ocean water. Sodium and
is that ocean water contains more salts. These salts
chlorine, the two elements that form salt, are the most important
have dissolved out of rocks on land and have been
dissolved solids in ocean water.
carried down rivers into the ocean over millions of
Other 0.7%
years. Underwater volcanic eruptions also add salts
Potassium 1.1% to the ocean.
Most of the salt in the ocean is sodium chloride,
Calcium 1.2% Chlorine 55.0% which is made up of the elements sodium and chlo-
Sulfur 3.7% rine. Figure 3.3 shows the concentration of these and
other elements in ocean water. The salinity of ocean
Magnesium 7.7% water is the concentration of all the dissolved salts it
contains. The average salt content of ocean water is
Sodium 30.6% 3.5 percent by weight. The salinity of ocean water is
lower in places that get a lot of rain or in places where
fresh water flows into the sea. Salinity is higher where
water evaporates rapidly and leaves the salts behind.

Temperature Zones
Figure 3.4 shows the temperature zones of the ocean. The surface of the
ocean is warmed by the sun. In contrast, the depths of the ocean, where
sunlight never reaches, have temperatures only slightly above freezing.
HMDScience.com
Surface waters are stirred up by waves and currents, so the warm surface
Understanding Ocean zone may be as much as 350 m deep. Below the surface zone is the ther-
Currents mocline, which is a layer about 300 to 700 m deep where the temperature
falls rapidly with depth. From the bottom of the thermocline, down to the
bottom of the ocean, lies the cold, dark deep zone.

Figure 3.4

Ocean Zones Water in the ocean can be divided into three zones based on temperature.
0
Surface Zone The surface zone is the warm,
top layer of ocean water. Sunlight heats the top
200 100 m of the surface zone. Surface currents mix
the heated water with cooler water below.

400
Water depth (m)

Thermocline Water temperature in this

zone drops faster with increased depth
600 than it does in the other two zones.

800
Deep Zone This bottom layer extends
from the base of the thermocline to the
1,000 bottom of the ocean. The temperature in
this zone averages 2˚C.

1,200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Water temperature (˚C)

76 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 A Global Temperature Regulator
One of the most important functions of the world ocean is to absorb and
store energy from sunlight. This capacity of the ocean to absorb and store
energy from sunlight regulates temperatures in Earth’s atmosphere.
The world ocean absorbs over half the solar radiation that reaches the
planet’s surface. The ocean both absorbs and releases heat more slowly Check for Understanding
than land does. As a consequence, the temperature of the atmosphere Compare How does the absorption and
changes much more slowly than it would if there were no ocean on Earth. release of heat by the ocean differ from
If the ocean did not regulate atmospheric and surface temperatures, the the absorption and release of heat by
Connect to MATH
temperature would be too extreme for life on Earth to exist. land?
Local temperatures in different areas of the planet are also regulated
by the world ocean. Currents that circulate warm water cause the land
areas they flow past to have a more moderate climate. For example, the
British Isles are warmed by the Gulf Stream, which moves warm waters
from lower latitudes toward higher latitudes, as shown in Figure 3.5.

Figure 3.5

The Gulf Stream In this infrared satellite image, the Gulf Stream is moving warm Connect to MATH
water (shown in red, orange, and yellow) from lower latitudes into higher latitudes. The The Influence of the Gulf
British Isles are warmed by the waters of the Gulf Stream. Stream
The temp­er­a­ture of the British Isles
critical thinking
is moderated by the Gulf Stream.
Predict  If cold water from melting polar ice were to shut down the Gulf Stream,
Plymouth, England, and Winnipeg,
what would happen to the climate of the British Isles?
Canada, are located at approximately
50° north latitude. Plymouth, which
is located in the southwest of
England near the Atlantic Ocean, has
average low temperatures of 4°C in
December, 3°C in January, and 3°C in
February. Winnipeg, which is located
in the interior of North America, has
average low temperatures of –18°C
in December, –23°C in January,
and –20°C in February. What is the
difference in average low temperatures
in degrees Celsius between Plymouth
and Winnipeg?
©Rosenstiel School of Marine & Atmospheric Science

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 77

QUICKLAB Ocean Currents
Deep Ocean Currents Streamlike movements of water that occur at or near the surface of the
Procedure ocean are called surface currents. Surface currents are wind driven and
1. Fill a large glass container or result from global wind patterns. Figure 3.6 shows the major surface cur-
aquarium with hot water. rents of the world ocean. Surface currents may be warm-water currents
2. Next, fill a 100 mL beaker with very or cold-water currents. Currents of warm water and currents of cold water
cold water, adding several drops of do not readily mix with one another. Therefore, a warm-water current like
dark food coloring. the Gulf Stream can flow for hundreds of kilometers through cold water
3. Hypothesize an explanation for without mixing and losing its heat.
what might happen when the cold Surface currents can influence the climates of land areas they flow
water is added to the hot water. past. As we have seen, the Gulf Stream moderates the climate in the
4. Holding the beaker above the larger
British Isles. The Scilly Isles in England are as far north as Newfoundland
container, carefully pour the icy
in northeast Canada. However, palm trees grow on the Scilly Isles, where it
water into the hot water.
never freezes, whereas Newfoundland has long winters of frost and snow.
Analysis Deep currents are streamlike movements of water that flow very
1. What did you observe when the slowly along the ocean floor. Deep currents form when the cold, dense
cold water was poured into the hot water from the poles sinks below warmer, less dense ocean water and
water?
flows toward the equator. The densest and coldest ocean water is located
2. Explain why this occurred and how
off the coast of Antarctica. This cold water sinks to the bottom of the
it relates to ocean currents.
ocean and flows very slowly northward to produce a deep current called
the Antarctic Bottom Water. The Antarctic Bottom Water creeps along
the ocean floor for thousands of kilometers and reaches a northernmost
point of approximately 40° north latitude. It takes several hundred years
for water in this deep current to make this trip northward.

Figure 3.6

Surface Currents The oceans’ surface currents circulate in different directions in each
hemisphere.

78 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Fresh Water Figure 3.7

Most of the water on Earth is salt water in the ocean. A little more than River System This photo shows
3 percent of all the water on Earth is fresh water. Most of the fresh ­water a network of tributaries flowing into
is locked up in icecaps and glaciers that are so large they are hard to a river in the wetlands of southern
imagine. For instance, the ice sheet that covers Antarctica is as large as Louisiana.
the United States and is up to 3 km thick. The rest of Earth’s fresh water critical thinking
is found in lakes, rivers, wetlands, the soil, rock layers below the surface, Infer  Looking at the photo-
and in the atmosphere. graph, why would pesticides
sprayed on crops near the head
of the main river be of concern
River Systems
to people near the coast?
A river system is a network of streams that drains an area of land. A river
system contains all of the land drained by a river, including the main
river and all its tributaries. As shown in Figure 3.7, tributaries are smaller
streams or rivers that flow into larger ones. Some river systems are
enormous. For example, most of the precipitation that falls between the
Rocky Mountains in the west and the Appalachian Mountains in the east
eventually drains into the Mississippi River. The Mississippi River system
covers about 40 percent of the contiguous United States.

Groundwater
Rain and melting snow sink into the ground and run off the land. Some
of this water ends up in streams and rivers, but most of it trickles down
through the ground and collects as groundwater. Groundwater fulfills
the human need for fresh drinking water and supplies water for many
agricultural and industrial uses. But groundwater accounts for less
than 1 percent of all the water on Earth.

Aquifers Figure 3.8

A rock layer that stores and Aquifers  Aquifers underlie much of the United States. The brown areas are rocks that
allows the flow of ground- contain relatively little stored water.
water is called an aquifer.
The surface of the land
where water enters an aqui-
fer is called a recharge zone.
Figure 3.8 shows the location
of aquifers in the contiguous
United States.
©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 79

 The Biosphere
If the Earth were an apple, the biosphere would be its skin. This com-
parison illustrates how small the layer of Earth that can support life is in
relation to the size of the planet. The biosphere is the narrow layer around
Earth’s surface in which life can exist. The biosphere is made up of the
uppermost part of the geosphere, most of the hydrosphere, and the lower
part of the atmosphere. The biosphere extends about 12 km into the
ocean and about 9 km into the atmosphere.
Life exists on Earth because of several important factors. Most life
requires liquid water, moderate temperatures, and a source of energy.
The materials that organisms require must continually be cycled. Gravity
Check for Understanding allows a planet to maintain an atmosphere and to cycle materials. Suit-
Explain What makes life possible in the able combinations of the things that organisms need to survive are found
biosphere? only in the biosphere.
The biosphere is located near Earth’s surface because most of the
sunlight is available near the surface. Plants on land and in the ocean are
shown in Figure 3.9. Plants need sunlight to produce their food, and al-
most every other organism gets its food from plants and algae. Most of the
algae float at the surface of the ocean. These tiny, free-floating, marine
algae are known as phytoplankton. Except for bacteria that live at hydro-
thermal vents, most of the organisms that live deep in the ocean feed on
dead plants, animals, and protists that drift down from the surface.

Figure 3.9

The Biosphere This illustration of the biosphere shows the concentration of plant life on land and in the ocean.
The colors represent d­ ifferent concentrations of plant life in different regions.

©SeaWiFS Project/Goddard Space Flight Center/NASA

80 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Energy Flow in the Biosphere Figure 3.10

When an organism in the biosphere dies, its body Closed System The Eden Project is an attempt to model the
is broken down and the matter in its body be- biosphere. In this project, plants from all over the world live in a
comes available to other organisms. This matter closed system. The Eden Project is housed within a series of domes
is continually recycled. Energy, however, must that were constructed in an old clay pit in England.
be supplied constantly. The Eden Project, shown
in Figure 3.10, is a closed system that models this
flow of matter and energy.
In a closed system, energy enters and leaves
the system, but matter does not. Earth is a closed
system because the only thing that enters in
significant amounts is energy from the sun, and
the only thing that leaves in significant amounts
is heat. Energy from the sun is used by plants
in the biosphere to make their food. When an
animal eats a plant, the energy stored in the plant
is transferred to the animal. The animal, in turn,
may be eaten by another animal. At each stage in
the food chain, some of the energy is lost to the
environment as heat, which is eventually lost into
space.
In an open system, both matter and energy are
exchanged between a system and the surround-
ing environment. Earth was once an open system.
Matter was added to the early Earth as it was hit
by comets and meteorites. Now, however, little
matter reaches Earth this way.
©Geoff Kidd/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Section 3  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Name  and describe each of the three major 5. Analyzing Processes  Read about the ocean’s
processes in the water cycle. role in regulating temperature under the heading
“A Global Temperature Regulator.” How might
2. Describe  the properties of ocean water.
Earth’s climate change if the land area on Earth
3. Describe  the two types of ocean currents. were greater than the area of the world ocean?
4. Name  two factors that confine living things to 6. Analyzing Relationships  Why is the human
the biosphere. body considered an open system?

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 81

Maps in Action

Earthquake Hazard Map of the

Contiguous United States
Earthquake Hazard Levels

Map Skills
Use the earthquake-hazard map of the contiguous United States to answer the questions below.

1. Using a Key  Which area of the contiguous United 4. Inferring Relationships  Most earthquakes take
States has a very high earthquake-hazard level? place near tectonic plate boundaries. Based on the
hazard levels, where do you think a boundary between
2. Using a Key  Determine which areas of the
two tectonic plates is located in the United States?
contiguous United States have very low earthquake-
hazard levels. 5. Forming a Hypothesis  The New Madrid earthquake
zone passes through southeastern Missouri and western
3. Analyzing Relationships  In which areas of the
Tennessee and has experienced some of the most widely
contiguous United States would scientists most likely
felt earthquakes in U.S. history. Yet this earthquake zone
set up earthquake-sensing devices?
lies far from any tectonic plate boundary. Propose a
hypothesis that would explain these earthquakes.

82 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Society and the Environment ECOZine
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Go online for the latest environmental science
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Ocean This map shows the possible trajectory of the toys and their

Currents
estimated locations on certain dates as they floated across the
Pacific Ocean from the point of the spill to recovery points in Alaska.

Ocean currents are important in transporting heat,

water, nutrients, pollutants, and organisms around
the world. Even though they are important, ocean
currents have been hard to study. Scientists used
to drop labeled bottles in the oceans in different
places and then record where they were picked up.
Now, oceanographers attach transmitters to drifters.
These transmitters send their position to satellites
overhead, providing scientists with information
that is helpful in a variety of ways, from protecting
endangered species to making important decisions
with far-reaching effects.

Watch Out for Debris! did not form in a way to take oil south. Instead, the oil stayed
The Hawaiian monk seal is one of the most endangered relatively close to the spill. In fact, the currents kept the oil in
marine mammals in the world, with a population around a place where bacteria could help to break it down, possibly
1,200 individuals. Monk seals live in the remote Northwest reducing the impact of the spill.
Hawaiian Islands (NWHI), hundreds of kilometers from the
nearest human populations. Unfortunately, many seals have Toys Ahoy!!
still been killed when they were entangled in discarded fishing Despite more advanced methods, data that help us under­
gear that was dumped into the ocean hundreds or thousands stand ocean currents sometimes come from the most unusual
of kilometers away. This is because the currents of the Pacific sources! In 1992, a container ship traveling northwest of
Ocean carry the debris to the areas where the seals feed, Hawaii ran into a storm. One of the containers that washed
rest, and have their pups. Since 1996, around 500 metric overboard held 29,000 plastic toys. Over the next few years,
tons of debris have been removed from the beaches of the the toys began washing up along the Alaskan coast from Sitka
NWHI! This has helped keep monk seals safer, but the currents to theWhat
BeringDo
Sea.You Think?
Comparing data from the toys with other
keep bringing more debris to Hawaii, so these efforts must data, the researchers concluded that, although the current
continue. across the northeast Pacific Ocean changes little from year to
year, in 1990 and 1992 the current was unusually far north.
Oil Drilling
In order to meet the energy demands of the world, it is
necessary to drill oil wells in deep ocean waters. During What Do You Think?
the summer of 2010, the Deepwater Horizon oil platform
Oil fields off the north coast of Cuba are now being
exploded and sank, releasing about five million barrels of oil opened for oil drilling. People in the Florida Keys
into the Gulf of Mexico. Understanding currents was critical to and southeast Florida are concerned about this
responding appropriately to the spill. The Loop Current could drilling. Use the map of currents in Figure 3.6 as
©PhotoDisc/Getty Images

a reference to explain why. How should the U.S.

have taken oil from off of Louisiana to the Florida Keys and respond to this drilling?
even up the East Coast of the U.S. Luckily, the loop current

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 83

Chapter 3  Summary

Section 1  The Geosphere Objectives Key Terms

• The solid part of the Earth that consists of all rock, and the geosphere
soils and sediments on Earth’s surface, is the geosphere. hydrosphere
• Earth’s interior is divided into layers based on crust
composition and structure. mantle
• Earth’s surface is broken into pieces called tectonic core
plates, which collide, separate, or slip past one another. lithosphere
• Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, and mountain building asthenosphere
are all events that occur at the boundaries of tectonic tectonic plate
plates. chemical
• Earth’s surface features are continually altered by the weathering
­action of water and wind. erosion

Section 2  The Atmosphere Objectives Key Terms

• The mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth is called atmosphere

the atmosphere. troposphere

(t) ©Gary Braasch/Corbis; (c) ©NOAA/Department of Commerce/NOAA Central Library U; (b) ©Rosenstiel School of Marine and Atmospheric Science
• The atmosphere is composed almost entirely of stratosphere
nitrogen and oxygen. ozone
• Earth’s atmosphere is divided into four layers based radiation
on changes in temperature that take place at different conduction
altitudes. convection
• Heat is transferred in the atmosphere by radiation, greenhouse
­conduction, and convection. effect
• Some of the gases in Earth’s atmosphere slow the
escape of heat from Earth’s surface in what is known
as the greenhouse effect.

Section 3  The Hydrosphere and Objectives Key Terms

Biosphere
• The hydrosphere includes all of the water at or near water cycle
Earth’s surface. evaporation
• Water in the ocean can be divided into three zones— condensation
the surface zone, the thermocline, and the deep zone— precipitation
based on temperature. salinity
• The ocean absorbs and stores energy from sunlight, fresh water
regulating temperatures in the atmosphere. biosphere
• Surface currents in the ocean affect the climate of the
land they flow near.
• The biosphere is the narrow layer at the surface of the
Earth where life can exist.
• Earth is a closed system because energy enters and
leaves Earth, but matter does not.

84 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

Chapter 3  Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. The ozone layer is located in the
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence. a. stratosphere.
1. tectonic plate b. mesosphere.
2. erosion c. thermosphere.
3. radiation d. troposphere.
4. ozone 15. Convection is defined as the
5. salinity a. transfer of energy across space.
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of b. direct transfer of energy.
the terms differ. c. trapping of heat near the Earth by gases.
6. lithosphere and asthenosphere d. transfer of heat by currents.
7. conduction and convection
16. Which of the following gases is not a green­
8. crust and mantle
house gas?
9. evaporation and condensation
a. water vapor
10. Concept Map  Use the following terms to create
b. nitrogen
a concept map: geosphere, crust, mantle, core,
lithosphere, asthenosphere, and tectonic plate. c. methane
d. carbon dioxide

Reviewing Main Ideas 17. Liquid water turns into gaseous water vapor in a
process called
11. The thin layer at Earth’s surface where life exists is
called the a. precipitation.
a. geosphere. b. convection.
b. atmosphere. c. evaporation.
c. hydrosphere. d. condensation.
d. biosphere. 18. Currents at the surface of the ocean are moved
mostly by
12. The thin layer of the Earth upon which tectonic
plates move around is called the a. heat.
a. mantle. b. wind.
b. asthenosphere. c. salinity.
c. lithosphere. d. the mixing of warm and cold water.
d. outer core. 19. Which of the following statements about the
biosphere is not true?
13. Seventy-eight percent of Earth’s atmosphere is
made up of a. The biosphere is a system closed to matter.
a. oxygen. b. Energy enters the biosphere in the form of
sunlight.
b. hydrogen.
c. Nutrients in the biosphere must be
c. nitrogen. continuously recycled.
d. carbon dioxide. d. Matter is constantly added to the bio­sphere.

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 85

Chapter Review

Short Answer Critical Thinking

20. How do seismic waves give scientists information 27. Making Predictions  The eruption of Mount
about Earth’s interior? Pinatubo in 1991 reduced global temperature by
21. Explain the effect of gravity on Earth’s several tenths of a Celsius degree for several years.
atmosphere. Write a paragraph predicting what might happen
to Earth’s climate if several large-scale eruptions
22. Explain how convection currents transport heat in took place at the same time.
the atmosphere.
28. Analyzing Processes  Read about the heating
23. Why does land that is near the ocean change of Earth’s surface and the absorption of incoming
temperature less rapidly than land that is located solar radiation under the heading “Warming
farther inland? of the Atmosphere.” How might the Earth be
24. Why is life on Earth confined to such a narrow different if the Earth’s surface absorbed greater or
layer near the Earth’s surface? lesser percentages of radiation?
29. Analyzing Processes  Surface currents are de­
flected by continental landmasses. How might
Interpreting Graphics the pattern of Earth’s surface currents change
The map below shows the different amounts of if the Earth had no landmasses? Where on the
chlorophyll in the ocean. Chlorophyll is the pigment world ocean might the majority of warm surface
that makes plants and algae green. Chlorophyll currents be located? Where would the cold
identifies the presence of marine algae. The red and surface currents be located?
orange colors on the map show the highest amounts 30. History  Scientists believe that some human
of chlorophyll; the blue and purple colors on the map migration between distant landmasses may have
show the smallest amounts of chlorophyll. Use the map taken place on rafts powered only by the wind
to answer questions 25–26. and ocean currents. Look at Figure 3.6, which
25. Infer Is there a greater concentration of marine shows the Earth’s surface currents. Hypo­thesize
algae at location A or at location B? potential migratory routes these early seafarers
may have followed.
26. Conclude What conclusion can you reach about
conditions in the parts of the ocean where marine 31. Plotting Seismic Activity  Most earthquakes
algae may prefer to live? take place near tectonic plate boundaries. Using
the encyclopedia, the Internet, or another source,
find at least 20 locations where major earthquakes
took place during the 20th century. Plot these
locations on a map of the world that shows Earth’s
tectonic plates. Did the majority of earthquakes
occur at or near tectonic plate boundaries?

86 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 Chapter Review

Analyzing Data STUDYSKILL

CASESTUDY
Use the graph below to answer questions 32–33.
37. According to the passage, what purpose
32. Analyzing Data  Rearrange the oceans in order
do coastal wetlands perform to reduce the
of highest depth-to-area ratio to lowest depth-to-
damage from a storm surge?
area ratio.
38. According to the passage, what two factors
33. Making Calculations  On the graph, you are
given the average depths of the four oceans. From Whyincreased
It Matters the effectiveness of wetlands in
reducing damage from tsunamis?
these data, calculate the average depth of the
world ocean.
Why It Matters
39. Explain how using
180 4,500
satellites to monitor
160 Area 4,000 weather conditions
140 Depth 3,500 benefits people
globally.

Depth of oceans (m)

(in millions of km2)

120 3,000
Area of oceans

100 2,500
80 2,000
60 1,500
40 1,000
20 500
0 0
Pacific Atlantic Indian Arctic
Ocean Ocean Ocean Ocean
STUDYSKILL
The Importance of Nouns  Most multiple-choice
Making Connections questions center around the definitions of nouns. When you
study, pay attention to the definitions of nouns that appear to
34. Communicating Main Ideas  Describe the be important in the text. These nouns will often be boldfaced
three important ways in which the movement of key terms or italicized secondary terms.
energy takes place in Earth’s atmosphere.
35. Writing Persuasively  Write a persuasive essay
that explains why the Earth today should be
regarded as a closed system for matter rather than
an open system.
36. Outlining Topics  Write a one-page outline that
describes some of the important inter­actions that
take place in the Earth system.
©Earth Imaging/Stone/Getty Images

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 87

 ExplorationLab
Simulation
Beaches
Objectives
Almost one-fourth of all the structures that have been built within
Examine models that show
150 m of the U.S. coastline, including the Great Lakes, will be lost to beach
how the forces generated by
wave action build, shape, and
erosion over the next 60 years, according to a June 2000 report released by
erode beaches. the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). The supply of sand
for most beaches has been cut off by dams built on rivers and streams
Hypothesize ways in which
that would otherwise carry sand to the sea. Waves generated by storms
beaches can be preserved
from the erosive forces of
also erode beaches. Longshore currents, which are generated by waves
wave activity. that break at an angle to a shoreline, transport sediment continuously and
change the shape of a shoreline.
Materials You will now use a series of models to help you understand how
metric ruler beaches can be both washed away and protected from the effects of waves
milk cartons, empty, small (2) and longshore currents.
pebbles
plaster of Paris Procedure
plastic container (large) 1. At least one day before you begin the investigation, make two plaster
or long wooden box lined
with plastic
blocks. Mix a small amount of water with plaster of Paris until the
mixture is smooth. Add five or six small rocks to the mixture for
rocks, small
added weight. Pour the plaster mixture into the milk cartons.
sand, 5 to 10 lb Let the plaster harden overnight. Carefully peel the milk cartons
wooden block, large away from the plaster.

2. Prepare a wooden box lined with plastic or another similar large,

shallow container. Make a model of a beach by placing a mixture
of sand and small pebbles at one end of the container. The beach
should occupy about one-fourth the length of the container. See step
2. In the area in front of the sand, add water to a depth of 2 to 3 cm.
Use the large wooden block to generate several waves by moving the
block up and down in the water at the end of the container opposite
the beach. Continue this wave action until about half the beach has
moved. Record your observations.

3. Remove the water, and rebuild the beach.

In some places, breakwaters have been built
offshore in an attempt to protect beaches
from washing away. Build a breakwater by
placing two plaster blocks across the middle
of the container. Using the metric ruler, leave
a 4 cm space between the blocks. See step 3.
Use a wooden block to generate waves.
Describe the results.

4. Drain the water, and make a new beach

along one side of the container for about
half its length. See step 4. Using the wooden
block, generate a series of waves from the
same end of the container as the end of the
beach. Record your observations.
Step 2  Use a wooden block to generate waves at the end of the container
opposite the beach.

88 Unit 1:    Introduction to Environmental Science

 5. Rebuild the beach along the same side of the container. Jetties or
breakwaters are structures that can be built out into the ocean to
intercept and break up a longshore current. Make a jetty by placing
one of the small plaster blocks in the sand. See step 5. As you did in
the previous steps, use the wooden block to generate waves. De-
scribe the results.

6. Remove the wet sand, and put it in a container. Dispose of the water.
(Note: Follow your teacher’s instructions for disposal of the sand
and water. Never pour water containing sand into a sink.)
Step 3  Build a breakwater by placing two plastic
blocks across the middle of the container.

Analysis
1. Describing Events  In step 2 of the procedure, what happened
to the beach when water was first poured into the container? What
happened to the particles of fine sand? Predict what would happen
to the beach if it had no source of additional sand.

2. Analyzing Results  In step 3 of the procedure, did the breakwater

help protect the beach from washing away?

3. Describing Events  What happened to the beach that you made in

step 4 of the procedure? What happened to the shape of the waves
along the beach?

4. Analyzing Results  What effect did the jetty have on the beach that
Step 4  Make a beach lengthwise along one side of
you made in step 5 of the procedure?
the container. The length of the beach should equal
one-half the length of the container.

Conclusions
5. Drawing Conclusions  What can be done to preserve a beach
area from being washed away as a result of wave action and long-
shore currents?

6. Drawing Conclusions  What can be done to preserve a beach area

that has been changed as a result of excessive use by people?

Extension
7. Building Models  Make a beach that would be in danger of be-
ing washed away by a longshore current. Based on what you have
learned, build a model in which the beach would be preserved by Step 5  Place one of the small plaster blocks in the
a breakwater or jetties. Explain how your model illustrates ways in sand to make a jetty.
which longshore currents can be intercepted and broken up.

Chapter 3:    The Dynamic Earth 89

 Ecozine
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Go online for more information about

these feature articles in the unit:

Chapter 4: making a difference

Butterfly Ecologist

Chapter 5: society and the

environment Changing Seas

Chapter 6: making a difference

©Juniors Bildarchiv/Alamy Images

A Little Piece of Cajun

Prairie

Chapter 7: society and the

environment Hurricane
Katrina and New Orleans

90
 T
Ecology
Unit 2

E
a
Chapter 4
The Organization of Life

Chapter 5
How Ecosystems Work
H
Chapter 6
Biomes
(bc) ©Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tc) ©A. Cosmos Blank/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (b) ©Marty Snyderman/Corbis; (t) ©Photodisc/Getty Images

Chapter 7
Aquatic Ecosystems

This Australian plant called the Alice

sundew gets the nutrients that it needs
to survive by dissolving insects that get
stuck on its sticky tips.

91
Chapter 4
Section 1
Ecosystems: Everything
The
Organization
Is Connected
Section 2
Evolution
Section 3

of Life
The Diversity of Living Things

Why It Matters
In a coral reef ecosystem, reef-
building coral combine with
algae to produce a colony that
gathers energy from the sun,
and creates shelter for many
organisms.
Identify some of the possible
interactions between organisms
in the coral reef ecosystem in
this photo.

CASESTUDY
Learn about how organisms
adapt to environmental changes
in the case study Darwin’s
Finches on page 98.

Online
ENVironmental Science
Image Credits: Images

HMDScience.com
©Photodisc/Getty

Go online to access additional

resources, including labs,
worksheets, multimedia, and
resources in Spanish.

92
 Section 1
Ecosystems: Objectives

Everything Is
Distinguish between the
biotic and abiotic factors in
an ecosystem.

Connected Describe how a population

differs from a species.

Explain how habitats are

important for organisms.
You may have heard the concept that in nature everything is connected. What
does this mean? Consider the following example. In 1995, scientists interested
in controlling gypsy moths, which kill oak trees, performed an experiment. The Key Terms
scientists removed most mice, which eat young gypsy moths, from selected plots
ecosystem
of oak forest. The number of gypsy moth eggs and young increased dramatically.
The scientists then added acorns to the plots. Mice eat acorns. The number of biotic factor
mice soon increased, and the number of gypsy moths declined as the mice ate abiotic factor
them as well. organism
This result showed that large acorn crops can suppress gypsy moth outbreaks. species
Interestingly, the acorns also attracted deer, which carry parasitic insects called
population
ticks. Young ticks soon infested the mice. Wild mice carry the organism that
causes Lyme disease. Ticks can pick up the organism when they bite mice. Then community
the ticks can bite and infect humans. This example shows that in nature, things that habitat
we would never think are connected—mice, acorns, ticks, and a human disease—
can be linked to each other in a complex web.

Defining an Ecosystem
The mice, moths, oak trees, deer, and ticks in the previous example are all
part of the same ecosystem. An ecosystem (EE koh sis tuhm) is all of the
organisms living in an area together with their physical environment. An
oak forest is an ecosystem. A coral reef is an ecosystem. Even a vacant lot,
as shown in Figure 1.1, is an ecosystem.

Figure 1.1

Vacant Lot Ecosystem  This vacant lot is actually a small ecosystem. It includes various
organisms, such as plants and insects, as well as soil, air, and sunlight.
©Brian Nolan/iStock

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 93

 Figure 1.2

Coastal Ecosystem  Like all ecosystems, this coastal region includes basic components
ECOFACT such as rock, air, and plants.
The Living Soil
Soil is formed in part by living
organisms, which break down dead
leaves and organisms. Fungi called
lichens even help break down rocks!

Figure 1.3

Cold Ecosystem  This caribou is

a biotic factor in Denali National Park,
Alaska.

critical thinking
 Identify  List the abiotic and biotic
factors you see in the ecosystem
shown here.

Ecosystems Are Connected

People often think of ecosystems as isolated from each other, but
­ecosystems do not have clear boundaries. Things move from one
­ecosystem into another. Soil washes from a mountain into a lake, birds
migrate from across hundreds of miles, and pollen blows from a forest
into a field.

The Components of an Ecosystem

In order to survive, ecosystems need certain basic components. These
are energy, mineral nutrients, carbon dioxide, water, oxygen, and living
organisms. As shown in Figure 1.2, plants and soil are two of the obvious
components of most land ecosystems. The energy in most ecosystems
comes from the sun.
To appreciate how all of the things in an ecosystem are connected,
think about how a car works. The engine alone is made up of hundreds of
parts that all work together. If even one part breaks, the car might not run.
Likewise, if one part of an ecosystem is destroyed or changes, the entire
system may be affected.

Biotic and Abiotic Factors

An ecosystem is made up of both living and nonliving things. All of the
organisms, including animals, fungi, bacteria, and plants are called biotic
factors. Biotic factors include dead organisms, dead parts of organisms,
such as leaves, or an organism’s waste products. Abiotic (ay bie AHT ik)
factors are the nonliving parts of the ecosystem, including air, water,
rocks, sand, light, and temperature. Figure 1.3 shows several biotic and
©BIOS

abiotic factors in an Alaskan ecosystem.

94 Unit 2:    Ecology

 Figure 1.4

Organization in an Ecosystem  An individual organism is part of a population, a

community, an ecosystem, and the biosphere.

Organisms
An organism is an individual living thing. You are an ­organism, as is an ant
crawling across the floor, an ivy plant on the w
­ indowsill, and a b
­ acterium
in your intestines. Organisms have a role in and interact in an ecosystem.
Figure 1.4 shows how an ecosystem fits into the organization of living
things. A species is a group of organisms that can mate to produce fertile
­offspring. All humans, for example, are members of the species Homo
sapiens. All black widow spiders are members of the species L ­ atrodectus
mactans. Every organism is classified as a member of a species.

Populations Figure 1.5

Members of a species may not all live in Populations  Two of the populations shown here are a population of pink
the same place. Field mice in Maine and Australian strawflowers (left) and a herd of bison (right).
field mice in Florida will never interact
even though they are members of the
same species. An organism lives as part
of a population. A population is a group
(bl) ©Corbis; (br) ©Joe Austin Photography/Alamy Images

of the same species that live in the same

place. For example, all the field mice in
a corn field make up one population of
field mice. An important characteristic of
a population is that its members u ­ sually
breed with one another rather than with
members of other p ­ opulations. The
bison in Figure 1.5 will usually mate with
another member of the same herd, just as
the wildflowers will usually be pollinated
by other flowers in the same field.

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 95

 Figure 1.6 Communities
Every population is part of a community, a group of various
Habitat  Salamanders, such as this European fire species that live in the same place and interact with each
salamander, live in habitats that are moist and shaded.
other. A community differs from an ecosystem because a
community includes only the biotic components. A pond
community, for example, includes all of the populations of
plants, fish, and insects that live in and around the pond. All
of the living things in an ecosystem belong to one or more
communities.
Communities differ in the types and numbers of species
they have. A land community is often characterized by the
types of plants that are dominant. These plants determine
the other organisms that can live in this community. For
example, the dominant plant in a Colorado forest might be
its ponderosa pine trees. This pine tree community will have
animals, such as squirrels, that live in and feed on these
trees.

Habitat
The squirrels mentioned above live in a pine forest. All or-
ganisms live in particular places. The place an organism lives
is called its habitat. A howler monkey’s habitat is the rain for-
est and a cactus’s habitat is a ­desert. The salamander shown
in Figure 1.6 is in its natural habitat, the damp forest floor.
Every habitat has specific biotic and abiotic factors that
the organisms living there need to survive. A coral reef con-
tains sea water, coral, s­ unlight, and a wide variety of other
organisms. If any of these factors change, then the habitat
changes.
Organisms tend to be very well suited to their natural

©Blickwinkel/Alamy Images
habitats. Indeed, animals and plants cannot usually survive
Check for Understanding for long periods of time away from their natural habitats. For
E xplain  Why is an organism’s habitat example, a fish that lives in the crevices of a coral reef will die
important for that organism? if the coral reef is destroyed.

Section 1  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe  a population not mentioned in this 4. Recognize Relationships  Write your own
section. definition of the term c­ ommunity, using the
terms biotic factors and abiotic factors.
2. Describe  which factors of an ecosystem are not
part of a community. 5. Inferring Conclusions  Why might a scientist
say that an animal is becoming rare because of
3. Explain  the difference between a population
habitat destruction?
and a species.

96 Unit 2:    Ecology

 Section 2
Evolution Objectives

Explain the process of evolution

by natural selection.
Organisms tend to be well suited to where they live and what they do. Figure 2.1
shows a chameleon (kuh MEEL ee uhn) capturing an insect. Insects are not easy to Explain the concept of
catch, so how does the chameleon do it? Chameleons can change the color and adaptation.
pattern of their skin, and then blend into their backgrounds. Their eyes are raised
on little, mobile turrets that enable the lizards to look around without moving. An Describe the steps by which a
insect is unlikely to notice such an animal sitting motionless on a branch. When the population of insects becomes
insect moves within range, the chameleon shoots out an amazingly long tongue to resistant to a pesticide.
grab the insect.

Key Terms
Evolution by Natural Selection natural selection
In 1859, English naturalist Charles Darwin observed that organisms in a evolution
population differ slightly from each other in form, function, and behav- adaptation
ior. Some of these differences are hereditary (huh RED i ter ee)—that is, artificial selection
passed from parent to offspring. For more than 150 years, scientists have resistance
shown that the environment exerts a strong influence over which individ-
uals survive to produce offspring. The environment also influences how
many offspring individuals have. Some individuals, because of certain Connect to GEOLOGY
traits, are more likely to survive and reproduce than other individuals.
This is called natural selection–the process by which individuals that are
better adapted to their environment survive and reproduce with more
success than less well adapted individuals do.
Over many generations natural selection causes the characteristics of Check for Understanding
populations to change. A change in the genetic characteristics of a popu- Relate  How is natural selection related
lation from one generation to the next is known as evolution. to the process of evolution?

Figure 2.1

Adaptations for Catching Prey  A chameleon catches an unsuspecting insect that has
strayed within range of the lizard’s long and fast-moving tongue.

Connect to GEOLOGY
Darwin and Fossils
In the 1800s, fossil hunting was a
popular hobby. The many fossils that
people found started arguments about
where fossils come from. Darwin’s
theory of evolution proposed that
©Picture Press/Alamy Images

fossils are the remains of extinct

species from which modern species
evolved. When his book on the theory
of evolution was first published
in 1859, it became an immediate
bestseller.

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 97

 Nature Selects
Darwin thought that nature selects for certain traits, such as sharper
claws or lighter feathers, because organisms with these traits are more
likely to survive and reproduce. For example, lions that have the trait of
HMDScience.com
sharper claws can kill their prey more easily than lions with duller claws.
Evolution and Natural Thus, lions with sharper claws are more likely to survive and reproduce.
Selection Over time, the lion population includes a greater and greater proportion
of lions with sharper claws. As the populations of a given species change,
so does the species. Figure 2.2 summarizes the premises of the theory of
evolution by natural selection. Darwin proposed this theory after drawing
a conclusion based on these premises.

figure 2.2

Evolution by Natural Selection

Premises Conclusion

1.  Individuals in a population vary in each generation. Based on these four

premises, individuals with
2.  Some of these variations are genetic, or inherited. genetic traits that make
them more likely to grow
3. More individuals are produced than live to grow up
up and reproduce in the
and reproduce.
existing environment will
4. Individuals with some genes are more likely to become more common in
survive and reproduce than individuals with other the population from one
genes. generation to the next.

CASESTUDY

Darwin’s Finches
Charles Darwin and Alfred Wallace independently discovered
that natural selection is a mechanism leading to evolutionary
change. Organisms that live on oceanic islands inspired
both scientists. Both saw that plants and animals on islands
(cr) ©Ryan M. Bolton/Alamy Images; (tl) ©Auscape International
were often unusual species found nowhere else. Darwin was
impressed by the mockingbirds in the Galápagos Islands, an
isolated group of volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean west
of Ecuador. There are four species of mockingbirds with even
more distinctive forms among them, each differing in subtle
Notice the beaks in the two
ways, and each island having only one form.
species of Darwin’s finches. What
Other scientists discovered that the Galápagos Islands
do you think these finches eat?
also contain 14 unique species of finch-like birds, which
have become known as Darwin’s finches. All the species
look generally similar, but different species have differently cracking big seeds, some species have slim beaks that are
specialized beaks adapted to eating different types of food. used to sip nectar from flowers, and some species have
Some species have large, parrot-like beaks adapted to become insect eaters. Recent genetic analysis indicates

98 Unit 2:   Ecology

 Figure 2.3

Adaptations to Climate  These steps show the In the cold mountain climate, deer with
evolution of thicker fur in a population of deer. thicker fur are more likely to survive.

These deer live in a warm climate.

Some have thicker fur than others.

Some deer become As years pass, each

separated from the generation has a
rest of the group. greater proportion
of deer with thick fur.
After many generations,
most deer have thick fur.

Figure 2.3 shows an example of evolution in which a population of

deer become isolated in a cold area. Many die, but some have genes for
thicker, warmer fur. These deer are more likely to survive, and their young
with thick fur are also more likely to survive to reproduce. The deer’s thick
fur is an adaptation, an inherited trait that increases an organism’s chance
of survival and reproduction in a certain environment.

that all the Galápagos finches evolved from a single on Daphne Major were larger, on average, than they
species of seed-eating finch that came from the South had been before the drought. The Grants had observed
American mainland. As populations of the finches became evolution occurring in birds over a short period of time. The
established on the various islands, the successful finches studies of finches have documented many details about
were those able to eat what they found on their island. how one species responds to selection.
Princeton University scientists Peter and Rosemary Scientists have found other cases where organisms
Grant have spent 40 years studying Darwin’s finches on one Critical
respond rapidlyThinking
to selection. For example, bacteria acquire
of the Galápagos Islands. Here, one species, the medium resistance to antibiotics and agricultural pests develop
ground finch, has a short, stubby beak and eats seeds as tolerance to pesticides. Fish found in ponds with predators
well as a few insects. The Grants found that the main factor have different body shapes than the same species in ponds
that determined whether a finch lived or died was how without predators. On a South Pacific island, a population
much food was available. During a long drought in 1977, of butterflies developed resistance to a deadly bacteria in
many plants died and the small seeds that the finches eat one year!
became scarce. Finches that had large beaks were much
more likely to have survived. Large beaks allowed them to Critical Thinking
eat larger seeds from the larger plants that had survived the Analyzing Relationships Could the finches
drought. that evolved bigger beaks in this study evolve smaller
The finches that survived the drought passed their beaks some day?
genes for larger beaks to their offspring. Two years later,
the Grants found that the beaks of medium ground finches

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 99

 Coevolution
  FieldStudy Organisms evolve adaptations to other organisms and to their physical
Go to Appendix B to find the field study environment. The process of two species evolving in response to long-
Coevolution. term interactions with each other is called coevolution (koh ev uh LOO
shuhn). One example is shown in Figure 2.4. The honeycreeper’s beak
is long and curved, which lets it reach the nectar at the base of the long,
Figure 2.4 curved flower. The flower has evolved structures that cause the bird to get
Connect to MATH pollen on its head as it sips the nectar. When the bird moves to another
Coevolution  This Hawaiian
honeycreeper is using its curved beak flower, some of the pollen rubs off. In this way, the bird helps lobelia
to sip nectar from a lobelia flower. plants reproduce. The honeycreeper’s adaptation for obtaining more
nectar is a long, curved beak. The plant has two adaptations for greater
pollination. One is sweet nectar, which attracts the birds. The other is a
flower structure that forces pollen onto a bird’s head when the bird sips
the nectar.

Evolution by Artificial Selection

Many populations of plants and animals do not live in the wild but are
cared for by humans. People control how these organisms reproduce
and therefore how they evolve. The two species in Figure 2.5 are closely
related. Over thousands of years, humans bred the ancestors of today’s
wolves to produce the variety of dog breeds. The selective breeding
of organisms by humans for specific characteristics is called artificial
selection.

Connect to MATH The fruits, grains, and vegetables we eat were also produced by artifi-
cial selection. By selecting for traits such as size and sweetness, farmers
Plumper Pumpkins directed the evolution of crop plants. As a result, crops produce fruits,
Each year a farmer saves and plants grains, and roots that are larger, sweeter, and easier to harvest than their
only the seeds from his largest wild relatives. Native Americans cultivated the ancestor of today’s corn
pumpkins. Suppose that he starts from a grasslike plant in the mountains of Mexico. Modern corn is very
with pumpkins that average 5 kg and
different from the wild plant that was its ancestor.
each year grows pumpkins that are
3 percent more massive, on average,
than those he grew the year before. Figure 2.5
What will be the average mass of his
pumpkins after 10 years? Artificial Selection As a result of artificial selection, the Chihuahua on the right

(bl) ©Lisa Dearing/Alamy Images; (tl) ©P. La Tourrette/VIREO; (br) ©BIOS

looks very different from its wolf ancestor on the left.

100 Unit 2:   Ecology

 Figure 2.6

Example of the Evolution of Resistance

Insect pests are sprayed with When the same insecticide is used
an insecticide. Only a few again, more insects survive because
resistant insects survive. more of them are resistant.

The survivors
pass the trait for
insecticide resistance
to their offspring.

Evolution of Resistance
Sometimes humans cause populations of organisms to evolve unwanted
adaptations. You may have heard about insect pests that are resistant
to pesticides and about bacteria that are resistant to antibiotics. What is
resistance, and what does it have to do with evolution?
Resistance is the ability of one or more organisms to tolerate a par-
ticular chemical designed to kill it. An organism may be resistant to a
chemical when it contains a gene that allows it to break the chemical
down into harmless substances. By trying to control pests and bacteria
with chemicals, humans promote the evolution of resistant populations.

Pesticide Resistance
Consider the evolution of pesticide resistance among corn pests, as
shown in Figure 2.6. A pesticide is sprayed on corn to kill grasshoppers.
Most of the grasshoppers die, but a few survive. The survivors happen
to have a version of a gene that protects them from the pesticide. The
surviving insects pass on the gene to their offspring. Each time the corn
is sprayed, insects that are resistant to the pesticide will have a greater Check for Understanding
chance of survival and reproduction. As a result, the insect population Identify  Name two different organisms
will evolve to include more and more resistant members. that have evolved resistance?

Section 2  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Explain  what an adaptation is, and provide 5. Relating Concepts  Read the description of
three examples. evolution by natural selection in this section and
describe the role that the environment plays in
2. Explain  the process of evolution by natural
the theory.
selection.
6. Recognizing Relationships  A population
3. Describe  one way in which artificial selection
of rabbits evolves thicker fur in response to
can benefit humans.
a colder climate. What is this an example of?
4. Explain  how a population of insects could Explain your answer.
become resistant to a pesticide.

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 101

 Section 3
Objectives
The Diversity of
Living Things
Name the three domains and
the four kingdoms of organisms
and list characteristics of each.

Explain the importance of

bacteria and fungi in the Life on Earth is incredibly diverse. Take a walk in your neighborhood, and you might
environment. see trees, birds, insects, and maybe fish in a stream. All of these organisms are
living, but they are all very different from one another.
Describe the role of protists in
Most scientists classify organisms into three domains, as described in Figure 3.1.
the ocean environment. Members of the domains Archaea and Bacteria are unicellular, which means they
consist of only one cell. Domain Eukarya is further divided into four kingdoms. The
Describe how organisms
cells of animals, plants, fungi, and protists contain a nucleus (NOO klee uhs), which
interact and depend on each consists of a membrane that surrounds a cell’s genetic material. Bacteria, fungi,
other for survival. and plants all have cell walls, structures that surround their cells and provide them
with support.

Key Terms
archaea Archaea and Bacteria
bacteria Archaea and bacteria have several features in common, even though they
fungus are not closely related. They are microscopic, unicellar organisms that
protist usually have cell walls and reproduce by dividing in half. Unlike mem-
gymnosperm bers of the domain Eukarya, they lack nuclei. Archaea are often found
angiosperm in extreme places, such as hot springs. They differ from bacteria in their
invertebrate genetics and the makeup of their cell wall. Bacteria are very common and
can be found in many places, including soil and animal bodies.
vertebrate

Figure 3.1
levels of classification
Characteristics Examples

Domain Archaea unicellular; cells lack nuclei; reproduce methanogens (live in swamps and produce methane gas)
by dividing in half; often found in harsh and extreme thermophiles (live in hot springs)
environments
Domain Bacteria unicellular; cells lack nuclei; reproduce by proteobacteria (common in soils and in animal intestines)
dividing in half; incredibly common and cyanobacteria (also called blue-green algae )
Domain Eukarya unicellular and multicellular; cells contain fungi, protists, plants, and animals
nuclei; reproduce asexually and sexually
Kingdom Fungi absorb their food through their body surface; yeasts, mushrooms, molds, mildews, and rusts
have cell walls; most live on land
Kingdom Protista most are unicellular but some are diatoms, dinoflagellates, amoebas, trypanosomes,
multicellular; most live in water paramecia, algae, and Euglena
Kingdom Plantae multicellular; make their own food by ferns, mosses, trees, herbs, and grasses
photosynthesis; have cell walls
Kingdom Animalia multicellular; no cell walls; ingest their food; corals, sponges, worms, insects, fish,
live on land and in water reptiles, birds, and mammals

102 Unit 2:    Ecology

 Bacteria and the Environment Figure 3.2
Bacteria play many important roles in the environment. Some kinds of
Bacteria  These long, orange
bacteria break down the remains and wastes of other organisms and
objects are E. coli bacteria as they
return nutrients to the soil. Others recycle mineral nutrients, such as appear under a microscope.
nitrogen and phosphorus. For example, certain kinds of bacteria play
a very important role by converting nitrogen in the air into a form that
plants can use. Nitrogen is important because it is a main component of
proteins and genetic material.
Bacteria also allow many organisms, including humans, to extract
certain nutrients from their food. The bacteria in Figure 3.2 are Escherichia
coli, or E. coli, a bacterium found in the intestines of humans and other
animals. E. coli helps digest food and release vitamins that humans need.
A different strain, or form, of E. coli can cause severe food poisoning.

Fungi
A fungus (plural, fungi) is an organism whose cells have nuclei and cell
walls. A mushroom is the reproductive structure of a fungus. The rest of
the fungus is an underground network of fibers. These fibers absorb food
from decaying organisms in the soil.
Fungi get their food by releasing chemicals that help break down
organic matter, and then absorbing the nutrients. The bodies of most
fungi are a huge network of threads that grow through the soil, dead
wood, or other material on which the fungi are feeding. Like bacteria,
fungi play an important role in the environment by breaking down the
bodies and body parts of dead organisms.
Some fungi cause diseases, such as athlete’s foot. Other fungi add Check for Understanding
flavor to food. The fungus in blue cheese, shown in Figure 3.3, gives the Compare  Name one way that bacteria
(tr) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©Arco Images GmbH/Alamy Images; (br) ©Igor Kisselev/Alamy Images

cheese its strong flavor. And fungi called yeasts produce the gas that and fungi are similar and one way that
makes bread rise. they are different.

Figure 3.3

Fungi  A mushroom (left) is the reproductive structure of a fungus that lives in the soil. The
cheese (right) gets its taste and its blue color from a fungus.

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 103

Figure 3.4 Protists
Protists  Microscopic, unicellular Most people have some idea what bacteria and fungi are, but few could
diatoms (left) live in the plankton. define a protist. Protists are a diverse group of both unicellular and multi-
Kelp (right) are large, multicellular cellular organisms. Some, such as amoebas, are animal-like. Others, such
protists that live attached to the as the kelp and diatoms in Figure 3.4, are plantlike. Still others are more
ocean floor. like fungi. Most protists are unicellular microscopic organisms, including
critical thinking amoebas and diatoms (DIE uh tahms). Diatoms float on the ocean sur-
Recognize  What do the face. The most infamous protist is Plasmodium, the unicellular organism
protists in these photos have in that causes the disease malaria. From an environmental standpoint, the
common? most important protists are probably algae. Algae are plantlike protists
that can make their own food using the sun’s energy for photosynthesis.
Green pond “scum” and seaweed are examples of algae. Algae range in
size from the giant kelp to the unicellular phytoplankton, which are the
initial source of food in most ocean and freshwater ecosystems.

Plants
Plants are multicellular organisms that have cell walls and make their
own food using energy from the sun. Most plants live on land, where the
resources a plant needs are separated between the air and the soil. Sun-
light, oxygen, and carbon dioxide are in the air, and minerals and water
are in the soil. Plants have roots that access water and nutrients in the

(inset) ©Jan Hinsch/SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (br) ©Jim Steinberg/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (tl) ©Lawrence Naylor/Photo Researchers, Inc.
soil and leaves that collect light and gases in the air. Leaves and roots are
connected by vascular tissue, conducting tissue that transports water and
food. Vascular tissue has thick cell walls, so a wheat plant or a tree is like a
building supported by its plumbing.
Plants with no vascular tissue are called nonvascular plants. Because
nonvascular plants lack specialized conducting tissues as well as true
roots, stems, and leaves, water must move from the environment and
throughout the plant. As a result, nonvascular plants, such as mosses, live
in damp places, as shown in Figure 3.5.

HMDScience.com Figure 3.5

Protists
Nonvascular Plants  Mosses live in damp places because they need water to reproduce.

104 Unit 2:    Ecology

 Gymnosperms Figure 3.6
Pine trees and other evergreens with needle-like leaves are gymnosperms
Gymnosperms  This gymnosperm
(JIM noh spuhrmz). Gymnosperms are woody plants that produce seeds,
has male and female reproductive
but their seeds are not enclosed in fruits. Gymno­sperms such as pine structures called cones.
trees are also called conifers because their seeds are inside cones, as
shown in Figure 3.6.
Gymnosperms have several adaptations that allow them to live in
drier conditions than lower plants can. Gymnosperms produce pollen,
which protects and moves sperm between plants. These plants also
produce seeds, which protect developing plants from drying out. And
a conifer’s needle-like leaves lose little water. Much of our lumber and
paper comes from gymnosperms.

Angiosperms
Most land plants today are angiosperms (AN jee oh spuhrmz), flowering
plants that produce seeds in fruit. All of the plants in Figure 3.7 are
angiosperms. The flower is the reproductive structure of the plant. Some
angiosperms, such as grasses, have small flowers that produce pollen that
is carried by the wind. Other angiosperms have large flowers that attract
insects or birds to carry their pollen to other plants. Many flowering QUICKLAB
plants depend on animals to disperse their seeds and carry their pollen.
For example, a bird that eats a fruit will drop the seeds elsewhere, where
they may grow into new plants.
Most land animals could not survive without flowering plants. Most Check for Understanding
of the food humans eat, such as wheat, rice, beans, oranges, and lettuce,  Relate  How do angiosperms depend
comes from flowering plants. Building materials and fibers, such as oak on animals, and how do animals depend
and cotton, also come from flowering plants. on angiosperms?
(bl) ©Kent Foster/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshotot; (tr) ©Daniel Zupanc/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshotot

Figure 3.7

Angiosperms  This meadow contains a wide array of angiosperms, including grasses, QUICKLAB
trees, and wildflowers.
Pollen and Flower Diversity
Procedure
1. Use a cotton swab to collect pollen
from a common flowering plant.
2. Tap the cotton swab on a
microscope slide and cover the
slide with a cover slip.
3. Examine the slide under a
microscope, and draw the pollen
grains in your science journal.
4. Repeat this exercise with a grass
plant in bloom.

Analysis
1. Based on the structure of the
flower and pollen grains, explain
which plant is pollinated by insects
and which is pollinated by wind.

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 105

 Animals
Animals cannot make their own food like plants can. They have to take in
Connect to MATH food from their environment. In addition, animal cells have no cell walls,
Insect Survival so animals’ bodies are soft and flexible. Some animals have evolved hard
Most invertebrates produce large skeletons against which their muscles can pull to move their bodies. As a
numbers of offspring. Most of result, animals are much more mobile than plants, and all animals move
these offspring die before reaching around in their environments during at least one stage in their lives.
adulthood. Suppose an insect lays
80 eggs on a plant. If 70 percent of
the eggs hatch and 80 percent of Invertebrates
those that hatch die before reaching Animals that lack backbones are invertebrates (in VUHR tuh brits). Many
adulthood, how many insects will reach invertebrates live attached to hard surfaces in the ocean and filter their
adulthood? food out of the water. These organisms move around only when they are
larvae (juveniles). At this early stage of life, they are part of the ocean’s
floating plankton. Filter feeders include corals, various worms, and mol-
lusks such as clams and oysters. Figure 3.8 shows a variety of invertebrates.
Other invertebrates, including squid in the ocean and insects on land,
move around actively in search of food.
More insects exist on Earth than any other type of animal. Insects
have a waterproof external skeleton that keeps them from losing water
in dry environments. Insects move quickly and they reproduce quickly.
Also, most insects can fly. Their small size allows them to live on little
food and to hide from enemies in small spaces, such as a seed or in the
hair of a mammal.

(bl) ©James Steinberg/Photo Researchers, Inc.; © ©Dr. Morley Read/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (r) ©Kjersti Joergensen/Alamy Images
Many insects and plants have evolved together and depend on each
other to survive. Insects carry pollen from male parts of flowers to female
parts of flowers to fertilize a plant’s egg, which develops into a fruit. With-
out insect pollinators, we would not have tomatoes, cucumbers, apples,
and many other crops. Insects also eat other insects that we consider
to be pests. But, humans and insects are often enemies. Bloodsucking
insects transmit human diseases, such as malaria, sleeping sickness, and
West Nile virus. Insects probably do more damage indirectly, however,
by eating crops.
Figure 3.8

Invertebrates  Examples of invertebrates include the banana slug (left), the leaf-footed
bug (middle), and the cuttlefish (right).

106 Unit 2:    Ecology

 ECOFACT
Figure 3.9

Vertebrates  Examples of vertebrates include the toco toucan (left), the blue-spotted stingray
(middle), and the snow leopard (right).
(tl) ©Ed Reschke Photo; (tc) ©Jost Klaus/Jost Images; (r) ©M. L. Hubert & J. L. Klein/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Vertebrates
Animals that have backbones are called vertebrates. Members of three
vertebrate groups are shown in Figure 3.9. The first vertebrates were fish, ECOFACT
but today many vertebrates live on land. Amphibians, which include Conserving Water
toads, frogs, and salamanders, are partially aquatic. Nearly all amphib- Arthropods and vertebrates are the
ians must return to water to lay their eggs. only two groups of animals that have
The first vertebrates to complete their entire life cycle on land were adaptations that prevent dehydration
the reptiles, which today include turtles, lizards, snakes, and crocodiles. so effectively that some of them can
These animals have an almost waterproof egg, which allows the egg to move about freely on land on a dry,
hatch on land. sunny day.

Birds are warm-blooded vertebrates with feathers. Bird eggs have hard
shells. Adult birds keep their eggs and young warm until they develop
insulating layers of fat and feathers. Mammals are warm-blooded verte-
brates that have fur and feed their young milk. The ability to maintain a
high body temperature allows birds and mammals to live in cold areas,
where many other land vertebrates cannot survive.

Section 3  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe  how animals and angiosperms 5. Recognize Relationships  Explain how
depend on each other. Write a short paragraph the large number and wide distribution of
to explain your answer. angiosperm species is related to the success
of insects.
2. Describe  the importance of protists in the
ocean. 6. Comparing Structures  Write a short
paragraph that compares the reproductive
3. Name  the four kingdoms of Eukarya, and give
structures of gymnosperms and angiosperms.
two characteristics of each.
4. Explain  the importance of bacteria and fungi in
the environment.

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 107

Making a Difference

Butterfly
Imagine millions of butterflies swirling through the air like autumn leaves,
clinging in tightly packed masses to tree trunks and branches, and covering
low-lying forest vegetation like a luxurious, moving carpet. According to

Ecologist
Alfonso Alonso, this is quite a sight to see.
For many winters Alonso would climb up to the few remote sites in central
Mexico where anywhere from 23 million to over 170 million monarch butterflies
spend the winter depending on the site. His interest in monarchs came from a
desire to help preserve their habitat and the butterflies themselves. His work
helped him earn a Ph.D. in zoology from the University of Florida.
Monarchs are famous for their long-distance migration. The butterflies
that eventually find their way to Mexico come from as far away as the
northeastern United States and southern Canada. Some of them travel up to
4,828 km before reaching central Mexico.

Wintering Habitat at Risk

Unfortunately, the habitat that the monarchs travel long distances to reach
is increasingly threatened by illegal logging and other human activities.
Logging reduced the size of the wintering region by approximately 44 percent
between 1971 to 1999. Mexico has set aside several of the known butterfly
sites as sanctuaries, but even these are endangered by people who cut down
fir trees for fuel or money.
Alonso’s work and the work of other ecologists after him has helped
Mexican conservationists better understand and protect
monarch butterflies. Especially important is
Alonso’s discovery that the monarchs
depend on bushlike vegetation,
called understory vegetation,
A Sea of Orange  At their over­wintering that grows beneath the fir
sites in Mexico, millions of monarchs trees.
cover trees and bushes in a fluttering
carpet of orange and black.

Butterfly Man  Alonso examines

a monarch as part of his efforts to
understand its ecology.
Brower
Image Credits:
©Lincoln

108 Unit 2:    Ecology

 ECOZine
at HMDScience.com
Go online for the latest environmental science
news and updates on all EcoZine articles.

Monarch Sanctuaries  Monarch

butterflies spend the winter at
forested sites just above Mexico City.

Keeping Warm Now that he has completed his Ph.D., Alonso is devoting
Alonso’s research showed that when the temperature falls himself to preserving monarchs and other organisms. He
below freezing, as it often does in the mountains where works as assistant director for conservation and development
the monarchs winter, understory vegetation can mean the for the Smithsonian Institution’s Monitoring and Assess­
difference between life and death for some monarchs. These ment of Biodiversity (MAB) program. He is developing several
conditions are life threatening to the monarchs because new projects in collaboration with others including a forest
low temperatures (–1°C to 4°C, or 30°F to 40°F) limit their conservation project in Madagascar, and conservation projects
movement. In fact, the butterflies are not able to fly at such low in Panama and Mexico that combine cultural values with natural
temperatures. They can only crawl. At even colder temperatures values to preserve threatened areas.
(–7°C to –1°C, or 20°F to 30°F), monarchs resting on the forest
floor may freeze to death. But if the forest has understory vege­ Information...
tation, the monarchs can slowly climb the vegetation until they If you are interested in learning more about monarchs,
are at least 10 cm above the ground, where it is warmer. This including their spectacular migration, visit the Web site for
tiny difference in elevation can provide a microclimate that is Monarch Watch. Monarch Watch is an organization based at the
warm enough to ensure the monarchs’ survival. University of Kansas that is dedicated to educating people about
The importance of understory vegetation was not known Whatand
the monarch Dopromoting
You Think? its conservation.
before Alonso did his research. Now, thanks to his work,
Mexican conservationists will better protect the understory
vegetation. And the Mexican government has passed a new
decree that protects monarchs in areas the butterflies are
known to use.
What Do You Think?
The Need for Conservation As a migrating species, monarchs spend part of
their lives in the United States and part in Mexico.
Although the monarchs continue to enjoy the forests where Should the U.S. and Mexico cooperate in their efforts
they overwinter, those forests are still threatened. There is little to understand and manage the monarch? Should
Brower

forest left in this area, and the need for wood increases each nations set up panels to manage other migrating
Image Credits:

year. Alonso hopes his efforts will help protect the monarch both species, such as many songbirds?
©Lincoln

now and in the future.

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 109

Chapter 4  Summary

Section 1  E cosystems: Everything Objectives Key Terms

Is Connected
• Ecosystems are composed of many interconnected ecosystem
parts that often interact in complex ways. biotic factor
• An ecosystem is all the different organisms living in an abiotic factor
area as well as the physical environment. organism
• Organisms live as populations of one species in com- species
munities with other species. Each species has its own population
habitat, or type of place that it lives. community
habitat

Section 2  Evolution Objectives Key Terms

• Natural selection is the process by which organisms natural selection

with particular traits are better adapted to their environ- evolution
ment to survive and reproduce more successfully. adaptation
• Natural selection is responsible for evolution—a artificial selection
change in the genetic characteristics of a population resistance
from one generation to the next.
• By selecting which domesticated animals and plants
breed, humans cause evolution by artificial selection.
• We have unintentionally selected for pests that are
resistant to pesticides and for bacteria that are resistant
to antibiotics.

Section 3  The Diversity of Living Objectives Key Terms

Things
• Organisms can be divided into three domains and four archaea
kingdoms, which are distinguished by the types of cells bacteria

(t) ©BIOS; (c) ©P. La Tourrette/VIREO; (b) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

they possess and how they obtain their food. fungus
• Bacteria and fungi play the important environmental protist
roles of breaking down dead organisms and recycling gymnosperm
nutrients.
angiosperm
• Gymnosperms, which include the conifers, are the invertebrate
earliest plants with seeds. Angiosperms are flowering
vertebrate
plants.
• Insects, invertebrates that are the most successful
animals on Earth, affect humans in both positive and
negative ways.
• Vertebrates, or animals with backbones, include fish,
amphibians, reptiles, birds, and mammals.

110 Unit 2:    Ecology

Chapter 4  Review
Reviewing Key Terms 14. Some snakes produce a powerful poison that
paralyzes their prey. This poison is an example of
Use each of the following terms in a separate sentence.
a. resistance.
1. adaptation
b. an adaptation.
2. invertebrate
c. a reptile.
3. abiotic factor
d. an abiotic factor.
4. habitat
5. species 15. Angiosperms called roses come in a variety of
shapes and colors as a result of
For each pair of terms, explain how the meanings of
a. natural selection.
the terms differ.
b. coevolution.
6. community and population
c. different ecosystems.
7. evolution and natural selection
d. artificial selection.
8. gymnosperm and angiosperm
9. bacteria and protists 16. Unicellular organisms that live in swamps and
10. Concept Map  Use the following terms to create a produce methane gas are
concept map: ecosystem, abiotic factor, biotic factor, a. protists.
population, species, community, and habitat.
b. archaea.
c. fungi.
Reviewing Main Ideas d. bacteria.
11. Which of the following pairs of organisms belong 17. Which of the following statements about protists
to the same population? is not true?
a. a dog and a cat a. Most of them live in water.
b. a marigold and a geranium b. Some of them cause diseases in humans.
c. a human mother and her child c. They contain genetic material.
d. a spider and a cockroach d. Their cells have no nucleus.
12. Which of these phrases does not describe part of 18. Which of the following statements about plants is
the process of evolution by natural selection? not true?
a. the environment contains limited resources a. They make their food from oxygen and water
b. organisms produce more offspring than will through photosynthesis.
survive to reproduce b. Land plants have cell walls that help hold their
c. communities include populations of several stems upright.
species c. They have adaptations that help prevent water
d. organisms in a population differ in their traits loss.
d. Plants absorb nutrients through their roots.
13. Which of the following components of an
ecosystem are not abiotic factors?
a. wind
b. small rocks
c. sunlight
d. tree branches

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 111

 Chapter Review

Short Answer Critical Thinking

19. List five components that an ecosystem must 26. Analyzing Ideas  Can a person evolve? Read
contain to survive. the description of evolution in this chapter and
20. What is the difference between biotic and abiotic explain why or why not.
factors in an ecosystem? 27. Making Inferences  A scientist applies a strong
21. What is the difference between adaptation and fungicide, a chemical that kills fungi, to an area
evolution? of forest soil every week during October and
November. How might this area look different
22. Describe the three steps by which a population of from the surrounding ground at the end of the
insects becomes resistant to a pesticide. experiment?
23. List the four kingdoms of organisms in the 28. Drawing Conclusions  In what building in your
Domain Eukarya and the characteristics of each community do you think bacteria are evolving
kingdom. resistance to antibiotics most rapidly? Explain
your answer.
29. Evaluating Viewpoints  Many people assume
Interpreting Graphics that the human population is no longer evolving.
Below is a graph that shows the number of aphids on a Do you think these people are right? Explain
rose bush during one summer. The roses were sprayed your answer.
with a pesticide three times, as shown. Use the graph to 30. Analyzing Information  Find out how the
answer questions 24 and 25. isolation of populations on islands has affected
24. What evidence is there that the pesticide killed their evolution. Research a well-known example,
aphids? such as the animals and plants of Madagascar, the
25. Aphids have a generation time of about 10 days. Galápagos Islands, or the Hawaiian Islands. Write
Is there any evidence that the aphids evolved a short report on your findings.
resistance to the pesticide during the summer? 31. Observe  Observe an ecosystem near you, such
Explain your answer. as a pond or a field. Identify biotic and abiotic
factors and as many populations of organisms
600 as you can. Do not try to identify the organisms
precisely. Just list them, for example, as spiders,
Spraying 1
500
ants, grass, not as a specific type. Make a poster
showing the different populations. Put the
organisms into columns to show which of the
400 Spraying 3 kingdoms they belong to.
Aphid population

Spraying 2
300

200

100

0
May June July August

112 Unit 2:    Ecology

 STUDYSKILL Chapter Review

Analyzing Data
CASESTUDY
Use the graph below to answer questions 32–33.
36. How does environmental change affect the
32. Analyzing Data  The graph below shows the
survival of a species?
mass of different types of organisms found in a
meadow. How much greater is the mass of the 37. What is the relationship between natural
Why It Matters
plants than that of the animals? selection and adaptation?
33. Analyzing Data  What is the ratio of the mass of
the bacteria to the mass of the fungi? Why It Matters
38. What might happen
Mass of Organisms in a Meadow to a population of
5,000 fish if a predator
moved to the coral
reef?
4,000

3,000
Kilograms

2,000

1,000 STUDYSKILL
Make an Outline  After reading each section, summarize
the main ideas into a short outline, leaving space between each
0
entry. Then write the key terms under the subsection in which
Bacteria Plants Fungi Animals Protists
they are introduced, followed by a short definition for each.

Making Connections
34. Communicating Main Ideas  Why is evolution
considered to be such an important idea in
biology?
35. Outlining Topics  Outline the essential steps in
the evolution of pesticide resistance in insects.
©Photodisc/Getty Images

Chapter 4:    The Organization of Life 113

 InquiryLab
Behavior Analysis
How Do Brine Shrimp
Objectives
Observe the behavior of
Select a Habitat?
brine shrimp.
Different organisms are adapted for life in different habitats. For example,
Identify a variable, and
brine shrimp are small crustaceans that live in saltwater lakes. Organisms
design an experiment to test
the effect of the variable on
select habitats that provide the conditions, such as a specific temperature
habitat selection by brine range and amount of light, to which they are best adapted. In this
shrimp. investigation, you will construct a chamber to explore habitat selection by
brine shrimp and determine which environmental conditions they prefer.
Materials
aluminum foil
brine shrimp culture
Procedure
corks sized to fit tubing Establish a Control Group
Detain™ or methyl cellulose 1. To make a test chamber and establish a control group, divide a piece
fluorescent lamp or grow light of plastic tubing into four sections by making a mark at 10 cm, 20 cm,
funnel and 30 cm from one end. Label the sections “1,” “2,” “3,” and “4.”
graduated cylinder or beaker
2. Place a cork in one end of the tubing. Then transfer 50 mL of brine
hot-water bag shrimp culture to the tubing. Place a cork in the other end of the
ice bag tubing. Set the tube aside, and let the brine shrimp move about the
magnifying glass or tube for 30 min.
dissecting microscope
metric ruler 3. After 30 min, divide the tubing into four sections by placing a screw
clamp at each mark on the tubing. While someone in your group
Petri dish
holds the corks firmly in place, tighten the middle clamp at 20 cm and
pipet then tighten the other two clamps.
plastic tubing, 40 cm × 1 cm,
clear, flexible 4. Remove the cork from the end of section 1 and pour the contents of
screen, pieces section 1 into a test tube labeled “1.” Repeat this step for the other
screw clamps sections by loosening the screw clamps and pouring the contents of
each section into their corresponding test tubes.
tape
test-tube rack 5. To get an accurate count for the number of brine shrimp in each
test tubes with stoppers test tube, place a stopper on test tube 1, and invert the tube gently
to distribute the shrimp. Use a pipet to transfer a 1 mL sample of the
culture to a Petri dish. Add a few drops of Detaintm to the sample so
that the brine shrimp move slower. Count and record the number of
brine shrimp in the Petri dish. Place the Petri dish under a dissecting
microscope or use a magnifying glass for better observation.

Making a Test Chamber  Use a screw clamp to

divide one section of tubing from another.

114 Unit 2:   Ecology

 HMDScience.com

6. Empty the Petri dish, and take two more 1 mL samples of brine
shrimp from test tube 1. Calculate the average of the three samples
recorded for test tube 1.

7. Repeat steps 5 and 6 for each of the remaining test tubes to count
the number of brine shrimp in each section of tubing.

Ask a Question
8. Write a question you would like to explore about brine shrimp
habitat selection. For example, you can explore how temperature
or light affects brine shrimp. To explore the question, design an
experiment that uses the materials listed for this lab.

9. Write a procedure and a list of safety precautions for your group’s

experiment. Have your teacher approve your procedure and pre-
cautions before you begin the experiment.

10. Set up and conduct your group’s experiment.

Brine Shrimp  These crustaceans have specific

Analysis habitat preferences.
1. Constructing Graphs  Make a bar graph of your data. Plot the
environmental variable on the x-axis and the number of brine shrimp
on the y-axis.

2. Evaluating Results  How did the brine shrimp react to changes in

the environment?

3. Evaluating Methods  Why did you need a control in your experi-

ment?

4. Evaluating Methods  Why did you record the average of three

samples to count the number of brine shrimp in each test tube in
steps 6 and 7?

Conclusions
5. Drawing Conclusions  What can you conclude from your results
about the types of habitat that brine shrimp prefer?

Extension
6. Formulating Hypotheses  Now that you have observed brine shrimp,
©Ted Kinsman/Photo Researchers, Inc.

write a hypothesis about how brine shrimp select a habitat that could be
explored with another experiment, other than the one you performed in
this lab. Formulate a prediction based on your hypothesis.

Chapter 4:   The Organization of Life 115

 How
Chapter 5
Section 1
Energy Flow in Ecosystems

Ecosystems
Section 2
The Cycling of Matter
Section 3
How Ecosystems Change

Why It Matters

Work
This frog gets the energy it
needs to survive by eating other
organisms, such as damselflies.
Frogs and damselflies are both
consumers in an aquatic food
chain.
How does energy continue
to be transferred in this food
chain?

CASESTUDY
Learn how pollutants, like the
pesticide DDT, are transferred
through a food chain in the case
study DDT in an Aquatic Food
Chain on page 120.

©A. Cosmos Blank/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Online
ENVironmental Science
HMDScience.com

Go online to access additional

resources, including labs,
worksheets, multimedia, and
resources in Spanish.

116
 Section 1
Energy Flow in Objectives

Ecosystems
Describe how energy is
transferred from the sun
to producers and then to
consumers.

Organisms need energy to survive, grow, and reproduce. Different organisms Describe one way in which
get energy from different sources, but the ultimate source of energy for almost all consumers depend on producers.
organisms on Earth is the sun.
Identify two types of consumers.

Life Depends on the Sun Explain how energy transfer in a

food web is more complex than
Energy from the sun enters an ecosystem when organisms use sunlight energy transfer in a food chain.
to make sugar in a process called photosynthesis. During photosynthesis,
plants, algae, and some bacteria capture light energy from the sun and Explain why an energy pyramid
use it to convert carbon dioxide and water into sugar and oxygen, as is a representation of trophic
shown in Figure 1.1. The result of photosynthesis is the production of levels.
sugar molecules known as carbohydrates. Carbohydrates are energy-
rich molecules that organisms use to move, grow, and reproduce. As
organisms consume other plants or animals, energy is transfered from Key Terms
one organism to another. photosynthesis
Plants, such as sunflowers, produce carbohydrates in their leaves. producer
When an animal eats a plant, or the fruit or seeds of a plant, some energy consumer
is transferred from the plant to the animal. When animals are consumed decomposer
by other organisms, energy is again transferred. cellular respiration
food chain
Figure 1.1 food web
trophic level
Photosynthesis During photosynthesis, plants use light energy from the sun to make
carbohydrates. The chloroplasts in the leaves and stems of these sunflowers contain a green
chemical called chlorophyll. Chloro­phyll absorbs the light energy needed for photosynthesis.

solar
energy
©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.

Chapter 5:    How Ecosystems Work 117

 Figure 1.2

Transfer of Energy  Almost all organisms

depend on the sun for energy. Plants like the
clover shown above get energy from the sun.
Animals such as the rabbit and coyote get their
energy by eating other organisms.

(cl) ©BIOS; (tl) ©Comstock/Getty Images; (tr) ©Comstock/Getty Images; (c) ©William Leaman/Alamy Images; (bc) ©SPL/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©Ron & Valerie Taylor/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot
From Producers to Consumers
When a rabbit eats a clover plant, the rabbit gets energy from the carbo-
hydrates produced in the plant through photosynthesis. If a coyote eats
the rabbit, some of the energy is transferred from the rabbit to the coyote.
As shown in Figure 1.2, the clover, rabbit, and coyote ultimately get their
energy from the sun. The clover is a producer, an organism that makes
its own food. Producers are also called autotrophs, or self-feeders. The
rabbit and the coyote are consumers, organisms that get their energy by
eating other organisms. Consumers are also called heterotrophs, or other-
Check for Understanding feeders. Producers, such as plants, most algae, and some bacteria, absorb
 elate  How do producers and
R light energy directly from the sun. Consumers get energy indirectly from
consumers get energy from the sun? the sun by eating producers or other consumers.

Figure 1.3 An Exception: Deep-Ocean Ecosystems

In the depths of the ocean where there is no sunlight, you
Deep-Ocean Ecosystem  These tube worms depend on
might not expect to find much life. But scientists have found
bacteria that live inside them to survive. The bacteria (right)
large communities of worms, clams, crabs, mussels, and
use energy from hydrogen sulfide to make their own food.
barnacles living near thermal vents in the ocean floor. These
deep-ocean communities exist in total darkness, where
photosynthesis cannot occur. So where do these organisms
get their energy? One source of energy comes from
organic matter that drifts down from above as organisms
die. Another source comes from bacteria, such as those
pictured in Figure 1.3, that live in some of these organisms.
These bacteria use hydrogen sulfide to make their own
food. Hydrogen sulfide is present in the hot water that
escapes from the thermal vents. These sulfur-metabolizing
bacteria produce carbohydrates using energy obtained
from the chemical hydrogen sulfide in a process called
chemosynthesis. The bacteria are eaten by other ­underwater
organisms and thus support a thriving ecosystem.

118 Unit 2:    Ecology

 What Eats What Connect to MATH
Organisms can be classified by the source of their energy, as shown in A Meal Fit for a Grizzly Bear
Figure 1.4. Consumers that eat only plants are called herbivores. Rabbits Grizzly bears are omnivores that can
are herbivores as are cows, sheep, deer, grass­hoppers, and many other eat up to 15 percent of their body
animals. Consumers, such as lions and hawks, that eat only other ani- weight per day when eating salmon
mals are called carnivores. You already know that humans are consum- and up to 33 percent of their body
ers, but what kind of consumers are we? Because humans can eat both weight when eating fruits and other
plants and animals, we are called omnivores. Bears, pigs, and cock- vegetation. How many pounds of
roaches are other examples of omnivores. salmon can a 200 lb grizzly bear eat
Consumers that get their food by breaking down organic matter in one day? How many pounds of
from dead organisms are called decomposers. Some bacteria and fungi fruits and other vegetation can the
are decomposers. The decomposers allow the nutrients in the rotting same bear eat in one day?
material to return to the soil, water, and air.

figure 1.4
What Eats What in an Ecosystem
Energy source Examples

Producer makes its own food using light energy grasses, ferns, cactuses, flowering plants, trees, algae, and
(photosynthesis) or chemical sources some bacteria
(chemosynthesis)
Consumer gets energy by eating producers or other consumers mice, starfish, elephants, turtles, humans, and ants

Types of Consumers in an Ecosystem

Energy source Examples

Herbivore producers cows, sheep, deer, and grasshoppers

Carnivore other consumers lions, hawks, snakes, spiders, sharks, and whales

Omnivore both producers and consumers bears, pigs, gorillas, rats, raccoons, cockroaches, some
insects, and humans
Decomposer breaks down organic matter from dead organisms fungi and bacteria

Consumers  Bears, such

as this grizzly bear, are
omnivores. Grizzly bears eat
other consumers, such as
salmon, but they also eat
©Roberta Olenick/All Canada Photos/Alamy Images

various plants.

119
 Cellular Respiration: Burning the Fuel
So far, you have learned how organisms get energy. But how do they use
HMDScience.com the energy they get? To understand the process, use yourself as an example.
Photosynthesis and Cellular Suppose you have just eaten a large meal. The food you ate contains a lot
Respiration of energy. Your body gets the energy out of the food by using the oxygen
you breathe to break down the food. By breaking down the food, your
body obtains the energy stored in the food.
The process of breaking down carbohydrates to yield energy is called
cellular respiration, which occurs inside the cells of organisms. This
process is different from breathing, another form of respiration. During
cellular respiration, cells absorb oxygen and use it to release energy from
food. As you can see in Figure 1.5, the chemical equation for cellular respi-
ration is essentially the reverse of the equation for photosynthesis. During
cellular respiration, sugar molecules are broken down in the presence of
oxygen, yielding energy. Water and carbon dioxide are waste products.
Figure 1.5

Cellular Respiration  Through cellular

respiration, cells use sugar and oxygen to
produce carbon dioxide, water, and energy.

CASESTUDY

DDT in an Aquatic
Food Chain
In the 1950s and 1960s, something strange was happening in the
estuaries near Long Island Sound, near New York and Connecticut.
Birds of prey, such as ospreys and eagles, that fed on fish in the
estuaries had high concentrations of the pesticide DDT in their
bodies. But when the water in the estuaries was tested, it had low
concentrations of DDT.
What accounted for the high levels of DDT in the birds? Poisons
that dissolve in fat, such as DDT, can become more concentrated
as they move up a food chain in a process called biological
magnification. When the pesticide enters the water, algae and
bacteria take in the poison. When fish eat the algae and bacteria, the
poison dissolves into the fat of the fish rather than diffusing back into
©Harry Engels/Photo Researchers, Inc.

the water. Most of the poison remains in an animal’s body once it is

eaten. Each time a bird feeds on a fish, the bird accumulates more
DDT in its fatty tissues. In some estuaries on Long Island Sound, DDT
concentrations in fatty tissues of organisms were magnified almost 10
million times from the bottom to the top of the food chain. A high concentration of DDT decreases the
thickness and the strength of eggshells of many
Large concentrations of DDT may kill an organism, weaken its
birds of prey.
immune system, cause deformities, or impair its ability to reproduce.

120 Unit 2:    Ecology

 You use a part of the energy you obtain through cellular respiration Connect to CHEMISTRY
to carry out your daily activities. Every time you walk, breathe, sleep,
think, or play a sport, you use energy. The energy you obtain is also used
Chemical Equations
A chemical equation is a shorthand
to make more body tissues and to fight diseases so that you grow and stay
description of a chemical reaction
healthy. Excess energy you obtain is stored as fat or sugar. All living things
using chemical formulas and symbols.
use cellular respiration to get the energy they need from food molecules.
The starting materials in a reaction are
Even organisms that make their own food through photosynthesis use
called reactants, and the substances
cellular respiration to obtain energy from the carbohydrates they pro- formed from a reaction are called
duce. products. The number of atoms
of each element in the reactants

Energy Transfer equals the number of atoms of those

elements in the products to make a
Each time one organism eats another organism, a transfer of energy balanced equation.
occurs. In order to understand and manage ecosystems, environmental
scientists must be able to trace the flow of energy through ecosystems.
They also need to know how much energy flows to different parts of the
ecosystem. By knowing how energy flows within an ecosystem and how
much energy different species use, scientists can find out how organisms
depend on one another to survive.

Poisons such as DDT have the

greatest effect on organisms
at the top of food chains. For
example, the osprey shown
here would have a greater
concentration of DDT in its body
than the perch it’s about to eat.

Critical Thinking
DDT can also weaken the shells of bird eggs. When eggs in large quantities to eliminate mosquitoes that carry the
break too soon, bird embryos die. There­fore, the effects disease malaria.
of these chemicals cause a huge drop in the population of
Critical Thinking
©Fritz Polking/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot

carnivorous bird species.

The U.S. government recognized DDT as an
1. Analyzing Processes  DDT does not dissolve
environmental contaminant and in 1972 banned its
readily in water. If it did, how would the
sale except in emergencies. The aquatic food chains accumulation of the pesticide in organisms be
immediately started to recover, and the populations of affected?
ospreys and eagles started to grow.
2. Evaluate  Even though DDT is harmful to
Food chains are still not free of DDT. DDT is still legal in
the environment, why is it still used in some
some countries where, for example, it is sometimes used countries?

Chapter 5:    How Ecosystems Work 121

 Figure 1.6 Food Chains and Food Webs
A food chain is the path in which energy is transferred from one organism
Food Chain  Energy is transferred
to the next as each organism eats another organism. Figure 1.6 shows a
from one organism to another in a food
chain. Algae are the producers in this
typical food chain in an ocean ecosystem. Algae are eaten by krill, which
ocean food chain. are eaten by fish, such as the Antarctic toothfish. These fish, in turn, are
eaten by leopard seals, which are eaten by killer whales.
In natural ecosystems, energy does not flow in simple chains. Most
organisms eat more than one kind of food, and many species are eaten
by more than one predator. A food web, such as the one shown in Figure
1.7, is a better depiction of energy flow in ecosystems. A food web includes
more organisms and shows the feeding relationships between organisms
that are possible in an ecosystem.
Killer whale

Trophic Levels
Each step through which energy is transferred in a food chain is known
as a trophic level. In Figure 1.6, the algae are in the bottom trophic level
Leopard seal
(trophic level 1), the krill are in the next level (trophic level 2), and so on.
Each time energy is transferred from one organism to another, less energy
is available to organisms at the next trophic level. Some of the energy is
lost as heat. Organisms use much of the remaining energy to carry out life
Antarctic toothfish functions, such as cellular respiration and moving.

Figure 1.7
Krill

Food Web  This food web shows how the largest organisms depend on the smallest
organisms in an ocean ecosystem.
Killer whale

Crabeater
seal
Algae Elephant
seal

Leopard
seal Antarctic
toothfish

Adélie Squid
penguin

Krill

Small animals
Algae and one-celled
organisms

122 Unit 2:    Ecology

 Because organisms require energy for all of their Figure 1.8
life functions, only about 10 percent of the energy from
one trophic level is stored in the bodies of organisms at Energy Pyramid  This energy pyramid shows how energy is
the next level. This 10 percent that is stored is all that lost from one trophic level to the next. The grass at the bottom level
stores 1,000 times more energy than the hawk at the top level.
is available to the next trophic level when one
organism consumes another organism. Tertiary
consumers

Energy Pyramids
One way to visualize the loss of energy from one Secondary
trophic level to the next is to draw an energy pyra- consumers
mid like the one shown in Figure 1.8. Each level in
Primary
the energy pyramid represents one trophic level. consumers
Producers form the base of the pyramid, the low-
est trophic level, which contains the most energy.
Energy lost
Herbivores make up the second level. Carnivores
that feed on herbivores form the next level, and Producers
carnivores that feed on other carnivores make up
the top level. The higher the trophic level, the less
stored energy there is to be passed on.

How Energy Loss Affects an Ecosystem

The decreased amount of energy at each trophic level affects the organiza-
tion of an ecosystem. First, because so much energy is lost at each level, HMDScience.com
there are fewer organisms at the higher trophic levels. For example, zebras
and other herbivores vastly outnumber lions and other predators on the Ecosystems and Energy
Pyramids
African savanna. In this example, there simply are not enough herbivores
EV_CNLESE904016_669a
to support more carnivores.
Second, the loss of energy between trophic levels limits the number of
trophic levels in an ecosystem. Ecosystems rarely have more than four or
five trophic levels because the eco­system does not have enough energy left
to support higher levels. For example, a lion typically needs up to 250 km2
of land to hunt for food. Killer whales may have to move across hundreds
or thousands of kilometers during their foraging. The organisms that feed
on organisms at the top trophic level are usually small, such as parasitic
worms and fleas that require a very small amount of energy.

Section 1  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe  how energy is transferred from one 5. Interpreting Graphics  Explain the feeding
organism to another. relationships of the crabeater seal in Figure 1.7.
2. Describe  the role of producers in an ecosystem. 6. Inferring Relationships  Could more people
be supported by 20 acres of land if they ate
3. Explain  the difference between an herbivore
only plants instead of both plants and animals?
and an omnivore.
Explain your answer.
4. Compare  energy transfer in a food chain to
energy transfer in a food web.

Chapter 5:    How Ecosystems Work 123

 Section 2
Objectives

Describe the short-term and

The Cycling of Matter
long-term process of the
carbon cycle. Everything is made of matter. Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space.
Organisms need both energy and matter to live, grow, and reproduce. Energy and
Identify one way that humans matter are constantly moving through ecosystems. The law of conservation of
are affecting the carbon cycle. energy states that energy cannot be created or destroyed. Energy changes forms.
For example, producers change light energy to chemical energy in sugars. The
List the three stages of the law of conservation of matter states that matter cannot be created or destroyed.
nitrogen cycle. Instead, matter moves through the environment in different forms. Ecosystems
do not have clear boundaries, so some energy and matter can leave them. In this
Describe the role that nitrogen- section, you will read about three cycles by which matter and energy are reused—
fixing bacteria play in the the carbon cycle, the nitrogen cycle, and the phosphorus cycle.
nitrogen cycle.

Explain how the excess use of The Carbon Cycle

fertilizer can affect the nitrogen Carbon is an essential component of proteins, fats, and carbohydrates,
and phosphorus cycles. which make up all organisms. The carbon cycle is a process by which
carbon is cycled between the atmosphere, land, water, and organisms.
As shown in Figure 2.1, carbon enters a short-term cycle in an ecosystem
Key Terms
when producers, such as plants, convert carbon dioxide in the atmo-
carbon cycle
sphere into carbohydrates during photosynthesis. When consumers eat
nitrogen-fixing bacteria producers, the consumers obtain carbon from the carbohydrates. As
nitrogen cycle the consumers break down food during c­ ellular respiration, some of the
phosphorus cycle carbon is released back into the atmosphere as carbon dioxide. Producers
also release carbon dioxide during cellular respiration.
Some carbon enters a long-term cycle. For example, carbon may be
converted into carbonates, which make up the hard parts of bones and
shells. Bones and shells do not break down easily. So, over millions of
years, carbonate deposits have produced huge formations of limestone
rocks. Limestone is one of the largest carbon sinks, or carbon reservoirs,
on Earth.
Figure 2.1

The Carbon Cycle

Atmospheric carbon
dioxide, CO2

RESPIRATION
COMBUSTION
RESPIRATION PHOTOSYNTHESIS

EROSION
Natural
gas DECOMPOSITION
CO2 dissolved in water Plant and animal Coal
Oil remains
Limestone Marine plankton
remains Natural gas
Oil

124 Unit 2:    Ecology

 QUICKLAB
Some carbohydrates in organisms are converted into fats, oils, and QUICKLAB
other molecules that store energy. The carbon in these molecules may be
released into the soil or air after an organism dies. These molecules can Make Every Breath Count
Procedure
form deposits of coal, oil, and natural gas underground. The deposits are
1. Pour 100 mL of water from a
known as fossil fuels. Fossil fuels are made up of carbon compounds from
graduated cylinder into a 250
the bodies of organisms that died millions of years ago.
mL beaker. Add several drops of
bromthymol blue to the beaker of
How Humans Affect the Carbon Cycle water. Make sure you add enough
to make the solution a dark blue
When we burn fossil fuels, carbon is released into the atmosphere as
color.
carbon dioxide. Cars, factories, and power plants rely on fossil fuels to
2. Exhale through a straw into the
operate. In the year 2009, vehicles, such as the truck in Figure 2.2, were the
solution until the solution turns
source of just over one-third of all carbon dioxide emitted in the United
yellow. (CAUTION: Be sure not to
States. Each year, about 8.4 billion metric tons of carbon dioxide are re-
inhale or ingest the solution.)
leased into the atmosphere by the burning, or combustion, of fossil fuels 3. Pour the yellow solution into a
and the natural burning of wood in forest fires. About half of this carbon large test tube that contains a
dioxide remains in the atmosphere. As a result, the amount of carbon sprig of Elodea.
dioxide in the atmosphere has steadily increased. 4. Stopper the test tube, and place it
Increased levels of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere are the ma- in a sunny location.
jor contributor to climate change. Carbon dioxide is a greenhouse gas. 5. Observe the solution in the test
Greenhouse gases, including water vapor and other gases, absorb and re- tube after 15 minutes.
radiate infrared energy, warming Earth. Plants absorb some of the carbon Analysis
dioxide, but scientists estimate that, each year, over a billion metric tons 1. What do you think happened to the
of carbon dioxide dissolves into the ocean, a carbon sink. The increase in carbon dioxide that you exhaled
carbon dioxide can lower the pH, which can impact marine organisms. into the solution?
2. What effect do plants, such
as the Elodea, have on the
Figure 2.2
carbon cycle?
Carbon Emissions  This truck releases carbon into the atmosphere when it burns fuel
to operate.

critical thinking
Relate  Explain how the carbon emission from this truck enters and exits producers,
such as the trees shown in this photo.
©Ted Spiegel/Corbis

Chapter 5 125
 Figure 2.3

The Nitrogen Cycle

The Nitrogen Cycle

All organisms need nitrogen to build proteins, which are used to build
new cells. Nitrogen makes up 78 percent of the gases in the atmosphere.
Figure 2.4 However, most organisms cannot use atmospheric nitrogen. It must
be altered, or fixed, before organisms can use it. Only a few species of
Nitrogen-Fixing Bacteria  The
bacteria, called nitrogen-fixing bacteria, can fix atmospheric nitrogen
swellings on the roots of this soybean
into a useful form called ammonia. All other organisms depend upon
plant are called nodules. Nitrogen-fixing
these bacteria to supply nitrogen. As shown in Figure 2.3, nitrogen-fixing
bacteria, shown magnified at the top right,
live inside the nodules of some plants.
bacteria are a crucial part of the nitrogen cycle, a process in which ni-
trogen is cycled between the atmosphere, soil, and organisms. Some
nitrogen enters the soil through fixation by lightning. Energy in lightning
breaks apart nitrogen molecules in the air, which recombine with oxygen
molecules to form nitrogen oxide. Rainwater combines with nitrogen
oxide to form nitrates that enter the soil.

(inset) ©Garry DeLong/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (bl) ©G.R. Roberts Photo Library
Nitrogen-fixing bacteria, shown in Figure 2.4, live in nodules on the
roots of plants called legumes. Legumes include beans, peas, and clover.
The bacteria use sugars provided by the legumes to produce nitrogen-
containing compounds such as nitrates. The excess nitrogen fixed by the
bacteria is released into the soil. Some nitrogen-fixing bacteria live in
the soil. Plants that do not have nitrogen-fixing bacteria in their roots
get nitrogen from the soil. Animals get nitrogen by eating plants or other
animals, both of which are sources of usable nitrogen.

Decomposers and the Nitrogen Cycle

In the nitrogen cycle, nitrogen moves between the atmosphere and
living things. Some of the nitrogen that cycles from the atmosphere to
living things is released to the soil with the help of bacteria. These de-
composers are essential to the nitrogen cycle because they break down

126 Unit 2:    Ecology

 wastes, such as urine, dung, leaves, and decaying plants and animals
and return the nitrogen from these wastes to the soil. If decomposers did ECOFACT
not exist, much of the nitrogen in ecosystems would be stored forever in Minerals in Your Mouth
wastes, corpses, and other parts of organisms. After decomposers return Phosphorus is the 11th most
the nitrogen to the soil, bacteria transform a small amount of the nitro- abundant element in the Earth’s crust
gen into nitrogen gas, which then returns to the atmosphere. So, most and occurs naturally as phosphate
of the nitrogen that enters an ecosystem stays within the ecosystem. It in the mineral apatite. Apatite can
cycles between organisms and the soil, and is constantly reused. exist in igneous, metamorphic, and
sedimentary rocks as well as in your
teeth and bones.
The Phosphorus Cycle
The element phosphorus is part of many molecules that make up the
cells of living organisms. For example, phosphorus is needed to form
bones and teeth in animals. Plants get the phosphorus they need from
soil and water, while animals get their phosphorus by eating plants
or other animals that have eaten plants. The phosphorus cycle is the
movement of phosphorus from the environment to organisms and then
back to the environment. This cycle does not include the atmosphere
because phosphorus rarely occurs as a gas.
Phosphorus enters soil and water in many ways, as shown in Figure
2.5. When rocks erode by weathering, some phosphorus dissolves as
phosphate in soil, water, and groundwater. Plants absorb phosphates
in the soil through their roots. Phosphorus also leaches into soil and
water when phosphate is excreted in waste from organisms and when
organisms die and decompose. Some phosphorus also washes off the
land and ends up in bodies of water. Many phosphates are not soluble
in water, so they sink to the bottom of water bodies, and accumulate as
sediment. Over many thousands of years, the sediments become rock.

Figure 2.5

The Phosphorus Cycle Weathering of

phosphate from
Rain rocks

Fertilizer
containing
phosphate

Runoff

Phosphate
in water Decomposition of
Leaching plants and animals
Rocks

Phosphate
in soil

Chapter 5:    How Ecosystems Work 127

 Figure 2.6

Fertilizers and Algal Blooms  More than 30 percent of fertilizer may flow with runoff
from farmland into nearby waterways. Large amounts of fertilizer in water can cause an
excessive growth of algae (right).

Fertilizers and the Nitrogen and Phosphorus Cycles

People often apply fertilizers to stimulate and maximize plant growth.
Fertilizers contain both nitrogen and phosphorus. If excessive amounts
of fertilizer are used, the fertilizer can enter terrestrial and aquatic
ecosystems through runoff. Excess nitrogen and phosphorus in an

(l) ©Nigel Cattlin/Photo Researchers, Inc.; (r) ©G.R. Roberts Photo Library
aquatic ecosystem or nearby waterway can cause rapid and overabundant
growth of algae, which results in an algal bloom. An algal bloom, as
shown in Figure 2.6, is a dense, visible patch of algae that occurs near
the surface of water. Algal blooms, along with other plants and the
bacteria that break down dead algae, can deplete an aquatic ecosystem
of important nutrients such as oxygen. Fish and other aquatic organisms
need oxygen to survive.
Humans add so much nitrogen to the environment, that we have
  Check for Understanding doubled the amount of fixed nitrogen entering ecosystems on land. This
Recognize  How do algal blooms harm can lead to long-term problems in soil fertility because other nutrients
aquatic ecosystems? are lost. Plants that are adapted to low nitrogen levels no longer thrive.

Section 2  Formative Assessment

Reviewing Main Ideas Critical Thinking
1. Describe  the two processes of the carbon 5. Making Comparisons  Write a short
cycle. paragraph that describes the importance
of bacteria in the carbon, nitrogen, and
2. Describe  how the burning of fossil fuels affects
phosphorus cycles. What role do bacteria
the carbon cycle.
play in each cycle?
3. Explain  how the excessive use of fertilizer
6. Applying Ideas  What is one way that a person
affects the nitrogen cycle and the phosphorus
can help to reduce the level of carbon dioxide
cycle.
in the atmosphere? Can you think of more than
4. Explain  why the phosphorus cycle occurs one way?
more slowly than both the carbon cycle and
the nitrogen cycle.

128 Unit 2:    Ecology

 Section 3
How Ecosystems Objectives

Change
List two types of ecological
succession.

Explain how a pioneer species

contributes to ecological
Ecosystems are constantly changing. A forest hundreds of years old may have succession.
been a shallow lake a thousand years ago. A dead tree falls and lets sunlight reach
the forest floor. The sunlight allows dormant or new seeds to germinate, and soon
Describe how lichens
wild­flowers and shrubs cover the forest floor. Mosses, shrubs, and small trees contribute to primary
cover the concrete of a demolished city building. These are all examples of an succession.
environmental change called ecological succession.
Explain what happens during
old-field succession.
Ecological Succession
Ecological succession is a gradual process of change and replacement of Key Terms
some or all of the species in a community. Ecological succession may take ecological succession
hundreds or thousands of years. Each new community that arises makes primary succession
it harder for the previous community to survive. If given enough time, secondary succession
communities may stop changing for long periods of time. Small changes
pioneer species
will continue to happen, but eventually a community can become stable.
climax community
American beech trees, shown in Figure 3.1, are a species found in a stable
community.
Succession can occur in areas that previously did not support
life, such as on rocks or sand dunes. This type of succession is called
primary succession. A more common type of succession, called
secondary succession, occurs in areas where an ecosystem has previously
existed. For example, ecosystems that have been disturbed or disrupted Check for Understanding
by humans or animals, or by natural processes such as storms, floods, Compare  How is secondary succession
and earthquakes can regrow through secondary succession. different from primary succession?

Figure 3.1

Ecological Succession  American beech trees are a stable community species,

establishing themselves in a given region.
©Hans Reinhard/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot

Chapter 5 129
 Figure 3.2 Primary Succession
Primary succession can occur on new islands created by volcanic
Pioneer Species  Over a long period of time,
eruptions, in areas exposed when a glacier retreats, or on any
lichens can break down rock into soil.
other surface that has not previously supported life. Primary
succession is much slower than secondary succession because
primary succession begins where there is no soil. It can take
several hundred to several thousand years to produce fertile soil
naturally. Imagine that a glacier melts and exposes an area of bare
rock. The first species to colonize the bare rock will most likely
be bacteria and lichens, which can live without soil. A species
that colonizes an uninhabited area and begins the process of
ecological succession is called a pioneer species. Lichens, shown
in Figure 3.2, are important pioneer species in primary succession.
They are the colorful, flaky patches that you see on trees and
rocks. A lichen is a producer that is actually composed of two
different species, a fungus and green algae or cyanobacteria. The
algae or the cyanobacteria photosynthesize, while the fungus
absorbs nutrients from rocks and holds water. Together, they
begin to break down the rock.

CASESTUDY

Communities
Maintained by Fire
Fires set by lightning or human activities occasionally
sweep through large areas. Burned areas undergo Fireweed is one type of plant that colonizes
secondary succession. In the forests of the Rocky Moun­ land after the land has been burned by fire.
tains, for example, burned areas are rapidly colonized by
fireweed, which clothes the slopes with purple flowers.

(b) ©Radius Images/Alamy Images; (t) ©Imagebroker/Alamy Images

In some places, fire determines the nature of the climax Longleaf pines have a strange growth pattern. When
community. In the United States, eco­logical communities they are young, they have long needles that reach down
that are maintained by fire include the chaparral of to the ground. The trees remain only about a half of a
California, the temperate grassland of the Midwest, and meter high for many years, while they store nutrients. If a
many southern and western pine forests. fire occurs, it sweeps through the tops of the tall trees that
Plants native to these communities are adapted to living survived the last fire. The young longleaf pines near the
with fire. A wildfire that is not unusually hot may not harm ground may escape the fire. Then, the young pines use
fire-adapted pine trees, but it can kill deciduous trees— their stored food to grow very rapidly. A young pine can
those trees that lose their leaves in winter. Seeds of some grow as much as 2 m each year. Soon the young pines are
species will not germinate until exposed to temperatures tall enough so that a fire near the ground would not harm
of several hundred degrees. When a fire sweeps through a them.
forest, the fire kills plants on the ground and stimulates the If regular fires are prevented in a fire-adapted
seeds to germinate. community, deciduous trees may invade the area. These

130 Unit 2:    Ecology

 As the growth of the lichen breaks down the rock, water Figure 3.3
may freeze and thaw in cracks, which further breaks up the
rock. Soil slowly accumulates as dust particles in the air are Primary Succession in Urban Areas  Plants
trapped in cracks in the rock. that grow through cracks in city sidewalks can also be
described as pioneers of primary succession.
Dead remains of lichens and bacteria add to the soil in the
cracks. Mosses may increase in number and break up the rock
even more. When the mosses die, they decay and add nutri-
ents to the growing pile of soil. Thus, fertile soil forms from
the broken rock, decayed organisms, water, and air. Primary
succession can also be seen in any city street, as shown in
Figure 3.3. Mosses, lichens, and weeds can establish them-
selves in cracks in a sidewalk or building. As well, fungi and
mosses can invade a roof that needs repair. Even a big city,
such as New York City, would eventually turn into a cement-
filled woodland if it were not constantly maintained.
(t) ©Norman Owen Tomalin/Bruce Coleman, Inc./Photoshot; (br) ©B.G. Wilson Fire/Alamy Images; (bl) ©Ken M. Johns/Photo Researchers, Inc.

These young lodgepole pine trees

have started growing after a
devastating forest fire.

trees form a thick barrier near the ground. In addition,

their dead leaves and branches pile up on the ground and
form extra fuel for fires. When a fire does occur, it is hotter This firefighter is helping to maintain a
and more severe than usual. The fire destroys not only the
Critical Thinking
controlled fire in South Dakota.
deciduous trees but also the pines. It may end up as a
devastating wildfire.
Although it may seem odd, frequent burning is essential Critical Thinking
to preserve many plant communities and the animals that
1. Understanding Processes  Explain how
depend on them. This is the reason the U.S. National Park
a longleaf pine tree might be more likely to
Service adopted the policy of letting fires in national parks
survive a forest fire than a deciduous tree,
burn if they do not endanger human life or property.
such as a maple or oak tree.
This policy caused a public outcry when fires burned
2. Understanding Concepts  Why must
Yellowstone National Park in 1988, because people did not
controlled fires be set in some ecosystems?
understand the ecology of fire-adapted communities. The
What are the advantages? What are the
fires later became an opportunity for visitors to learn about
disadvantages?
the changes in an ecosystem after a fire.

Chapter 5:    How Ecosystems Work 131

 Figure 3.4

Secondary Succession  This illustration shows

what an abandoned farm area might look like during
old-field succession, a type of secondary succession.

critical thinking
Infer  Why do you think smaller plants disappear
after pine trees begin to grow?

Secondary Succession
When a community is partially or completely destroyed by a natural or a
human-caused disaster, another community eventually takes its place.
For example, when fire destroys a forest, new communities begin to grow
in place of the old ones. Pioneer species colonize the area first and, over
time, more stable species become established. A climax community is a
final and stable community. Even though a climax community continues
to change in small ways, this type of community may remain the same
through time if it is not disturbed.

Old-field Succession
When farmland is abandoned, a type of secondary succession called
old-field succession occurs. When a field is no longer cultivated, pioneer
species such as grasses and weeds quickly grow and cover the abandoned
land. The grasses and weeds produce many seeds to cover large areas.
Over time, taller plants grow in the area and shade the ground, keeping
  FieldStudy light from the shorter plants. The long roots of the taller plants also ab-
Go to Appendix B to find the field study sorb most of the water in the soil. The pioneer plants soon die from lack
Investigating Succession. of sun­­light and water. As succession continues, growing trees deprive the
taller plants of light and water. Finally, slower-growing trees, such as oaks,
hickories, beeches, and maples, take over the area and block sunlight to
the smaller trees. As shown in Figure 3.4, the area can eventually establish
a climax community dominated by a mature oak forest. The field in Figure
3.5 was once used as farm land, but has since been abandoned.

132 Unit 2:    Ecology

 Figure 3.5

Old-Field Succession  This field was once plowed, but has since been abandoned for one or more growing
seasons. It is slowly becoming forested land.

Fire and Secondary Succession

Fires caused by lightning are a natural cause of secondary succession in
some communities, as discussed in the Case Study. Some species of trees,
such as the Jack pine, can release their seeds only after they have been
exposed to the intense heat of a fire. Minor forest fires remove accumula-
tions of brush and deadwood that would otherwise contribute to major HMDScience.com
©Stephen Collins/Photo Researchers, Inc.