Present and future

Can and be able to can express present and future ability:

Tom can play  the piano.

We can't enter  this street because it's blocked.
I  am not able to help you at the moment.
If you ask him, he  can probably  help  you.
I  will  probably be able to get  there by 9.

Past
Could and was/were able to can express general past ability:

I  could swim  when I was 5. 

I  was able to swim  when I was 5.

But the past ability to perform a particular action on one occasion is expressed with was/were able to:

Although the current was strong, I was able to swim to the other bank.  (I managed to swim to the
other bank)

In the sentence above could is not possible. However, this rule is relaxed in the negative and with
verbs of the senses:

I read it but I couldn't / wasn't able to understand  it.

I  could / was able to see him through the window.
I  couldn't walk / wasn't able to walk  any further.

Be able to is used to express past ability when could is grammatically not possible:

I  have been able to swim  since I was 5.

Should, ought to and had better can express advice:

You  should smoke less.

We'd better leave  soon.
You  ought to thank  her. 

Ought to is less frequently used and is more formal.

Present and future
Will and should + infinitive are used to express assumptions with referrence to present and future
time. Assumptions with will are more probable:

"The phone's ringing." "That'll be for me." 

There's no point in speaking louder. He  won't understand.
I  should get back  before 9.
"Is it far from here?" "I should think  so."
"We're going to the Swiss Alps next week." "That should be nice."
I have never tried setting up a website, but it  shouldn't be  too difficult.

Ought to can be used instead of should, but it is less common:

Ann ought to be at home by now.

Past
Will, should and ought to + perfect infinitive are used to express assumptions about past events:

Some of you will have met me before.

The plane  should have landed  by now.

Criticism
Present and future

Can, could, might and should/shouldn't + infinitive are used to express criticism or disapproval with

reference to present or future time:

You  can be  really annoying, you know! 

You  shouldn't be sitting here just doing nothing!
You  might be  more polite.
George  could  really  help  you!

Past

Could, might and should/shouldn't + perfect infinitive are used to express criticism or disapproval with
reference to past time:

I  should have booked a table in advance.

Of course, you feel sick. You  shouldn't have eaten  so much chocolate.
You  might have told me you weren't coming!
George  could  really  have helped  you!
 DARE
Dare means "not to be afraid to do something" and can behave either as a semi-modal verb or as a
main verb:

 As a semi-modal verb, dare is used in negative and interrogative sentences, and is followed by

a bare infinitive:

How  dare  she  criticise us?

I  daren't think  how many victims there are.

 Dare as a main verb is followed by a to-infinitive:

Do you dare to tell  him what happened to his bike?

Don't you dare to interrupt  me!
Who dares to argue with me?
He didn't dare to look back.
No one would have dared to think about it.

Deduction
Present

Must, can't and couldn't + infinitive are used to express deductions about present events:

That child is really talented. His parents  must be proud of him.

It's only 10 o'clock. He can't/couldn't be  at home.

Past

Must, can't and couldn't + perfect infinitive are used to express deductions about past events:

That dress looks expensive. It  must have cost  a fortune.

It can't/couldn't have been  John you saw this morning. He is away on holiday.

Habits
Present
Would can express annoying habits which are typical of a person:

John would do  something like that,  wouldn't  he? It's so typical of him!

Will is used to emphasise the characteristics of the person rather than the person:

A friend will always help you. (this is one of the characteristics of a friend)

Past

USED TO

Used to refers to past habits and states which were true in the past but are not true any more. It can
be used with both action verbs and state verbs:

On Sundays my parents used to take me to dance school.  (habit, action verb)

I  used to hate  dancing in those days.  (state, state verb)

The negative and interrogative forms of used to are:

I  didn't use to like  dancing in those days.

Why did you use to hate  dancing?

Used to + infinitive should not be confused with be/get used to + verb-ing (gerund):

She  used to live alone in a small apartment. (it was true in the past, but not any more)
She  was used to living  alone in a small apartment. (she was accustomed to it)
She  got used to living  alone in a small apartment. (she became accustomed to it)

WOULD

Would describes repeated past actions, but not states. It can only be used with action verbs:

From time to time he would call  her to ask if she wanted to meet for lunch.

USED TO or WOULD?

With action verbs, often either used to or would is possible:

On Sundays my parents used to take me to dance school.

On Sundays my parents would take me to dance school.

With state verbs, however, only used to is possible:

I  used to hate  dancing in those days.

I  would hate  dancing in those days.
Intentions
This topic is discussed under Future time » BE GOING TO » BE GOING TO for
intentions and Future time » Future simple » Future simple for intentions (offers, promises,
decisions

NECESSITY OBLIGATION

MUST and HAVE (GOT) TO

Present and future

Must refers to obligations which come from the speaker and may be directed at the speaker or the
listener:

I  really  must give up smoking. (directed at the speaker)

You  must keep  this secret. (directed at the listener) 

Have to expresses external obligations, which come from outside of the speaker. These may be rules
and regulations imposed by an external authority:

I  have to get to work by 9 every day.

Do you have to wear a uniform at your school?

Absence of obligation is expressed with the negative form of have to, not with mustn't. Mustn't is
used to express that it is necessary not to do something:

I  don't have to get up  early tomorrow. It's a holiday. (I can get up late.)
You  mustn't tell anyone. It's a secret. (Don't tell anyone.)

Have got to has the same meaning as have to, but it is more common in informal, spoken language.
The affirmative, negative and interrogative forms of have to and have got to are:

have to have got to

 I/you/we/they have to go. I/you/we/they have got to go.
I/you/we/they don't have I/you/we/they haven't got to go.
to go. Have  I/you/we/they  got to  go?
Do  I/you/we/they  have to  go? He  has got to go.
He  has to go. He  hasn't got to go.
He  doesn't have to  go. Has  he got to go?
Does  he have to go?

Must and will have to can be used to refer to future obligations:

You  must be home by 10 o'clock.

I'll have to pay my bills next week.

Past

Must has no past form. Instead we use had to to express past obligations:

When I  was at primary school, I  had to wear a uniform.

We had to start all over again.

NEED
Present and future

Need can behave either as a semi-modal verb or as a main verb:

 As a semi-modal verb, need is most typically used in negative sentences, or in affirmative

sentences with a negative meaning, and expresses absence of obligation or necessity. It is followed by
the infinitive without to:

You  needn't worry about that.

No one need be  surprised at what happened.
You  need  only just  ask.
I doubt whether I need help  you.

Need as a semi-modal also occurs in interrogative sentences, but this use is much more formal:

Need you make so much noise?

 Need as a main verb is followed by a to-infinitive and expresses that something is necessary.
It can be used in affirmative, negative and interrogative sentences:
 Do you you have a minute? I  need to talk to you about something.
I  don't need to be  told that I should lose weight.
Do you need to use  the hairdryer?
If you want good results, you will need to work  harder.

Past

 The past tense of the main verb need to is needed to:

I  needed to have  my hair cut.

Why  did  they need to change the lock?

The negative form didn't need + to-infinitive normally refers to actions which were unnecessary and
were not performed:

We didn't need to buy any milk. We had plenty at home. (we didn't have to buy any milk and we
didn't buy any)

 Need as a semi-modal does not have a past tense form. Needn't + perfect bare infinitive
(have + past participle), however, is used for actions which were performed but were unnecessary:

We needn't have bought  any milk. We still have plenty at home. (we bought some milk but it
wasn't necessary)

SHOULD and OUGHT TO

Present and future

Should and ought to + infinitive express obligation and duty. Should is used when we give a
subjective opinion, while ought to has a more general and more objective meaning:

I think you  should leave.

We ought to protect  the environment.

Past

Should and ought to + perfect infinitive express that an action which was desirable was not
performed:

You  should have consulted  a doctor earlier.

You  ought to have told  me earlier. Why didn't you tell me?
SHALL
Shall is used to express formal rules and regulations, or commands in an archaic style:

Visitors  shall be  accompanied at all times by a security guard.

You  shall not kill.

Offers
Can, could, will, shall and may  are used to express offers:

Can I  help  you?

May  I carry  your suitcase, Madam? (only in questions)
I  could give you a lift.
Shall I  copy this document for you? (only in first-person questions)
I  will make  you a coffee.

Permission / prohibition
Present and future

Can and may are used to give permission. May is more formal and is less common in everyday
contexts:

You  can borrow my car if you want.

Visitors  may use the contents of the website for personal use only.

The negative forms cannot/can't, mustn't and may not (more formal) are used to express prohibitions:

I'm sorry, but you  can't stay here.

You  mustn't touch  that Ming vase. 
Non-committee members may not vote  on committee issues.

Used in the negative, be to can also express prohibitions:

You  are not to do that again!

Can, could and may are used to ask for permission. Can is the most direct of the three. Could is more
formal and tentative, and may is the most formal:
Can I  use  your phone?
Could I  have  a glass of water?
May  I start my presentation?

Might, which has a more tentative meaning, is very formal and is rarely used: 

Might  I ask  you a question?

When we talk about permission but we are not actually giving, refusing or asking for it, we can
usecan/can't or be allowed to:

Students  can choose  any topic for their project.

We can't eat in the library.
Are we allowed to smoke  in this restaurant?
Will  journalists  be allowed to ask  questions?

Past

Could can be used to express general permission in the past:

When I was a child, I could do basically anything that I wanted to do.

But when we talk about a particular action which was permitted and performed we use was/were
allowed to:

Although I was underage, I was allowed to enter  the race.

Possibility
Present and future

May and might + infinitive are used to express present or future possibility. May expresses a greater

degree of certainty:

You should ask him. He may/might know  Susan's telephone number. (Perhaps he knows her
number.)
I  may/might see  you later. (Perhaps I will see you later.)
You should introduce yourself; he might not remember you. (Perhaps she doesn't/won't remember
you.)

May and might are usually not used to introduce a question. Instead we can use Do you think? or be
likely to/that:
Do you think he may/might know Susan's telephone number?
Are you likely to get  here before 8?
Is it likely that  you will get here before 8?

Could can be used instead of may and might with the verb be:

You  could be right.

They  could  still  be waiting for us.

The negative form couldn't is often used with comparative adjectives:

The food is delicious and the staff couldn't be  more polite. (they are very polite)

Except for this use, couldn't expresses negative deduction, not possibility:

It's only 10 o'clock. He couldn't be  at home. (He is usually at work at this time of the day.)

Can may express general possibility:

Winters in Minnesota  can be  really cold.

Past

May, might and could + perfect infinitive express uncertainty with reference to past actions:

We haven't heard from him for 10 years. He  may/might/could have died. (Perhaps he has died,
but we don't know.)

But when we want to say that something was possible but did not happen, we use might or could:

He was very careless when crossing the road. He  might/could have died. (He didn't die.)
I  could have caught  the bus if I had hurried. (I didn't hurry, so I didn't catch the bus.)

Couldn't + perfect infinitive is often used with comparative adjectives:

It was a great year and I  couldn't have been happier. (I was very happy)

May/might not + perfect infinitive is used for uncertainty, but could not + perfect infinitive (except for
the case above) expresses deduction:

I  should call Ann. She  may/might not have read my e-mail. (uncertainty)

It couldn't have been John you saw this morning. He is away on holiday. (deduction)
Predictions
This topic is discussed under Future time » BE GOING TO » BE GOING TO for
predictions and Future time » Future simple » Future simple for predictions.

Requests
Can, could, will and would are used to express requests:

Can you lend me $10?
Can I  borrow your car?
Could you tell me where the train station is?
Could I  have  a cigarette? 
Will  you  turn off  your mobile phone, please?
Would  you  open  the door for me?
Would  you  mind stepping outside for a moment?

Suggestions
Should, could, might and shall are used to express suggestions:

Shouldn't we have a pizza instead? 

You  could talk  to your parents and ask  them.
You  might consider taking up meditation.
Shall we throw a party sometime next week?

Might is often used with want or like to add politeness:

I thought you  might want/like to read  this.

May/might as well is often used in everyday conversation to suggest something when you can't think
of anything better to do:

We may as well call it  off.

You  might just as well order  it on the internet.

Surprise
Should in that-clauses is used as an alternative to present or past tenses to express surprise or
disbelief:
I'm sorry that he should feel  that way.
It's funny that we should be living  in the same block of flats.
It's surprising that she  should have said that.

Unreal situations
Present and future
Would + infinitive can refer to unreal situations in the present or future. An unreal situation is
one which is not true in the present, or may or may not happen in the future: 

It would be nice to live by the sea.  (I don't live by the sea)

It would be great to go hiking in the High Tatras again. (I may or may not go)

Would is often used in the main clause of the second conditional:

I  wouldn't do  that if I were you. (I am not you)

I  would help  you if you asked me to.  (you may or may not ask me)

Past
Would + perfect infinitive refers to unreal situations in the past. We imagine a hypothetical past
situation which did not happen. We often use an if-clause to describe the situation:

It would have been wonderful to meet you in person.

I  would have helped you if you had asked me to. (you didn't ask me) 
‹ Surprise^
Categories of meaning expressed by modals

Willingness / unwillingness
Present

Will can express willingness in the present:

 I  will take  you to the airport. I have nothing to do tomorrow.
If you  will wait for a moment, I'll see if Mr Hawking is available.

Won't can express unwillingness or refusal:

My bank won't allow  me to make international transactions.

Greg just won't answer  the phone.
The door won't open.

Past

Wouldn't can express unwillingness or refusal in the past:

I took the phone back to the shop, but they wouldn't give  me a replacement.
Try as I might, the door wouldn't open.

o BE ABOUT + TO-infinitive

o Be about + to-infinitive refers to arranged actions happening in the immediate future and is
often used with just:
o Hurry up! The ceremony  is about to begin!
"Do you have a minute?" "I'm sorry, I'm  just about to leave."

o BE BOUND + TO-infinitive

o Be bound + to-infinitive is used to refer to future events which are certain or very likely to
happen:

o Kevin is stuck in a traffic jam, so he is bound to be late.

o
o BE DUE + TO-infinitive

o Be due + to-infinitive is used to refer to fixed events happening at or within a specific time:
o The film is due to start  at 8 pm.
Half of our employees  are due to retire in five years.
Negotiations were due to take place later that week.

o BE LIKELY + TO-infinitive / IT IS LIKELY + THAT-clause

o Be likely + to-infinitive and it is likely + that-clause are used for future events which are
probably going to happen:

o Smokers are more  likely to develop  lung cancer compared to non-smokers.

It is likely that  he will win the race.
o
o BE ON THE EDGE / POINT / VERGE OF (doing) something

o Be on the edge / point / verge of (doing) something refer to actions happening in the near
future and have a similar meaning to be about to:
o She  is on the point of bursting  into tears.
Researchers  are on the verge of a breakthrough.

o
o BE + TO-infinitive

Be + to-infinitive is used to express:

 official arrangements:

The Prime Minister is to visit South Korea next month.

 official orders:

At the end of the course all students are to take  a written exam. 

 things that should be done:

What am I to do?

 a possible aim when saying what should be done to reach it:

If you  are to work here for more than three months, you must have a residence permit.

 prohibition (only in the negative):

You  are not to do that again.

Be + to-infinitive can also be used in the past:

Mr Jones  was to speak  at the meeting. (it was arranged and he did)

But was/were + to + perfect infinitive means that the arranged event did not actually happen:

Mr Jones  was to have spoken at the meeting, but he had to cancel because of his illness.
Overview of modals
Modal verbs, semi-modal verbs and other modal expressions are listed in alphabetical order in
the table below. For a detailed discussion of each modal see the previous chapters.

meaning/functio
form present/future past
n

be able to general ability I am not able to I  was able to

help  you at the moment. swim when I was 5.
I will probably be able to
getthere by nine.

"manage to"   Although the current

was strong, Iwas able
to swim to the other
bank.

be allowed general permission Are  we  allowed to  

to smoke  in this restaurant?
Will  journalists be
allowed to ask  questions?

permission +   Although I was

action performed underage, I was
allowed to enter the
race.

be bound probability, Kevin is stuck in a traffic  

to certainty jam, so he is bound to
be  late.

be due to arrangements The film is due to start  at Negotiations  were due

 8 pm. to take place later
that week.

be going to prediction My sister  is going to The sky was dark;

have a baby. it  was going to rain.

intention Do you think Sam's going I  was going to

to apply for the job?  call  you but my
battery died.

be likely to probability Smokers are more likely He knew that he  was

to develop lung cancer likely to bepromoted.
compared to non-smokers.

be likely probability It is likely that he will win It  was likely that Mrs
that the race. Hancock would become
president.

be to arrangements +   Mr Jones  was to

action performed speak  at the meeting.

arrangements +   Mr Jones  was to have

action not spoken at the
performed meeting, but he had to
cancel because of his
illness.

obligation What  am I to do?  

official The Prime Minister  is to  

arrangements visitSouth Korea next
 month.

official orders At the end of the course all  

students are to take a
written exam.

prohibition You  are not to do  that  

again!

can ability Tom can play  the piano.  

If you ask him,
he  canprobably help  you.

criticism You  can be really  

annoying, you know!

offers Can I help  you?  

permission You  can borrow my car if  

you want.
Can I use your phone?
Students can choose any
topic for their project.

possibility Winters in Minnesota  can  

bereally cold.

requests Can you lend  me ?10?  

Can I borrow  your car?
can't ability We can't enter  this street  
because it's blocked.

deduction It's only 10 o'clock. It  can't have

He  can't be at home. been  John you saw
this morning. He is
away on holiday.

prohibition I'm sorry, but you can't  

stayhere.
We can't eat in the
library.

could ability   I  could see him

through the window.

criticism George could  really help  George  could really  h

you! ave helpedyou!

uncertainty   We haven't heard from

him for 10 years.
He could have died.

possibility You  could be  right. I  could have

caught the bus if I had
hurried.

requests Could  you  tell  me where  

the train station is?

general   When I was a child,

 permission I  could dobasically
anything that I wanted
to do.

asking for Could  I  have  a glass of  

permission water?

offers I could give you a lift.  

suggestions You  could talk  to your  

parents and ask them.

couldn't possibility The food is delicious and It was a great year and
the staff  couldn't be  more I  couldn't have
polite. been  happier.

deduction It's only 10 o'clock. It  couldn't have

Hecouldn't be at home. been  John you saw
this morning. He is
away on holiday.

ability   She  couldn't

speak  German then.
I  couldn't walk any
further.

dare "not to be afraid How dare  she  criticise  us  

to do something" ?
I daren't think  how many
victims there are.
dare to Do  you  dare to tell him He didn't dare to
what happened to his bike? look  back.
Don't you dare to
interruptme!
Who dares to argue with
me?

had better advice We'd better leave soon.  

have to necessity, I have to get  to work by We  had to start all

obligation 9 every day. over again.
You  don't have to I  didn't have to
answerthat question. wait long.
Do  you  have to wear a What did you have to
uniform at your school? do  that for?

have got to necessity, I've got to be  home soon.  

obligation You  haven't got to
goalready,  have  you?
Has  he got to pay  in
advance?

may possibility You should ask him. I  may have told you

He  may know  Susan's this before.
telephone number.

permission Visitors  may use the  

contents of the website for
personal use only.
May I start my
presentation?

offers May I carry  your  

 suitcase, Madam?

may not prohibition Non-committee  

membersmay not vote on
committee issues.

might suggestions You  might  

consider  taking up
meditation.
I thought you might want
to read this.
You  might just as well
order  it on the internet.

permission Might  I  ask  you a  

question?

criticism You  might be more polite. You might have

told me you weren't
coming!

possibility I might see you later. I should call Ann.

She  might not have
read my e-mail.

must deduction That child is really That dress looks

talented. His parents  must expensive. It  must
be  proud of him. have cost  a fortune.

obligation I really  must give  

upsmoking.
You  must keep  this
 secret.

mustn't prohibition You  mustn't touch  that  

Ming vase.

need necessity, You  needn't worry about We  needn't have

obligation that. bought any milk. We
You  need only just ask. still have plenty at
Need you make  so much home.
noise?

need to necessity, Do you you have a minute? I  needed to have  my

obligation Ineed to talk to you hair cut.
about something. Why  did  they  need to
I don't need to be  told change the lock?
that I should lose weight. We  didn't need to
Do  you  need to use the buy any milk. We had
hairdryer? plenty at home.
If you want good results,
youwill need to
work harder.

ought to advice You  ought to thank her.  

obligation We ought to protect  the You ought to have

environment. told me earlier. Why
didn't you tell me?

assumption Ann ought to be  at home  

by now.

shall formal rules and Visitors  shall  

regulations, be  accompanied at all
 commands times by a security guard.
You  shall  not  kill.

offers Shall  I  copy  this  

document for you?

suggestions Shall  we  throw  a party  

sometime next week?

should advice You  should smoke  less.  

surprise I'm sorry that he should It's surprising that

feelthat way. she  should have
said  that.

criticism You  shouldn't be I  should have

sittinghere just doing booked  a table in
nothing! advance.

obligation I think you should leave. You should have

consulted a doctor
earlier.

assumption I should get back  before The plane  should

9. have landed  by now.
I have never tried setting
up a website, but
it shouldn't betoo
difficult.

suggestions Shouldn't we have a  
 pizza instead?

used to past habits and   On Sundays my

states parents  used to
take  me to dance
school.
I  didn't use to
like dancing in those
days.

will willingness I will take you to the  

airport. I have nothing to
do tomorrow.
If you  will wait for a
moment, I'll see if Mr
Hawking is available.

requests Will  you  turn off  your  

mobile phone, please?

assumption "The phone's ringing." Some of you  will have

"That'll be  for me."  met  me before.
There's no point in
speaking louder. He  won't
understand.

habits A  
friend will always help  yo
u.

prediction If you ask him,  

he'll probablygive you a
lift.
Salty water will freeze  at
 a lower temperature than
pure water.

intentions Come on, Tim, I'll  

(spontaneous help  you carry those bags.
offers, promises, I will always love you.
decisions) I'll have  a wiener
schnitzel.

won't unwillingness, My bank  won't allow  me  

refusal to make international
transactions.
Greg just  won't
answer the phone.
The door won't open.

would requests Would you open  the door  

for me?
Would you mind stepping
outside for a moment?

annoying habits John  would do something  

like that, wouldn't he? It's
so typical of him!

habitual,   From time to time

repeated actions he would callher to
ask if she wanted to
meet for lunch.

unreal situations It would be nice to live by It  would have

the sea. been  wonderful to
It would be great to go meet you in person.
hiking in the High Tatras I  would have
 again. helped you if you had
I would help you if you asked me to.
asked me to.

wouldn't unwillingness   I took the phone back

to the shop, but
they  wouldn't
give me a
replacement.
Try as I might, the
door wouldn't open.

Modals and adverbs

Tags: 

 modals

Adverbs are often used with modals to add to their meaning:

Surely  you can't have said that to her!

I might  just tell you all about it.
I could  easily  have been hurt.
You  really  shouldn't have gone to so much trouble.
I will definitely call you tomorrow.
You can't  possibly  be serious.
She  obviously  must have forgotten it.
He could  probably  help us a lot.
I  can't  exactly  remember when I first met her.
You should absolutely  take up that course.

Unreal tenses
Unreal tenses are verb forms used in subordinate clauses that express unreal or hypothetical
situations:

 The past subjunctive, which has the same form as the past simple tense, is used to refer to
present or future time:

I wish you  were  here. (you are not here)

What would you do if you  won  the lottery? (you probably won't win the lottery)
  The past perfect subjunctive, which has the same form as the past perfect tense, is used to
refer to past time:

If I  had gone  to bed earlier, I wouldn't have overslept. (I didn't go to bed earlier)
He seems as if he hadn't slept for days. (it seems that he hasn't slept for days, but actually he has)

Unreal tenses are used in second and third conditionals and after I wish/if only, as if/though, it's
(high) time, would rather / would sooner.

Conditionals
Conditional sentences usually consist of a subordinate if-clause and a main clause. The order of the
clauses is optional, but if the if-clause is first, a comma is used to separate the two clauses:

You might have been accepted if you had applied earlier.

If you had applied earlier, you might have been accepted.

If the if-clause is first, we can use then in the main clause:

If you had applied earlier, then  you might have been accepted.

The different types of conditionals, which are discussed in the following chapters, may refer to
different times (future, present, past) and express different degrees of reality. The choice of verb
forms used in conditionals depends on whether the condition is true, probable or unreal.

If the condition is true or probable we use real tenses:

If you  missed  the 6 o'clock train, you won't get here before 7. (the condition is true, you missed
the train; missed refers to past and won't get to future time)

If you  miss  the 6 o'clock train, you  won't get  here before 7. (the condition is probable, you may
miss the train; miss and won't get refer to future time)

If the condition is unreal, we use unreal tenses:

If you  missed  the 6 o'clock train, you wouldn't get  here before 7. (the condition is unreal or
improbable, you probably won't miss the train; the past subjunctive form missed and wouldn't
getrefer to future time)

If you  had missed  the 6 o'clock train, you  wouldn't have got  here before 7. (the condition is
unreal, you didn't miss the train; the past perfect subjunctive form had missed and wouldn't have
got refer to past time)

o Zero conditional
 First conditional
 Second conditional
 Third conditional
o Mixed conditionals
o IF, EVEN IF, ONLY IF, AS LONG AS, PROVIDED, SUPPOSING, UNLESS, BUT FOR, IF NECESSARY,
IF SO, IN CASE etc.
o Less likely conditions
o Conditionals and inversion

Modals in first conditional

Main clause

Instead of will we can use other modals in the main clause of the first conditional:

If you ask George, he  may/might be  able to help you. (possibility)

You  can/may leave  the room if you've finished the test. (permission)
If he doesn't come soon, we  must / will have to leave without him. (obligation)
If you ever go to Chicago, you  should take a boat trip on the river. (suggestion)
If you don't watch your steps, you  are going to fall  over. (prediction)

If-clause

We can use be going to in the if-clause to express intention:

If you  are going to hurt me, I'll leave.

Should in the if-clause makes the condition less likely:

If you  should see  Kate, say hi from me.

Will  can express willingness and won't refusal in the if-clause. In this meaning will and won't are

always stressed in speech and cannot be contracted with the subject in writing:

If you  will take  me to the airport tomorrow, I won't have to take a taxi.
If Greg  won't answer the phone, I'll speak to his roommate.

We can also use will  in the if-clause to express a polite request. Sometimes the main clause is
omitted:

If you  will wait for a moment, I'll see if Mr Hawking is available.

If you'll just fill in  this form, please.
Modals in second conditional
Main clause

Instead of would we can use other modals in the main clause of the second conditional:

If you asked George, he might be able to help you.  (possibility)

If no one was late, we  could start  the meeting on time.  (ability)

If-clause

We can use could  in the if-clause to express ablility, possibility or permission:

I'd go to the beach with you if I could swim.

If you  could be a famous person, who would you be?
I wouldn't go to bars if people could smoke inside.

Were to in the if-clause makes the condition even less likely:

If he  were to propose  to you now, what would you say?

We can use would  in the if-clause to express requests. Sometimes the main clause is ommitted:

If you'd  just  fill in this form, please.

Modals in third conditional

Main clause
Instead of would  we can use other modals in the main clause of the third conditional:

If the weather had been worse, they might not have reached the top. (possibility)
If I had had the right tools, I could have fixed my bike. (ability)

If-clause
We can use could + perfect infinitive in the if-clause to express possibility or ability:

If I could have known  this would happen, I'd never have started dating him. (possibility)
If he could have got to the station on time, he might have caught the train. (ability)
Were to + perfect infinitive is also possible in the if-clause, however, it is less common:

If he were to have asked me, I would have said yes.

‹ Past perfect continuous subjunctive in third conditional^

Third conditional

IF, EVEN IF, ONLY IF, AS LONG

AS, PROVIDED, SUPPOSING,
UNLESS, BUT FOR, IF
NECESSARY, IF SO, IN CASE etc.
IF and WHEN

When can replace if in zero conditionals:

If  you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.

When you heat water to 100 degrees Celsius, it boils.

In the other types of conditionals we cannot use when instead of if.

EVEN IF

Even if emphasises that something will happen, would happen or would have happened whatever the
condition:

Even if we leave right now, we still won't catch the train.

I wouldn't go into the water  even if I could swim.
Even if we had booked our flight earlier, it wouldn't have been cheaper.

ONLY IF

Only if makes the condition more restrictive:

Acetaminophen is dangerous to children only if dosage is too high.

If the if-clause is first, the subject and the auxiliary in the main clause are inverted:

Only if you really like Beethoven is it worth coming tonight.

SO/AS LONG AS, PROVIDING/PROVIDED (THAT)

So/As long as and providing/provided (that) can be used instead of if to express a condition. Note
thatproviding/provided (that) is a bit formal:

You can stay here  as long as you keep quiet.

Provided/Providing (that) the bills are paid, tenants will not be evicted.

SUPPOSE/SUPPOSING, WHAT IF

Suppose/supposing and what if can replace if, mainly in everyday conversation, and are often used
without a main clause:

Suppose/supposing  you won the lottery, what would you do?

Suppose/supposing  you can't find a job?
What if you are not accepted to university? What will you do then?

UNLESS

Unless is followed by an affirmative verb to express "if ... not":

My leg's broken. I can't stand up unless you help me. (I can't stand up if you don't help me.)

IF IT WEREN'T FOR/IF IT HADN'T BEEN FOR, BUT FOR

These expressions have the meaning of "without". They are used in second and third conditionals and
are usually followed by a noun phrase:

If it weren't for John, I wouldn't know what to do now. (Without John...)

If it hadn't been for your foolishness, we wouldn't have got lost. (If you hadn't been such a
fool...)
But for your help, I would have been in big trouble. (Without your help... / If you hadn't helped
me...)

IF POSSIBLE, IF NECESSARY, IF IN DOUBT etc.

We can make the if-clause shorter by omitting the subject and the verb be:

If (it is) necessary, you can call Jake at home.

I'd like a seat by the window  if (it is)  possible.
If (you are) in doubt, consult a dictionary.

IF SO, IF NOT

If so and if not can stand for an if-clause which is understood from the context:
"According to the weather forecast it might rain tomorrow." "If so, we'll go hiking another day."
I hope Peter gets here soon.  If not, we'll have to start without him.

IN CASE and IF

An in case-clause gives a reason while an if-clause describes a condition:

I'll buy a sandwich  in case I get hungry. (I'll buy a sandwich because I may get hungry later.)
I'll buy a sandwich  if I get hungry. (I'll buy a sandwich when I get hungry.)

We can use should after in case:

Take an umbrella in case it should rain.

Conditionals and inversion

In formal English the subject and the auxiliary can be inverted in the if-clause with if omitted:

Should you see Kate, say hi from me. (if you should see Kate)
Were he to propose to you now, what would you say? (if he were to propose to you)
Were I you, I would stop smoking. (if I were you)
Were it not for John, I wouldn't know what to do now. (if it weren't for John)
Had we booked our flight earlier, it would have been cheaper. (if we had booked our flight earlier)
Had it not been for your foolishness, we wouldn't have got lost. (if it hadn't been for your
foolishness)
Will you fill in this form, please? (if you will fill in this form)
Would you wait outside? (if you would wait outside)

‹ Less likely conditions^

WISH / IF ONLY
We can make second and third conditionals more emphatic by placing only after if:

If (only)  I knew the answer, I'd tell you.

If (only)  I had revised more, I would have done better on my exam.

If only can be replaced with I wish and the main clause can be omitted:

I wish I knew the answer.

I wish I had revised more.
 Patterns introduced with I wish... are used to express wishes about the past, present and future. 

o Wishes about the present

o Wishes about the past
o Wishes about the future
o

Wishes about the present

WISH / IF ONLY + PAST SUBJUNCTIVE

This pattern is used to express wishes or regrets about the present:

I wish I lived nearer. Then we could meet more often. (I'm sorry that I don't live nearer)
Cathy wishes she had  blond hair. (Cathy is sorry that she doesn't have blond hair)

Instead of the past subjunctive we can use could + simple infinitive:

You're brilliant.  I wish I could play the guitar like you. (I'm sorry that I can't play the guitar like
you)

Wishes about the past

WISH / IF ONLY + PAST PERFECT SUBJUNCTIVE

This pattern is used to express wishes or regrets about the past:

I wish I had  never  told  him my secret. (I'm sorry that I told him my secret)
John wishes he hadn't spent so much money last night. (John regrets spending so much money
last night)

Instead of the past perfect subjunctive we can use could + perfect infinitive:

If only I  could have been  there. I'm sure it was a great concert. (I'm sorry that I couldn't be there)

‹ Wishes about the present^

Wishes about the future

WISH / IF ONLY + WOULD
 This pattern is used for wishes about the future when there is a chance that something may happen or
somebody (but not the person who wishes) may change their behaviour:

I wish it would stop  snowing.

I wish Mark would call me back.
I wish more people would read my blog.

Wish + would can also express requests or complaints:

I  wish you wouldn't smoke  in here.

Pictures

IT'S (HIGH) TIME

Tags: 

 unreal situations

IT'S (HIGH) TIME + PAST SUBJUNCTIVE

It's (high) time + past subjunctive expresses that something should be done and that it is already a
little late:

It's time you went  to bed. You'll have to get up early tomorrow.
It's high time I bought  a new pair of jeans.
It's about time this road was completed. They've been working on it for months.

When we say that the right time has arrived for something and we are still in time, we can use the
following patterns:

It's time (for you) to go  to bed.

It's time to say goodbye.
It's time for breakfast.

AS IF / AS THOUGH
Clauses that start with as if / as though describe an unreal or improbable situation if they are followed
by an unreal tense (a past subjunctive or a past perfect subjunctive). Otherwise, they express that the
statement is true.
 The past subjunctive after as if / as though indicates an unreal situation in the present. However, if
the situation is true, we use a real tense expressing present time:

He looks as if he knew the answer. (he gives the impression that he knows the answer, but he
doesn't know, probably doesn't know or we don't know whether he knows or not)
He looks as if he knows  the answer. (he knows the answer)

If we put the verb preceding as if / as though into the past tense, the present simple knows changes
into past simple, whereas the past subjunctive knew stays the same. Therefore both sentences will
read as follows:

He looked  as if he knew the answer.

Consequently, the meaning of this sentence (whether he knew the answer or not) can only be
deduced from the context.

The past perfect subjunctive after as if / as though  is used to refer to an unreal past situation. If the
situation is true, we use a real tense expressing past time:

He seems as if he hadn't slept for days. (it seems that he hasn't slept for days, but he has, he
probably has or we don't know if he has or not)
He seems as if he hasn't slept  for days. (he hasn't slept for days)

If the preceding verb is put into the past tense, the present perfect hasn't slept changes into past
perfect, while the past perfect subjunctive hadn't slept stays the same:

He seemed  as if he hadn't slept for days.

WOULD RATHER / WOULD

SOONER
Would rather/sooner has a similar meaning to would prefer and can be followed by a bare infinitive or
by a clause with a past subjunctive or past perfect subjunctive. There is no difference in meaning
betweenwould rather and would sooner, but would rather is more common.

 WOULD RATHER / WOULD SOONER + bare infinitive

 WOULD RATHER / WOULD SOONER + clause
 WOULD RATHER / WOULD
SOONER + bare infinitive
Would rather/sooner is followed by a bare infinitive if the subject of would rather/sooner is the same
as the doer of the action expressed by the following verb.

Quotes

I'd rather have roses on my table than diamonds on my neck.

 - Emma Goldman

o WOULD RATHER / WOULD SOONER + simple or continuous infinitive

o WOULD RATHER / WOULD SOONER + perfect infinitive

WOULD RATHER / WOULD

SOONER + simple or continuous
infinitive
Would rather/sooner + simple or continuous infinitive expresses preferences about the present:

I'd rather go by bike than walk. (I'd prefer to go by bike rather than walk.)
Where would you rather sleep? (Where would you prefer to sleep?)
I'd rather be writing my paper. (I'd prefer to be writing my paper.)

The negative is would rather not:

I  would rather not go out tonight. (I'd prefer not to go out tonight.)

If we leave out rather, we get the main clause of the second conditional:

Where would you sleep (if you could choose)?

WOULD RATHER / WOULD
SOONER + perfect infinitive
Would rather/sooner + perfect infinitive expresses preferences about the past and means that the
desired action was not performed:

Would  you  rather have had  pork than beef? (Would you have preferred pork to beef?)
I'd rather have walked  but I went by bus because it was raining. (I would have liked to walk but I went
by bus because it was raining.)

If we omit rather, we get the main clause of the third conditional:

I  would have walked  (if it hadn't been raining).

‹ WOULD RATHER / WOULD SOONER + simple or continuous infinitive

WOULD RATHER / WOULD

SOONER + clause with past
subjunctive
Would rather/sooner + clause with past subjunctive expresses that we would like someone else to do
something.

I  would rather you didn't smoke  in my office. (I'd prefer you not to smoke in my office.)

Tim  would sooner  I returned  his camera. (Tim would like me to return his camera.)
Where would you rather I  slept? (Where would you prefer me to sleep?)

This pattern can be rephrased by using a second conditional with prefer:

I  would prefer  it if you  didn't smoke in my office.

WOULD RATHER / WOULD
SOONER + clause with past
perfect subjunctive
Would rather/sooner + clause with past perfect subjunctive expresses preferences or wishes about the
past. The subject of would rather/sooner and the subject of the subjunctive are different:

I'd rather  this whole thing  had never happened. (I wish it had never happened.)
What would you rather I  had done? (What would you have preferred me to do?)

This pattern can be rephrased by using a third conditional if-clause with prefer:

I'd prefer it if this whole thing  had never happened.

BE GOING TO for predictions

Be going to is used to predict future events that are very near (and can be seen) or seem sure to
happen. Such predictions are based on present evidence:

I'm going to faint.

Look at the clouds; it's going to rain.
My sister is going to have  a baby.

Future simple for predictions

The future simple is used to make predictions that are based on personal judgement, opinion or
intuition, and not on present evidence. Whether or not the event will happen is not certain. Such
predictions are often introduced by I think / I don't think:

I don't think he'll come tonight.

I predict that the Congress  will pass an anti-piracy law soon.
If you ask him, he'll  probably give  you a lift.

In the first person shall can be used instead of will in formal contexts:

Whatever happens, we shall  always  be  best friends.

The future simple is also used to make general predictions about facts that are always true or events
that always happen:

Salty water  will freeze at a lower temperature than pure water.

A gentleman  will hold  the door for a lady.

The difference between WILL, BE

GOING TO and present continuous
for future events
WILL and BE GOING TO for future intentions

Will (future simple) is used to express future intentions that are decided at the time of speaking
(spontaneous offers, promises, decisions):

Come on, I'll help you with those bags. (seeing that someone is struggling with their shopping bags)

Be going to is used to express future intentions that have already been decided before the time of
speaking:

I can't make it on Saturday. I'm going to help  my parents around the house. (referring to a decision
that the speaker has made in the past)

WILL and BE GOING TO for predictions

Will (future simple) is used to make predictions that are based on personal judgement, opinion or
intuition:

I'm sure you'll have  a lovely time in Italy. (opinion)

Be going to is used to make predictions that are based on present evidence. The predicted event is
either very near (and can be seen) or seems sure to happen:

My sister's going to have  a baby. (you can see that she is pregnant)

BE GOING TO and present continuous for future plans

Be going to refers to future intentions that have been decided but have not been fully planned:
We're going to get married. (referring to a past decision)

The present continuous tense refers to fixed future events, and emphasises that plans or
arrangements have already been made:

We are getting  married next month. (the wedding has already been arranged)

Present continuous for fixed future

arrangements
Used with a time expression, the present continuous tense can express fixed social or travel
arrangements for the future:

"What  are  you  doing  tonight?" "I'm going out with some friends." (it is settled)
They  are getting married next month. (they have made arrangements)
I'm flying  to Copenhagen on the 15th.  (I have booked my ticket)